GRE Psychology

Honeybee communication

"dancing," a round dance indicates food that is extremely nearby, a waggle dance indicates food that is far away; the longer the dance, the farther the food, and the more vigorous the display, the better the food - performed on the vertical sheets of the hive; used to communicate potential nesting sites

humanistic therapy

"person centered therapy." Provide trusting environment with therapist, such as using terms as "client" instead of "patient. Goal is to help client trust and accept emotional reactions so they can learn and grow; therapist is nondirective

Long-Term Potentiation

"what fires together, wires together" - when neurons consistently fire in particular sequences, those sequences (patterns) become enhanced or strengthened

counterfactual thinking

"what if things had been different" thinking

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

(level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization

Harry Harlow (1905-1981)

**Did the seminal research with primates familiar to most psychology students** when they constructed two wire mothers, one with a bottle and one covered in soft cloth, to show the impact of comfort on child development. (preferred cloth mother when scared) Also looked at **social isolation** and its effect on primates. Females lacked maternal behaviors and males did not display normal sexual functioning. Also demonstrated that monkeys became better at learning tasks as they acquired different learning experiences **("learning to learn")**

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

**Is best known as the founder of psychology.** **Founded the first official laboratory for psychology at the University of Leipzig in 1879 and began the first psychology journal in 1881. ** Wrote "Principles of Physiological Psychology" (1873), and created a complicated psychology that attempted to study and analyzed consciousness. Their ideas were the forerunners of Edward Titchener's, but they received even less attention.

Philip Zimbardo

**Stanford Prison Experiment (looked at role-playing).** Found that people wearing hoods more likely to administer high levels of shock than people w/o hoods **(deindividuation)** Also found that **antisocial behavior positively correlates with population density**

Stanley Milgram

**obedience to authority;** had participants **administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants;** wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions. Stimulus-overload theory: explains why urbanites are less prosocial than country people are; urbanites don;t need any more interaction.

reticular formation

- (base is located in the hindbrain, rest is located in the midbrain) - considered the oldest part of the brain - controls alertness, thirst, sleep, and involuntary muscles such as the heart

individual theory

- Alfred Adler - people are viewed as social, creative, and whole, - described people as in the process of "becoming" - individual is motivated by social needs and feelings of inferiority that arise when the current self does not match the self-ideal

John B. Watson

- Behaviorist theory - all changes and aspects of the development process are conditioned by the environment - tabula rasa - Little Albert

Analytical Theory

- Carl Jung - Similar to psychonalytic (stems from Freud) - Human psyche directed to life/awareness (not sex) - Psyche (ego) has personal quest for wholeness - Analyze personal unconscious and Collective unconscious - Archetypes - Psychopathology is signal that something's wrong in makeup of psyche; provides clues about how one can become more aware

Topographic model (psychoanalysis)

- Freud's first model of mental life in which conscious elements were openly acknowledge forces, preconscious forces were just below the surface and accessible if need be, and unconscious elements (drives and wishes) were many layers below consciousness

Robert Zajonc

- Studied birth order and intellignce - found firstborns are slightly more intelligent than second borns etc. - found that the More children present in a family = less intelligent they were likely to be - greater space between children = higher intelligence

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

- a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types - 93 questions - derived from Jung's personality theory

Kurt Lewin

- applied Gestalt ideas to social behavior - field theory - total influences upon social behavior - life space - collection of forces upon the individual - valence, vector, barrier

Bayley Scales of Infant Development

- are not intelligence tests - measure the cognitive, language, motor, adaptive, and socio-emotional development of infants in order to identify developmental issues in children - poor predictors of later intelligence

John Dewey

- attempted to synthesize philosophy and psychology and is best known for work on the reflex arc - asserted that animals are constantly adapting to their environment rather than processing isolated stimuli --- foundation for FUNCTIONALISM

Fritz Heider

- attribution theory - balance theory

higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning)

- conditioning technique in which a previous CS now acts as a UCS - in Pavlov's dogs, higher-order conditioning is using the light as a UCS after the light reliably elicited saliva in the dogs; food would no longer be used in the experiment, but now the light would be the UCS. the light could be paired with a bell (CS) until the bell alone elicited saliva in the dogs

gestalt model of psychopathology

- difficulties arise from disturbances of awareness - the client may not have insight or the client may not fully experience his present situation

humanistic therapist must provide:

- empathy - unconditional positive regard - genuineness/congruence

types of delusional or manic disorders

- erotomanic - grandiose - jealousy - persecutory - somatic

Philip Zimbardo

- found that people who were wearing hoods (and so deindividuated) were more willing to administer higher levels of shock than people without hoods - prison simulation experiments - found that antisocial behavior positively correlates with population density

William James

- founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment - father of American psychology - wrote about mind's stream of consciousness

Hermann von Helmholtz

- hearing - color perception - studied with Muller

Gustav Fechner

- just noticeable difference in sensation and perception - classic work is Elements of Psychophysics (1860) - carried out the first systematic psychology experiment

sensory memory

- lasts only for seconds (iconic input decays in less than one second, echoic input decays in 2-4 seconds) - forms the connection b/w perception and memory - iconic memory and George Sperling

Criticisms of Freud

- little empirical evidence; all single case studies

Charles Darwin

- made concept of evolution scientifically plausible by asserting that natural selection was at its core

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

- not used to diagnose depression - used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms and can be used by a researcher or clinician to track the course of depressive symptoms

Daryl Bem's self-perception theory

- offers an alternative explanation to cognitive dissonance - Bem asserted that when people are unsure of their beliefs, they take their cues from their own behavior (rather than actually changing their beliefs to match their actions). - For example, if a man demanded $1,000 to work on a Saturday, he would probably realize that he does not like his job all that much.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

- part of the PNS that interacts with the internal environment and is responsible for the "fight or flight" response - controls the involuntary functions including the movement of smooth muscles, digestion, blood circulation, and breathing - contains the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

REBT model of psychopathology

- psychological tension is created when an activating event occurs (A) and a client applies certain beliefs about the event (B) and this leads to the consequence of emotional disruption (C)

cardinal traits

- rare - usually occur later in life - dominate the personality so that the person often becomes known for that trait

Stanley Hall

- student of William James - received America's first PhD in psych from Harvard - coined the term "adolescence" - started the American Journal of Psychology - 1st president of the APA

structuralist theory of perception

- sum total of sensory input: one can understand the mind by understanding its basic components - focus on bottom-up processing (sensory data -> brain integration of data)

short-term memory

- temporary; lasts for about 15-30 seconds - encoding from sensory memory to short-term memory requires paying attention to the sensory stimulus

Gestalat Psychology

- top-down processing: higher-level cog processes working downward to sensory info - see the world in organized wholes rather than constituent parts

Herbert Spencer

- wrote Principles of Psychology - become the father of the psychology of adaptation - used principles from Lamarckian evolution (idea that characteristics acquired during lifetime can be passed to future generations)

Walter Mischel

-"marshmallow experiment" study involved if kids could delay gratification and have self-control

Sandra Bem

-Bem Sex Role Inventory to study femininity, masculinity, androgyny -Rigid gender stereotypes greatly restrict behavior. -Studied gender roles

Sandra Bem

-Bem Sex Role Inventory to study femininity, masculinity, androgyny -Rigid gender stereotypes greatly restrict behavior. -Studied gender roles - androgynous ppl have higher self-esteem, lower anxiety, more adaptability

Rene Descartes

"I think therefore I am," dualism/mind-body problem - the mind is a nonphysical substance that is separate from the body

preconventional morality

"If I steal the medicine, I'll get in trouble" Level 1: should avoid punishment Level 2: should gain rewards

postconventional stage of moral development

"It is unjust that money is an obstacle to life. It is ethical that I save my wife" Level 5: beyond the black and white of laws; attentive to rights and social welfare Level 6: makes decisions based on abstract ethical principles

conventional stage of moral development

"Stealing is against the law" Level 3: should gain approval Level 4: should follow law and authority

The 34:14:2 ratio

Applies to both sides of the normal distribution curve. - 34% on either side of the mean by one standard deviation (50th percentile, z-score is 0. - 14% on either side of the mean by two standard deviations (84th percentile, z-score is +1. - 2% on either side of the mean by three standard deviations (97th percentile, z-score is +2.

supernormal sign stimulus

Artificial stimuli exaggerating naturally occurring sign stimulus-more effective than natural releaser

Draw-A-Person Test

Asks subject to draw person of each sex and tell a story about them

interactionists

Assert a combination of stable, internal factors and situations

Allan Collins and Ross Quillian

Assert that people make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their **cognitive semantic hierarchies.** The farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection.

Allan Collins and Ross Quillian

Assert that people make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. The farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Asserted that humans and other animals were machines and that sense-perception was all that could be known. **From this, they suggested that a science could be formed to explain people just as physics explained the machines of the world.**

vocational tests

Assess to what extent an individual's interests and strengths match those already found by professionals in a particular job field.

psychological tests

Assessments of behavior, attitudes, mental constructs, personality, and mental health

John Bowlby

Attachment theory. Identified the characteristics of a child's attachment to his/her caregiver and the phases that a child experiences when separated from the caregiver.

Anne Treisman's Attenuation Model

-altered Broadbent's model -cocktail party effect -believed that rather than a filter (broadbent), the mind has an attenuator, which "turns down" the unattended sensory input, rather than eliminating it.

sunk cost

-expense incurred that can't be recovered -best strategy-ignore them when making decisions because money already spent is irrelevant to the future

Oral Stage (Freud)

0-1 years: - mouth (sucking, chewing, eating, biting, vocalizing) - successful resolution: weaning - fixation: oral aggression (verbally abusive) or oral passivity (smoking, overeating)

sensorimotor stage

0-2 years - reflexive behavior cued by sensations - circular reactions (repeated behavior intended to manipulate environment) - object permanence (knowing an object exists even when it can no longer be seen) - representation (visualizing or putting words to objects)

humans hear best at which frequency?

1 000 Hz

moral development (Piaget)

1) 4-7 years: imitates rule-following behavior; does not question acceptance of rules 2) 7-11 years: understands rules and follows them 3) 12+ years: applies abstract thinking to rules; can change rules if all parties agree

Three founding contributors of social psychology

1) Norman Triplett 2) Kurt Lewin 3) Fritz Heider

an individual is most likely to conform when:

1) There is a majority opinion; 2)The majority has a unanimous position; 3) The majority has high status, or the individual is concerned with her own status; 4) The situation is in public; 5) The individual was not previously committed to another position; 6) The individual has low self-esteem; 7) The individual scores high on a measure of authoritarianism.

Washoe and Koko and language

1) Washoe - chimpanzee taught by Beatrice & Alan Gardner to communicate using ASL; knew 300-400 signs and could combine them to make sentences 2) Koko, a gorilla, learned ASL from her caregiver and reportedly used more than 1000 signs

3 Thresholds and explain

1) absolute threshold - min amount of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time 2) differential threshold - min difference that must occur b/w 2 stimuli in order for them to be perceived as having different intensities 3) terminal threshold - upper limit above which the stimuli can no longer be perceived

factors that make items on a list easier to learn and retrieve

1) acoustic dissimilarity 2) semantic dissimilarity 3) brevity 4) familiarity 5) concreteness 6) meaning 7) importance to the subject

Compass Cues

1) atmospheric pressure 2) infrasound 3) magnetic sense 4) sun compass 5) star compass 6) polarized light

Humors Theory (Hippocrates)

1) black bile - melancholic 2) yellow bile - choleric 3) red blood - sanguine 4) white phlegm - phlegmatic

two main theories of forgetting

1) decay theory 2) interference theory

strategies for compliance

1) door-in-the-face - offer big amount first and then "settle" for less 2) foot-in-the-door - small favor first and then willing to do large ones later 3) low-ball technique - person offered something at a very low cost, raised after they agree 4) that's not all technique - sweetening a deal before the person has had a chance to say yes or no 5) deadline technique - threat of a looming deadline 6) ingratiation - using flattery

Obstacles to problem solving

1) functional fixedness 2) logical reasoning errors (atmosphere effect, semantic effect, confirmation bias)

gestation

1) germinal stage - lasts two weeks 2) embryonic stage - lasts until end of 2nd month; consists of organ formation 3) fetal stage; lasts from the 3rd month until birth

4 categories of recreational drugs

1) hallucinogens 2) stimulants 3) sedatives 4) narcotics

neurodevelopmental disorders

1) intellectual disability 2) learning disorders 3) autism spectrum disorder (ASD) 4) ADHD 5) tic disorders 6) motor skills disorder 7) communication disorders

three major parts of the ear

1) outer ear 2) middle ear 3) inner ear

types of anxiety disorders

1) panic disorder 2) agoraphobia 3) phobia 4) social anxiety disorder 5) generalized anxiety disorder

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

1) pre-conventional 2) conventional 3) post-conventional

Instinctual/innate behaviors

1) present in all normal members of a species; 2) stereotypic in form throughout the members of a species, even when performed for the first time; 3) independent of learning or experience

principles of attraction

1) proximity 2) physical attraction 3) similar attitudes 4) reciprocity

Adler's typology

1) ruling-dominant (choleric) 2) getting-leaning type (phlegmatic) 3) avoiding type (melancholic) 4) socially useful type (sanguine)

neonate reflexes

1) sucking reflex 2) head turning reflex (elicited by stroking the baby's cheek) 3) Moro reflex (the throwing out of arms and legs elicited by loud or frightening noises) 4) Babinski reflex (fanning of the toes elicited by touching the bottom of the baby's foot) 5) Palmar reflex (hand grasping elicited by placing an object in the baby's hand)

counter-conditioning techniques

1) systematic densensitization 2) flooding/implosive therapy 3) aversion therapy 4) shaping 5) modeling 6) assertiveness training 7) role playing

an individual speaker is most likely to change a listener's attitude if:

1) the speaker is an expert and/or trustworthy 2) the speaker is similar to the listener 3) the speaker is acceptable to the listener 4) the speaker is overheard rather than obviously trying to influence 5) the content is anecdotal, emotional, or shocking 6) the speaker is part of a two-person debate rather than a one-sided argument

language acquisition milestone: 3 years

1,000 word vocabulary, but their use has many grammatical errors.

Anal Stage (Freud)

1-3 years: - anus (bowel and bladder control) - successful resolution: toilet training - fixation: anal retention (overly neat/tidy) or anal expulsion (disorganized)

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

1. Oral Stage 2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage 4. Latency Stage 5. Genital Stage

Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Competence vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 8. Integrity vs. Despair

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational

Sherif's Robber's Cave Experiment

11 & 12 year old boys; separated prior to arrival and housed out of site from each other; 3 stages (Creating ingroups, instilling intergroup competition, and encouraging intergroup cooperation); group conflict is most effectively overcome by the need for cooperative attention to a higher superordinate goal

formal operational

12+ years - understanding of abstract relationships, such as logic, ratios, values

Genital Stage (Freud)

12+ years: - other people's genitals - successful resolution: intimate relationships - fixation: fixation in prior stage could result in sexual and intimacy issues

Kurt Lewin

1890-1947; Field: social psychology; Contributions: German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; Studies: Leadership styles-studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities

Anna Freud

1895-1982; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: focused on child psychoanalysis, fully developed defense mechanisms, emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle; differed from Melanie Klein

Carol Gilligan

1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg's work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of boys and girls; girls focus more on relationships than laws and principles

online vs. offline measurement

2 methods of measuring language processing - online measurement does not require interrupting the speaker to get their understanding of what they are saying - offline measures stop the speaker at various points to get their interpretations

preoperational

2-7 years - egocentric understanding - rapidly acquiring words and symbols for things - inability to perform mental operations, such as causality or true understanding of quantity

how many major categories of psychological disorders are there?

20 major categories

HM

27 years old and suffered severe epilepsy. cut out hippocampus. episodic and semantic memory damaged. couldn't remember anything after operation. could still learn procedural things like star task

Phallic Stage (Freud)

3-6 years: - genitals; Oedipus complex; Electra complex - successful resolution: gender identification - fixation: difficulty w/ intimate relationships

Latency Stage (Freud)

6-12 years: - N/A (sexual feelings dormant during this stage) - successful resolution: social interaction - fixation: arrested development

What percent of scores will fall into a +1 and -1 standard deviation?

68%

concrete operational

7-12 years - understanding of concrete relationships, such as simple math and quantity - development of conservation (knowing changes in shape are not changes in volume)

__% of the cerebral cortex is neocortex

90%

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

A Swiss Psychologist, is a significant figure in developmental psychology. Their most important work concerned **cognitive development in children (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational).** Explained that **people either "assimilate" or "accommodate" when learning.** Also dabbled with moral development in children Their three most classic works are "The Language and Thought of the Child" (1926), "The Moral Judgement of the Child" (1933), and "The Origins of Intelligence in Children" (1952).

Bandura and Ross (1961)

BOBO DOLL A: investigate social learning theory P: have girls and boys watch adults playing with bobo dolls R: the children who watched adults play aggressively played aggressively, children were more likely to imitate same-sex models

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats; Skinner box

situationists

Behaviorists - argue that only circumstances determine behavior.

courting

Behaviors that precede sexual acts that lead to reproduction

Konrad Lorenz (1903-1992)

Best known as the founder of ethology, was famous for their work with **imprinting** in goslings and ducklings. They also wrote "On Aggression" (1966). Suggested aggression was an inherited instinct to make sure the strongest survive and pass their genes to the next generation. **Also discovered "releasing stimuli" or "sign stimuli" that led to a fixed action pattern in animals**

Bipolar I vs Bipolar II

Bipolar I: cycling from extreme manic episodes to major depressive episodes Bipolar II: same but mania tends to be less severe (hypomania)

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

overshadowing

A classical conditioning concept referring to an animal's inability to infer a relationship between a particular stimulus and response due to the presence of a more prominent stimulus.

Alfred Adler (1870-1936)

A colleague of Freud, eventually broke from Freud to create their own "individual psychology" **Individual psychology = people are creative, social, and whole; they are in the process of realizing themselves or the process of "becoming."** They asserted that people were largely motivated by "feelings of inferiority," for which people try to compensate, and "social needs." **They also created a four-type theory of personality: ruling-dominant (choleric), getting-leaning (phlegmatic), avoiding (melancholic), and socially useful (sanguine).** Had **psychodynamic approach to therapy that examined a person's lifestyle and choices via their motivations, perceptions, goals, and resources. Pioneered work in family therapy** Goal of therapy was to reduce feelings of inferiority and to foster social interest and social contribution in patients

approach-avoidance conflict

A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made.

experimental design

A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship

Waves

A disturbance that transfers energy from place to place

antabuse

A drug that, when combined with alcohol, causes violent nausea; it is used to control a person's drinking.

sexual selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.

histogram

A graph of vertical bars representing the frequency distribution of a set of data.

bar graph

A graph that uses horizontal or vertical bars to display data; bars separated by spaces

gamete

A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm; contain 23 single chromosomes; Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.

Victor Frankl (1905-1997)

A key figure in "existential psychology," wrote "Man's Search for Meaning" (1963). **Existential psychology posits that people innately seek meaningfulness in their lives and that perceived meaningfulness is the root of emotional difficulty.** Had **phenomenological view of personality theory which focuses on the individual's unique self and experiences.** The response to perceived meaninglessness in life is neurosis or "neurotic anxiety" (as opposed to normal or justified anxiety) They devised **"logotherapy,"** a form of therapy that focuses on the person's "will to meaning."

paired-associate learning

A learning task in which participants are first presented with pairs of words, then one word of each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word. ex: learning Spanish, we remember that "hombre" means "man. We pair the Spanish word with the English word

split-half reliability

A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

trial and error

A problem-solving strategy in which someone tries various combinations at random until they find the solution or give up trying - can take a great deal of time

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

will to power

A quest for feeling of superiority is referred to as this, by Alfred Adler; pursuit of goals that are outside of himself and beneficial to society

mixed methods

A research approach that combines quantitative and qualitative elements; it involves the description of the measurable state of a phenomenon and the individual's subjective response to it.

Melanie Klein (1882-1960)

A series of lectures in Britain formed the basis of their first book, "The Psychoanalysis of Children." They were one of the **founders of "object-relations theory,"** a variation of psychoanalysis in which interpersonal relationships are the primary focus, especially the relationship between the child and mother. They developed a technique of **"play therapy,"** which is still used for therapeutic work with children.

Skinner box

A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled; used with rats and pigeons

Johann Gaspar Spurzheim

A student of Franz Joseph Gall who introduced phrenology, the correlation between the shape of the human skull and human behavior, to America, where it became part of the classification method used to evaluate newly admitted prisoners.

posthypnotic suggestion

A suggestion made to a hypnotized person that specifies an action to be performed after awakening, often in response to a cue.

Performance = Drive x Habit

A theory by Clark Hull. Individuals are first motivated by drive, and then they act according to old successful habits. They will do what has worked in the past to satisfy the drive.

Performance = Expectation x Value

A theory by Edward Tolman, also known as the expectancy-value theory. People are motivated by goals they think they might actually meet. An important factor is the value of the goal.

afterimage

A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed (if you look at something red for a long time, then focus on a white image, you see a green afterimage)

Heinz dilemma (Kohlberg)

A woman is dying and needs an expensive medication. Husband cannot afford the medication, should he steal it or should she die?

Scarr and Weinberg (1977)

A: To investigate the relationship between IQ and genetics as well as the environment P: Sample was trans-racial adoption participants who were African American children adopted by middle class caucasian families. Gave IQ tests R: No significant difference in IQ correlations. Genetics must not control IQ a lot.

Mead (1935)

A: compare gender roles cross-culturally P: examination of gender roles in 3 different New Guinean tribes R: gender roles vary based on culture

Capsi (2003)

A: determine if there's a connection between the 5-HTT gene and depression P: comparison of people with the mutated gene and with the normal gene R: people with the mutated gene who also experienced many stressful events were more likely to get depression

Van Ijzendorn and Kroonenberg (1988)

A: figure out cultural implications in attachment P: analyzed pre-done studies on attachment from several countries R: Secure attachment in the West; ambivalent (but no avoidant) in Japan

Bond and Smith (1996)

A: investigate Asch paradigm in other cultures P: meta-analysis of previous studies of Asch paradigm in 17 countries R: there are higher rates of conformity in collectivist countries

Yehuda (2001)

A: investigate PTSD's affect on development P: looked at mental health of kids of Holocaust survivors R: the children of Holocaust survivors were more likely to develop PTSD

Carion (2009)

A: investigate PTSD's affect on development P: fMRI scans on abuse victims/trauma survivors R: these people had less hippocampal volume and did worse on verbal memory tests

Posey and Smith (2003)

A: investigate SSB P: math problems with pairs of friends or non-friends R: friends who failed attributed it to situational, friends who succeeded gave friends credit; non-friends who both failed and succeeded showed the SSB

Hazan and Shaver (1987)

A: investigate attachment in adult relationships P: love quiz in newspaper with questions about adult relationships and attachment history R: basically, the attachment of when you are a kid predicts what kind of love relationships when you're an adult

Ainsworth (1978)

A: investigate attachment patterns P: strange situation R: found three patterns: secure, avoidant, and ambivalent

Suedfeld (2003)

A: investigate attributions made by Holocaust victims P: questionnaires of people who were actually in concentration camps and people who were alive during the time R: concentration camp people said their success was due to environmental factors, non-survivors said it was due to dispositional (FAE)

Chugani (1999)

A: investigate cognitive development in infants P: PET scans on infants of varying ages R: lower levels of brain develop first

Wei (2001)

A: investigate collectivism vs individualism in conflict resolution P: questionnaires given to managers in several cultures R: culture cannot totally predict conflict resolution, but in general, the more individualist, the more dominating

Zimbardo (1973)

A: investigate conformity to assigned roles P: mock prison with students as either guards or prisoners R: both guards and prisoners stepped into roles with the whole situation quickly becoming a mess: highly unethical

Sherif (1936)

A: investigate conformity to the group norm P: autokinetic effect on participants in varying group sizes R: those in a group of 3 or 4 tended to align their answers

Ferron (1997)

A: investigate cultural differences in perceptions of puberty P: surveys of French and American teenaged boys and girls R: Americans believe they could change appearance with diet and exercise, French believed that you could not

Kashima and Triandis (1986)

A: investigate culture in SSB P: showed slides to Japanese and American students, asked them to remember details R: Americans showed SSB, Japanese showed modesty bias

Hofstede (1980)

A: investigate culture in behavior P: survey of IBM employees from different countries R: Hofstede argued that culture is "mental software"

Rutter (2004)

A: investigate deprivation on cognitive development P: interviews in home with observations and questionnaires R: the more time the kids had spent in the Romanian orphanages, the more cognitively impaired they were and the more likely they were to have disinhibited attachment disorder

Fessler (2005)

A: investigate disgust in first trimester P: web-based questionnaire R: higher feelings of disgust in first trimester, especially when it came to food

Dickerson (1992)

A: investigate foot-in-the-door P: field experiment about conserving water (sign a poster, do a survey about water usage, experimenters monitored showers) R: students who signed the poster and did the survey spent less time showering

Smith and Lloyd (1978)

A: investigate formation of gender roles P: baby X R: adults played with babies according to snowsuit color

Bouchard (1990)

A: investigate genetic inheritance in intelligence P: IQ tests of MZ twins reared together and apart R: 70% of the differences in intelligence can be attributed to genes

Milgram (1963)

A: investigate how authority influences conformity P: confederate learning words, if they get them wrong, the participant MUST (according to experimenter) shock them R: people obeyed the experimenter even when the confederate was clearly distressed and in pain

Speisman (1964)

A: investigate how cognitive appraisal influences emotions P: genital cutting film with different soundtracks R: trauma soundtrack participants showed more stress than the other soundtracks (supports ledoux)

Charlton (2002)

A: investigate if kids on St. Helena would be more aggressive after tv introduction P: naturalistic observation before and after R: no increase, even after 5 years

Tajfel (1970)

A: investigate in-group and out-groups P: boys allocated into groups based on if they overestimated or underestimated groups, boys had to allocate money to other boys R: boys allocated more money to their own group even though the groups were meaningless

Jones and Harris (1967)

A: investigate making the FAE even when told roles are assigned P: participants read either pro or anti Castro essays; half the participants were told the positions were assigned, half were told free choice R: people made the FAE even when they knew the positions were assigned

Palva (2010)

A: investigate neural networks of cerebral cortex (visual working memory) P: EEGs and MEGs during visual tasks R: syncronization of neural networks during tasks, supports baddely's model

Asch (1951)

A: investigate percieved group pressure on minorities P: line test (remember photo) R: in the control, no errors were made, but people in groups of 7 said what the others said

Riniolo

A: investigate reliability of eyewitnesses memory of the titanic P: Used archival data from court cases R: 75% said ship sank in two pieces, showing that central memories are pretty much intact, contrary to popular belief

Rozenweig and Bennet 1972

A: investigate role of environment on brain P: rats in enriched and impoverished environments R: Enriched rats had better developed cerebral cortex

Baumgartner (2008)

A: investigate role of oxytocin after trust breaches in a game P: trust game, some people's trust was broken R: those who received oxytocin instead of placebo continued to invest/trust while those who received placebo did not

Ross (1977)

A: investigate the FAE and judgements P: quiz game (10 questions based on your own knowledge, contestants answered these) R: contestants made the FAE by saying the questioners were smarter even though they knew they came up with the questions based on their own knowledge

Zak

A: investigate the biological connection between morality and the brain P: trust games involving blood draws before and after to examine oxytocin levels R: oxytocin levels were higher in people who received money, these people then sent more money back

Harris and Fiske (2006)

A: investigate the brain's response to extreme outgroups to find the cause of stereotypes and prejudices P: fMRI scans of students who were shown pictures of extreme outgroups and also objects R: people viewed the outgroups as objects

Milner 1957

A: investigate the case of HM P: memory tests R: hippocampus is crucial for memory formation

Rutter (1976) identity

A: investigate the concept of identity crisis (challenge Erickson) P: All adolescents on Isle of Wight between 14-15 were given questionnaires. Teachers and parents were also interviewed. R: very few teenagers reported identity crises or showed signs of identity issues

Brown and Peterson

A: investigate the duration of short-term memory, and provide empirical evidence for the multi-store model P: 24 students had to recall trigrams (meaningless three-consonant syllables). To prevent rehearsal participants were asked to count backwards in threes or fours from a specified random number until they saw a red light appear. R: The longer the interval delay the less trigrams were recalled. Short-term memory has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented. It is thought that this information is lost from short-term memory from trace decay.

