GRE Psychology
Honeybee communication
"dancing," a round dance indicates food that is extremely nearby, a waggle dance indicates food that is far away; the longer the dance, the farther the food, and the more vigorous the display, the better the food - performed on the vertical sheets of the hive; used to communicate potential nesting sites
humanistic therapy
"person centered therapy." Provide trusting environment with therapist, such as using terms as "client" instead of "patient. Goal is to help client trust and accept emotional reactions so they can learn and grow; therapist is nondirective
Long-Term Potentiation
"what fires together, wires together" - when neurons consistently fire in particular sequences, those sequences (patterns) become enhanced or strengthened
counterfactual thinking
"what if things had been different" thinking
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
(level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization
Harry Harlow (1905-1981)
**Did the seminal research with primates familiar to most psychology students** when they constructed two wire mothers, one with a bottle and one covered in soft cloth, to show the impact of comfort on child development. (preferred cloth mother when scared) Also looked at **social isolation** and its effect on primates. Females lacked maternal behaviors and males did not display normal sexual functioning. Also demonstrated that monkeys became better at learning tasks as they acquired different learning experiences **("learning to learn")**
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
**Is best known as the founder of psychology.** **Founded the first official laboratory for psychology at the University of Leipzig in 1879 and began the first psychology journal in 1881. ** Wrote "Principles of Physiological Psychology" (1873), and created a complicated psychology that attempted to study and analyzed consciousness. Their ideas were the forerunners of Edward Titchener's, but they received even less attention.
Philip Zimbardo
**Stanford Prison Experiment (looked at role-playing).** Found that people wearing hoods more likely to administer high levels of shock than people w/o hoods **(deindividuation)** Also found that **antisocial behavior positively correlates with population density**
Stanley Milgram
**obedience to authority;** had participants **administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants;** wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions. Stimulus-overload theory: explains why urbanites are less prosocial than country people are; urbanites don;t need any more interaction.
reticular formation
- (base is located in the hindbrain, rest is located in the midbrain) - considered the oldest part of the brain - controls alertness, thirst, sleep, and involuntary muscles such as the heart
individual theory
- Alfred Adler - people are viewed as social, creative, and whole, - described people as in the process of "becoming" - individual is motivated by social needs and feelings of inferiority that arise when the current self does not match the self-ideal
John B. Watson
- Behaviorist theory - all changes and aspects of the development process are conditioned by the environment - tabula rasa - Little Albert
Analytical Theory
- Carl Jung - Similar to psychonalytic (stems from Freud) - Human psyche directed to life/awareness (not sex) - Psyche (ego) has personal quest for wholeness - Analyze personal unconscious and Collective unconscious - Archetypes - Psychopathology is signal that something's wrong in makeup of psyche; provides clues about how one can become more aware
Topographic model (psychoanalysis)
- Freud's first model of mental life in which conscious elements were openly acknowledge forces, preconscious forces were just below the surface and accessible if need be, and unconscious elements (drives and wishes) were many layers below consciousness
Robert Zajonc
- Studied birth order and intellignce - found firstborns are slightly more intelligent than second borns etc. - found that the More children present in a family = less intelligent they were likely to be - greater space between children = higher intelligence
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
- a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types - 93 questions - derived from Jung's personality theory
Kurt Lewin
- applied Gestalt ideas to social behavior - field theory - total influences upon social behavior - life space - collection of forces upon the individual - valence, vector, barrier
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
- are not intelligence tests - measure the cognitive, language, motor, adaptive, and socio-emotional development of infants in order to identify developmental issues in children - poor predictors of later intelligence
John Dewey
- attempted to synthesize philosophy and psychology and is best known for work on the reflex arc - asserted that animals are constantly adapting to their environment rather than processing isolated stimuli --- foundation for FUNCTIONALISM
Fritz Heider
- attribution theory - balance theory
higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning)
- conditioning technique in which a previous CS now acts as a UCS - in Pavlov's dogs, higher-order conditioning is using the light as a UCS after the light reliably elicited saliva in the dogs; food would no longer be used in the experiment, but now the light would be the UCS. the light could be paired with a bell (CS) until the bell alone elicited saliva in the dogs