Martin and Halvorson (1983)

A: investigate the effect of gender role schemas P: 5-6 yr olds saw pics that were consistent (girl playing with doll) or inconsistent (girl with gun) with gender role schemas R: children distorted the memories of the inconsistent images

Steele and Aronson (1995)

A: investigate the effect of stereotypes on behavior P: gave African-Americans and whites a test, had different conditions for what they told them the test was about R: African-Americans scored worse when told it was a test of verbal ability, but scored better when told it was a test of problem-solving

Farah (2008)

A: investigate the relationship between environmental stimulation and parental nurturance on cognitive development P: interviews and checklists of kids in their homes at ages 4 and 8 R: positive correlation between environmental stimulation and language development; positive correlation between parental nurturance and LTM

Martinez and Kesner 1991

A: investigate the role of ACh in memory formation P: rats and mazes, 3 groups (control, more, less) R: those with more ACh did better than control, less did worse

Curtis

A: investigate universal patterns of disgust P: internet survey of 20 pairs of disgusting images (one an immune threat, one not) R: immune threats found to be more disgusting

Ashtari (2009 or 4/20?)

A: investigate weed on the developing brain P: MRI on heavy users and a control group R: brain abnormalities demonstrated, thinner myelin sheaths (only correlational!)

Brown and Kulik (1977)

A: investigate whether shocking events are recalled more vividly and accurately than other events. P: Questionnaires asked 80 participants to recall circumstances where they had learned of shocking events R: emotionally shocking events were remembered well, researchers thought this was because of increased physiological arousal (amygdala)

Bremner (2003)

A: measure hippocampal volume based on stress P: MRI scans and tests of veterans and sexual abuse victims R: In these people, hippocampus was smaller and short-term memory loss demonstrated

Talarico and Rubin

A: see the properties of flashbulb memories and their influence of emotion on the person P: students at Duke were called on and were tested on memories of hearing about the terrorist attack (9/11) the previous morning, then several times at later dates R: the recall consistency of these "flashbulb" memories was no different than that of everyday memories.

Bhoomika (2008)

A: study the effect of malnutrition on cognitive performance P: gave Indian kids tests R: malnourished kids did worse on tests of attention, working memory, and visuospatial tasks

Epsin (1990)

A: test Erickson's ideas P: Longitudinal case study of a Latin-American girl's letters to her teacher (she experienced trauma as a kid) R: themes of identity increased in her letters from ages 13-18

Regan (1971)

A: test if people who recieved a favor would be more likely to return a favor P: rate the paintings, confederate left, returned with cokes, confederate later asked for raffle tickets R: those who got cokes bought twice as many raffle tickets

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Acquired fame as the winner of a Nobel Prize for work on digestion. In their later work investigating dogs and digestion, they accidentally uncovered the behavioral concept now called "classical conditioning." **All over test, should know all facets of classical conditioning.**

criticisms of cognitive therapy

Addresses how person thinks, does examine cause of problems; removing the symptoms (maladaptive cognitions) may not cure the problem

Waber (2007)

Age predicts performance on tests; as kids mature, cognitive processing speeds up

Newcomber et al. 1999

Aim: investigate how levels of cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory Procedure: cortisol given for 4 days, verbal declarative memory tested Results: those who received cortisol did worse on tests

social cognitive perspective psychologists

Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel

The Brink of Psychology (1800-1900)

By this time period, psychology was the pressing issue for philosophers and physiologists alike. So many professionals were preoccupied with unlocking the secrets of the mind that by the end of the century, psychology emerged as a distinct field.

Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen, and Karl von Frisch

All shared the Nobel Prize in 1973 for their work in ethology

inferential statistics

Allows one to generalize findings from the sample study to a larger population

secondary traits

Allport's term for specific traits that influence behavior in relatively few situations

proprium

Allport's term for the ego or self

Lau and Russel (1980)

American football players and coaches attribute success to disposition when they win, but environment when they lose

Sandra Bem (1944-2014)

An American psychologist, was best known for their pioneering work in gender studies. They created the **Sex-Role Inventory,** did extensive research on **androgyny,** and developed the **gender schema theory**, which described how gender identity is formed.

reactance

An attitude change in response to feeling that options are limited (ex: when subjects react negatively to being in an experiment by intentionally behaving unnaturally or when an individual becomes set on a certain flavour of ice cream as soon as he is told it is sold out)

anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by an obstinate and willful refusal to eat, a distorted body image, and an intense fear of being fat

Anne Treisman

Came up with **Attenuation model of attention** which altered Broadbent's theory to account for phenomena such as "cocktail party effect" (having conversation, hear your name in different conversation, than suddenly focusing on that conversation). This person said that instead of going through a selective filter, the information goes through an attenuating filter, turning the volume up or down on the information. Rather than decaying, the unattended info still goes through higher level processing and into working memory, so it is available on this other channel if need be.

Donald Broadbent (1926-1993)

Came up with **Filter Model of Attention.** This idea says that any info not attended to is filtered out and decays. Only the info attended to makes it into our working memory

Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall

Came up with **Gate Control Theory of Pain.** This theory looks at pain as a process rather than just a simple sensation governed in one center in the brain. Pain may or may not be perceived based on different factors, including cognition Assert that pain perception is related to the interaction of large and small nerve fibers that run to and from the spine

J.A. Swet

Came up with **Theory of Signal Detection (TSD)** which suggests that subjects detect stimuli not only because they can, but also because they want to. Essentially, TSD factors motivation into the picture. The factor of motivation in signal detection is referred to as **"response bias"** The interplay between response bias and stimulus intensity determines detection

Fritz Heider

Came up with **balance theory** = if people see a set of cognitive elements as being a system, then they will have a preference to maintain a balanced state among these elements. Called into question because individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction. Founder of **Attribution Theory** = people will actually attribute intentions and emotions to just about anything - even moving geometrical shapes on a screen.

Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum

Came up with **congruity theory** = is similar to balance theory in that it postulates that people tend to prefer elements within a cognitive system to be internally consistent with one another. Called into question because individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction

self-efficacy

An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

Daryl Bem (1938 -)

Came up with **self-perception theory** as well as **overjustification.** Self-perception theory is similar to cognitive dissonance, but this person alternated it by explaining that when someone is unsure of their beliefs, they take cues from their own behaviors (rather than actually changing their beliefs to match their actions). For example, if a man demanded $1000 to work on a Saturday, he would probably realize that he does not like his job all that much. Overjustification follows self-perception theory and is the tendency to assume that we must not want to do things that we are paid or compensated to do bc the activity is now overjustified.

Robert Sternberg

Came up with **triangular model of love**. Consummate love is the most ideal kind of love.

E.H. Weber / Weber's Law

Came up with just noticeable difference (JND) which is the minimum difference that must occur between two stimuli in order for them to be perceived as having different intensities. **Weber's Law = a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value in order to be perceived as noticeably different**

Ewald Hering (1834-1918)

Came up with opponent-process theory The **Opponent-Process Theory posits that two types of color-sensitive cells exist: cones that respond to blue-yellow colors and cones that respond to red-green.** Their theory explains why we don't see reddish-green colors or yellowish-blue. If an object seems red to us, then our ability to see green is inhibited Found that if you focus on the color green for a while you will see a red **"afterimage"** Works in the lateral geniculate body

client-centered therapy (AKA person-centered therapy or non-directive therapy)

Carl Roger's technique based on the idea that clients have the freedom to control their own behavior and that the client is able to reflect upon his or her problems, make choices, and take positive action

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

Category of disorders involving physical symptoms that have psychological causes. Includes: 1) conversion disorder 2) somatic symptom disorder 3) illness anxiety disorder 4) factitious disorder

Evans-Pritchard (1976)

Central Africans believed witchcraft was why the doorway fell, not the termites

Conflict (psychoanalytic theory)

Central to human nature, between different drives vying for expression (particularly conscious and unconscious

cultural competence

An understanding of how a patient's cultural background shapes his beliefs, values, and expectations for therapy.

greatest conflict in psychoanalytic theory

Eros (life instinct) and Thanatos (death instinct)

within-subject

Every single subject experiences every single condition

paradoxical sleep (REM)

Everything is paralyzed except for heart and organs

who came up with opponent-process theory?

Ewald Hering

hoarding disorders

Excessively collecting various things

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Experiment to test reconstructive memory in relation to eyewitness testimony. Participants saw a car crash and were asked to estimate the speed. Use of the word smashed made participants answer with higher speeds. Established a cause effect relationship between use of specific words and memory reconstruction.

stroop effect

Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors.

Walter Mischel

Extremely critical of personality trait-theory and of personality tests in general. He felt that situations and not traits decide actions

FACS coding

Facial Action Coding System; can determine whether a smile is genuine or fake

F scale

Fascism scale

Hippocrates

Father of medicine; humors in the body

Inez Beverly Prosser

First African-American woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Cincinnati - researched self-esteem and person variables in African American schoolchildren - controversial conclusion that Black people fared better in segregated environments

Neal Miller and John Dollard

First person in the pair proved experimentally that anomalous behavior can be learned. **Integrated the behavioral perspective with psychoanalysis thinking.** They examined the Freudian concept of displacement in a learning context where they put two rats in an apparatus and gave them electric shocks until they started **fighting.** After they learned this response, the researchers put a doll in with them, but the rats still fought each other when the shocks started. But when one animal was removed and the shock started, the animal took out its aggression on the doll. They also studied fear as an acquired drive and types of conflict, including **"approach-avoidance conflict"**

assimilation (Piaget)

Fitting new information into existing mental structures (schema)

Lupien et al. (2002)

Follow up from 5 year study; tried reversing cortisol related memory problems using cortisol prohibiting drugs. Participants given drugs, memory test, restored cortisol to normal levels, memory test; moderate level of cortisol had memory restoration, high had no memory improvement

Lupien et al. (1998)

Followed group of elderly for 5 years, studied role of cortisol on memory; cortisol secretion too high in ~30% of elderly, excessive secretion showed memory impairment and atrophy of hippocampus; damage can be repaired if had not passsed point of no return

Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967), & Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)

Forged the school of **"Gestalt psychology"** around the early 1900s in reaction to attempts to study the mind and experience in distinct parts. Gestalt psychology asserts that in perception the **whole is greater than the sum of its parts** (subjectivist view of perception for example). (focuses on top-down processing) Goal is to fully experience and perceive the present in order to become a whole and integrated person

William Labov

Found that **African American Vernacular English (AAVE) has its own complex internal structure.** It is not merely slang, but a separate and independent dialect of English.

M.E. Olds

Found that **animals perform behaviors to receive electrical stimulation** to the pleasure centers of the brain. Seen as evidence against Hull's drive-reduction theory that performance = drive x habit.

George Miller

Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.

George A. Miller

Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items; credited w/ applying the information processing model to cognitive psychology

"The aim of all life is death"

Freud

psychic determinism

Freud's assumption that all our mental and behavioral responses are caused by unconscious traumas, desires, or conflicts.

Structural model (psychoanalysis)

Freud's revised model - mental life has particular organization other than layers

balance theory

Fritz Heider's consistency theory that is concerned w/ balance and imbalance in the ways in which three elements are related

attribution theory

Fritz Heider's idea that people tend to infer the causes of other people's behavior as either dispositional or situational

gestalt psychologists

Fritz Perls, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka

Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)

Further refined Allport's traits, declaring that there were **16 essential personality factors**, using a combination of life data and experimental data to determine these factors. Their 16PF was still considered too broad and did not stand up to experimental research. It was replaced with the Five-Factor Model (OCEAN) by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa.

Eleanor Maccoby

Gender differences -- better verbal in females, better spatial in males; effects of divorce on children's development

New school: trait theory

Gordon Allport emphasized an ideographic approach to personality theory; attempts to capture an individual's unique, defining characteristics, as opposed to a nomothetic approach which uses large numbers of people to study the commonalities of personality

American Psychology Association (APA)

Hall; founded 1892; governing body of psychology; purpose to "advance psychology as a science, as a profession, and as a means of promoting human welfare" - American Psychologist is the official journal - Psychological Bulletin is the monthly publication

Inez Beverly Prosser (1897-1934)

Her research into self-esteem and person variables in African American school children led her to the controversial conclusion that **Black people fared better in segregated environments.** Was first African American female psychologist, earning her PhD in 1933 from the University of Cincinnati.

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

schizoid personality disorder

Cluster A; detachment, small range of emotions

schizotypical personality

Cluster A; eccentricity, distorted reality

avoidant personality disorder

Cluster C; social inhibitions, hypersensitivity, perceptions of inadequacy

proprioception

Cognitive awareness of of balance/position of body in space.

empirical criterion-keying approach

Comparing the answers between diagnosed and undiagnosed persons to establish the validity of a test (ex: Strong Interest Inventory)

Criticisms of Humanistic Theory

Concepts are "fuzzy", unclear about nature of concepts; no diagnostic tools

Solomon Asch

Conducted famous **conformity** experiment that required subjects to match lines.

superior colliculus

Controls visual reflexes- appears as bumps on the brainstem

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Countered Locke's previous claim by asserting that our **minds were active, not passive.** They followed Hippocrates's and Galen's models of the humors, but believed there was no overlap between the categories.

Alfred Binet

Created first intelligence test for Parisian school children

Donald Campbell and Donald Fiske

Created multitrait-multimethod technique to determine validity of tests

Charles Osgood

Created semantic differential charts, which allowed people to plot the meanings of words on graphs (like near "good" but far from "relaxed"). **Indicated that words have similar connotations (implied meaning) for cultures or subcultures.**

multicultural therapy

Cultural sensitivity, knowledge, and empathy; looks at client's issues in the context of various social identities to see how they impact the client's experience

circadian rhythms

Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a schedule approximating a 24-hour day

Money and Ehrhardt (1972)

David/Brenda Reimer

electroconvulsive shock therapy

Delivers voltages of shock to people that are severely depressed and has no long term effects but may cause memory loss

Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967)

Demonstrated **insight learning** in their work with chimpanzees. Insight learning occurs when the solution to a problem appears all at once rather than building up to a solution

Sapolsky (1968)

Demonstrated that prolonged stress can damage neurons in hippocampus but can be reversed if normal cortisol levels are restored. Long term stress can cause irreversible damage

R.M. Cooper and John Zubek

Demonstrated the interaction between **heredity and environment,** **bright rats performed better than dull only when both sets raised in normal conditions,** both groups performed well in enriched environment (lots of food and activities), both performed poorly in impoverished environment

Allen Newell and Herbert Simon

Designed first Computer Simulation Models called LOGIC THEORIST, then revamped it and called it GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVER

computer simulation models

Designed to solve problems as humans do - Allen Newell and Herbert Simon introduced the first of these (called the logic theorist) and then revamped it (the general problem solver)

Albert Ellis

Developed "rational emotive behavior therapy" (REBT)

Jean Charcot & Pierre Janet

Developed hypnosis that was later used by Freud

Leon Festinger (1919-1989)

Developed social-comparison theory as well as the theory of **cognitive dissonance,** which they showed experimentally with their famous forced compliance experiments where he gave people either $1 or $20 for lying to others about why a boring task was actually interesting. Those given $1 said after they lied that they genuinely thought the task was interesting (action don't match cognition so mind compensates to match action to cognition (relieves unpleasant feeling): "I only got $1 to lie, and I still did it, so I must have liked the task") Called into question because individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction

Julian Rotter

Developed terms: **internal/external locus of control.** External locus of control is a personality characteristic that causes one to view events as the result of luck or fate. Too much of this breeds helplessness. Internal locus of control causes a person to view events as the outcome of their own actions. Too much of this can breed self-blame.

Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999)

Developed the **Strange Situation experiment**, which operationalized Bowlby's attachment theory. **They identified three types of attachment:** secure (happy with mother and stranger, sad when mother leaves, happy when she returns/is able to be calmed), ambivalent (resistant) (highly distressed by presence of stranger and by maternal separation, refusing to interact with mothers when they returned), and avoidant (little or no emotion during play with mother or stranger or upon return of mother). They also identified "disorganized" attachment which is when the child does not engage in coherent or consistent behavior during the reunion with the caregivers. The child may freeze or run away from the caregiver. Usually this results from neglect or abuse from the caregiver.

David McClelland (1917-1998)

Developed the need theory (also known as the three needs theory), which described motivation in terms of a need for achievement, power, or affiliation. They also developed a new scoring system for the **Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)**, a projective personality measure.

William Sheldon

Devised a personality system based on **somatotypes (body types)**: 1. Endomorph = short, plump body = pleasure seeking, social behavior 2. Mesomorph = muscular, athletic body = energetic, aggressive behavior 3. Ectomorph = skinny, fragile body = inhibited intellectual behavior Was important to the evolution of the field of personality, even though this system no longer has any credence

Sigmund Freud and Joseph Breuer

Devised the technique of free association which is the central process in which a patient reports thoughts without censure or guidance. Free association, according to them, works because unconscious material is always looking for a way out thus, through this practice, the patient cant uncover and express repressed material (catharsis / abreaction).

insomnia

Difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep

catharsis/abreaction

Discharge of repressed emotion

Celeste McCollough

Discovered **McCollough effect or Afterimages** which are perceived because of fatigued receptors. Once one side is overstimulated and fatigued, it can no longer respond and is overshadowed by its opposite. This effect explains why you see a dark afterimage after staring at a white light

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

Discovered that **cells in the visual cortex are so complex and specialized** that they respond only to certain types of stimuli. For example, some cells respond only to vertical lines, whereas some respond only to right angles and so on

biochemical factors of schizophrenia

Dopamine hypothesis: schizophrenia symptoms are produced by over-activity of the dopamine system in areas of the brain that regulate emotional expression, motivated behavior, and cognitive functioning

Middle Ages (500-1600)

During this time period, philosophy changed hands twice. Understanding the mysterious world temporarily became a question for the church. Then, at the brink of the modern world, philosophy was reclaimed by scholars.

Who defined the differential threshold?

E. H. Weber

learning curve

Ebbinghaus, when learning something new, rate of learning usually changes over time; can be positively or negatively accelerated

Robert McCrae and Paul Costa

The BIG FIVE **OCEAN** Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism (or stability) Found that personality changes very little after age 30

oppositional defiant disorder/conduct disorder

Indicated by patterns of behavior that violate rules, norms, or rights of others

Alfred Adler

Individual theory and family therapy

Primary or Instinctual Drives

Individuals are motivated by drives such as hunger or thirst.

Julian Rotter

Internal-External Locus of Control Scale; determines whether a person feels responsible for the things that happen (internal) or that he has no control over the events in life (external)

self-serving attributional bias

Interpreting one's own actions and motives in a positive way, blaming situations for failures and taking credit for successes. We like to think we are better than average.

Cole and Scribner (1974)

Investigated how memory strategies are influenced by culture. Asked Liberian children to memorize lists of words in categories, schooled children became better at it, whilst non schooled children did more poorly. This leads to the conclusion that memory strategies such as chunking can be learned.

Albert Bandura (1925 -)

Is a Canadian-born psychologist best known for developing the **social cognitive perspective of personality,** based on the principles of social learning theory (posits that individuals learn through their culture. People learn what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors through interacting with society). In the **Bobo Doll experiment**, them and their colleagues showed for the first time empirically that people learn through **modeling (observational learning).**

Elizabeth Loftus (1944 -)

Is an American cognitive psychologist best known for their **research into memory, especially in relation to the fallibility of eyewitness testimony.** Found that memory of traumatic events is altered by the event itself and by the way that questions about the event are phrased. **Called the Misinformation effect** Finding was particularly important for law psychology issues.

David Buss (1953 -)

Is an American evolutionary psychologist who is known for their work on **mating strategies in women and men,** and how **jealousy and other challenging experiences may be evolutionarily adaptive.**

Derald Wing Sue (1942 -)

Is an American psychologist best known for their work on multiculturalism and cross-cultural counseling. They have extensively researched **"microaggressions,"** small verbal or behavioral ways in which racism and ethnocentrism are expressed daily, whether intentionally or unintentionally.

Martin Seligman (1942 -)

Is an American psychologist who first gained fame from their research into **learned helplessness.** Found that with cognitive training, learned helplessness can be countered and turned into learned optimism They are now best known for their role as the **founder of the field of positive psychology, a field that looks at a person's character strengths and how those strengths can bring about happiness.**

John Bowlby (1907-1990)

Is best known for their articulation of **attachment theory,** which states that children will form an attachment to a primary caregiver by the age of about 12 months, and that attachment relationship will impact how the child relates to others generally.

Donald Hebb (1904-1985)

Is considered one of founders of neuropsychology. They described how neural pathways form in the brain — that **"what wires together fires together"** — long before the discovery of brain imaging techniques **(Long-term Potentiation).** Memory involves changes of synapses and neural pathways, making a memory tree Postulated that a medium amount of arousal is best for performance, later Yerkes-Dodson Law made

Gordon Allport (1897-1967)

Is considered one of the founders of the **"trait perspective"** of personality. They went through the dictionary (lexical approach), identifying about 4500 words related to traits and sorted them into **three categories: cardinal, central, and secondary.** They also conducted groundbreaking research into types of racism and prejudice. Emphasized the **ideographic approach to personality theory.** This approach attempts to capture an individual's unique, defining characteristics as opposed to a nomothetic approach, which uses large numbers of people to study the commonalities of personality. Was concerned with conscious motives governed by the **proprium or propriate** function (his version of the ego), and believed that the proprium acted somewhat consistently based on traits it had developed through experience..

Hippocrates (BCE/CE)

Is considered the father of medicine. **Earliest theory of personality = personality or temperament based on the fluids, or humors, in the body.** Black bile = melancholic temperament Yellow bile = choleric temperament Red blood from the heart = sanguine temperament White phlegm from the lungs = phlegmatic temperament.

Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) / Fechner's Law

Is credited with carrying out the first systematic psychology experiment to result in mathematical conclusions, when they developed the idea of the "just noticeable difference" in sensation and perception. Their classic work was "Elements of Psychophysics" (1860). **Fechner's Law = different from Weber's law. The strength of a stimulus must be significantly increased to produce a slight difference in sensation**

John Locke (1632-1704)

Is famous for asserting that, upon entering the world, a person's mind is a **tabula rasa, or blank slate.** They asserted that what we know and what we are comes from experience. Knowledge was not innate.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Is famous for their creation of "client-centered therapy." In client-centered therapy, the client (not patient) directs the course of therapy and receives **"unconditional positive regard," "empathy," and "genuineness/congruence" from the therapist.** This therapy is classified as **"humanistic" because it focuses on the whole human being, rather than on behaviors or drives or the unconscious.** People who **"lack congruence" between their real selves and their self concept develop psychological tension** They also made a contribution to research: they were the first to record their sessions for later study and reference.

Aaron Beck (1921 -)

Is most associated with **"cognitive" therapeutic techniques.** According to them and other cognitive theorists, problems arise from maladaptive ways of thinking about the world. Thus, cognitive therapy involves reformulating illogical conditions rather than searching for a life-stress cause for these cognitions. Devised **maladaptive cognitions** (cognitions that lead to maladaptive behaviors or disturbed affect): Arbitrary Interference = drawing a conclusion w/o solid evidence: "My boss thinks I'm stupid because he never asks me to play golf." Overgeneralization = mistaking isolated incidents for the norm: "No one will ever want to be with me." Magnifying/minimizing = making too much or little of something: "It was luck that I did well on my exam." Personalizing = inappropriately taking responsibility: "Our office's failed project was all my fault." Dichotomous thinking = black-and-white thinking: "If I don't score a 750 on the GRE, I'll have no future." Postulated that a **"cognitive triad"** (negative views about the self, the world, and the future) caused depression. They also wrote the **"Beck Depression Inventory"** which gauges the severity of diagnosed depression.

Erik Erikson

Known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development; coined the term "identity crisis"

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

drive theories of aggression

Konrad Lorenz - aggression is an inherited instinct to make sure the strongest survive and pass their genes to the next generation; - Freud suggested that aggression is a result of the Thanatos or death drive (underlies the desire to hurt oneself or others)

cognitive dissonance theory

Leon Festinger's idea that people are motivated to reduce dissonant elements or add consonant elements to reduce tension

retina

Light sensitive layer of the eye; contains rods and cones; located at the back of the eye

telencephalon

Limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus

Soloman Asch

Line experiment, conformity; 33% of the participants conformed to the group and chose the incorrect lines

animal aggression

Lorenz, certain aggression necessary for survival of species, instinctual rather than learned

fixed action patterns

Lorenz, triggered by releasing stimuli, automatic and innate, instinctual, complex chains of behaviour; four defining characteristics: 1) uniform patterns 2) performed by most members 3) more complex than simple reflexes 4) cannot be interrupted

imprinting

Lorenz: the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life; imprint on first moving object they see after birth; commonly displayed by "following response"

agraphia

Loss of the ability to write, resulting from injury to the language center of the cerebral cortex

Corkin

MRI scans on HM to observe exact hippocampal damage

R.E. Petty and J.T. Cacioppo

Made **Elaboration Likelihood Model** of persuasion that suggests people who are very involved in an issue listen to the strength of the arguments in the issue rather than more superficial factors, such as the characteristics of the speaker. If the audience is interested in the argument and is able to understand it, persuasion is via the central route, and the likelihood of permanent change is high. If the audience is unwilling or unable to listen to an argument, persuasion is best through the peripheral route - make the audience comfortable and happy and hope some of the message sticks. An individual speaker is most likely to change a listener's attitude if: the speaker is an expert and/or trustworthy, the speaker is similar to the listener, the speaker is acceptable to the listener, the speaker is overheard rather than obviously trying to influence, the content is anecdotal, emotional, or shocking, and if the speaker is part of a two-person debate rather than a one-sided argument.

Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Made important, but random, contributions to psychology. Was the first to use statistics in psychology, and they created the correlation coefficient. Most notably, they wrote "Hereditary Genius" (1869) and used Darwinian principles to promote "eugenics." **Eugenics = a plan for selective human breeding in order to strengthen the species.** They also proposed the theory that humans have general intelligence that can be scientifically measured. They are also credited with being the first to use the phrase "nature versus nurture," **Nature v nurture = the debate about whether psychological phenomena are the result of inborn, genetic factors, or the result of cultural and societal influences.**

Arnold Gesell

Maturational Developmental Theory: - nature provides a "blueprint for development" through maturation and environment (nurture) fills in the details - identified 4 areas of growth and development that have normative trends: 1) motor 2) adaptive 3) language 4) personal/social behavior

Rogoff and Waddel (1982)

Mayan children did better in memory task if given one that was meaningful to them in local terms. Model of Mayan village, selected 20 objects and put into village, then taken out and put back, children were asked to reconstruct the scene they were shown. Mayan children did slightly better than USA children. Content and context of memory tasks are important and useful memory strategies are learned in sociocultural context.

Mean IQ

Mean of Americans is standardized to 100, with SD 15 or 16 depending on test; correlates most with IQ of biological parents and socioeconomic status

academic tests

Measure past learning, how well you know a subject

serial learning

Memorization of a series of items in a particular order - subject to primacy and recency effects - serial-position curve (U-shaped curve) shows this savings effect

Frederick Barlett

Memory is reconstructive rather than rote Using the story "War of Ghosts" he discovered that people are more likely to remember the ideas or semantics of a story rather than the details or grammar of a story.

gender differences in psychopathology

Men: - substance abuse - disorders involving impulse control - antisocial behavior Women: - depression - anxiety

serious mental illness (SMI)

Mental disorders that interfere with some area of social functioning.

language acquisition milestone: 2 years

More than 50 spoken words, usually in two- and three-word phrases.

Noam Chomsky

Most important figure in psycholinguistics. **Transformational grammar** differentiates between surface structure and deep structure. Surface structure = the way words are organized Deep structure = the underlying meaning **Language Acquisition Device (LAD) = innate ability to adopt generative grammar rules of the language that they hear** **Will have at least 1 - 2 questions about this person**

Alfred Adler

Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" and stressed the importance of birth order; 4-type theory of personality: 1) ruling-dominant 2) getting leaning 3) avoiding 4) socially useful

paralanguage

Nonlinguistic means of vocal expression: rate, pitch, tone, and so on.

Sroufe (1993)

P: observed 10-11 yr olds R: those who behaved outside of gender norms were unpopular

Hughes (1975)

P: policeman task with kids R: kids could mostly do the task, undermining Piaget's theory

acute stress disorder

PTSD symptoms that appear for a month or less

too little dopamine

Parkinson's disease

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

Participants heard list of words then had to recall them; showed primacy and decency effects, which shows the serial position effect- first and last items remembered most

Quinn and McConnel (1996)

Participants learned a list of words using imagery or rehearsal, then had to repeat words with a visual or auditory distraction; showed that if different components of working memory are used then memory isn't interfered with

McGuire's inoculation theory

People's beliefs are vulnerable if they have never faced challenge. Once they have experienced a challenge to their opinions, however, they are less vulnerable. A challenge is like a vaccination.

Hazel Markus

Performed cross-cultural research; Eastern countries value **interdependence over independence;** for example, in Japan, individuals likelier to demonstrate conformity, modesty, and pessimism; where in the U.S., likelier to show optimism, self-enhancement, and individuality; some criticizes generalizations about cultures

gestalt theory criticisms

Perls, Wetheimer, Koffka; not suited for low-functioning or disturbed clients

objective tests

Personality tests that are administered and scored in a standard way

Baddeley's model of working memory

Phonological loop, central executive, Visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer

Aristotle

Plato's pupil, recognized as the world's first professor; - studies based on order and logic - unlike Plato, believed that truth would be found in the physical world

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Postulated eight stages of psychosocial development. Their theory have been noted for its completeness, because their stages span development from **infancy through old age.** **Make sure to know all stages and general ideas behind them.** They coined the term "identity crisis" in naming the key crisis of adolescence.

stereotypes

Preconceived generalizations about certain groups of people.

illness anxiety disorder

Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness despite minimal or no somatic symptoms

Carol Gilligan

Presented feminist critique of Kolhberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense guided by relationships

backward masking

Presenting a stimulus, called the target, to the participant and then covering, or masking, the target with another stimulus; mask is more successful if it is similar to the original stimulus

word association test

Projective test in which the interviewer says a word and the respondent must mention the first thing that comes to mind

schizophreniform disorder

Psychotic disorder involving the symptoms of schizophrenia but lasting at least one month and less than 6 months.

Tegmentum

Houses the rest of the reticular formation. It is also involved in the sensorimotor system, and the analgesic effect of opiates.

Carl Rogers

Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality

Carl Rogers

Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality; client-centered therapy; first to record his sessions for later study and reference

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

LeDoux (1999)

Humans emotional reactions are flexible due to evolution. 2 pathways- short route where amygdala reacts immediately and the long rout where the sensory cortex relates info to the hippocampus. This shows a possible cognitive appraisal

age and learning

Humans primed to learn ages 3-20, remains constant 20-50, drops after 50

What did Freud use initially and then switch to?

Hypnosis (borrowed from Jean Charcot & Pierre Janet) and then switched to the technique of free association (developed by Joseph Breuer)

Hans Eysenck (1913-1999)

Identified personality traits, which they called **superfactors,** that are then subdivided into the different personality types. They also believed that personality traits were **genetically determined** and insisted on rigorous experimental method in forming theories of personality.

assimilation

In Piagetian theory of cognitive development, the process of understanding new info in relation to prior knowledge or existing schemata

accomodation

In Piagetian theory, modification of cognitive structures because new information or experiences do not fit into existing cognitive structures

traveling wave

In the auditory system, vibration of the basilar membrane in which the peak of the vibration travels from the base of the membrane to its apex.

saltatory conduction

Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.

Roger Brown

Researched the areas of social, developmental, and linguistic psychology. He found that children's understanding of grammatical rules develops as they make hypotheses about how syntax works and then self-correct with experience.

Roger Brown

Researched the areas of social, developmental, and linguistic psychology. They found that children's understanding of grammatical rules develops as they make hypotheses about how syntax works and then **self-correct with experience.**

Existential theory

Revolves around age old philosophical issues, particular the issue of meaning. A person's greatest struggle is being vs. nonbeing and of meaningfulness vs. meaninglessness. Frankl dubbed this as the "will to meaning". Rollo May is a major contributor to ET.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Said "I think, therefore I am." Their focus was figuring out truths through reason and deduction. They pondered dualism or the mind-body problem, **Mind-body problem = mind is a nonphysical substance that is separate from the body.**

Clark Hull (1884-1952)

Secured a place for themselves in the history of psychology with their mechanistic behavioral ideas. **Hypothetico-Deductive model = was designed to deduce logically all the rules that govern behavior (input variables lead to output variables equation)** They used math to explain motivation: **Performance = Drive x Habit (drive-reduction theory).** In other words, we do what we need to do and we do what has worked best in the past. Kenneth Spence later modified their theory. Called into question because individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction

self-handicapping

Self-defeating behavior that allows one to dismiss or excuse failure

Types of verbal learning and memory tasks

Serial learning Serial-anticipation learning Paired-associate learning Free-recall learning

Who came up with eugenics

Sir Francis Galton

neocortex

Six layered cortex of relatively recent evolution

Ectomorph

Skinny, fragile body = inhibited, intellectual behavior

terminal buttons

Small knobs at the end of axons that contain synaptic vessels that hold neurotransmitters

reciprocal socialization

Socialization that is bidirectional; children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children.

Plato

Socrates's pupil, declared that the physical world was not all that could be known; asserted the presence of universal forms and innate knowledge; - abstract and unsystematic philosophy

Dorothea Lynde Dix

Spearheaded the 19th century movement to provide better care for the mentally ill through hospitalization

Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802-1887)

Spearheaded the 19th-century movement to provide better care for the mentally ill through hospitalization.

rods

Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision; sensitive to dim light

Mary Ainsworth

Strange Situation; 3 attachment styles + disorganized attachment: 1) secure 2) ambivalent/resistant 3) avoidant

Edward Titchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology.

James Stoner

Studied **group polarization,** the concept that group discussion with like-minded people generally serves to strengthen the already dominant point of view. Group polarization explains **"risky shift"** or why groups will take greater risks than individuals.

Elaine Hatfield

Studied different kinds of love, specifically, **passionate love,** the intense longing for another and a state of profound physiological arousal (biophysiological, can be positive and negative), and **companionate love,** the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined (achieved via mutual trust, respect, commitment, later stages)

George Sperling

Studied the **iconic memory: the sensory memory for vision.** Found that people can see more than they can remember.

H-Y antigen

Substance that appears to trigger the transformation of gonads into testes within the first few weeks of prenatal development

Bartlett (1932)

Suggested that schemas influence memory during memory reconstruction

Bartlett (1932) herdsman

Swazi herdsman can recall characteristics of their cattle

Edward Titchener (1867-1927)

Taught at Cornell University and was the founder of "structuralism." **Structuralism = the analysis of human consciousness (focused on bottom-up processing).** Through **"introspection," lab assistants attempted to objectively describe the discrete sensations and contents of their minds.** They were an English person who studied with Wundt. The structuralist method dissolved after their death.

continuation

Tendency to create a whole or detailed figures based on our expectations rather than what is seen

scientific approach

Testable hypothesis --> reproducible experiment that can be replicated --> observable/measurable concept in a study

Neisser and Harsch (1992)

Tested theory of flashbulb memory. Participants had to write a description of how they heard a certain shocking event, and answer questions about where they were. What they were doing, their feelings, etc. answered less than 24 hours after disaster, then asked 2 1/2 years later. Many could not remember most of the things they remembered 24 hours after. Challenged flashbulb memory theory, although no sure way to measure levels of emotional arousal of each individual.

Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders

These are conditions involving problems controlling emotions and behaviors, such as kleptomania, pyromania, conduct disorder

Harlow and Contact Comfort

This experiment was used to examine the need for comfort and security in addition to food. Experimenter used two different "mothers" to test attachment using one made of barbed wire and one of terry cloth; found that the infant monkeys always ran to the mother that comforted them (terry cloth) never the one that fed them (barbed wire). p.375

The Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution (1600-1800)

This time period created the world we know today. Major discoveries shaped the way people viewed existence. Philosophy was back in the hands of scholars, and they all had different ideas about the nature of things.

who came up with trichomatic theory?

Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz

connectionism

Thorndike's approach to learning; based on connections between situations and responses.

estrus

Time periods when females are receptive to mating

Sensitive or critical periods in learning

Times when a developing animal is particularly vulnerable to the effects of learning (or to the lack of such learning).

stickleback fish

Tinbergen, males develop red coloration on belly, which is the releasing stimulus for attacks; males attacked red-bellied crude models rather than the detailed but non-red models

herring gull chicks

Tinbergen, peck at end of parents' bills which have a red spot on the tip, parents then regurgitates food for chicks; chicks pecked more at a red-tipped model bill than at a plain model bill; the greater the contrast between bill and red spot even when unnaturally strong; supernormal sign stimulus

prosody

Tone inflections, accents, and other aspects of pronunciation that carry meaning - the icing on the cake of grammar and meaning

tic disorders

Tourette's syndrome, for example, is indicated by motor and vocal tics

Traits vs. States

Trait: internal, stable, enduring personality aspects State: situational (unstable, temporary) variable aspects of personality influenced by external environment

Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)

Tricyclic chemical structure; ex. amitriptyline (Elavil®)

clustering

The brain's tendency to group together similar items in memory whether they are learned together or not. Most often, they are grouped into conceptual or semantic hierarchies.

Leon Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The conflict that you feel when your attitudes are not in sync with your behaviors. It can be reduced by changing dissonant elements or by adding consonant elements.

generalizability

The degree to which the results from an experiment can be applied to the population and the real world.

cohort effects

The effects of being born and raised in a particular time or situation where all other members of your group has similar experiences that make your group unique from other groups

attachment styles

The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants

anima

The female elements that a man possesses; this complements his own maleness.

response learning

The form of learning in which one links together chains of stimuli and responses. ex: leaving a building in response to a fire alarm

Lazarus

The long route: stress is a two-way process; it involves the production of stressors by the environment, and the response of an individual subjected to these stressors. His conception regarding stress led to the theory of cognitive appraisal.

self-monitoring

The process of attending to one's behavior and using these observations to shape the way one behaves.

item analysis

The process of examining each question on a test to see how it is related to the objectives being tested; internal consistency

selective breeding

The process of selecting a few organisms with desired traits to serve as parents of the next generation

Reactance

The refusal to conform that may occur as a result of a blatant attempt to control. People will often not conform if they are forewarned that others will attempt to change them

Barnum effect

The tendency to consider a personal description accurate if it is stated in very general terms.

oversimplification

The tendency to make simple explanations for complex events. People also hold onto original ideas about cause even when new factors emerge.

risk aversion

The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff.

Zeigarnik effect

The tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed ones.

orienting reflex

The tendency to turn toward an object that has touched you.

learned optimism

The term used by Martin Seligman to describe an optimistic style that people can be trained to achieve

opponent process theory of color vision

The theory that color vision is the product of opposing pairs of color receptors, red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white; when one member of a color pair is stimulated, the other member is inhibited.

cognitive triad

The three forms of negative thinking that Aaron Beck theorizes lead people to feel depressed. The triad consists of a negative view of the world, oneself, and the future.

striate cortex

The visual receiving area of the cortex, located in the occipital lobe.

Purkinje shift

The way that perceived color brightness changes with the level of illumination in the room. With lower levels of illumination, the extremes of color spectrum (especially red) are seen as less bright.

Anna Freud (1895-1982)

The youngest child of Sigmund Freud, followed in their father's footsteps as a psychoanalyst, working mostly with children. They are considered the **founder of child psychoanalysis,** but differed in many ways from their contemporary Melanie Klein, especially in thinking that while play was important for children, it was not necessarily able to reveal unconscious conflicts, as Klein believed. They also expanded upon Freud's **defense mechanisms of the ego.** They established the Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic, later it was renamed after them.

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Their research focused on the importance of social interaction in learning and development. Their concepts of the "zone of proximal development"** and **"scaffolding"** = teachers demonstrate the process of problem solving for their students and explain the steps as they go along. After a few initial explanations the instructor will then remove themselves from the students and only offer help when needed are still foundational in many schools around the world. Worked with Alexander Luria and found that word meanings are altered by interpersonal experience. Also, they asserted that language is a tool involved in the development of abstract thinking.

Henry Murray

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Henry Murray

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT); studies achievement motivation

countertransference

Therapist has transference reaction to the patient

The formula for Weber's law

k = (Change in I)/I Change in I = increase in intensity needed for Just Noticeable Difference (JND) I = original intensity

rehearsal

key to keeping items in the STM and to transferring items to LTM

procedural memory

knowing how to do something - physical actions and motor skills

explicit (or declarative) memory

knowing something and being consciously aware of knowing it, such as knowing a fact. 2 types: 1) episodic memory 2) semantic memory

implicit (or nondeclarative) memory

knowing something without being aware of knowing it

self-esteem

knowing that you are worthwhile and being in touch with your actual strengths

size constancy

knowing the size of something doesn't change (like an elephant is always large)

M. Fischbein and I. Ajzen

known for their theory of reasoned action: people's behavior in a given situation is determined by their attitude about the situation and social norms -- later renamed the theory of planned behavior

M. Fischbein and I. Ajzen

known for their theory of reasoned action: people's behavior in a given situation is determined by their attitude about the situation and social norms. Later renamed **"theory of planned behavior"**

strange situation

lab study designed to measure the quality of the caregiver-child attachment relationship

Harlow (social isolation)

lack of interaction and socialized with normal young monkeys hampered isolated monkeys social development; once brought together with other monkeys, male monkeys did not display normal sexual functioning and isolated female monkeys lacked maternal behaviors

Noam Chomsky

language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

aphasia

language disorder associated w/ Broca's or Wernicke's area in the brain

social interactionist theory of language

language is learned through social learning and interaction with others (Lev Vygotsky)

cell body (soma)

largest central portion and makes up gray matter; has a nucleus that directs the neuron's activity

fetal period

last stage of prenatal development; onset marked by beginning of measurable electrical activity in the brain

where in the brain is opponent-process theory at work?

lateral geniculate body

Edward Thorndike

law of effect; precursor to operant conditioning

inductive reasoning

leads to general rules that are inferred from specifics ex: "most of the PhD students I know studied hard for their GRE. therefore, studying hard probably helps one do well on the test and then get into graduate school"

deductive reasoning

leads to specific conclusion that must follow from the information given ex: "all coats are blue. she wears a coat. therefore her coat must be blue"

Martin Seligman

learned helplessness

conditioned response

learned response to a CS

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart

learning and recall depend on depth of processing; from most superficial phonological (pronunciation) to deep semantic level, the deeper the easier to learn and recall

classical conditioning (AKA respondent conditioning)

learning connections b/t different events

retroactive inhibition

learning something new that interferes w/ something learned earlier

latent learning

learning that happens but does not demonstrate itself until it is needed later on - ex: watching someone play chess, learning may not be evident until you yourself play chess later

operant conditioning (AKA instrumental conditioning or reward learning)

learning the relationship b/t one's actions and their consequences

Lev Vygotsky

learning through the zone of proximal development, in which a lower achieving student in a particular subject is placed with someone who is just a bit more advanced - also discussed scaffolding learning

Harry Harlow

learning to learn; monkeys became better at learning tasks as they acquired different learning experiences; eventually they could learn after only one trial

Broca's area location

left frontal lobe

Wernicke's area location

left temporal lobe

goal of psychoanalysis

lessen the unconscious pressures on the individual by making as much of this material conscious as possible. this will allow the ego to be a better mediator of forces

libido

life drive present at birth

eros

life instincts that serve the purpose of individual survival--hunger, thirst, sex

neuromodulators

like neurotransmitters but cause long-term changes in postsynaptic cell

criterion of significance

likelihood of making a type I error

Grant Dahlstrom

linked Type A personality to heart disease and other health problems

cingulate gyrus

links areas in the brain dealing with emotion and decisions

Broca's area

located in the dominant hemisphere (usually left) of the frontal lobe of the brain and is associated with speech production

Wernicke's area

located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the dominant hemisphere of the brain (the left for most people) and is asst'd with the comprehension of speech and written language. damage to Wernicke's area results in fluent aphasia, in which a person cannot understand language, but can produce sounds with the rhythm and prosody of language

rods

located int he periphery of the retina, sensory receptors for vision that work best in reduced illumination and only allow perception of achromatic colors have low sensitivity to detail, and are not involved in color vision

genes

located on the chromosomes, they are the basic units of hereditary transmission

Julian Rotter

locus of control

Elaine Hatfield

looked at different kinds of love; the two basic types of love are passionate love and companionate love

aphasia

loss of ability to speak or understand language in spoken or written form

alexia

loss of capacity to read due to an inability yo comprehend written words, read aloud or both; asst'd with damage to left angular gyrus

Getting-leaning type (phlegmatic)

low in activity and high in social contribution; dependent

Avoiding type (melancholic)

low in activity and low in social contribution; withdrawn

Charles Darwin

made evolution a scientifically sound principle by positing that natural selection was its driving force

morphemes

made up of phonemes; the smallest units of meaning in language. ex: "boy" and "-ing"

Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen, and Karl von Frisch

major figures in ethology, shared the Nobel Prize in 1973

mirrors

make people more self-aware (especially large)

overconfidence bias

making of predictions and judgments about ourselves without considering relevant facts

elaboration likelihood model peripheral route

making the audience comfortable and happy and hoping the message sticks

behaviorist model of psychopathology

maladaptive behavior is simply the result of learning maladaptive responses

Cognitive theory model of psychopathology

maladaptive cognitions lead to maladaptive behaviour or disturbed affect

persona

mask that is adopted by a person in response to the demands of social convention

encoding specificity principle

material is more likely to be remembered if it is retrieved in the same context in which it was stored

dementia pracecox

meaning "split mind" this was the old term for schizophrenia

semantics

meaning of words and sentences

punishment

meant to promote extinction of an undesirable behavior; after an unwanted behavior is performed, the punishment is presented; this acts as a negative stimulus which should decrease the likelihood that the earlier behavior will be repeated

operational definitions

measurable definitions of variables in research

Electroencaphalogram (EEG)

measure brain-wave patterns and used to study waking and sleeping states

criterion-referenced tests

measure mastery in a particular area or subject

variability

measure of how loosely or tightly bunched scores are

IQ

measure of intelligence aptitude using an equation comparing mental age to chronological age

standard deviation

measure of the typical distance of scores from the mean

lie detector tests

measure the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, which becomes stimulated by lying (and anxiety)

aptitude tests

measure your innate ability to learn (constantly debated); intended to predict later performance

long-term memory retention

measured by recognition, recall, and savings

incidental learning and memory

measured through presenting subjects with items they are not supposed to try to memorize and then testing for learning

F-scale or F-ratio

measurement of Fascism or authoritarian personality

dependent variable

measurement of the response that is expected to vary w/ differences in the IV

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

measures cognitive triad and gauges severity of diagnosed depression; determines number of depressive symptoms, for research and clinical settings

savings

measures how much information about a subject remains in LTM by assessing how long it takes to learn something the second time as opposed to the first time

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

measures oxygen flow in different areas of the brain

internal validity

measures the extent to which different items within a measure "hang together" and test the same thing

innate releasing mechanism (IRM)

mechanism in the animal's nervous system that serves to connect the stimulus w/ the right response

reproductive isolating mechanisms

mechanisms that prevent interbreeding between different species; 4 types: 1) behavioral isolation 2) geographic isolation 3) mechanical isolation 4) isolation by season

Clark Hull

mechanistic behavioural ideas; - motivation: performance = drive x habit; - we do what we need and what worked best in the past; - Kenneth Spence modified theory

collectivist societies

members are communally oriented and focus on the common good

episodic memory

memories for particular events from personal experience

screen memory

memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences

mnemonics

memory cues that help learning and recall - ex: OCEAN

declarative memory (AKA fact memory)

memory for explicit info

procedural memory

memory for how things are done

eidetic memory

memory for images

Atkinson-Shiffin model

memory involves 3 structures--sensory, short-term, and long-term)

limbic system and memory

memory is encoded in the brain via this system; hippocampus and amygdala

retrograde amnesia

memory loss for events that occurred before brain injury

anterograde amnesia

memory loss for new info following brain injury

long-term memory

memory system that holds a permanent store of info

short-term memory

memory system w/ limited capacity and a relatively short duration

IQ

mental age/chronological age x 100

schemas

mental frameworks we use to process the enormous amount of information we process. we try to match what we are experiencing with our schemas in order to help determine our response

cognitive map

mental representation of a physical space

single-cell recording

method of study in sensory perception that records the response cell by placing a microelectrode in the cortex

median

middle value when observations are ordered from least to most or from most to least

two-point threshold

min distance necessary b/t 2 points of stimulation on the skin so that the points will be felt as 2 distinct stimuli

two-point threshold

minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli

absolute threshold

minimum of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system

source monitoring errors

misremembering the source of info

type II error

mistakenly failing to reject the null

type I error

mistakenly rejecting the null

method of loci

mnemonic device of associating info w/ some sequence of familiar places

elaboration likelihood model

model of persuasion stating that people will either elaborate on the persuasive message or fail to elaborate on it and that the future actions of those who do elaborate are more predictable than those who do not

Accomodation (Piaget)

modification of cognitive schemata to incorporate new info

Interposition

monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one partially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away

major depressive disorder

mood disorder characterized by at least a 2 wk period during which there is a prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood or loss of interest in all or almost all activities

bipolar disorder

mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania

Lawrence Kohlberg

moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?