gestalt model of psychopathology
- difficulties arise from disturbances of awareness - the client may not have insight or the client may not fully experience his present situation
humanistic therapist must provide:
- empathy - unconditional positive regard - genuineness/congruence
types of delusional or manic disorders
- erotomanic - grandiose - jealousy - persecutory - somatic
Philip Zimbardo
- found that people who were wearing hoods (and so deindividuated) were more willing to administer higher levels of shock than people without hoods - prison simulation experiments - found that antisocial behavior positively correlates with population density
William James
- founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment - father of American psychology - wrote about mind's stream of consciousness
Hermann von Helmholtz
- hearing - color perception - studied with Muller
Gustav Fechner
- just noticeable difference in sensation and perception - classic work is Elements of Psychophysics (1860) - carried out the first systematic psychology experiment
sensory memory
- lasts only for seconds (iconic input decays in less than one second, echoic input decays in 2-4 seconds) - forms the connection b/w perception and memory - iconic memory and George Sperling
Criticisms of Freud
- little empirical evidence; all single case studies
Charles Darwin
- made concept of evolution scientifically plausible by asserting that natural selection was at its core
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)
- not used to diagnose depression - used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms and can be used by a researcher or clinician to track the course of depressive symptoms
Daryl Bem's self-perception theory
- offers an alternative explanation to cognitive dissonance - Bem asserted that when people are unsure of their beliefs, they take their cues from their own behavior (rather than actually changing their beliefs to match their actions). - For example, if a man demanded $1,000 to work on a Saturday, he would probably realize that he does not like his job all that much.
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
- part of the PNS that interacts with the internal environment and is responsible for the "fight or flight" response - controls the involuntary functions including the movement of smooth muscles, digestion, blood circulation, and breathing - contains the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
REBT model of psychopathology
- psychological tension is created when an activating event occurs (A) and a client applies certain beliefs about the event (B) and this leads to the consequence of emotional disruption (C)
cardinal traits
- rare - usually occur later in life - dominate the personality so that the person often becomes known for that trait
Stanley Hall
- student of William James - received America's first PhD in psych from Harvard - coined the term "adolescence" - started the American Journal of Psychology - 1st president of the APA
structuralist theory of perception
- sum total of sensory input: one can understand the mind by understanding its basic components - focus on bottom-up processing (sensory data -> brain integration of data)
short-term memory
- temporary; lasts for about 15-30 seconds - encoding from sensory memory to short-term memory requires paying attention to the sensory stimulus
Gestalat Psychology
- top-down processing: higher-level cog processes working downward to sensory info - see the world in organized wholes rather than constituent parts
Herbert Spencer
- wrote Principles of Psychology - become the father of the psychology of adaptation - used principles from Lamarckian evolution (idea that characteristics acquired during lifetime can be passed to future generations)
Walter Mischel
-"marshmallow experiment" study involved if kids could delay gratification and have self-control
Sandra Bem
-Bem Sex Role Inventory to study femininity, masculinity, androgyny -Rigid gender stereotypes greatly restrict behavior. -Studied gender roles
Sandra Bem
-Bem Sex Role Inventory to study femininity, masculinity, androgyny -Rigid gender stereotypes greatly restrict behavior. -Studied gender roles - androgynous ppl have higher self-esteem, lower anxiety, more adaptability
Rene Descartes
"I think therefore I am," dualism/mind-body problem - the mind is a nonphysical substance that is separate from the body
preconventional morality
"If I steal the medicine, I'll get in trouble" Level 1: should avoid punishment Level 2: should gain rewards
postconventional stage of moral development
"It is unjust that money is an obstacle to life. It is ethical that I save my wife" Level 5: beyond the black and white of laws; attentive to rights and social welfare Level 6: makes decisions based on abstract ethical principles
conventional stage of moral development
"Stealing is against the law" Level 3: should gain approval Level 4: should follow law and authority
The 34:14:2 ratio
Applies to both sides of the normal distribution curve. - 34% on either side of the mean by one standard deviation (50th percentile, z-score is 0. - 14% on either side of the mean by two standard deviations (84th percentile, z-score is +1. - 2% on either side of the mean by three standard deviations (97th percentile, z-score is +2.