Premack principle

more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

most abundant inhibitory transmitter in the nervous system

glutamate

most common excitatory neurotransmitter

reaction time

most frequently used to measure cognitive processing; also called latency

binocular disparity

most important depth perception cue; eyes view objects from 2 slightly diff angles; allows us to create 3d image

intrinsic motivation

motivation by some reward that is inherent to the task

dolphins and language

much research points to dolphins' ability to understand language, but not necessarily using true language to communicate themselves

Atkinson and Shiffrin

multi-store model of memory -serial position effect -amnesiacs

Derald Wing Sue

multiculturalism and cross-cultural counselling; researched microaggression

mesomorph

muscular, athletic body; energetic, aggressive behavior

hindbrain

myelencephalon metencephalon reticular formation

nature vs nurture

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

primary reinforcement

natural reinforcement, without requirement of learning; food and water

self-actualization

need to realize one's fullest potential

discrimination

negative treatment or behavior based on prejudicial beliefs

correlations

neither purely descriptive nor purely inferential

Karen Horney

neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety"

Karen Horney

neo-Freudian; emphasized culture and society over instinct; suggested that neuroticism is expressed as movement toward, against, and away from people

Schachter-Singer Theory

nervous system arousal and interpretation of context lead to a cognitive response

dementia

neurological disorder characterized by a loss in intellectual functioning

endorphins

neuromodulators that kick in to reduce or eliminate the perception of pain

dendrites

neuron branches that receive impulses; their branching patterns change throughout life

interneurons

neurons located in the spinal cord that connect sensory neurons w/ motor neurons to form the reflex arc

sensory neurons

neurons that transmit sensory info to the spinal cord and then to the brain via afferent fibers

motor neurons

neurons transmitting motor commands from the brain to the muscles along efferent fibers

acetylcholine

neurotransmitter found in both central and peripheral nervous systems; linked to Alzheimer's disease; used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles

serotonin

neurotransmitter loosely classified as a monoamine or biogenic-amine transmitter generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and arousal

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

neurotransmitter that produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain

conditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus that has been paired w/ an UCS to elicited a CR

neologisms

newly invented words

two components of sleep

non-REM and REM (stage R)

regional cerebral blood flow (RCBF)

non-invasive procedure that detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to diff parts of the brain

signal detection theory

non-sensory factors influence sensory perception

criticisms of social cognitive theory

not a unified, systematic approach to studying personality

negative

not normally absent; flat affect (absence of appropriate emotion); restrictions in thought, speech, avolition or behaviour

positive symptoms

not normally present; delusions, perceptual hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behaviour

psychogenic disorders

now known as dissociative disorders

frequency

number of sound wave cycles per sec

significant

numbers that describe the sample are describing a real difference or pattern rather than just random variation

mean

numerical halfway point b/t the highest score and the lowest score; arithmetic avg

Pearson r correlation coefficient

numerically calculating and expressing correlation; -1 to +1

Bobo doll

nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions; participants went through the entire experiment 66% of the time

bottom-up processing (AKA data-driven processing)

objects are recognized by the summation of the components of incoming stimulus to arrive at the whole pattern

primacy effect

occasions when 1st impressions are more important than subsequent impressions

recency effect

occasions when the most recent info we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions; tendency for items presented last to be remembered the best

automatic processing

occurs when a task is effortlessly done b/c the task is subsumed under a higher organization process

scaffolding learning

occurs when a teacher encourages the student to learn independently and only provides assistance with topics or concepts that are beyond the student's capability; as the student continues to learn, the teacher aidds with less to encourage the student's independence

ambiguity

occurs when a word (lexical ambiguity) or text (linguistic ambiguity) is open to multiple interpretations or has multiple meanings

self-fulfilling prophecy

occurs when one's expectations somehow draw out, or in a sense cause, the very behavior that is expected. in the beginning, there is a false definition of a situation, which evokes a new behavior, which then makes the original false definition true

insight learning

occurs when the solution to a problem appears all at once rather than building up to a solution

subtractive color mixture

occurs when we mix pigments; primary colors are yellow, blue, and red

dishabituation

occurs when you remove the stimulus to which the organism had become habituated, but if you reintroduce the stimulus, the organism will start noticing it again

Donald Meichenbaum

offered **stress inoculation training**: teaching people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations. Prepares people for foreseeable stressors.

auditory system pathway consists of?

olivary nucleus, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate body

Walter Dill Scott

one of the first to apply **psychology to business,** specifically in advertising; also involved in helping military implement psychological testing to aid with personnel selection

Walter Dill Scott

one of the first to apply psychology to business, specifically in advertising; also involved in helping military implement psychological testing to aid with personnel selection

nikolaas tinbergen

one of the founder of modern ethology; best known for his use of models in naturalistic settings - most famous for experiments involving stickleback fish and herring gull chicks

aversive conditioning

uses punishment to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. ex: drug antabuse, person associates nausea with alcohol and no longer wants to drink

alternate-form method

using 2 or more different forms of a test to determine the reliability of a particular test

convenience sampling

using a sample of people who are readily available to participate

authoritarian parenting style

using punitive control methods and lacking emotional warmth

cued recall

using sensory or verbal hints to stimulate memory ex: fill-in-the-blank tests

language development: children

usually use nouns first, then verbs ex: "me want," "mommy shirt"

mode

value of the most freq observation in a set of scores

independent variable

variable whose effect is being studied

ordinal variables

variables for which response categories are ordered but the distances between adjacent categories are not necessarily equal (ex: marathon finishers)

ratio variables

variables that meet the criteria for interval variables but also have meaningful zero points (ex: age)

sexual dysfunctions

variety of diagnoses related to pain during sex, a loss of interest in sex or an inability to achieve orgasm

honeybee mating

very few male bees (drones) are produce; serve only one purpose which is to mate with the queen

iconic memory

visual memory

afterimage

visual sensation that appears after prolonged or intense exposure to a stimulus

iconic memory

visual sensory memory

Method of Loci

visualizing a place you know very well with something you are trying to remember and then creating associations between the two

Clive Wearing

was a great conductor but got a virus and lost his hippocampus. can't make new long term memories and his short term lasts between 7-30 seconds. procedural memory was not affected (he could still play piano) but episodic was. hippocampus must control memory transfer from short to long term memory.

Harry Stack Sullivan

was an American **Neo-Freudian** psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who held that the personality lives in, and has his or her being in, a **complex of interpersonal relations.** Emphasized social and interpersonal relationships

Arnold Gesell

was an early child developmentalist who believed that **nature provided a blueprint for development through maturation and that environment, or nurture, filled in the details.** Observed that children go through same predetermined developmental stages, but at their own rates and paces, and that a child's chronological and developmental ages may be significantly different. Identified four areas of growth and development that have normative trends: motor, adaptive (cognitive), language, and personal/social behavior. Their multifaceted approach is still widely used today

social exchange theory

we are motivated to affiliate w/ others based upon the rewards and costs of affiliation--the more the rewards outweigh the costs, the great the attraction to the other person

excitation-transfer theory

we attribute our excitement or physiological arousal about one thing to someone else (ex: bungee jumping on first date)

modeling

we do not require reinforcements or associations or practice in order to learn

resource model of attention

we have a limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks

reciprocity hypothesis

we tend to likely those who seem to like us and dislike those who seem to dislike us

social norms

what is considered normal behavior for a particular society

extinction

when a CS is repeatedly not reinforce and as a result, the CR is no longer produced as consistently

brightness contrast

when a particular luminance appears brighter when surrounded by a darker stimulus than when surrounded by a lighter stimulus

optimism bias

when a person anticipates more positive outcomes than they do negative outcomes

body dysmorphic disorder

when a person has an unrealistic sense of their body or perceives flaws or defects that are not actually there. this often accompanies the feeding and eating disorders

magical thinking

when a person imagines something will happen but is unlikely when examined realistically (ex: believing in superstitions)

stereotype boost

when a person who belongs to a group that has a positive stereotype attached to it subconsciously conforms to the positive stereotype

illusory correlation

when a relationship is inferred when there actually is none (ex: insisting a relationship exists b/w physical and personality characteristics despite evidence that no such relationship exists)

size constancy

when an object appears to retain its size despite the fact that its image on the retina has changed in size

self-perception theory

when attitudes about something are weak or ambiguous, people observe their own behavior and then attribute attitudes to themselves

variable-ratio (VR)

when behavior is reinforced after a varying number of responses

variable interval (VI)

when behavior is reinforced at the 1st response made after a variable amt of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement

all-or-nothing law

when depolarization researches the critical threshold, the neuron will fire, each time, every time

pluralistic ignorance

when most of the people in a group privately disagree with something but incorrectly believe that most people in the group agree with it

hostile attributional bias

when people perceive hostility in others, they are more likely to respond with hostility

top-down processing (AKA conceptually-driven processing)

when people recognized objects by using conceptual processes such as memories and expectations about the whole object

acquiscence

when people say yes or strongly agree to every item instead of thinking about each one

incongruence in humanistic perspective

when person enocunters experiences in life that contradict with self-concept. Must modify or distort self-concept in order to be "normal."

reactance

when social pressure to behave in a particular way becomes so blatant that the person's sense of freedom is threatened and they act in a way to reassert that sense of freedom

demand characteristic

when subjects act in ways they think experimenter wants or expects

placebo effect

when subjects behave differently just because they think that they have received the treatment substance or condition

object relations therapy

when the therapist uses the patient's transference to help him or her resolve problems that were the result of previous relationships by correcting the emotional experience in the therapist-patient relationship

countertransference

when therapist experiences emotions in response to patient's transference

social exclusion

when we are "left out" of a group - diminishes our desire to help others

stereotype threat

when we are at risk for confirming a negative stereotype about our group and causes us to underperform

proactive inhibition

when what you learned earlier interfered w/ what you learn later

Type 1 error

when you incorrectly reject the null hypothesis; you thought your findings were significant but they were really only caused by chance

axon hillock

where soma and axon connect

face validity

whether test items appear to measure what they are supposed to measure

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

widely used test designed to measure the intelligence of children 6 to 16 years old

semantic priming

words that are semantically related to each other make each other faster during lexical decision

prefrontal cortex

working memory; sensory input from thalamus

decision making

working on solving a problem until an acceptable solution is found; usually based on some sort of assumption, which could either be rational or irrational, and the solution is usually found by relying on reasoning and/or emotion - ex: making a list of pros and cons, flipping a coin, divination, and consulting an expert

type 2 error

wrongly accept the null hypothesis; tests showed your findings to be insignificant when in fact they were significant

age and SMI

young adults in their late teens and early 20s are more likely to be diagnosed with SMI than adults in any other age group, followed by adults in their mid-20s to age 50; adults over 50 are least likely to report an SMI

Lev Vygotsky

zone of proximal development and scaffolding

Vygotsky

zone of proximal development- gap between what kid can do alone and with help scaffolding- when an adult gives help

John Locke

tabula rasa (blank slate); knowledge is not innate

conception

takes place in the fallopian tubes where the ovum or egg cell is fertilized by the male sperm cell

existential theory therapy

talking therapy; deep questions relating to client's perception/meaning of existence discussed

avoidance conditioning

teaches an animal how to avoid something the animal does not want; occurs when you avoid a predictable, unpleasant stimulus

matched-subjects design

technique of matching subjects on the basis of the variable that the researcher wants to control

control group design

technique of treating experimental and control groups equally in all respects except that one group is exposed to the treatment in the experiment and the other is not

clustering

technique to enhance memory by organizing items into conceptually-related categories

token economy

technique used in behavior therapy to reinforce behavior by giving tokens which can be cashed in for something desirable for appropriate behavior

mnemonic device

technique used to improve the likelihood that we will remember something

systematic desensitization

technique used to treat phobias by pairing the object of fear w/ relaxation

mesencephalon (midbrain)

tectum and tegmentum

deviation quotient

tells us how far away a person's IQ score is from the average score for that person's particular age group

physiological zero

temperature of the skin

physiological zero

temperature that is sensed as neither warm nor cold

working memory

temporary memory that is necessary for the successful performance of a task on which one is currently working

actor-observer effect

tendency for actors to see observers' behavior as due to external/situational factors and for observers to attribute actors' behavior to internal/dispositional characteristics

law of good continuation

tendency for elements appearing to follow in the same direction to be grouped together

law of proximity

tendency for elements close to each other to be perceived as a unit

group polarization

tendency for ground discussion to enhance the group's initial tendencies toward riskiness or caution

law of closure

tendency for people to perceive complete figures even when the actual figures are not complete

mere-exposure hypothesis

tendency for people to prefer things with which they are familiar

social loafing

tendency for people to put forth less effort when part of a group than when acting individually

law of pragnanz

tendency for perceptual organization to be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible

centration

tendency for preoperational children to be able to focus on only 1 aspect of a phenomenon

response bias

tendency for research participants to respond to sensory perception in a particular way due to nonsensory factors

law of similarity

tendency for similar objects to be grouped togetehr

groupthink

tendency of decision-making groups to strive for consensus at the expense of not considering discordant info

Hawthorne effect

tendency of people to behave differently if they know that they are being observed

constancy

tendency of people to perceive objects in the way that they are familiar with them, regardless of changes in the actual retinal image

overjustification effect

tendency of people to stop liking something that they previously enjoyed b/c of receiving a reward for the behavior

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute individual characteristics as causes of others' behaviors and situational characteristics to one's own behavior

just world hypothesis

tendency to believe that the world is fair and that people who are good are rewarded while people who are bad are punished

dissonance theory

tendency to change thoughts or behavior in response to perceived inconsistencies

exchange theory

tendency to evaluate interactions and relationships in terms of relative costs and benefits

social comparison theory

tendency to evaluate self in comparison to other people drives affiliation

halo effect

tendency to generalize from one attribute or characteristic to a person's entire personality

similarity

tendency to group together items that are alike

proximity

tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group

phi phenomenon

tendency to perceive smooth motion (apparent motion)

social loafing

tendency to work less hard in a group than one would if working individually; guarded against when each individual is closely monitored

hypothesis

tentative and testable explanation of the relationships b/t 2+ variables

t-score

test score converted to a normal distribution w/ a mean of 50 and a standard dev of 10

analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

tests whether at least two groups co-vary; importantly, the ANCOVA can adjust for preexisting differences between groups

one-way ANOVA

tests whether the means on one factor or independent variable are significantly different across groups

diencephalon

thalamus and hypothalamus

DSM-5

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.

backward conditioning

the NS is presented after the UCS is presented. for Pavlov's dog, they would have been presented with the food and then the light. - has proven to be ineffective - only accomplishes inhibitory conditioning (means that later the dogs would have a harder time pairing the light and the food even if they were presented in a forward fashion)

trace conditioning

the NS stimulus is presented and terminated before the UCS is presented

simultaneous conditioning

the UCS and NS are presented at the same time

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

feature detection

the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges

Colour constancy

the ability to perceive the colour of an object as constant even if it appears to change with changes in lighting

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions; no scientific instrument to measure this has been developed; some believe it is another name for interpersonal skills

chaining

the act of linking together a series of behaviors that ultimately result in reinforcement; one behavior triggers the next, and so on

companionate love

the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined; intimacy and commitment, no passion

Behavior Theory

the application of classical and operant conditioning principles to human abnormal behavior; a model based on learning

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

criticisms of REBT

the approach does not emphasize feelings, the counselor client relationship, and REBT is mechanistic or even sterile; may be too complex for those with psychosis or thought disorders

syntax

the arrangement of words into sentences as prescribed by a particular language

Harold Kelley

the attributions we make about our actions or those of others are usually accurate; we base this on consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of the action

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information; causes retroactive inhibition

M.J. Lerner's just world bias

the belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people. It is uncomfortable for people to accept that bad things happen to good people, so they blame the victim

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster; area of greatest VISUAL ACUITY

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity

the claim that the structure of a language shapes what people think and do; the social construction of reality - has been use for the importance of nonsexist language - however, cultures that don't have words for certain colors can still recognize them, so it is unclear to what extent language really affects our perceptions

reciprocal interaction

the constant exchange of influences between people is a constant factor in our behavior

shadow

the dark side, often projected onto others; symbolized in cultures by devils and evil spirits

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group

gender identity

the extent to which a person identifies with different aspects of "maleness" and/or "femaleness;" typically develops prior to age of 4, but some individuals experience changes later in life

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well; forgetting curve

meditation

the focusing of attention to clear one's mind and produce relaxation

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information; causes proactive inhibition

self

the full individual potential, symbolized in cultures by figures such as Buddha or Jesus, the mandala

REBT goal of therapy

the goal is for effective rational beliefs (E) to replace previous self-defeating ones. then a client's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours can coexist

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

empathy-altruism hypothesis

the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain

agnosia

the inability to process sensory information; often involves damage to the occipital or parietal lobe

Nikolaas Tinbergen

one of the founder of modern ethology; best known for their use of models in naturalistic settings - most famous for experiments involving stickleback fish and herring gull chicks to find evidence of **fixed action patterns**. Stickleback fish develop red coloration on their belly, and they fight each other. This person hypothesized that the red belly acted as a releasing/sign stimulus for the attacks. > attacks with red belly than no red belly. Herring gull chicks peck at the end of their parents' bills, which have a red spot on the tip. The parent then regurgitates food for the chicks. This person hypothesized that the red spot on the bill is what signals the chick to peck at this particular spot. The greater the contrast between the bill and the red spot, the more vigorously the chicks would peck, even when the contrast was so strong as to be unnatural (**supernormal sign stimulus** = artificial stimuli that exaggerate the naturally occurring sign stimulus or releaser. They are more effective than the natural releaser).

Socrates

one of the founders of Western philosophy and mentor to Plato; pondered the abstract ideas of truth, beauty, justice

Donald Hebb

one of the founders of neuropsychology, "what fires together, wires together"

biosocial model

one's health is affected by a combination of biological, psychological, behavioral, and social factors

rhodopsin

only photopigment in rods, made up of a vitamin A derivative and a protein

menarche

onset of the menstrual cycle

James Cattell

opened more psychology labs, thought psychology should be more scientific than Wundt

Big Five

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

B. F. Skinner

operant conditioning

stimulus generalization

opposite of stimulus discrimination; to generalize is to make the same response to a group of similar stimuli

hormone effects

organizational or activational

taxonomies

organized categorization systems, by statistical techniques for personality

schema

organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event - process of categorizing new events and objects based on how well they match the existing attributes of schemas -- Piaget called this process "assimilation"

vestibular sacs

organs in the inner ear that connect the semicircular canals and the cochlea and contribute to the body's sense of balance

type theory

originally dominated personality theory; as far back as Hippocrates, people were placed into personality-type categories often based on physical appearance

self-awareness theory

our behavior is influenced by an awareness of self and there are certain situations that trigger a focus on ourselves

terror management

our efforts to control an uncontrollable world and keep our fear of death at bay

linguistic relativity hypothesis (AKA Whorfian hypothesis)

our perception of reality is determined by the content of language

inner ear

oval window, cochlea, basilar membrane, hair cells

overregularization

overapplication of grammar rules (e.g. i founded that) found=past, -ed is also past - typical in children approx 2-5 years old

Base-rate fallacy

overestimating the general frequency of things we are most familiar with

frequency

pace of vibrations or sound waves per second for a particular sound

phantom limb pain

pain in a limb (or extremity) that has been amputated

Ronald Melzack, Patrick Wall, and Gate control theory of pain

pain perception is related to the interaction of large and small nerve fibers that run to and from the spine; pain may or may not be perceived depending on different factors, including cognition

behaviorists explanation of memory

paired-associate learning; one item is learned with, and then cues the recall of, another

aversion therapy

pairing unpleasant stimuli w/ undesirable behavior

somatic nervous system (SNS)

part of the PNS that interacts with the external environment by controlling voluntary movements of striated muscles

projection area

part of the brain receiving incoming sensory info or sending out motor-impulse commands

Photons

particles of light

self-presentation

particularly positive self-presentation; act in ways that are in line with our attitudes or in ways that will be accepted by others

fatuous love

passion and commitment, no intimacy

Brenda Milner

patient "HM" lesion of hippocampus, remembered things before surgery, STM intact, but could not store new LTMs (anterograde amnesia)

personality disorder

pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress and/or impaired functioning in 2+ of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, and impulse control

role theory

people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill and behavior can be understood and attributed to the adoption of those social roles

expectancy-value theory

people are motivated by goals that they think they might actually meet; another factor is how important the goal is

Premack principle

people are motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves after with something they like to do (Pre-mack (pre-kissing), you have to do work)

Peter principle

people are promoted at work until they reach a position of incompetence, the position which they remain

James-Lange theory of emotions

people become aware of their emotions after they notice their physiological reactions to some external event

negative state relief model

people behave prosocially in order to feel better about themselves or their situation

empathic joy hypothesis

people behave prosocially speifically to feel good

catharsis hypothesis

people can redirect aggressive energy by releasing it in other ways (ex: punching a pillow to diminish aggressive impulses)

Simmel (1944)

people described movement of geometric shapes as having intentions

functional fixedness

people develop closed minds about the functions of certain objects ex: cannot think of creative uses or think divergently. "a bird cage is good only for housing birds"

equity theory

people feel most comfortable in situations in which rewards and punishments are equal, fitting, or highly logical

implicit theories of personality

people often make assumptions about the dispositions of an individual based on the actions of that person

dispositionists

people who emphasized internal determinants of behavior

humanistic model of psychopathology

people who lack congruence b/w their real selves and self-concept develop psychological tension

illusion of control

people's belief that they can influence events, even when they have no control over what will happen (manipulating the lottery, gambling, superstition)

impression management

people's efforts to control the impressions that others receive of them

personology

people's needs interact with presses, which refer to the environmental stimuli impacting the needs

endorphins

peptides that are natural painkillers produced in the brain

color constancy

perceived color of an object does not change when we change the wavelength of the light we see

subliminal perception

perceiving a stimulus that one is not consciously aware of

nativist theory of perception

perception and cognition are innate

empiricist theory of perception

perception is learned and develops as the individual adapts to their environment

multistability

perception of an object can alternate b/w 2 or more possible interpretations

hallucinations

perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality

Yerkes-Dodson law

performance is worst at extremely low or extremely high levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level

John Garcia

performed classical conditioning experiments in which it was discovered that animals are programmed through evolution to make certain connections; the concept that certain associations are learned more easily than others is called **preparedness**

relative refractory period

period following the absolute refractory period in which the neuron will fire in response to a strong stimulus

refractory period

period following the firing of a neuron just before the neuron is able to fire again

germinal period

period of rapid cell division during prenatal development that lasts approx 2 wks and ends w/ the implantation of the cellular mass into the uterine wall

obsessions

persistent irrational thoughts

George Kelly

personal constructs determine personality and behaviour

projective tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind

social-cognitive perspective

personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors

California Personality Inventory (CPI)

personality measure used for more "normal", less clinical groups than MMPI (common person inventory)

California Personality Inventory (CPI)

personality measure used for more "normal", less clinical groups than MMPI; developed by Harrison Gough at UC Berkeley (common person inventory)

field independence

personality style characterized by an ability to distinguish experience from its context

field dependence

personality style characterized by an inability to distinguish experience from its context

consistency theories

perspectives from social psychology that hold that people prefer consistency b/t attitudes and behaviors and that people will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference

prodromal phase

phase before schizophrenia is actually diagnosed, characterized by poor adjustment

eidetic imagery

photographic memory; more common in children and rural cultures

Franz Joseph Gall

phrenology

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

secondary sex characteristics

physical characteristics that do not appear until puberty; enlarged breasts and widened hips for females; facial hair and deeper voices for males

brightness

physical intensity of light

Aaron Beck

pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression.

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

Melanie Klein

pioneered object-relations theory and psychoanalysis with children

Melanie Klein

pioneered object-relations theory and psychoanalysis with children; developed play therapy technique

Hermann von Helmholtz

place-resonance theory of sound perception in which different parts of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

diffusion of responsibility

the larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels to help

variable ratio schedule

the learning is less likely to become extinguished; is different from a fixed ratio schedule b/c reinforcement are delivered after different numbers of correct responses. the ratio cannot be predicted. learning is very powerful with this behavior - ex: slot machines

Benjamin Whorf

posited that language, or how a culture says things, influences that culture's perspective (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis / linguistic relativity check / Whorfian Hypothesis). It is not clear to what extent language affects our perceptions

Benjamin Whorf

posited that language, or how a culture says things, influences that culture's perspective (Whorfian Hypothesis)

Donald Hebb and memory

posited that memory involves changes of synapses and neural pathways, making a "memory tree" - described the process of Long-Term Potentiation

Leonard Berkowitz

posited the frustration-aggression hypothesis: a frustration in achieving a goal (no matter how small) leads to the show of aggression

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

positive charges from the outside are allowed into the cell (DEPOLARIZATION) - increase the chance that a cell will fire

attitude

positive, negative, or neutral evaluation of a person, issue or object

Klinefelter's syndrome

possession of an extra X chromosome in males that leads to sterility and often to mental retardation

law of effect

postulated a cause-and-effect chain of behaviour revolving around reinforcement

mental set

preconceived notion of how to look at a problem. this may help future problem solving

social influence

presence of other people affects an individual's judgment about an event

self-promotion

presenting of our best selves to others

denial

preventing painful or anxiety-producing truths from entering one's consciousness

positive transfer

previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task later

negative transfer

previous learning that makes it more difficult to learn a new task

all-or-none law

principle that the action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; the neuron either fires at full strength or it does not fire at all

punishment

probability that a response will be made is decreased by giving the organism something undesirable whenever the response is made

negative reinforcement

probability that the desired response will be performed is increased by removing something undesirable whenever the desired response is made

why does it take longer to make associations between pictures than between words

probably b/c pictures must mentally be put into words before associations can be made

order effects

problem in research design when the results of the study are attributed to the sequence of tasks in the experiment rather than to the IV

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

problem w/ memory retrieval where some parts of the info are available to memory but not enough for complete recall

algorithms

problem-solving strategies that consider every possible solution and eventually hit on the correct solution. this may take a great deal of time for humans, but computers use algorithms and process them very quickly

heuristics

problem-solving strategies that use rules of thumb or short-cuts based on what has worked in the past. - cannot guarantee a solution but is faster than an algorithm

nonequivalent control group

problematic type of control group is used when an equivalent one cannot be isolated

Bona fide pipeline

procedure used to determine a person's implicit associations or beliefs about other social groups. Participants have to rate adjectives as positive or negative, but before they rate the adjectives, they are exposed to faces of people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds

availability heuristic

process in which people think there is a higher proportion of one thing in a group than there really is b/c examples of that one thing come to mind more easily

lateral inhibition

process of inhibiting the response of adjacent retinal cells resulting in the sharpening and highlighting of the borders b/t dark and light areas

elaborative rehearsal

process of organizing info and associating it w/ what you already know to get info into long-term memory

encoding

process of putting new info into memory

maintenance rehearsal

process of rehearsing info so that items remain in short-term memory for a longer duration than usual

extirpation

process of removing various parts of the brain and then observing behavioral consequences

storage

process of retaining info in memory over time

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

language development: reading and writing

processed in the same regions of the brain as producing and understanding speech - slight differences as there are people who are unable to read (alexia) or write (agraphia) but have no problems speaking or understanding speech

controlled processing

processing of data with systematic, logical, thoughtful awareness

retrieval

processing of recovering stored material in memory

shaping

processing of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior

automatic processing

processing of the data in the world without conscious awareness

oligodendrocytes

produce myelin in CNS

schwann cells

produce myelin in PNS

gonadotropic hormones

produced by the pituitary gland during puberty and activate a dramatic increased in the production of hormones by the testes or ovaries

estrogen

the main class of female sex hormones causes secondary sex characteristics to develop and genitals to mature

androgens

the main class of male sex hormones causes secondary sex characteristics to develop and genitals to mature

David Buss

prominent evolutionary theorist who explored, among many other topics, gender differences in human mate preferences; researched how jealousy and other challenging experiences may be evolutionarily adaptive

frustration-aggression hypothesis

proposed by Dollard and Miller - posits that frustration in achieving a goal (no matter how small) leads to the show of aggression

M.J. Lerner

proposed concept of belief in a just world or **"just world bias":** the belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people. It is uncomfortable for people to accept that bad things happen to good people, so they blame the victim.

animus

the male elements that a female possess; this complements her own femaleness

pituitary gland

the master gland of the endocrine system

language

the meaningful arrangement of sounds

Neil Miller

proposed the **approach-avoidance conflict** - refers to the state one feels when a certain goal has both pros and cons. The further one is from the goal, the more they focus on the pros while the closer they are, they focus more on the cons

Nancy Cantor

proposed the **cognitive prototype approach** in which cognitive behavior (such as the formulation of and attention to prototypes) is examined in social situations. **The consistency of behavior is the result of cognitive processes, rather than the result of personality traits per se.**

Nancy Cantor

proposed the cognitive prototype approach in which cognitive behavior (such as the formulation of and attention to prototypes) is examined in social situations

blood-brain barrier

protects the brain by preventing toxic substances from entering its tissues

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)

protocol commonly used in the medical setting to help alleviate stress; meditators have increased alpha and theta waves while they are medidating

Neal Miller

proved experimentally that abnormal behaviour can be learned

somatosenses

provide information about what is happening on the surface of our body and inside it

free association

psychoanalytic technique in which the client says whatever comes to their mind regardless of how personal, painful, or seemingly irrelevant it may appear so that the analyst and patient together can reconstruct the nature of the client's original conflict

Alderian therapy

psychodynamic approach in which unconscious feelings do play a role; examination of a person's lifestyle and choices

Analytical therapy

psychodynamic; to become aware of unconscious-analyze unconscious materials (dreams, artwork, personal symbols)

dissociative disorders formerly known as ...

psychogenic disorders

social cognitive model of psychopathology

psychological problems are usually the result of dysfunctional expectancies in which a person has expectations that either cannot or will not be fulfilled in the way desired

conversion disorder

psychological problems converted to bodily symptoms; relate to voluntary movement and may be manifested as "paralysis" in part of the body; formerly known as "hysteria" from Freud's work

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

psychologists; sensation and perception--discovered feature detectors, groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual stimuli

model of psychopathology for analytical theory

psychopathology is a signal that smth is wrong in the makeup of the psyche; provides clues about how one could become more aware

double-bind hypothesis

psychosocial theory of schizophrenia which holds that people w/ the disorder received contradictory messages from primary caregivers during childhood and that these contradictory messages led them to see their perceptions of reality as unreliable

central traits

qualities that one possesses across situations

Psychophysics (Fechner)

quantitative relations b/w psychological sensations and physical stimuli

honeybee hierarchy

queen bee is at the top, constantly tended to and fed by all the other bees, lays thousands of eggs

encoding specificity theory

recall is best if the context at recall approximates the context during the original encoding

state-dependent learning

recall is better if the psychological or physical state at the time of recall is the same as the state when original learning occurred

generation-recognition model

recall tasks tap the same basic process of accessing info in memory as recognition tasks but also require an additional processing step

hippocampus

receives LTM and then sends it to the appropriate sensory cortex for storage

3 steps of sensation

reception, sensory transduction, transmission down neural pathways

osmoreceptors

receptors in the hypothalamus that control the maintenance of water balance in the body

phobia

recognized, unreasonable, intense anxiety symptoms and avoidance anchored to a stimulus

bottom-up processing

recognizing an item or pattern from data or details (data driven) - this is opposed to top-down processing, which is guided by larger concepts

flashbulb memories

recollections that seem burned into the brain, such as "what is your memory of the World Trade Center collapsing?"

electroencephalograph (EEG)

records a gross avg of the electrical activity in diff parts of the brain

panic disorder

recurrent panic attacks and persistent worry about another attack; this disorder is often accompanied by a mitral valve heart problem

z-scores

refer to the number of standard deviations a score is from the mean

stimulus discrimination

refers to a person's ability to perceive differences in stimuli. ex: a doorbell ringing means smth different from a phone ringing

empathy

refers to a person's literally feeling what another is feeling, as if they are in another's shoes, as opposed to sympathy, which is feeling bad for another person

aptitude

refers to a set of characteristics that are indicative of a person's ability to learn

ego depletion

refers to a situation in which a person's resources or coping skills have been exhausted, which can make it more difficult for that person to self-regulate

ingroup/outgroup bias

refers to a situation in which individuals in one group think their members have more positive qualities and fewer negative qualities than members of the other group even though the qualities are the same in each; basis for prejudice

tokenism

refers to admitting one or a very few members of a previously excluded group, often to display supposed inclusion and reduce claims of discrimination from minority groups

glass ceiling

refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual's gender, race, or ethnicity

concurrent validity

refers to how well scores on a new measure positively correlate with other measures known to test the same construct; this process is cross validation

self-reference

refers to making information personally relevant in order to remember it

social identity

refers to person's self-concept as defined by the groups and social categories to which he or she belongs

state dependent learning

refers to the concept that what a person learns in one state is best recalled in that state

face validity

refers to the degree to which a test is effective in its aims

content validity

refers to the degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover

construct validity

refers to the degree to which the test really taps the abstract concept being measured

metacognition

refers to the process of thinking about your own thinking. it might involve knowing what solving strategies to apply and when to apply them, or knowing how to adapt your thinking to new situations

sexual dimorphism

refers to the structural differences between the sexes ; has arisen through both natural and sexual selections

Raymond Cattell

refined Allport's personality traits, declared there were 16 essential personality factors; was later replaced with the 5-factor model

Variance and Standard Deviation

reflect how much the scores in a distribution are spread out in relation to their mean

primary circular reactions

reflex activities characteristic of behavior during the sensorimotor phase

association area

region of the brain that integrates info from different cortical regions

fixed ratio schedule

reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made. ex: if the ratio is 6:1, after every 6 correct responses, there is a reward

repeated exposure effect

related to proximity and suggests that the more contact we have with something or someone will increase our positive feelings

Stevens' power law

relates intensity of the stimulus to the intensity of the sensation

figure-ground relationship

relationship b/w the meaningful part of a picture (the figure) and the background (the ground)

traits

relatively stable characteristics, such as abilities, psychological motives, or consistent patterns of behavior

thalamus

relays sensory info to the appropriate cortex (occipital for visual input and temporary for aural input) and sends it to the prefrontal cortex

Acetylcholine

released at the neuromuscular junction to cause the contraction of skeletal muscles; involved in the parasympathetic nervous system

availability heuristic

relies on using examples that immediately come to mind rather than facts to make a decision ex: if news of a plane crash is on constantly, a person may think they are more likely to die in a plane crash than by heart disease or cancer, which are statistically far more likely. but b/c they can call the example of the plane crash to mind, they declare death by plane crash more likly

bystander effect

reluctance of people to intervene to help others in emergency situations when other people also witness the situation

confirmation bias

remembering and using information that confirms what you already think

shadow

repeat message to ensure that the other message is not consciously attended to in dichotic presentation

rehearsal in encoding

repetition of information over and over

Sample must be

representative of the population and unbiased

recall

requires that subjects generate information on their own - cued recall vs. free recall

single-blind experiment

research design that controls for influence of the research participants' expectations by not revealing whether they're in the control or experimental group

double-blinding

research design that controls for the influence of the researcher and research participants since neither group knows which participants are in the control group and which are in the experimental group

true experiments

research designs that use random assignment and manipulate the IV

method of savings

research technique for studying memory by measuring the amt of time it takes to learn material and comparing it to the amt of time it takes to relearn the same material later; decrease in time represents an indication of original learning

Harry Harlow

researched development with rhesus monkeys; particularly significant relating to developmental psychology were his results with social isolation and maternal stimulation

Anne Anastasi

researched intelligence in relation to performance

nonequivalent group design

researcher doesn't use random assignment so the control group isn't necessarily equivalent to the experimental group

Martin Seligman

researcher known for work on learned helplessness and learned optimism as well as positive psychology

Wolfgang Kohler

researcher who studied insight learning in chimps; chimps try to get bananas out of reach, spent most of their time frustrated by their inability to reach the banana, then all of a sudden realized they could stack the boxes, climb up and reach the banana

experimenter bias (Rosenthal effect)

researchers see what they want to see; minimized in a double-blind experiment

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to displacements of skin

opiate receptors

respond to endorphins as well as narcotics

free nerve endings

respond to pain and temperature

unconditional response

response that occurs w/o any behavioral conditioing

conditioned response (CR)

response that the CS elicits after conditioning. the UCR and the CR are the same (dogs' salivation)

temporal lobe

responsible for hearing; includes Wernicke's area which is involved in language comprehension

parietal lobe

responsible for somatosensory system

occipital lobe

responsible for vision

tardive dyskinesia

resting tremors and jerky motor movements caused by disruptions of dopamine transmission

dark adaptation

result of regeneration of retinal pigment

what is considered the oldest part of the brain?

reticular formation

where in the brain is trichomatic theory at work?

retina

duplexity (AKA duplicity theory of vision)

retina contains 2 kinds of photoreceptors

Young-Helmholtz theory (AKA trichromatic theory)

retina contains 3 diff types of cones which are all differentially sensitive to red, blue, or green and all colors are produced by combined stimulation of these receptors

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina (called the fovea) and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

state-dependent memory

retrieval is more successful if it occurs in the same emotional state or physical state in which encoding occurred

regression

reverting back to an earlier psychosexual stage of development, often in response to anxiety

Lewis Terman

revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of gifted children and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life

correct rejection

rightly stating that no stimulus exists

receptor cells

rods and cones responsible for sensory transduction which happens through the chemical alteration of photopigments

transformational grammar

rules that govern the ways in which changes in word order change meaning

efferent fibers

run away from the CNS

afferent fibers

run toward the CNS

sublimation

satisfying a personally or socially unacceptable instinct by substituting a more acceptable, often creative or highly productive behaviour than the one that the individual would otherwise engage in to satisfy the impulse

nominal scale (AKA categorical scale)

scale of measurement that labels observations rather than quantifying observations

interval scale

scale of measurement using actual numbers (not ranks)

ratio scale

scale of measurement using actual numbers where there is a true zero point that indicates the total absences of the quantity being measured

ordinal scale

scale of measurement using ranks rather than actual numbers

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

scans glucose metabolism to measure activity in various brain regions

too much dopamine

schizophrenia

schizoaffective disorder

schizophrenic symptoms accompanying a depressive episode

radical behaviorism

school of thought where it is believed that all behavior, animal and human, can be explained in terms of stimuli and responses, or reinforcements and punishments; makes no allowances for how thoughts or feelings might factor into the equation

psychopharmacology

science of how drugs affect behavior

Karl von Frisch

scientist known for his extensive studies of honeybee communications and the famous bee waggle dance

z-score

score that represents how many standard devs above or below the mean a score is

permissive parenting style

scoring very low on control/demand measures

Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin

scrutinized studies of sex differences and found that relatively few existed that could not be explained away by simple social learning; females have greater verbal ability and males have greater visual/spatial ability

self-monitoring

scrutiny of one's own behaviour, motivation to act appropriately rather than honestly, and ability to mask true feelings

depolarization

second stage in the firing cycle which occurs when the membrane's electrical charge decreases--anytime the membrane's voltage moves toward a neutral charge of 0 mV

transduction

second step in sensory info processing where physical energy is translated into neural impulses or action potentials

adrenal and pituitary glands

secrete androgen (boys) and estrogen (girls) that cause the visible secondary sex characteristics and the growth spurt

follicle-stimulating hormone

secreted by the pituitary gland to stimulate the growth of an ovarian follicle

R.C. Tyron

selectively bred "maze bright" and "maze dull" rats to demonstrate the heritability of behavior

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

selectively inhibits serotonin reuptake and results in potentiation of serotonergic neurotransmissions (Luvox, Paxilo, Prozac, Zoloft)

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives - more likely to occur in a group that has unquestioned beliefs, pressure to conform, invulnerability, censors, cohesiveness within, isolation from without, and a strong leader

MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

vestibular sense

sense of balance of our bodily position relative to gravity

proprioception

sense of bodily position

Gustation

sense of taste (sweet, bitter, sour, salty, umami)

Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

papillae

sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste

vestibular labyrinth

series of interconnected structures continuous with the cochlea

role

set of behavior norms that seem suitable for a particular person

Down's syndrome

set of physiological conditions including severe mental retardation that result from an extra 21st chromosome

Libido (psychoanalysis)

sexual force

sexual sadism disorder

sexual gratification derived from the physical pain of another

reciprocity of disclosure

sharing secrets/feelings facilitates emotional closeness

endomorph

short, plump body; pleasure-seeking, social behavior

Rochel Gelman

showed that Piaget might have underestimated the cognitive ability of preschoolers; said that they can deal with ideas such as quantity in small sets of objects

J. Rodin and E. Langer

showed that nursing home residents who have plants to care for have better health and lower mortality rates

Richard Nisbett

showed that we lack awareness for why we do what we do

Muzafer Sherif

showed that win/lose gam-type competition can trigger serious conflict in groups

Muzafer Sherif

showed that win/lose game-type competition can also trigger serious conflict in groups. Performed **Robbers Cave Experiment** and showed that group conflict is most effectively overcome by the need for cooperative attention to a higher superordinate goal. The experiment also revealed how easily in-groups and out-groups can form, and it more importantly revealed strategies for conflict resolution. Also performed classic experiment that **people's descriptions of the autokinetic effect were influenced by others' descriptions.**

moon illusion

shows how context affects perception; the moon on the horizon appears to be larger than the moon in the sky

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots; validity is questionable

unconditioned response (UCR)

the naturally occurring response to the UCS. in Pavlov's experiment, it was the dogs' salivation in response to the food. - often are reflexive or instinctual behaviors

individual's motivation (psychoanalytic theory)

the need to seek pleasure and avoid pain

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

consistency paradox

the observation that personality ratings across time and among different observers are consistent while behavior ratings across situations are not consistent

Psychoanalysis

the original "talk" therapy

cerebral cortex

the outer half-inch of the cerebral hemisphere

persona

the outward mask or role that a person assumes; symbolized in cultures by masks

t-test

significance test used to compare means of 2 groups

grammar

the overall rules of the interrelationship between morphemes and syntax that make up a certain language

Pragnanz

the overarching Gestalt idea that experience will be organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and simple whenever possible.

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations; particularly influenced by moral and parental training

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the pathway that runs to and from the CNFS

apparent motion

the perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations (rapidly shown still-frame pictures)

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

internal locus of control

the perception that one controls one's own fate

relative refractory period

the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized)

serial-anticipation learning

similar to serial learning; however, instead of being asked to recall the entire list at once, the subject is asked to recall one item at a time

ANOVA

similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups.

Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank

similar to word association; subjects finish incomplete sentences

mere-exposure effect

simply having some familiarity with something or someone will increase our positiv efeelings

recognition

simply requires subjects to recognize things learned in the past - ex: multiple choice tests

autokinetic effect

single point of light in darkness appears to move (movement in own eyes)

zygote

single, fertilized cell created during conception when the egg and sperm cells combine

zone of proximal development

skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development

excoriation disorder

skin picking disorder

REM (rapid eye movement)

sleep characterized by the presence of theta waves and the absence of delta waves in which dreams occur

resting potential

slight electrical charge (~70 mV) stored inside the neuron's cell membrane which is just waiting to be transformed into a nerve impulse

language development: bilingual children

slower at language learning

ovarian follicle

small protective sphere surrounding the ovum

microexpressions

small, brief facial movements that signal emotional experiences, even in people who have been trained to hide their emotions

phonemes

smallest sound units of language

morpheme

smallest unit of meaning in language

Leon Festinger

social comparison theory and cognitive dissonance; forced compliance experiments where he gave people either $1 or $20 for lying to others about why a boring task was actually interesting

optic chiasm

the point at which the optic nerves from the inside half of each eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain; ensures that input from each eye will come together for a full picture in the brain

delayed conditioning

the presentation of the NS begins before that of the UCS and lasts until the UCS is presented

alpha level

the probability level used by researchers to indicate the cutoff probability level (highest value) that allows them to reject the null hypothesis; chance that seemingly significant errors are due to random variation rather than to true, systematic variance is less than 5/100 or less than 1/100

sound localization

the process by which the location of sound is determined

Piaget suggested

the process of language development was determined by the individual's current cognitive stage

encoding

the process of transforming information into a form more easily stored in the brain

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response even in the absence of further conditioning or training

learning

the relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as a result of experience

manifest content

the remembered story line of a dream

prototypes

the representative or usual type of an event or object

existential theory model of psychopathology

the response to perceived meaninglessness in life is neurosis or neurotic anxiety (as opposed to normal or justified anxiety)

regression (Freud)

the return to an earlier stage caused by stress

figure-ground reversal

the reversal of the relationship between one shape (the figure) and its background (the ground), so that the figure becomes background and the ground becomes the figure

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

dichotic presentation

the simultaneous delivery of different stimuli to the right and the left ears

pattern recognition

the stage of perception during which a stimulus is identified

where does visual information go after the optic chiasm?

the striate cortex to the visual association areas of the cortex

ethology

the study of animal behaviors, especially innate behaviors that occur in a natural habitat

developmental psychology

the study of changes, over the life span, in physiology, cognition, emotion, and social behavior

outliers

sores falling far outside the main cluster of scores

What causes the ossicles to move?

sound vibrations against the tympanic membrane

id

source and reservoir of all psychic energy

language acquisition milestone: 1 year

speaks first words

telegraphic speech

speech without the articles or extras, similar to the way in which it would appear in a telegram - ex: "ship arrived New York"

gametes

sperm and egg cells

what reliability reveals the internal consistency of a test?

split-half reliability

variance

square of the standard dev; description of how much each score varies from the mean

homeostasis

stable equilibrium that self-regulatory processes seek to maintain

semantics

the study of how signs and symbols are interpreted to make meaning

phonology

the study of sound patterns in languages

At which stage of NREM sleep will you feel most groggy if you are suddenly awakened from it?

stage N3

non-REM sleep

stage W - alpha and beta stage N1 - theta stage N2 - theta, sleep spindles, K complexes stage N3 - delta

kin selection theory

states that we are more likely to help members of our own family because we want to make sure our genes survive into the next generation

chi-square test

statistical method of testing an associated b/t 2 categorical variables which tests for the equality of 2 freqs or proportions

analysis of variance (ANOVA)

statistical method to compare the means of >2 groups by comparing the b/t-group variance to the within-group variance

meta-analysis

statistical procedure that can be used to make conclusions on the basis of data from different studies

significance test

statistical technique used to test probability of an observed diff

factor analysis

statistical technique using correlation coefficients to reduce a large # of variables to a few factors

Parameters vs. Statistics

statistics refer to numbers that describe a sample; parameters are numbers that describe populations

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

stimulates production of ova and sperm

unconditional stimulus

stimulus that elicits a UR w/o behavioral conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits an automatic response. in Pavlov's experiment, the UCS is the food

supernormal stimulus

stimulus that is more effective at triggered the fixed action pattern than the actual stimulus found in nature

Fechner's Law

strength of a stimulus must be significantly increased to produce a slight difference in sensation s (sensation strength) = k log R (a logarithm of the original intensity)

physiological psychology

the study of the essential biology involved in the study of the mind

Donald Meichenbaum

stress inoculation training

superego

strives for the ideal rather than the real and is not directly in touch w/ reality

psycholinguistics

the study of the psychology o flanguage

clinical psychology

the study of the theory, assessment, and treatment of mental and emotional disorders

cognitive psychology

the study of thinking, processing, and reasoning

personality

the study of why people act the way that they do and why different people act differently

Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman

studied **type A personality** (drive, competitiveness, aggressiveness, tension and hostility) which was later linked to heart diseases and other health problems by Grant Dahlstrom

Stuart Valins

studied environmental influences on behavior; architecture matters; students in long-corridor dorms feel more stressed and withdrawn than students in suite-style dorms

M. Rokeach

studied racial bias and the similarity of beliefs; people prefer to be with **like-minded people more than with like-skinned people**

M. Rokeach

studied racial bias and the similarity of beliefs; people prefer to be with like-minded people more than with like-skinned people

Charles Osgood

studied semantics or word meanings; he created semantic differential charts which allowed people to plot the meanings of words on graphs - the results were that people with similar backgrounds and interests plotted words similarly, indicating that words have similar CONNOTATIONS for cultures or subcultures

Richard Lazarus

studied stress and coping; differentiated between problem-focused coping (which is changing the stressor) and emotion-focused coping (which is changing our response to a stressor)

Lee Ross

studied subjects who were first made to believe a statement and then later told it was false; the subjects continued to believe the statement if they had processed it and devised their own logical explanation for it

Lee Ross

studied subjects who were first made to believe a statement and then later told it was false; the subjects continued to believe the statement if they had processed it and devised their own logical explanation for it **Fundamental attribution error**

Ellen Langer

studied the **illusion of control,** or belief that you can control things that you actually have no influence on. This illusion is the driving force behind manipulating the lottery, gambling, and superstition.

Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria

studied the development of word meanings and found them to be complex and altered by interpersonal experience - also asserted that language is a tool involved in (not just a byproduct of) the development of abstract thinking

Ellen Langer

studied the illusion of control, or belief that you can control things that you actually have no influence on

health psychology

the subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health

Henry Murray and David McClelland

studied the possibility that people are motivated by a **need for achievement (nAch);** a need to pursue success or a need to avoid failure

Henry Murray and David McClelland

studied the possibility that people are motivated by a need for achievement (nAch); a need to pursue success or a need to avoid failure; goal is to feel successful

Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman

studied type A personality (drive, competitiveness, aggressiveness, tension and hostility) which was later linked to heart diseases and other health problems by Grant Dahlstrom

ethology

study of animals in their natural environment

proxemics

study of how individuals space themselves in relation to others

social psychology

study of how people relate to and influence each other

phrenology

study of the psychological functions of areas in the brain

Muller-Lyer Illusion

Two equal-length lines tipped with inward or outward pointing V's appear to be of different lengths.

Hertz (Hz)

Unit of measurement for frequency

Yerkes-Dodson effect

Upside-down shaped U curve for arousal and performance

sequential cohort studies

studying groups of subjects at diff ages repeatedly over time

longitudinal design

studying the same objects at different points in the lifespan; provides better, more valid results than most other methods

two-factor theory of emotion

subjective experience of emotion is based on the interaction b/t changed in physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal; in the absence of any clear emotion-provoking stimulus, interpretation of physiological arousal depends on what is happening in the environment

pitch

subjective experience of the freq of sound

loudness

subjective experience of the magnitude or intensity of sound

brightness

subjective impression of the intensity of a light stimulus

order of items on a list

subjects can more quickly state the order of two items that are far apart on the list than two items that are close together ex: subjects can recognize that 7 occurs before 593 more quickly than they can recognize that 133 occurs before 136

sample

subset of the population

panic attack

sudden onset of intense panic in which multiple physical symptoms of stress occur, often with feelings that one is dying

false alarm

the subject perceived a signal when none was present

problem space

the sum total of possible moves that one might make in order to solve a problem

risky shift

the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than individuals would; goes with group polarization

actor-observer attributional divergence

the tendency for the person who is doing the behavior to have a different perspective on the situation than a person watching the behavior

social facilitation

the tendency for the presence of other people to either enhance or hinder performance

Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828)

Used ideas from physiology and philosophy to create a "science" later termed "phrenology." **Phrenology = the nature of a person could be known by examining the shape and contours of the skull.** Saw the brain as the seat of the soul, certain features on the head were said to be indicators of particular personality traits. Joseph Gaspar Spurzheim carried on their work even though other scientists proved the theory incorrect.

Morton Deutsch

Used the prisoner's dilemma and trucking company game to illustrate the struggle between cooperation and competition; remaining silent is a gamble that requires trust; most people spill the beans when they should simply remain silent

play therapy

Used with child clients. During play, a child client may convey emotions, situations, or disturbances that might otherwise go unexpressed.

Darely and Gross (1938)

Videos of girl in poor and wealthy environment, then intelligence tests. Participants said poor girl would do worse than wealthy

Plato (BCE/CE)

Was Socrates's pupil. Declared that the physical world was not all that could be known. They asserted the presence of universal forms and innate knowledge. Their philosophy was abstract and unsystematic.

Johannes Muller (1801-1858)

Was a German physiologist at the University of Berlin. They wrote "Elements of Physiology" (1842) and postulated the existence of **"specific nerve energies."** Wilhelm Wundt was a student of this person.

Karen Horney (1885-1952)

Was a German-born psychoanalyst who **questioned many of the principles of Sigmund Freud (Neo-Freudian), most notably Freud's concept of the Oedipus Complex and penis envy.** They suggested that many women's issues emerged out of sociocultural gender inequality as opposed to a longing for a physical organ. Even suggested men may have "womb envy" (the desire to bear a child). They emigrated to the US where they developed their own theory of personality and neurosis, which is based on the nature of the parent-child relationship, particularly a parent's ability and interest in creating a secure environment for the child. **Suggested that neuroticism is expressed as movement toward, against, and away from people.**

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)

Was a German-born psychologist who developed the "field theory" of behavior. **Field theory = human behavior is a function of an individual's environment. The total of influences upon a person's behavior.** They are considered one of the founders of social psychology. Theory of association = a forerunner of behaviorism that said association is grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space. This theory is what Pavlov later proved experimentally. Applied Gestalt ideas to social behavior: a person's "life space" is the collection of forces upon the individual. Valence, vector, and barrier are forces in the life space.

Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins

suggested **hierarchical semantic networks,** people group related items; the more closely related items, the more quickly subject can link them (e.g. Answer T/F quicker to "a canary is a bird" than "a toaster is a bird"). Related to clustering in memory

John Atkinson

suggested a theory of motivation in which people who set realistic goals with intermediate risk sets feel pride with accomplishment and want to succeed more than they fear failure

John Atkinson

suggested a theory of motivation in which people who set realistic goals with intermediate risk sets feel pride with accomplishment and want to succeed more than they fear failure; but b/c success is so important, these people are unlikely to set unrealistic or risky goals or to persist when success is unlikely

Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins

suggested hierarchical semantic networks, people group related items; the more closely related items, the more quickly subject can link them (e.g. Answer T/F quicker to "a canary is a bird" than "a toaster is a bird")

Matina Horner

suggested that females shunned masculine-type successes not because of fear or failure or lack of interest but because they **"feared success"** and its negative repercussions, such as resentment and rejection.

Matina Horner

suggested that females shunned masculine-type successes not because of fear or failure or lack of interest but because they feared success and its negative repercussions

Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

Was a behaviorist who uniquely valued both behavior and cognition. Their theory of **"purposive behavior"** asserted that learning is acquired through meaningful behavior (termed sign learning) and that rats in mazed formed **"cognitive maps"** rather than blindly attempting various routes. They also created the **"expectancy-value theory" of motivation, in which Performance = Expectancy x Value.** The idea here is that people are motivated by goals that they think they might actually meet. Another factor is how important the goal is. Victor Vroom applied this theory to individual behavior in large organizations.

Adaptation (Piaget)

the tendency to adapt to the environment 2 sub-processes, assimilation and accomodation

Closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

Allan Paivio

suggested the Dual Code Hypothesis - Items will be better remembered if they are encoded visually (with icons and imagery) and semantically (with understanding).

Allan Paivio

suggested the dual code hypothesis, which states that items will be better remembered if they are encoded both visually and semantically; one technique is the Method of Loci

diathesis-stress model

suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress

social exchange theory

suggests that humans interact in ways that maximize rewards and minimize costs

gain-loss theory

suggests that people act in order to obtain gain and avoid loss. People feel most favorably toward situations that start out negatively but end positively (even when compared to completely positive situations)

loss aversion

suggests that people are more willing to take risks when they are afraid of losing. loss or punishment is a stronger incentive than gain or reward

utility theory

suggests that people make choices based on their personal preferences

J.A. Swet's Theory of Signal Detection (TSD)

suggests that subjects detect stimuli not only because they can but also because they want to

symmetry

the tendency to perceive preferentially forms that make up mirror images

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Was a famous behaviorist who studied the ideas of Thorndike and Watson. They are the most known for their studies that used the **"Skinner Box" and that led to the principles of "operant conditioning."** Made **operant conditioning** work through a process called **shaping / differential reinforcement of successive approximation = rewarding individuals for behaviors that brought them closer and closer to actually pressing the bar** Their famous books "Walden Two" (1948) and "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" (1972) philosophically discussed the control of human behavior.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

Was a leading figure in **"humanistic psychology."** They examined normal or optimal functioning as opposed to maladaptive functioning. **They are best known for their development of the "hierarchy of needs."** **They argued that people inherently strive for self-improvement and "self-actualization."**

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)

Was a natural scientist who studied sensation. Much of their work with hearing and color vision is the foundation for modern perception research. Like Wundt, they studied with Muller. Came up with **trichromatic theory with Thomas Young. **Trichromatic theory / component theory = there are three types of receptors in the retina: cones that respond to red, blue, or green** The trichromatic theory does in fact work in the retina Also came up with **"place-resonance theory" of sound perception, in which different parts of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies.**

value hypothesis

suggests that the risky shift occurs in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

Was a psychologist at Columbia University. Their idea, the **"law of effect," (cat in the box/puzzle box), was the precursor of operant conditioning.** Called their theory **"connectionism"** because they believed learning occurs through the formation of connections between stimuli and responses.

Rollo May (1909-1994)

Was a psychologist who introduced European existential philosophical and psychological principles to American audiences. In their books and their psychotherapy practice, they focused on the importance of anxiety as part of the human condition as well as the importance of creating meaning out of experience. Phenomenological view focuses on the individual's unique self and experiences

Stanley Hall (1842-1894)

Was a student of James and received America's first PhD in psychology from Harvard. They coined the term "adolescence," started the "American Journal of Psychology" (1887), and was the **first president of the "American Psychological Association" (1892).**

Kenneth Bancroft Clark (1914-2005)

Was an African American psychologist, who, along with their wife, Mamie, used dolls to study children's views about race. Black children preferred the white dolls over the black dolls (said the black dolls were bad and that they looked like the white dolls). **The Clarks also testified in the case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.**

Walter Mischel (1930-2018)

Was an American psychologist who conducted extensive research into the concept of **"delayed gratification"** with their groundbreaking study of the **Marshmallow Test,** a study that ran in various forms for more that 50 years. Contributed to the "social cognitive perspective" of personality While more recent research has questioned the universality of the findings, their work is still a must-read for psychology students.

displacement theory

suggests there are a limited number (7 +/- 2) slots that can be filled at any given time, so if there is no room for new info, old info is displaced

John B. Watson (1878-1958)

Was an American psychologist who expanded the ideas of Pavlov and **founded the school of "behaviorism."** They studied conditioning, stimulus-response chains, and objective, observable behaviors. They saw humans as "squirming bits of flesh" ready to be trained by the environment. Greatly downplayed any potential effects of genetics or innate mechanisms in favor of explanations based on classical and operant conditioning. **Also famous for "Little Albert" experiment.**

Eleanor Maccoby (1917-2018)

Was an American social and developmental psychologist known for their work on gender development and sex differences. **One of their most famous works is the 1980 book, "The Psychology of Sex Difference," which they co-authored with Carol Nagy Jacklin.** Their main conclusions were that there were **little sex differences that couldn't be explained simply by social learning other than females' greater verbal ability and males' greater visuospatial ability.** This individual also did vital research into the effects of divorce on children's development.

Chomsky's Transformational Grammar

surface structure-way words are organized deep structure-underlying meaning of sentence

James Cattell (1860-1944)

Was an American who studied with Hall, Galton, and Wundt. They opened psychology laboratories at the University of Pennsylvania and at Columbia University. They thought that psychology should be more scientific than Wundt did.

William James (1842-1910)

Was busy doing in America what Wundt was doing in Germany: combining the fields of physiology and philosophy into a new field. **Known as the father of American Psychology** Their "Principles of Psychology" (1890) inspired American psychology in a way that writings from other countries had not. They wrote about the mind's **"stream of consciousness" and about "functionalist" ideas that sharply contrasted with "structuralist" ideas of discrete conscious elements.** **Spotlight model = model of selective attention that suggests humans focus on one particular task while all the other tasks remain in the background until the spotlight focuses on a different task.** This person said attention has a "focus, fringe, and a margin." The focus is the primary area attended to, the fringe is on the periphery, and the margin is the limit.

Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983)

Was one of the first African American women to earn a PhD in psychology at Columbia University. The Clarks' **landmark doll study emerged from her master's degree thesis.** The research also paved the way for more work in self-esteem and self-concept.

George A. Miller (1920-2012)

Was one of the founders of cognitive psychology. They studied **short-term memory** and linguistics, and is often credited with applying the information model to cognitive psychology (brain like a computer). Their best known paper was "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two," written in 1956, in which they discussed the findings that short-term memory can only hold about **5 to 9 items of information at any given time.

Anton Mesmer (1734-1815)

Was the Viennese creator of a kind of popular science. **They believed people's bodily fluids had magnetic properties and that the healing of physical ailments came from the manipulation of people's bodily fluids.** Believed in "animal magnetism" = the force that controls a person's mind and body was responsible for their patients' recoveries. Their technique of "mesmerism" began to be used by others under the general term of "hypnotism" (hence, the term mesmerized, which means hypnotized)

Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

Was the first to study memory systematically. They presented subjects with lists of nonsense syllables to study the STM. They also proposed the **"forgetting curve"** that depicts a sharp drop in savings immediately after learning and then levels off, with a slight downward trend. Led to other discussions of how memory is lost (decay theory vs interference theory)

minimum principle

the tendency to see what is easiest or logical to see

ablation

surgically induced brain legion

mania

symptom of bipolar disorders characterized by an abnormally elevated mood and accompanied by a speeding up of thought processes and activities and an abnormally decreased need for sleep

L-dopa

synthetic substance that increases dopamine levels in the brain and is used to treat motor disturbances in Parkinson's disease

functionalism

system of thought concerned w/ studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environemtns

humanism

system of thought that arose in opposition to both psychoanalysis and behaviorism which is characterized by a belief in the notion of free will and the idea that people should be considered as wholes rather than in terms of stimuli and responses or instincts

psychodynamic theory (AKA psychoanalytic theory)

system of thought that postulates the existence of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality

structuralism

system of thought that refers to breaking consciousness down to its elements

interference theory

the theory that forgetting is caused by one memory competing with or replacing another; competing info blocks retrieval

lens

the transparent structure behind the cornea that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

latent content

the underlying meaning of a dream

psychopharmacology

the use of drugs to control or relieve the symptoms of psychological disorders

superstitious behavior

When someone "learns" that a specific action causes an event, when in reality the two are unrelated

social desirability

When subjects do and say what they think puts them in a favorable light

selective attrition

When the subjects that drop out of an experiment are different from those that remain. The remaining sample is no longer random.

research design

the way in which a researcher attempts to examine a hypothesis

genetic drift

the way in which particular genotypes are selected out or eliminated from a population over time

motion parallax

the way movement is perceived through the displacement of objects over time, and the way this motion takes place at seemingly different paces for nearby or faraway objects

James-Lange theory of emotion

theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion/emergency theory

theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time

Kurt Lewin

theory of association which was a forerunner of behaviorism

connectionism (AKA parallel distribution processing)

theory of info processing that is analogous to a complex neural network

self-disclosure theory

theory that refers to those conditions that prohibit or facilitate the process of revealing personal or intimate aspects of onself

Joseph Wolpe

Worked in behavioral theory and developed **systematic desensitization** which applies classical conditioning in order to relieve anxiety. The patient is exposed to increasingly anxiety provoking stimuli until the anxiety associated with those stimuli is decreased.

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Working memory model: model of short term memory, active store used to hold and manipulate information; has phonological loop, episodic buffer, and Visio-spatial sketchpad all controlled by the central executive

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Wrote "On the Origin of Species" (1859) and "The Descent of Man" (1871). Though they did not create the concept of evolution, they **made evolution a scientifically sound principle by positing that natural selection was its driving force.**

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Wrote "Principle of Psychology" (1855) and became the father of the psychology of adaptation. (They are also the founder of sociology). They used principles from Lamarckian evolution, physiology, and associationism to understand people. **Lamarckian evolution = the idea that characteristics acquired during lifetime can be passed to future generations** They asserted that different species or races were elevated because of the greater number of associations that their brains could make.

Brenda Milner

Wrote about patient "HM" who was given a lesion of the hippocampus to treat severe epilepsy. While he remembered things from before the surgery, and his short-term memory was still intact (sort of), he could not store any new long-term memories.

Phrenology (Franz Gall)

theory that the bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and character traits

olfactory bulb

a brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes at the base of the brain

aggression

a central force in humans that must find a socially acceptable outlet

rational emotive behavioral therapy

therapeutic approach that focuses on changing irrational belief systems

placebo effect

therapeutic effect resulting from an inert substance

modeling

therapeutic technique in which the client learns appropriate behavior through imitation of someone else

paradoxical intervention

therapeutic technique that appears to contradict the therapeutic needs

behavioral contracts

therapeutic technique that is a negotiated agreement b/t 2 parties that explicitly stipulates the behavioral change that is desired and indicates consequences of certain acts

Gestalt therapy

therapist dialogues with client (no goal). Client learns from shared dialogue; focuses on "here-and-now" experience rather than talking about past (SIMPLY talk about present; no goal)

A platykurtic distribution would look approximately like

a cliff

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses; contains the basilar membrane and the organ of corti

twin studies

a common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behavior

intellectualization

a coping mechanism in which the person analyzes a situation from an emotionally detached viewpoint

major depressive disorder

a depressive episode evidenced by depressed mood, loss of usual interests, change in weight or sleep, low energy, feelings of worthlessness, or thoughts of death; the symptoms are present nearly every day for at least 2 weeks; twice as common in females as it is in males

stereotaxic instrument

a device used to implant electrodes at precise locations of animal's brains in experiments

between-subjects design

a different group of subjects is tested under each condition

Trichotillomania

a disorder characterized by the repeated pulling out of one's own hair

mental set

a framework for thinking about a problem. It can be shaped by habit or by desire, what has worked for us in the past

nodes of Ranvier

a gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve, between adjacent Schwann cells; help send the impulse down the axon

psychodynamic theory

a general term that refers to theories (such as individual or analytical) that emphasize the role of the unconscious.

Parsing

a grammatical exercise in which language is broken down into its component parts, called CONSTITUENTS, to get to the meaning of a message

limbic system

a group of structures around the brainstem involved in the four F's (fleeing, feeding, fighting, and fornicating)

phrase

a group of words that when put together function as a single syntactic part of a sentence. ex: "walking the dog"

secondary reinforcement

a learned reinforcer (money)

classical conditioning

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

free-recall learning

a list of items is learned, and then must be recalled in any order w/ no cue

slippery slope

a logical fallacy that says a small, insignificant first step in one direction will eventually lead to greater steps that will eventually have a significant impact

Rollo May

a major contributor to existential therapy

representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case (ex: assuming a woman who is 6 ft tall is a model)

test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

Q-sort

a method of personality assessment in which a person is given a stack of cards naming various characteristics and is asked to sort them into piles; neutral goes at the hump of the curve

sociotechnical systems

a method of work design that acknowledges the interaction between people and technology in the workplace

texture gradient

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed so they appear finer and smoother in texture

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

arousal

a part of motivation. an individual must be adequately aroused to learn or perform

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies; needed when conflicting results are found and when different studies use different methods

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test developed by Henry Murray in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes; 31 cards

schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression

stress inoculation training

a reframing technique that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

REM sleep

a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity

self-awareness

a state in which the sense of self is the object of attention

Weber's Law

a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value in order to be perceived as noticeably different

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

a test for determining a person's intelligence quotient, or IQ; first revised by Lewis Terman

decay theory (trace theory)

a theory of forgetting that posits that memories consist of traces laid down in the brain that gradually deteriorate and fade away over time - called too simplistic b/c other activities are known to interfere with retrieval

template matching

a theory of pattern recognition stating that an object is recognized as a function of its overlap with various pattern templates stored in the brain

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

self-consciousness

a trait; how often one generally becomes self-aware; much attention paid to self

t-scores

a transformation of z-scores in which the mean is 50 and the standard deviation is 10 - formula: T = 10(Z) + 50

behaviorist therapy

a type of therapy based on the view that abnormal behaviors are learned and that treatment should focus on learning more appropriate behaviors (e.g., counterconditioning for the treatment of phobias); short-term and directed

interval variables

a type of variable in which the difference between any two adjacent values is the same (ex: temperature); have an arbitrary zero

defense mechanism

a way for the mind to protect us from being consciously aware of thoughts or feelings that are too difficult to tolerate

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

a well-researched, clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems; 550 true/false/not sure questions; high validity b/c it has 3 validity scales

fluid intelligence

ability to quickly grasp relationships in novel situations and make correct deductions from them

fitness

ability to survive and reproduce and pass on genes

metacognition

ability to think about and monitor cognition

metamemory

ability to think about and monitor memory

empathy

ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another; thought by some social psychologists to be a strong influence on helping behavior

parasomnias

abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep: night terrors & sleepwalking

fixation (Freud)

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

objective self-awareness

achieved through self-perception, high self-monitoring, internality, and self-efficacy; deindiviuation works against objective self-awareness

bullying

acting of aggressive behavior toward another person who is perceived to be of lower status

thyroid stimulating hormone

activates the thyroid

opponent-process theory of color vision

there are 4 primary colors in additive color mixing which are arranged in opposing pairs

theory of multiple intelligences

there are 7 intelligence factors: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

Why do cones see better than rods?

there are fewer cones per ganglion cells than rods per ganglion cells

triarchic theory

there are three aspects to intelligence: componential (e.g test performance), experiential (creativity), and contextual (street smarts/business sense)

isomorphism

there is a one-to-one correspondence b/t the object in the perceptual field and the pattern of stimulation in the brain

gate theory of pain

there is a special mechanism located in the spine that can turn pain signals on or off thus affecting whether we perceive pain

structured tests

there is a statement and the individual chooses a response to it from a limited set of possibilities; seen as more objectively scored than projective tests

distal stimulus

actual object or event out there in the world as opposed to its perceived image

positive reinforcement

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

Attribution theory (Heider)

addresses how we infer the causes of other people's behaviour - people will attribute intentions and emotions to anything - even moving geometrical shapes on a screen

Ciliary muscles (eye)

adjust the focus by changing the shape of the lens

extrinsic motivation

affecting behavior by external rewards

McCollough effect

afterimages that are perceived due to fatigued receptors

general aggression model (GAM)

aggression is the result of multiple factors, both situational and personl

psychopharmacology therapy

aim to affect neurotransmitters; commonly dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine (monoamines)

stratified sampling

aims to match the demographic characteristics of the sample to the demographics of the population

Goal of Adlerian Therapy

aims to reduce feelings of inferiority and to foster social interest and social contribution in patients

releasing stimuli

aka releasers or sign stimuli, Lorenz, continued by Tinbergen, elicits fixed action patterns from another individual in the same species

myelencephalon

aka the medulla; mainly controls reflexes but also controls sleep, attention, and movement

levels-of-processing theory (aka depth-of-processing theory)

there is only one memory system and items entering memory are analyzed in one of three stages: physical (visual), acoustical (sound), or semantic (meaning)

nonverbal communication

all the ways people communicate without words. includes: - body language - facial expressions -microexpressions

standard normal distributions

allow you to compare one person's scores on two different distributions

statistical regression

allows you to not only identify a relationship between two variables but also to make predictions about one variable based on another variable

linear regression

allows you to use correlation coefficients in order to predict one variable y from another variable x; regressions use correlational data to make predictions based on a line fit with the least-squares method

Kenneth Bancroft Clark

along with wife Mamie Phipps Clark, used dolls to study children's views about race; testified in the case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954

evidence-based treatment

also called empirically supported treatment, refers to interventions, strategies, or techniques that have been found to produce therapeutic and desired changes during controlled research studies

psychoactive drugs

alter the mental processes of the user by affecting neurotransmitter activity

depersonalization/derealization disorder

alteration in the experience of the self and reality

phenylalanine

amino acid found in milk and other foods

difference threshold

amount of difference that there must be b/t 2 stimuli before they are perceived to be different

intensity

amplitude or height of the air-pressure wave; related to loudness

illumination

amt of light falling on a surface

Anton Mesmer

an Austrian physician who is credited with hypnosis's modern popularity. He mistakenly thought he discovered an "animal magnetism".

pica

an abnormal craving or appetite for nonfood substances, such as dirt, paint, or clay that lasts for at least 1 month

obsessive-compulsive disorder

an anxiety disorder characterized by repetitive obsessions and compulsions that are time consuming, distressing, and disruptive

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging (vomiting or laxative)

double-blind experiments

an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment; considered the "gold standard" for experimental research

halo effect

thinking that if someone has one good quality, then they have many/only good qualities

embryonic stage

third stage during prenatal development; period during which the embryo increases in size dramatically, begins to develop a human appearance w/ limb motion, produces androgen in the testes of male embryos, and develops nerve cells in the spine

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

extinction burst

an increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is initially implemented. (ex: child's tantrum might get bigger at first when it is not reinforced before the child stops having tantrums). in classical conditioning, extinction begins the moment the UCS and NS are no longer paired

rates of SMI are highest among which racial group?

those who report membership in 2 or more racial groups

bogus pipeline

an instrument that measures physiological reactions in order to measure the truthfulness of attitude self-reporting

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior; in the Skinner box, rats were rewarded for being near the lever and then rewarded again for touching the lever

elaborative encoding

an organizational strategy that uses meaning and the creation of associations to remember

Harold Kelley

thought that the **attributions we make about our actions or those of others are usually accurate;** they said we base this on the consistency, distinctiveness and consensus of the action

structuralism

analysis of human consciousness; measured through introspection, attempts to describe the discrete sensations and contents of the mind

choleric types

angry

shadow

animal instincts which humans inherited in their evolution from lower forms of life

instinctual drift

animal replaces learned response with instinctual one

navigation

animals use a sort of map-and-compass navigation, some have true navigational abilities (ex: birds)

inclusive fitness

animals will be invested in the survival of not only their own genes but also the genes of their kin

Spearman r correlation coefficient

another correlation used only when the data is in the form of ranks

instrumental conditioning

another term for operant conditioning; type of learning in which a behavioral response can be conditioned through reinforcement - either punishment or rewards associated with undesirable or desirable behavior

differential reinforcement of successive approximations

another term for shaping

amygdala

thought to play a role in the strength of a memory

semicircular canals

three fluid-filled canals in the vestibular labyrinth responsible for our sense of balance

trichomatic theory/component theory

three types of receptors in the retina: cones that respond to red, blue or green

absolute refractory period

time during which another action potential is impossible; limits maximal firing rate

synapse

tiny gap b/t neurons

Spindles

tiny receptors in the muscles throughout the body, provide "muscle memory", allow us to sense how our limbs are moving in space without visual confirmation

Goal of Behavior Therapy

to change behavior in the desired or adaptive direction; effective at treating phobias, fetishes, obsessive-compulsive disorder, sexual problems and childhood disorders

goal of cognitive therapy

to correct maladaptive cognitions

test-retest method

to estimate the inter-individual stability of test-scores over time, the same test is administered to the same group of people 2x

timbre

tone quality; aspect that distinguishes the sound of one instrument from another

existential theory criticisms

too abstract for severely disturbed individuals

thorazine

antipsychotic drug thought to block receptor sites for dopamine making it effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucinations, and agitation commonly associated w/ schizophrenia

phenothiazine

antipsychotic drug thought to block receptor sites for dopamine making the drug effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucinations, and agitation commonly associated w/ schizophrenia

chlorpromazine

antipsychotic drug thought to block receptor sites for dopamine, making it effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucinations, and agitation commonly associated w/ schizophrenia

haloperidol (Haldol)

antipsychotic drug thought to block receptor sites for dopamine, making it effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucinations, and agitation commonly associated w/ schizophrenia

specific phobia

anxiety in response to a stimulus, such as flying, heights, needles, or driving

Donald Broadbent's filter model of attention

any info not attended to is filtered out and decays; only info attended to makes it into our working memory

generation-recognition model

anything one might recall should easily be recognized (e.g. multiple choice)

illusory correlation

apparent correlation that is perceived but doesn't really exist

protection-motivation theory

appeal to fear produces attitude change under particular conditions

cooing

appears at about 2-3 months old and consists solely of vowel sounds - ex: "ahhhh" or "eeee"

babbling

appears at about 4-6 months old and incorporates consonant sounds as well as vowels - ex: "bahbahbah" or "mahmahmah"

behaviorist theory of language

application of principles of operant conditioning; children learn language based on which words are reinforced and which are punished (B. F. Skinner)

Anna Freud

applied Freudian ideas to child psychology and development

Victor Vroom

applied expectancy-value theory to individual behaviour in large organizations (e.g. those lowest on totem pole have least motivation since little incentives)

nomothetic

approach to personality that focuses on groups of individuals and tries to find the commonalities b/t individuals

idiographic

approach to studying personality that focuses on individual case studies

Neil Miller

approach-avoidance conflict; state felt when a goal has both pros and cons, typically focus on pros when far from goal, cons when close to goal

Criticisms of Analytical Theory

too mystical or spiritual

types of maladaptive cognitions

arbitrary inference, overgeneralization, magnifying/minimizing, personalizing, dichotomous thinking

postsynaptic potentials

are changes in a nerve cell's charge as a result of stimulation; 2 forms: 1) excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) 2) inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

visual field

area of the world that an individual can perceive or detect at any time

cortical association areas

areas on the cortex that correspond to certain functions. The larger the area, the more sensitive and highly accessed is the corresponding function. Damage to particular areas would result in certain dysfunction

Paul Ekman

argued that humans have **six basic universal emotions: sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust;** they drew this conclusion from cross-cultural studies that show that individuals in a variety of different cultures were able to recognize facial expressions corresponding to six aforementioned emotions researchers code facial expressions for emotion using the facial action coding system (FACS coding)

Paul Ekman

argued that humans have six basic emotions: sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust; he drew this conclusion from cross-cultural studies that show that individuals in a variety of different cultures were able to recognize facial expressions corresponding to six aforementioned emotions researchers code facial expressions for emotion using the facial action coding system (FACS coding)

token economy

artificial systems based on awarding and removing tokens for positive or negative behaviors

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart

asserted that **learning and recall depend on the depth of processing** - different levels of processing exist from the most superficial pronunciation level to the deep meaning level. The deeper an item is processed, the easier it is to learn and recall.

genotype

total of all genetic material that an offspring receives (the 23 pairs or 46 total chromosomes)

meninges

tough connective tissues that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord

for complex tasks, the optimal level of arousal is ...

toward the low end so that the individual is not too anxious to perform well

Hans Eyesenck

trait theorist: classifying people along the lines of introversion and extraversion and stable vs unstable could describe personality - 4 quadrants: phlegmatic, melancholic, choleric, sanguine

Gordon Allport

trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary

Gordon Allport

trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary - researched types of racism and prejudice

hypnosis

trancelike state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus

displacement

transferring impulses or feelings from their original object to one perceived as less threatening

axon

transmits impulses of the neuron; bundles of axons are nerve fibers also known as white matter

Seymour Epstein and Walter Mischel

asserted that trait and type theories have always had a big problem: both theories assume that a person's behavior is stable across situations and that people fail to take circumstances into account. **Consistency paradox** = the possibility that a person may behave inconsistently — that a respected pastor may be a closeted adulterer for example. Presents real problems for labeling people as having one internal disposition.

substance-related and addictive disorders

associated with the abuse of drugs and other substances people take to alter the way they think, feel, and behave - alcohol-relate - caffeine-related - cannabis-related - hallucinogenic-related - opioid-related - tobacco-related - gambling disorder

false consensus bias

assuming most other people think as you do

illusory correlation

assuming that two unrelated things have a relationship

dissociative identity disorder

assumption of 2 or more identities that control behavior in different situations

logical reasoning errors

atmosphere effect, semantic effect, confirmation bias

imprinting

attachment bond b/t an organism and an object in the environment

domain-referenced tests

attempt to measure less-defined properties (like intelligence) and need to be checked for reliability and validity

projection

attempting to disown one's own unacceptable feelings or characteristics by falsely attributing them to others

detecting deception

attending to a person's microexpressions, exaggerated facial expressions, or changes in linguistic style

William James on attention

attention has a focus (primary area); fringe (periphery); margin (the limit)

boomerang effect

attitude change in the opposite direction of the persuader's message

fundamental attribution error (correspondence bias)

attributing a person's bad behavior to a character flaw rather than to the situation

elaboration likelihood model central route

audience is interested in the argument and is able to understand it; likelihood of permanent change is high

echoic memory

auditory memory

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory

kinesthetic sense

awareness of body's location and movement

Cannon-Bard theory

awareness of emotions reflects our physiological arousal and our cognitive experience of emotion

genes

basic unit of heredity; composed of DNA molecules and are organized in chromosomes

neuron

basic unit of the nervous system

Bowlby (1973)

basically said that how you attach to your parents as a child influences your adult relationships internal working model- child's mental representation of how they think their parent (attachment figure) will react Attachment history- differences in attachment history account for different adult relationships as well as disorders of attachment

frequency theory

basilar membrane of the ear vibrates as a whole, the rate of vibration equals the freq of the stimulus, and the vibration rate is directly translated into the appropriate # of neural impulses per sec

nocturnal enuresis

bed wetting

honeybee flower selection

bees can see ultraviolet light, so they see flower coloration in a more complex way than humans do; Von Frisch found that honeybees could see certain markers on flowers (HONEYGUIDES) that people could not

a garden path sentence

begins by luring the reader into believing the sentence will mean one thing when it actually means something else

action potential

begins when a cell becomes stimulated w/ enough positive ions and "fires"

reaction formation

behaving in a manner that is directly opposed to an underlying impulse that the individual considers unacceptable

social learning theory

behavior is learned through modeling or through reinforcement

fixed-ratio (FR)

behavior is reinforced after a fixed # of responses

fixed-interval (FI)

behavior is reinforced on the 1st response after a fixed period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement

Radical Behaviorism (Skinner)

behavior is related only to its consequences

fixed action pattern

behavior that is relatively stereotyped and appears to be species-typical

altruism

behavior that solely benefits another

flooding

behavioral modification technique used to treat anxiety disorders by exposing the client to the anxiety-producing stimulus

methylphenidate (Ritalin)

behavioral stimulant that increases alertness and decreases motor activity and is used to treat hyperactive children who suffer from ADD

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

behavioral stimulants that reduce depression by blocking the reuptake of serotonin and increasing serotonin in the synapse

MAO inhibitors

behavioral stimulants that reduce depression by inhibiting the action of MAO (monoamine oxidase) which normally breaks down and deactivates norepinephrine and serotonin

tricyclic antidepressants

behavioral stimulants thought to reduce depression by facilitating the transmission of norepinephrine or serotonin at the synapse

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

reproductive isolating mechanisms

behaviors that prevent animals of one species from attempting to mate w/ animals of a closely related species

Edward Tolman

behaviourist, valued both behaviour and cognition; purposive behaviour and sign learning; rats in mazes formed cognitive maps rather than blindly attempting various routes like stimulus-response suggests; also expectancy-value theory of motivation: performance = expectation x value

social facilitation

being in a group enhances performance

Fischer 2004

being in love is like an addiction as dopamine increases desire. fMRIs on people.

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

being on the verge of retrieval but not successfully doing so

dispositional or internal attribution

belief that an individual's behavior is based on long-lasting personality characteristics.

zero-sum outcomes

belief that if one group gains something, that will necessarily come at the expense of another group

situational or external attribution

belief that one's behavior is due to events in the current environment or events that cannot be controlled by the individual.

Sir Francis Galton

believed that intelligence was a) quantifiable and normally distributed b) influenced by heredity

hindsight bias

believing after the fact that you knew something all along

semantic effect

believing in conclusions because of what you know or think to be correct rather than what logically follows from the information given

narcissism

believing you are better than you really are or look better than you really do

Criticisms of Adlerian therapy

best used with "normal" people in search of growth

depth perception cues

binocular and monocular

dopamine hypothesis

biochemical explanation for schizophrenia suggesting that the delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated w/ the disorder arise from an excess of dopamine activity at certain sites in the brain

goal of humanistic therapy

treat the person as a whole, not as a collection of behaviors or a repository of repressed thoughts

criticisms of behavior therapy

treating the symptoms rather than the underlying problem

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

psychophysics

branch of psych concerned w/ measuring the relationship b/t physical stimuli and psychological responses to the stimuli

ego psychology

branch of psychoanalytic theory that emphasizes the role of the ego as autonomous

Applied Psychology

branch of psychology that uses principles or research findings to solve people's problems

inbreeding

breeding within the same family

dyssomnias

broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

archetypes

building blocks for the collective unconscious in Jungian theory of personality

Galen

built on Hippocrates's theory of the humors; believed that imbalances of these humors led to both physiological and psychological disorders; gave more details for the 4 personality types

gyri

bumps on the brain

E.R. Kandel

by studying **sea slug Aplysia, similar ideas to Donald Hebb involving synaptic and neural pathway changes** in memory; young chicks brains are altered with learning and memory

Kitty Genovese Case

bystander effect (woman murdered; no one helped-less likely to help when others present) -caused by diffusion of responsibility

phlegmatic types

calm

forebrain

can be divided into diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus) and telencephalon (rest of the forebrain)

ambiguous figures

can be perceived as two different things depending on how you look at them

chunking

can increase the capacity of STM

two-way ANOVA

can test the effects of two independent variables or treatment conditions at once

long-term memory

capable of permanent retention; most items are encoded semantically, for meaning

object permanence

capacity for representational thought

intelligence

capacity to use knowledge to improve achievement in an environment

individualist societies

care more about personal gain than the welfare of the community as a whole

Mamie Phipps Clark

carried out pioneering work on how children of color grew to recognize racial differences; paved the way for more work in self-esteem and self-concept

transference

carrying over and applying to the therapist attitudes and feelings that developed in the patient's relations w/ significant others in the past

nominal variables

categorical variables for which the categories do not have a natural ordering (ex: male, female, Republican, Democrat)

Turner's syndrome

caused by lack of 1 X chromosome in females resulting in failure to develop secondary sex characteristics and cognitive impairment

luteinizing hormone (LH)

causes ovulation; stimulates the secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum; causes the secretion of testosterone in the testes

family therapy

treats the family as a system

true or false: the wider a nerve fiber, the faster its conduction of impulses

true

self-verification

trying to get others to agree with our views

undoing

trying to negate or reverse an act that one considers unacceptable by doing its opposite

Ponzo illusion

two identically-sized lines appear to be different sizes when placed over parallel lines that seem to converge as they recede into the distance.

middle ear

tympanic membrane (eardrum), ossicles (three small bones), stapes (last of the ossicles)

semantic memory

type of declarative memory that has to do w/ remembering general knowledge, esp. meanings of words and concepts

planning fallacy

type of optimism bias that suggests we believe that a task will take far less time than it actually does

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

diploid cells

cells that contain 23 pairs of chromosomes

haploid cells

cells that contain 23 single chromosomes

preparedness

certain associations are learned more easily than others

ventricles

chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid that insulate the brain from shock

Weber's law

change in stimulus intensity needed to produce a just noticeable diff divided by the stimulus intensity of the standard stimulus is a constant

thalamus

channels sensory information to the cerebral cortex

variable

characteristic or property that varies in amt or kind and can be measured

dissociative identity disorder (nee multiple personality disorder)

characterized by 2+ personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behavior

convergent thinking

type of thinking used to find the one solution to a problem - ex: math - first defined by J.P Guilford

narcissistic personality disorder

characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation w/ fantasies of success, and exhibitionist need for constant admiration and attention, and characteristic disturbances in personal relationships such as feelings of entitlement

defense mechanisms

unconscious mechanisms that deny, falsify, or distory reality

schizoid personality disorder

characterized by a pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression

dissociative disorders

characterized by an avoidance of stress by esccaping from personality identity

borderline personality disorder

characterized by an instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image that borders on psychosis

Cluster C personality disorders

characterized by anxious or fearful behaviors - avoidant - dependent - obsessive-compulsive

curvilinear

characterized by curved lines (ex: arousal and performance)

Cluster B personality disorders

characterized by dramatic, emotional, or erratic behavior: - antisocial - borderline - histrionic - narcissistic

Huntington's disease

characterized by genetically progressive degeneration of thought, emotion, and movement

Tourette's disorder

characterized by multiple motor tics and one or more vocal tics

Cluster A personality disorders

characterized by odd or eccentric behaviors that have elements related to those of schizophrenia: - paranoid - schizoid - schizotypical

antisocial personality disorder

characterized by pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

characterized by persistent irrational thoughts and/or irrational and repetitive impulses to perform certain acts that cause sginificant impairment in a person's life

somatoform disorders

characterized by the presence of physical symptoms not fully explained by a medical condition

parkinson's disease

characterized by tremors with declining neurological functioning

conversion disorder

characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions

neurotransmitters

chemical substances that allow neurons to communicate w/ one another

pheromones

chemicals detected by vomeronasal organ that act as messengers between animals; exchange of pheromones thought to be the most primitive form of communication between animals; can transmit states such as fear or sexual receptiveness

Lana and language

chimpanzee who was part of an experiment on communicating w/ lexigrams, which was an artificial language using symbols on a keyboard. Lana was able to use the keyboard to communicate her desires to her caregivers

behavioral stimulants

class of drugs that increase behavioral activity by increasing motor activity or by counteracting fatigue and which are thought to stimulate receptors for dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin

impossible objects

classic illusion; objects that have been drawn and can be perceived but geometrically impossible (infinite staircase)

prisoner's dilemma

classic method of investigating people's choices to compete or cooperate using a hypothetical case where 2 men have been taken into custody, separated, and can choose either to confess or not to confess

cornea

clear protective coating on the outside of the eye

comparative psychology

closely related to ethology; area of psychology in which the psychologists study animals and their behavior for the purpose of comparing and contrasting it to human behavior

Major or mild neurocognitive disorder

cognitive decline from a previous level of functioning

mental chronometry

cognitive psych research method of measuring the time elapsed b/t a stimulus presentation and the subject's response to it

social cognitive therapy

cognitive-behavioral therapy

Ulric Neisser

coined the term "icon" for brief visual memory and found that an **icon lasts for about one second;** in addition they found that when subjects are exposed to a bright flash of light or a new pattern before the iconic image fades, the first image will be erased **(backward masking)**

Henry Landsberger

coined the term **Hawthorne Effect** in 1955 when they were analyzing old data that was collected in the late 1920s in order to increase worker productivity; people's performance changes when they are being observed

Walter Cannon

coined the term **fight or flight** and also proposed the idea of **homeostasis** (the internal regulation of body to maintain equilibrium)

Henry Landsberger

coined the term Hawthorne Effect in 1955 when he was analyzing old data that was collected in the late 1920s in order to increase worker productivity; people's performance changes when they are being observed

Ulric Neisser

coined the term icon for brief visual memory and found that an icon lasts for about one second; in addition he found that when subjects are exposed to a bright flash of light or a new pattern before the iconic image fades, the first image will be erased (backward masking)

Eugene Bleuler

coined the term schizophrenia (formerly dementia praecox - split mind)

Walter Cannon

coined the terms "homeostasis" and "fight or flight"

consummate love

combination of intimacy, passion, and commitment

cohort-sequential design

combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches

T-tests

compare the means of two different groups to see if the two groups are truly different; this would mean that the difference between the means is large enough to be considered statistically significant rather than due to chance variation; T-tests analyze differences between means on continuous data (anything that is measured such as height or depression score); cannot test for differences between more than 2 groups

cross-sectional study

comparing different groups of individuals at different ages

upward social comparisons

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are on a particular trait or ability

downward social comparisons

comparing ourselves to those whom we believe are worse off than we are in some way

norm-referenced testing

comparing the test-taker's performance to that test's norms that are derived from standardized samples

timbre

complexity of sound wave

monoamines

comprise two classes of neurotransmitters, indolamines (serotonin) and catecholamines (dopamine)

Divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

ground

concept in visual perception that refers to the background against which the figures appear

semantic feature-comparison model

concepts are represented by sets of features, some of which are required for that concept and some of which are typical of that concept

schema

conceptual framework used to organize knowledge

inferential statistics

concerned w/ making an inference from the sample involved in the research to the population of interest in order to provide an est. of popular characteristics

descriptive statistics

concerned w/ organizing, describing, quantifying, and summarizing a collection of actual observations

domain-referenced testing (AKA criterion-referenced testing)

concerned w/ what the test-taker knows about a specified content domain

Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)

condition involving chronic depressive symptoms that are present most of the day for more days than not during a 2-year period with no more than 2 months symptom-free; never an actual depressive episode

somatic symptom disorder

condition marked by excessive anxiety about physical symptoms with a medical or purely psychological origin; interfere w/ functioning

Wernicke's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to produce meaningful language; speech is fluent but nonsensical

discriminative stimulus

condition that indicates that the organism's behavior will have consequences

Norman Triplett

conducted the **first official social psychology type experiment** in 1897 on social facilitation; found that cyclists performed better when paced by others than when they rode alone

Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark

conducted the doll preference studies; demonstrated the negative effects that group segregation had on African American children's self-esteem; factored into the 1954 Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education

gender dysphoria

conflict b/w a person's assigned gender at birth and the gender with which he/she/they/etc. identify

acceptance

conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure

corticospinal tract

connections between brain and spine

reliability

consistency and stability of a test measure

episodic memory

consists of a person's experiences of the world, including details, events, and discrete knowledge

Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study

consists of cartoons in which one person is frustrating another person; the subject is asked to describe how the frustrated person responds

semantic memory

consists of facts and info - general knowledge of the world

outer ear

consists of the pinna and the auditory canal; vibrations from sound move down this canal to the middle canal

id

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

metencephalon

contains the pons (connects brain parts to spine) and cerebellum (controls muscle coordination, balance, and posture)

counterbalancing

controlling the potential effects of unintended IVs by making sure that the experimental and control groups are similar in all respects except for in the IV being measured

hypothalamus

controls ANS biological motivations, such as hunger and thirst, and the pituitary gland

inferior colliculus

controls auditory reflexes - appears as bumps on the brainstem

amygdala

controls emotional reactions such as fear and anger

frontal lobe

controls speech, reasoning, and problem solving; contains Broca's area for speech

tectum

controls vision and hearing

hit

correctly sensing a stimulus

Immanuel Kant

countered Locke's claim by asserting that our minds were active, not passive; followed Hippocrates's and Galen's models of the humours but believed there was no overlap b/w the categories

Albert Ellis

created **Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)** which includes elements if cognitive, behavioral, and emotional theory. Believed that intertwined thoughts and feelings produce behavior. Psychological tension is created when an activating event occurs (A), and a client applies certain beliefs about the event (B), and this leads to the consequence of emotional disruption (C). Therapy is highly directive. The therapist leads the client to dispute the previously applied irrational beliefs.

kin selection

creates inclusive fitness; explains why parents protect their young and why individual animals may put themselves at risk by sounding alarm calls to warn their sibling of a predator

Charles Spearman

creator of "g-factor", or general intelligence, concept; heavily influenced by Sir Francis Galton

Seymour Epstein

critical of personality trait theory

melancholic types

unhappy

model of psychopathology (individual theory)

unhealthy individuals are too much affected by inferior feelings to pursue the will to power; they may make excuses or have a "yes, but" mentality. If they do pursue goals, they are likely to be self-serving and egotistical

Hazel Markus

cross-cultural research; Eastern countries value interdependence over independence; for example, in Japan, individuals likelier to demonstrate conformity, modesty, and pessimism; where in the U.S., likelier to show optimism, self-enhancement, and individuality; some criticizes generalizations about cultures

binocular disparity (AKA stereopsis)

cue for depth perception that depends on the fact that the distance b/t the eyes provides 2 slightly disparate views of the world that, when combined, give us a perception of depth

motion parallax

cue for depth perception that occurs during movement when objects that are closer appear to move

relative size

cue for depth perception that occurs when an object gets farther away and its image on the retina gets smaller; you can tell how far away something is relative to another object by comparing size of images on the retina w/ what is known about actual sizes

linear perspective

cue for depth perception that refers to the perception of parallel lines converging in the distance

confounding variable

unintended IV

interposition (AKA overlap)

cue for depth perception when one object covers or overlaps another object and we see the first object as being in front

texture gradients

cue for depth perception where more distance parts of a scene appear to have smaller, more densely packed elements and sudden changes in texture generally signal a change in distance or direction

demand characteristics

cues that suggest to subjects what the researcher expects from participants

incidental learning

unrelated items are grouped together ex: pets dislike riding in cars b/c it means they're going to the vet

paraphilic disorders

unusual and troublesome sexual desires: - pedophilic - exhibitionistic - sexual sadism

resistance

unwillingness or inability to related to certain thoughts, motives, or experiences

holophrastic speech

use (by a young child) of one word (holophrase) to convey a whole sentence - ex: "me" may mean "give that to me"

honeybee navigation

use landmarks as simple location cues; also use the Sun, polarized light, and magnetic fields as navigational aides

anchoring

use of a predetermined number or position as a starting point and then making adjustments from there (ex: lawyers use anchroing when they start negotiating a settlement for a client)

simulations

use perceptual cues to make artificial situations seem real

analytical therapy goal

use unconscious messages in order to become more aware and closer to full potential

Broca's aphasia

damage to broca's area, speech comprehension is intact but patient has reduced/absent ability to produce spoken language

qualitative/nonexperimental research

data collected is descriptive rather than quantitative (ex: case studies, observational studies, ethnographic studies, phenomenological studies)

osmoreceptors

deal with thirst

thanatos

death instincts that represent an unconscious wish for the ultimate absolute state of quiescence

availability heuristic

decision-making shortcut that people tend to use when trying to decide how likely something is based upon how easily similar instances can be imagined

representativeness heuristic

decision-making shortcut that people tend to used when trying to decide how likely something is by categorizing on the basis of whether it fits the prototypical/stereotypical image of that category

antagonists

decrease the effects of a specific neurotransmitter (ex: botox)

Contact with opposing party

decreases conflict

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

desensitization

decreasing sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus; often used as a behavioral treatment to counter phobias

suppression

defense mechanism involving deliberate, conscious forgetting

rationalization

defense mechanism that refers to the process of developing socially acceptable explanations for inappropriate behaviors or thoughts

projection

defense mechanism that refers to when a person attributes their forbidden urges to others

regression

defense mechanism where a person reverts to an earlier mode of satisfaction

reaction formation

defense mechanism where a repressed wish is warded off by its diametrical opposite

compensation

defense mechanism where something is done to make up for something that is lacking

repression

defense mechanism where there is unconscious forgetting of anxiety-producing memories

displacement

defense mechanisms that refers to the pent-up feelings (often hostility) discharged on objects and people less dangerous than those objects or people causing the feelings

sublimation

defense mechanisms where one transforms unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors

phenylketonuria (PKU)

degenerative disease of the nervous system occurring when a child lacks the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine

predictive value

degree to which an independent variable can predict a dependent variable

R.M. Cooper and John Zubek

demonstrated the interaction between heredity and environment, - bright rats performed better than dull only when both sets raised in normal conditions, - both groups performed well in enriched environment (lots of food and activities), - both performed poorly in impoverished environment

repression

denying painful or anxiety-producing memories, feelings or thoughts from becoming conscious

rationalization

denying the true motivations for one's behaviour in favour of false, albeit more acceptable or self-serving ones

lack of serotonin

depression

normal distribution

describes a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that shows the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes

ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought) model

describes memory in terms of procedural and declarative memory

range

descriptive statistic measuring variability

correlation coefficient

descriptive statistic that measures to what extent, if any, 2 variables are related

need for affiliation

desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships

lightness constancy

despite changes in illumination, apparent lightness of an object remains unchanged

postsynaptic receptors in the postsynaptic cell

detect the presence of neurotransmitters and cause the ion channels to open

Meissner's corpuscles

detect touch or contact

David McClelland

developed "need for achievement" theory; achievement, power, affiliation; developed a new scoring system for the TAT

Mary Ainsworth

developed Strange Situation which operationalized Bowlby's attachment theory; - identified 3 types of attachment 1) secure 2) ambivalent 3) avoidant

rational emotive behavior therapy

developed by Albert Ellis, a form of psychotherapy based on identifying and correcting irrational beliefs that are believed to underlie emotional and behavioral difficulties

Albert Bandura

developed social learning theory - Bobo doll experiment; people learn through modelling

Eleanor Gibson

developed the "visual cliff" experiment; showed that depth perception cues are innate

Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk

developed the visual cliff apparatus to study whether depth perception is innate

Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk

developed the visual cliff to test depth perception in animals and babies

Harry Harlow

development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort

Process Schizophrenia / Reactive Schizophrenia

develops gradually vs. develops suddenly in response to a particular event

William Sheldon

devised a system based on somatotypes (body types); endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph

Howard Gardner

devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic

Giedd (2004)

did MRI scans, found that 95% of brain structure is formed before age 6 and frontal lobe develops again during teenage years

allels

different forms of the same gene

cross-sectional

different subjects of different ages are compared

cognitive therapy

directed therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; short-term in which the therapist focuses on tangible evidence of the client's logic

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Rizzolatti

discovered mirror neurons in monkeys first, then moved on to humans. mirror neurons help explain empathy

John Garcia

discovered that animals are programmed through evolution to make certain connections; studied "conditioned nausea:

phonemes

discrete sounds that make up words but carry not meaning, such as /ee/, /p/ or /sh/

frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder

disease of the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain characterized by changes in personality

sleep apnea

disorder characterized by an inability to breathe during sleep

schizophrenia

disorder characterized by any or all of the following symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thoughts, inappropriate affect, and catatonic behavior

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADD/HD)

disorder characterized by developmentally atypical inattention and/or impulsivity/hyperactivility

hypochondriasis

disorder that causes an individual to be preoccupied with fears that he or she has a serious disease based on misinterpretation of 1+ bodily signs or symptoms

autism

disorder whose essential features are lack of responsiveness to other people, gross impairment in communication skills, and behaviors and interests that are repetitive, inflexibly routined, and stereotyped

Authoritarinism

disposition to view the world as full of power relationships

personality theory was originally dominated by who?

dispositionists

depersonalization disorder

dissociative disorder that involves a sense of detachment from the self despite an intact sense of reality

amnesia

dissociative disorder where individuals are unable to recall past experience but this inability is not due to a neurological disorder

normal distribution

distribution that is symmetrical and has its greatest freq in the middle

insomnia

disturbance affecting the ability to fall asleep and/or stay asleep

split-half consistency

dividing a test into equal halves and correlating scores on one half w/ the scores on the other half

owls

do not use echolocation; hearing is similar to that of humans

Berridge and Kringlebach 2009

dopamine is connected with pleasure seeking behavior. fMRI scans on people.

catecholamines

dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

atmosphere effect

drawing a conclusion based on the way information is phrased

lithium

drug used to treat bipolar disorder

antidepressants

drugs that combat depression by affecting the levels or activity of neurotransmitters in the brain

agonists

drugs that increase the effects of a neurotransmitter (ex: SSRIs which increase serotonin activity)

anxiolytics

drugs that reduce anxiety, induce sleep, usually by increasing the effectiveness of GABA - barbiturates and benzodiazepines such as Valium and Xanax

sedative-hypnotic drugs

drugs that slow down the functioning of the central nervous system by facilitating the action of GABA

criticisms of psychopharmacology

drugs that take away symptoms do not provide interpersonal support; drugs alone are not enough; side effects; withdrawal symptoms

mood stabilizers

drugs used to control mood swings in patients with bipolar mood disorders - lithium - anti-psychotics - anti-convulsants

place theory

each diff pitch causes a diff place on the basilar membrane of the ear to vibrate

law of specific nerve energies

each sensory nerve is excited by only one kind of energy and the brain interprets any stimulation of that nerve as being that kind of energy

functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

anorexia nervosa

eating disorder characterized by refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight

bulimia nervosa

eating disorder involving binge eating and excessive attempts to compensate for it by purging, fasting, or excessive exercising

social support network

effects on mental health have emerged as an area of study that combines social and clinical ideas. social support has been shown to reduce effects of stress

primary prevention

efforts to correct the conditions that foster mental illness and to establish the conditions that foster mental health

secondary process

ego's mode of functioning which is to postpone the discharge of energy until the actual object that will satisfy the need has been discovered or produced

reality principle

ego's response to frustration that takes into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and its pleasure principle

Piaget

egocentrism- inability to see another's viewpoint (mountain task) inability to do conservation tasks- cannot see things remain constant when they visibly change

R.E. Petty and J.T. Cacioppo

elaboration likelihood model

Pike (1967)

emic- culture-specific etic- cross-cultrual trying to find a universal

psychopharmacology model of psychopathology

emotional disturbances are at least partly caused by biological factors and can be successfully treated with medication

fight or flight response

emotional experience associated w/ the sympathetic nervous system and managed by the hypothalamus during high arousal

Harry Stack Sullivan

emphasized social and interpersonal relationships

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

employs principles from cognitive and behavioral theory

3 main processes of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

Sandor Ferenczi

encouraged Melanie Klein to analyze her own children

Gestalt Theory

encourages people to stand apart from beliefs, biases and attitudes derived from the past; the goal is to fully experience and perceive the present

Stuart Valins

environmental influences on behaviour; students in long-corridor dorms more stressed and withdrawn than those in suite-style

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

attachment bond

evidence of a preference for the primary caregiver and a wariness of strangers

autonomic conditioning

evoking responses of the autonomic nervous system through training

phelogeny

evolutionary development in humans

mimicry

evolved form of deception

generalized anxiety disorder

excessive anxiety w/o a specific cause that occurs on more days than not for a period of at least 6 months

Hypersomnolence

excessive sleepiness

Victor Frankl

existential psychology; Man's Search for Meaning' people innately seek meaningfulness in their lives, perceived meaninglessness is root of emotional difficulty; logotherapy

Victor Frankl

existential theory

Rollo May

existentialist and prime move in this counseling movement; emphasized importance of anxiety as part of the human condition as well as the importance of creating meaning out of experience

perceptual sets

expectations we have about perception due to past experiences

cyclothymic disorder

experience mood swings similar to bipolar I and II, but symptoms are less severe and occur with regularity over a period of at least 2 years

field study

experiment that takes places in a naturalistic setting

between-subjects design

experiment where each subject is exposed to only 1 level of each IV

longitudinal studies

experimental method used in development psych to compare the same group of individuals repeatedly over time

case study (AKA clinical method)

experimental method used in developmental psychology to take a very detailed look at development by studying a small # of individuals

autoshaping

experiments in which an apparatus allows an animal to control its reinforcements through behaviors, such as bar pressing or key pecking. The animal is, in a sense, shaping its own behavior.

sleeper effect

explains why persuasive communication from a source of low credibility may become more acceptable after the fact

Stanley Milgram's stimulus-overload theory

explains why urbanites are less prosocial than country people are; urbanites don't need any more interaction

gestalt goal of therapy

exploration of awareness and full experiencing of the present; a successful therapy connects the client and their present existence

post-traumatic stress disorder

exposure to trauma that results in decreased ability to function and recurrent thoughts and anxiety about the trauma; this disorder is often linked to war veterans or victims of violence

Fechner's law

expresses the relationship b/t the intensity of the sensation and the intensity of the stimulus and states that sensation increases more slowly as intensity increases

validity

extent to which a test actually measures what it purports to measure

external validity

extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure

confounding variable

extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable

saccades

eye movements from one fixation point to another

oxytocin

facilitates birth and breast feeding; involved in pair bonding

undergeneralization

failure to generalize a stimulus

narcolepsy

falling asleep uncontrollably

true or false: opposites attract

false

delusions

false beliefs, discordant w/ reality, that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary

Emmert's law

farther away the object appears to be, the more the scaling device in the brain will compensate for its retinal size by enlarging our perception of the object

language development: girls

faster and more accurate with language learning than boys are

myelin sheath

fatty, insulating sheath on some axons that allows faster conduction of axon impulses

agoraphobia

fear of a situation in which panic symptoms might arise and escape would be difficult; this usually means fear and avoidance of being outside the home or in crowds

social anxiety disorder

fear of social situations; usually resulting in avoidance behaviour

sign stimulus

feature of a stimulus that is sufficient to bring about a particular fixed-action pattern

Carl Gustav Jung

felt Freud over-emphasized sexual instinct; analytic psychology; metaphysical and mythological components collective unconscious and unconscious archetypes; autobiography Memories, Dreams, Reflections

zygote

fertilized egg cell with 23 chromosome pairs; diploid

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

few positive charges in the cell body are let out, and the cell becomes HYPERPOLARIZED (more negative compared to the outside) - decrease the chance that a cell will fire

presynaptic cells

fires and releases neurotransmitters from its terminal buttons as a messenger to other neurons

J.P. Guilford

first defined convergent and divergent thinking

antipsychotics

first drugs used; treat positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, etc.) -->blocks dopamine receptors; inhibits dopamine production (e.g. phenothiazines, butyrophenones) (anti-psychotics/anti schiz; schiz is too much dopamine)

Norman Triplett

first official social psychology experiment on social facilitation; cyclists performed better when paced by others

reception

first step in all sensory info processing

sensory memory

fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli

phenomenological view of personality theory

focuses on the individuals unique self and experiences

overjustification effect

follows from self-perception theory; tendency to assume we must not want to do things we are paid or compensated to do (ex: a person who loves to sing and is then paid to do so will lose pleasure in singing b/c the activity is now overjustified)

absolute refractory period

follows the onset of an action potential; nerve impulse cannot be initiated

Garcia effect

food aversion that occurs when people attribute illness to a particular food

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)

for children aged 4 to 6 years old

Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test

for children, notable for its relatively cross-cultural application and simple directions; children are scored based on detail and accuracy

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

form of dementia caused by repeated head trauma such as concussions

altruism

form of helping behavior where the animal's intent is to benefit other animals at some cost to itself

factitious disorder

formerly known as Munchausen or Munchausen by proxy; involves inducing physical symptoms in oneself or in another for the purpose of garnering attention and being able to play the sick role

Alice Eagly

found an interaction between gender and social status with regard to how easily an individual might be influenced or swayed

Katherine Nelson

found that **language really begins to develop with the onset of active speech** rather than during the first year of only listening

Kay Deaux

found that **women's successes at stereotypical "male" tasks are often attributed to luck,** while men's successes are often attributed to skill. This suggests that that gender is a social construct that colors interpretations.

John Horn and Raymond Cattell

found that fluid intelligence (knowing how to do something) declines with old age while crystallized intelligence (knowing a fact) does not

Robert Fantz

found that infants prefer relatively complex and sensical displays

Katherine Nelson

found that language really begins to develop with the onset of active speech rather than during the first year of only listening

Karl Lashley

found that memories are stored diffusely in the brain

Frederick Bartlett

found that memory is **reconstructive rather than rote.** Discovered that people are more likely to remember the ideas or semantics of a story rather than the details or grammar of a story.

George Sperling

found that people could see more than they can remember - ppts shown something like this for a fraction of a second: GPRZ ILTH TBAE - then instructed to write down the letters of a particular line. although the subjects were able to do this, they invariably forgot the other letters in the time that it took to write the first ones down - this PARTIAL REPORT shows that sensory memory exists, bt only for a few seconds

Costa and McCrae

found that personality changes very little after age 30

Robert Zajone

found that the presence of others helps with easy tasks but hinders complex tasks

Kay Deaux

found that women's successes at stereotypical "male" tasks are often attributed to luck, while men's successes are often attributed to skill

Konrad Lorez

founder of ethology as a distinct research field; did extensive research on: 1) imprinting 2) animal aggression 3) releasing stimuli 4) fixed action patterns

Konrad Lorenz

founder of ethology, famous for work with imprinting in goslings and ducklings

Sigmund Freud

founder of psychoanalysis; id, ego, superego

Wilhelm Wundt

founder of psychology - first official lab for psych at University of Leipzig - wrote Principles of Physiological Psychology - created psych that attempted to study and analyze consciousness - studied under Johannes Muller

Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka

founders of Gestalt psychology movement in reaction to attempts to study the mind and experience in distinct parts

diathesis-stress model

framework explaining the causes of mental disorders as an interaction b/t biological causal factors and psychological causal factors

nightmare disorder

frequent disruption of sleep b/c of nightmares

sleep terror

frequent disruption of sleep because of screaming or crying

amino acids

frequently present in fast-acting directed synapses; 2 important amino acids are glutamate and GABA

Leonard Berkowitz

frustration-aggression hypothesis

Eagly (1987)

gender stereotypes come from different gender roles

overextension

generalizing with names for things - often done through chaining characteristics rather than through logic - ex: 2-year old calling any furry thing a "doggie" - usually occurs in children 12 months to 2-3 years old

functional autonomy

given activity or form of behavior may become an end or a goal in itself regardless of its original reason for existence

apparent size

gives us clues about how far away an object is if we know about how big the object should be

theory of motivation

goal of behavior is to reduce biological drives and behavior reinforcement occurs whenever a biological drive is reduced

compliance

going along publicly but not privately

conformity

going along with real or perceived group pressure

language acquisition model: 4 years

grammar problems are random exceptions

morphology or morphological rules

grammar rules; how to group morphemes

syntax

grammatical arrangement of words in sentences

frequency polygon

graph has plotted points connected by lines; often used to plot variables that are continuous (categories w/o clear boundaries)

scatterplot

graphical representation of correlational data

receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve

graphical representations of a subject's sensitivity to a stimulus

risky shift

group decisions are riskier than the avg of the individual choices and the avg riskiness of the individual choices can be considered to be an est. of the group's original riskiness

James Stoner

group polarization

theory of association

grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space

Irving Janis

groupthink

overbenefited people tend to feel

guilty

E. R. Kandel

had similar ideas as Donald Hebb of long-term potentiation from studying the sea slug aplysia; also did brain studies of young chicks to show that their brains are altered with learning and memory

sanguine types

happy

Stimulus-seeking individuals

have a great need for arousal

insight

having a new perspective on an old problem: the a-ha! experience

prejudice

having negative beliefs and judgments about a group of people based on social category, such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or religion

authoritative parenting style

having reasonably high demands for child compliance coupled w/ emotional warmth

Kent Cochrane

he suffered long-term memory impairment following encephalitis, but his short-term store remained unaffected.; he is a musician and chorus master; he could not recall past events in his life, but he could remember how to play the piano and conduct an orchestra.

Johannes Muller

he wrote Elements of Physiology and postulated the existence of "specific nerve energies"

existential theory goal of therapy

help clients understand how they create meaning in the world and to help them make different choices based on what gives life meaning

vasopressin

helps to regulate water levels in the body and therefore also helps to regulate blood pressure

Diana Baumrind

her theory of parenting styles had three main types (permissive, authoratative, & authoritarian)

echolocation

used by dolphins and bats; bats emit high-frequency bursts of sound and locate nearby objects from the echo that bounces off these objects

Raymond Cattell

used factor analysis in data reduction of Allport's 5,000 traits; he eventually identified 16 bipolar source traits that seemed to underlie all of the 5,000 traits; these were Cattell's 16 personality factors tested in his sixteen personality questionnaire

Factorial Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

used in the study of more than one independent variable (i.e. 2x2 design); can isolate the main effects and identify interaction effects

predictive validity

used of some criterion scores obtained in advance and validating them against scores obtained later

Morton Deutsch

used the **prisoner's dilemma** and the **trucking company** game story to illustrate the struggle between **cooperation and competition**

systems of organization

used to encode information into long-term memory, usually semantically or categorically

concepts

used to represent the relationship between 2 things. we organize our world through concepts

twin studies

heritability of personality is about 40-50%

Abraham Maslow

hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow

hierarchy of needs; physiological needs take precedence, once satisfied, person will work to satisfy safety needs, followed by love and belonging needs, self-esteem needs and then self-actualization

deindividuation

high degree of arousal and low degree of personal responsibility

Bekesy's traveling wave theory

high frequency sounds maximally vibrate the basilar membrane near the beginning of the cochlea close to the oval window and low freqs maximally vibrate near the apex or tip of the cochlea

Socially useful type (sanguine)

high in activity and high in social contribution; healthy

Ruling-dominant type (choleric)

high in activity but low in social contribution; dominant

REBT therapy

highly directive; therapist leads the client to dispute (D) the previously applied irrational beliefs

monoamine theory of depression (AKA catecholamine theory of depression)

holds that too much norepinephrine and serotonin leads to mania while too little leads to depression

luteinizing hormone

hormone associated w/ ovulation

progesterone

hormone produced and secreted by the ovary to prepare the uterus for implantation of the fertilized egg

adrenaline (AKA epinephrine)

hormone that increases energy available for fight or flight response

external validity

how generalizable the results of an experiment are

Balance theory (Heider)

how people make their feelings and/or actions consistent to preserve psychological homeostasis

construct validity

how well a test measures the intended theoretical construct

content vailidty

how well the content items of a test measure the particular skill or knowledge area that it is supposed to measure

criterion validity

how well the test can predict an individual's performance on an established test of the same skill or knowledge are

dominant wave-length of light?

hue (colour)

Third Force Psychology

humanistic psychology, which was viewed by Maslow and others as an alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviorism

Thomas Hobbes

humans and other animals were machines, sense-perception was all that could be known; suggested that science could be formed to explain people just as physics explained machines

Spotlight model

humans focus on one particular task while all other tasks remain in the background until the spotlight focuses on a different task

Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device

humans have innate ability to adapt to grammar rules to create new sentences; adopt generative grammar rules of the language that they hear - a nativist interpretation

mesmerism

hypnotism

reject the null hypothesis

hypothesis that no real differences or patterns exist; want to reject so that results are statistically significant

Clark Hull

hypothetico-deductive model which was designed to try to deduce logically all the rules that govern behavior. created an equation involving not only input variables leading to output variables, but also included intervening variables in between that would change the outcomes

pleasure principle

id's operating principle which is to immediately discharge any energy buildup

primary process

id's response to frustration which is to obtain satisfaction now, not later

collective unconcious

idea that all humans share an unconscious residual from the experiences of our early ancestors

tabula rasa

idea that all knowledge is gained through experience

scripts

ideas about the way events typically unfold

hypotheses

ideas used to test relationships and then to form concepts

Hans Eyesenck

identified superfactors that are then subdivided into different personality types; believed that personality traits were genetically determined and insisted on rigorous experimental method in forming theories of personality

law of effect

if a response is followed by an annoying consequence, the animal will be less likely to emit the same response in the future

decay theory

if info in long-term memory is not used or reheased, it will eventually be forgotten

induced motion

illusion of movement occurring when everything around the spot of light is moved

phi phenomenon

illusion of movement that occurs when 2 dots flashed in different locations on a screen seconds apart are perceived as one moving dot

apparent motion

illusion that occurs when 2 dots flashed in different locations on a screen seconds apart are perceived as 1 moving dot

autokinetic effect

illusion that occurs when a spot of light appears to move erratically in a dark room b/c there's no frame of reference

motion aftereffect

illusion that occurs when you first view a moving pattern and then you view a spot of light in which the spot of light appears to move in the opposite direction

agnosia

impairment in perceptual recognition

aphagia

impairment in the ability to eat

apraxia

impairment in the organization of voluntary action

Wernicke's aphasis

impairment in understanding spoken language associated w/ damage to Wernicke's area

visual agnosia

impairment in visual recognition whereby the person can see an object but is unable to recognize what it is

Broca's aphasia

impairments in produced spoken language associated w/ lesions to Broca's area

functional fixedness

impediment to effective problem solving b/c of an inability to use familiar objects in unfamiliar ways

memory involved in classical conditioning and priming

implicit memory

social cognitive goal of therapy

improve a person's perceived self-efficacy beliefs

Transference

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

acquired apraxia

inability to plan and coordinate specific motor movements; cannot perform certain learned purposeful movements on command

dissociative amnesia

inability to recall important personal information - most often related to a stressful experience - that can't be explained by ordinary forgetfulness

prosopagnosia

inability to recognize faces

fixation

inability to successfully proceed through a stage in development b/c of an overindulgence or frustration

phonological agraphia

inability to write b/c of an inability to sound out words

resting potential

inactivated state of a neuron; neuron is negatively charged at this point and the cell membrane does not let positive charges (ions) in

placebo

inactive substance or condition disguised as a treatment substance or condition; used to form the control group

preparedness

inborn tendency to associate certain stimuli w/ certain consequences

Gender Development

includes biological influences, cognitive influences (learned schemas), learning influences (cultural influences)

Neobehaviorism

incorporates internal events (such as cognition or emotion) into account when understanding behavior

hyperpolarization

increase in the membrane potential that decreases the possibility of generating a nerve impulse

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

increases the production of androgens and cortisol

sensitization

increasing sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus

positive reinforcement

increasing the probability that a desired response will be performed by rewarding that response when it does occur

standard error of measurement (SEM)

index of how much on avg we expect a person's observed score to vary from the score the person is capable of receiving based on actual ability

binge-eating disorder

indicated by consumption of large amounts of food and a sense of lack of control over this eating behavior

delirium

indicated by disturbed consciousness and cognition

motor skills disorder

indicated by motor coordination below expectations for one's chronological age

communication disorders

indicated by pervasive problems acquiring language across modalities, using language socially, or speaking intelligibly or fluently

ADHD

indicated by problems with attention, behaviour, and impulsivity; most frequently treated w/ stimulants (Ritalin and Adderall)

Learning disorders

indicated by school achievement or standardized scores at least two standard deviations below the mean for the appropriate age and IQ

Autism Spectrum Disorder

indicated by severe problems with social skills, communication, and interests

eye movements and gaze durations

indicators of information processing while reading

g

individual diff in intelligence that refers to a general, unitary factor of intelligence

temperament

individual diffs thought to have a genetic basis and thought to form the foundation of personality

fictional finalism

individual is motivated more by his or her expectations of the future based on a subjective or fictional estimate of life's values than by past experiences

dissenter

individual who speaks out against the majority

exploratory drive

individuals are motivated simply to try something new or to explore their environment

response bias

individuals are partly motivated by costs and rewards in detection

main tenet of humanistic theory

individuals have actualizing tendency that can direct them out of conflict and toward their full potential; best accomplished in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard

social learning theory

individuals learn through their culture; learn what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors through interacting in society

equity theory

individuals strive for fairness and feel uncomfortable when there is a perception of a lack of fairness

pre-linguistic stage

infants use facial expressions, eye contact, crying, and body language to communicate

divergent thinking

used when more than one possibility exists in a situation - ex: playing chess or creative thinking - in a group, the presence of a dissenter leads to divergent thinking

Chi-square tests

used when the n cases in a sample are classified into categories or cells; the results tell us whether the groups are significantly different in size, they look at patterns or distributions and analyze categorical or discrete data

representativeness heuristic

uses an existing prototype to make a decision. we are comparing one scenario to our prototype in our minds ex: if our prototype of surgeon is male, wearing scrubs, and wielding a scalpel, we will not necessarily envision that the woman in a business suit with a coffee can also be a surgeon

Paivio's dual-code hypothesis

info can be encoded in 2 ways--visually or verbally; abstract info tends to be encoded verbally and concrete info tends to be encoded visually and verbally

proximal stimulus

info our sensory receptors receive about the object

parallel distributed process (PDP)

info processing is distributed across the brain in a parallel fashion

Archetypes (Jung)

inherent templates for human thoughts and behavior. They can be thought of as patterns of human experience that have existed since the dawn of humanity. Found within the collective unconscious, some of the more prominent archetype are: The-Self, The persona, The Shadow, The Anima, and The Animus

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)

inhibit the action of monoamine oxidase, the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of norepinephrine and serotonin once released; ex. phenelzine (Nardil)

language acquisition device (LAD)

innate biologically based mechanism that helps us understand rule structures in language

What part of the ear is responsible for balance?

inner ear

spinal cord

inner gray core of gray matter (cell bodies and dendrites) and an outer covering of white matter (nerve fibers, axon bundles, myelin sheathing) that go to and from the brain

instincts

inner representations of a psychological excitation or wish; propelling aspects of Freud's dynamic theory of personality

tachtiscope

instrument often used in cognitive or memory experiments, presents visual material to subjects for a fraction of a second

John Dollard

integrated the behavioral perspective with psychoanalytic thinking; rats in an apparatus and gave them electric shocks until they started fighting

figure

integrated visual experience that stands out at the center of attention

mainstreaming

integrating students with disabilities or special needs into the overall educational program; this comparison may result in lower self-esteem for the children with problems

crystallized intelligence

intelligence that uses knowledge acquired as a result of schooling or life experiences

Robert Sternberg

intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (analytical ability, practical, and creative); believed that intelligence was more about suing what you know and have experienced to adapt to the world

passionate love

intense longing for the union with another and a state of profound physiological arousal

psychoanalysis

intensive, long-term treatment for uncovering repressed memories, motives, and conflicts stemming from problems in psychosexual development w/ the goal of gaining insight into the repressed material

prevailing view of gender differences

interactionist

circadian rhythms

internally generated rhythms that regulate our daily cycle of waking and sleeping which approximate a 24-hr cycle

mediation

intervening mental process that occurs b/w stimulus and response. it reminds us what to do how to respond based on ideas or past learning

romantic love

intimacy and passion without commitment

Sternberg's Triangular model of love

intimacy, passion, commitment

breathing-related sleep disorders

involve problems with breathing during sleep resulting in repeated awakenings throughout the night

norepinephrine (AKA noradrenaline)

involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness and implicated in mood disorders

dopamine

involved in feelings of reward; linked to addiction

hippocampus

involved in memory

brief psychotic disorder

involves a sudden onset of psychotic symptoms lasting less than one month, followed by a remission

dissociative fugue

involves amnesia plus a sudden unexpected move away from one's home or location of usual daily activities

sleepwalking

involves getting up and walking around while in a state of sleep

quasi-experimental design

involves manipulation of the independent variable but no random assignment of participants (used when not feasible or ethical to use random assignment, ex: not ethical to assign one group of people to smoke for 20 years)

secondary (elaborative) rehearsal

involves organizing and understanding material in order to transfer it to LTM

primary (maintenance) rehearsal

involves repeating material in order to hold it in STM

cooperative learning

involves students working on a project together in small groups

adjustment disorder

involves symptoms following a trauma or stressor that have been going on for up to 3 months from the time of the stressor and involve a greater response than one might normally expect under the circumstances

compulsions

irrational and reactive impulses to perform certain acts

agoraphobia

irrational fear of being in places or situations where escape might be difficult

claustrophobia

irrational fear of closed places

cynophobia

irrational fear of dogs

acrophobia

irrational fear of heights

phobia

irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid that thing

pyromania

irresistible impulse to set fires

kleptomania

irresistible impulse to steal

what happens after light passes through the receptors?

it travels through the horizontal cells to the bipolar cells to the amacrine cells then to the ganglion cells which make up the optic nerve

Desynchronosis

jet lag

forward conditioning

pairing of the CS and the UCS in which the NS is presented before the UCS. two types: 1) delayed conditioning 2) trace conditioning

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Is one of the most influential figures in clinical and personality psychology. **All of this information is important to know sadly** They are the most famous for their personality theory that advanced a three-part structure of the psyche, known as the "id, ego, and superego." Id = the part of the mind that contains the unconscious biological drives and wishes. At birth, mental life is composed solely of the id. The id operates on the "pleasure principle," the human motivation to seek pleasure and avoid pain; it's particularly salient in early life. Ego = the part of the mind that mediates between the environment and the pressures of the id and superego. The ego operates on the "reality principle" and responds to the demands of the environment by delaying gratification. Superego = The part of the mind that imposes learned or socialized drives. The superego is not something one is born with, but rather develops over time, and is therefore particularly influenced by moral and parental training. Importance placed on unconscious drives and conflicts. Eros = life drive, underlies desire to live and help others Thatanos = death drive (where aggression comes from) that underlies the desire to hurt oneself or others Came up with theory of child development that involved fixations if there was conflict during that time period Began the form of psychotherapy called "psychoanalysis." Finally, made significant contributions to the fields of psychology and philosophy through various papers, including "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1900), "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" (1905), "Beyond the Pleasure Principle" (1920), and "Civilization and Its Discontents" (1930). Also came up with defense mechanisms of the ego: repression, denial, projection, displacement, regression, sublimation, rationalization, reaction formation, and identification with the aggressor. Used dream analysis, as they believed dreams were the "royal road to the unconscious." They would analyze both the "manifest content" (the actual content of the dream) and the "latent content" (the unconscious forces the dreams are trying to express). Transference v countertransference Psychic determinism in psychoanalysis Criticized for only using single case studies to make theories*

John Dewey (1859-1952)

Is recognized as one of America's most influential philosophers. They attempted to synthesize philosophy and psychology for their work on the reflex arc. They denied that animals respond to their environment through disjointed stimulus and response chains. **They asserted that animals are constantly adapting to their environment rather than processing isolated stimuli.** This work was the foundation of **"functionalism." Drawn from Darwinian ideas, functionalism examined the adaptive nature of the mind and body through observational methods (top-down processing).**

Carol Gilligan (1936-)

Is the author of the classic feminist psychology work, "In a Different Voice," in which they outlined a theory that women's development happens through relationship and care. They worked with Erik Erikson and Lawrence Kohlberg, but extended their work by studying girls as well as boys, since most psychological theories up to that time were based on boys and men as subjects. **Specifically, said Kohlberg's moral development theory was biased towards males because it was dominated by rules, whereas women's morality focused more on compassion.**

Behaviorist Psychologists

Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Joseph Wolpe

anima

Jungian archetype referring to the feminine behaviors in males

animus

Jungian archetype referring to the masculine behaviors in females

rebound effect

Occurs when people are deprived of REM sleep. They will compensate by spending more time in REM sleep later in the night.

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)

One of Freud's most beloved disciples, **broke away from Freud because felt that there was too much emphasis placed on the "libido," or sexual instinct. Their own school of though evolved from their work with Freud and is called "analytic psychology." **Analytic psychology = has metaphysical and mythological components, such as the "collective unconscious" and the unconscious "archetypes"** **Archetypes:** Persona = a person's outer mask, the mediator to the external world; this is symbolized in cultures by masks. Shadow = a person's dark side, often projected onto others; this is symbolized in cultures by devils and evil spirits. Anima = the female elements that a man possesses; this complements his own maleness. Animus = the male elements that a female possesses; this complements her own femaleness. Self = the full individual potential, symbolized in cultures by figures such as Buddha or Jesus; and by the mandala. Approach to therapy was dream analysis to uncover unconscious messages in order to become more aware and closer to full potential. Their autobiography, "Memories, Dreams, Reflections" (1961) is a standard required reading in many undergraduate psychology programs.

Socrates (BCE/CE)

One of the founders of Western philosophy and mentor to Plato. They pondered the abstract ideas of truth

Galen (BCE/CE)

One of the greatest physicians in Ancient Rome, built upon Hippocrates's theory of the humors. They believed that imbalances of these humors led to both physiological and psychological disorders. **Detailed more personality traits associated with the four personality types** **(sanguine types are happy, melancholic types unhappy, phlegmatic types calm, and choleric types angry)**

lateral inhibition

The pattern of interaction among neurons in the visual system in which activity in one neuron inhibits adjacent neurons' responses.

Amplitude

The physical strength of a wave; determines loudness

Puzzle Box experiment

E.L. Thorndike; cats learning complex tasks through trial and error. When a cat made a correct move, it was a "satisfying response" and the connection was "stamped" in, and the cat solved the puzzle faster in the next trials

Hull proposed that ....

Performance = Drive x Habit meaning that individuals are first motivated by drive, and then they act according to old successful habits. They will do what has worked in the past to satisfy the drive

Edward Tolman proposed that ...

Performance = Expectation x Value aka the expectancy-value theory

hedonism

The theory that individuals are motivated solely by what brings the most pleasure and the least pain.

Fritz Heider's balance theory, Charles Osgood & Percy Tannenbaum's congruity theory, Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory, Clark Hull's drive-reduction theory

all agree that what drives people is a desire to be balanced with respect to their feelings, ideas, or behaviors - called into question by the fact that individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction

Continuous motor tasks vs. discrete motor tasks

continuous motions easier to learn, once started continues naturally. ex: riding a bike discrete divided into parts and do not facilitate recall of each other. ex: setting up a chessboard

Donald Hebb

created an early model of how learning happens in the brain - "neurons that fire together wire together"; proposed that a MEDIUM amount of arousal is best for performance

continuous reinforcement schedule

every correct response that is emitted results in a reward; facilitates the quickest learning but also the most fragile b/c as soon as the rewards stop coming, the animal stops performing

John B. Watson

expanded the ideas of Pavlov and founded the school of behaviorism; believed everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains and that conditioning was the key factor in developing these chains; only objective and observable elements were of importance to psychology

Edward C. Tolman

latent learning with rats in mazes; cognitive maps; rats' behavior was PURPOSIVE

perceptual or concept learning

learning about something in general rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains

secondary or acquired drives

money or other learned reinforcers

partial reinforcement schedules

not all correct responses are met with reinforcement; may require longer learning time but once learned, the behaviors are more resistant to extinction; 4 distinct types: 1) fixed ratio schedule 2) variable ratio schedule 3) fixed interval schedule 4) variable interval schedule

stimulus

refers to any events that an organism reacts to; first link in a stimulus-response chain

negative reinforcement

reinforcement through the removal of a negative event

extinction

reversal of conditioning; goal is to encourage an organism to stop doing a particular behavior; generally accomplished by repeatedly withholding reinforcement for a behavior or by dissociating the behavior from a particular cue

variable interval schedule

rewards are delivered after differing time periods; 2nd most effective strategy in maintaining behavior; the length of time varies so one never knows when the reinforcement is just around the corner. allows for slow and steady learning ex: waiting for the bus

fixed interval schedule

rewards come after the passage of a certain period of time rather than the number of behaviors. - ex: fixed interval of 5 mins, the rat will get rewarded the first time it presses the lever after a 5-min period has elapsed, regardless of what the rat did during the preceding 5 mins

E.L. Thorndike

- law of effect; precursor to operant conditioning - credited with writing the first educational psychology textbook in 1903 - developed various methods to assess students' skills and teaching effectiveness

The Garcia effect

Occurs whenever nausea is paired with either food or drink; connection is automatic and needs little conditioning

taste aversion learning

a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea. differs from traditional classical conditioning in 2 ways: 1) the response usually only takes one pairing 2) the response takes a very long time to extinguish, if it ever does

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that does not produce a specific response on its own. in Pavlov's experiments, this was the light or bell before he conditioned a response to it

Gestalt psychology

people can organize elements in a situation and think about them in relation to one another

M. E. Olds

performed experiments in which electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain were used as positive reinforcement - this was viewed as evidence against the drive-reduction theory

escape conditioning

teaches an animal to perform a desired behavior to get away from a negative stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

the neutral stimulus once it has been paired with the UCS. is paired with the UCS so that it will alone produce a response