supernormal sign stimulus
Artificial stimuli exaggerating naturally occurring sign stimulus-more effective than natural releaser
Draw-A-Person Test
Asks subject to draw person of each sex and tell a story about them
interactionists
Assert a combination of stable, internal factors and situations
Allan Collins and Ross Quillian
Assert that people make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their **cognitive semantic hierarchies.** The farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection.
Allan Collins and Ross Quillian
Assert that people make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. The farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Asserted that humans and other animals were machines and that sense-perception was all that could be known. **From this, they suggested that a science could be formed to explain people just as physics explained the machines of the world.**
vocational tests
Assess to what extent an individual's interests and strengths match those already found by professionals in a particular job field.
psychological tests
Assessments of behavior, attitudes, mental constructs, personality, and mental health
John Bowlby
Attachment theory. Identified the characteristics of a child's attachment to his/her caregiver and the phases that a child experiences when separated from the caregiver.
Anne Treisman's Attenuation Model
-altered Broadbent's model -cocktail party effect -believed that rather than a filter (broadbent), the mind has an attenuator, which "turns down" the unattended sensory input, rather than eliminating it.
sunk cost
-expense incurred that can't be recovered -best strategy-ignore them when making decisions because money already spent is irrelevant to the future
Oral Stage (Freud)
0-1 years: - mouth (sucking, chewing, eating, biting, vocalizing) - successful resolution: weaning - fixation: oral aggression (verbally abusive) or oral passivity (smoking, overeating)
sensorimotor stage
0-2 years - reflexive behavior cued by sensations - circular reactions (repeated behavior intended to manipulate environment) - object permanence (knowing an object exists even when it can no longer be seen) - representation (visualizing or putting words to objects)
humans hear best at which frequency?
1 000 Hz
moral development (Piaget)
1) 4-7 years: imitates rule-following behavior; does not question acceptance of rules 2) 7-11 years: understands rules and follows them 3) 12+ years: applies abstract thinking to rules; can change rules if all parties agree
Three founding contributors of social psychology
1) Norman Triplett 2) Kurt Lewin 3) Fritz Heider
an individual is most likely to conform when:
1) There is a majority opinion; 2)The majority has a unanimous position; 3) The majority has high status, or the individual is concerned with her own status; 4) The situation is in public; 5) The individual was not previously committed to another position; 6) The individual has low self-esteem; 7) The individual scores high on a measure of authoritarianism.
Washoe and Koko and language
1) Washoe - chimpanzee taught by Beatrice & Alan Gardner to communicate using ASL; knew 300-400 signs and could combine them to make sentences 2) Koko, a gorilla, learned ASL from her caregiver and reportedly used more than 1000 signs
3 Thresholds and explain
1) absolute threshold - min amount of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time 2) differential threshold - min difference that must occur b/w 2 stimuli in order for them to be perceived as having different intensities 3) terminal threshold - upper limit above which the stimuli can no longer be perceived
factors that make items on a list easier to learn and retrieve
1) acoustic dissimilarity 2) semantic dissimilarity 3) brevity 4) familiarity 5) concreteness 6) meaning 7) importance to the subject
Compass Cues
1) atmospheric pressure 2) infrasound 3) magnetic sense 4) sun compass 5) star compass 6) polarized light
Humors Theory (Hippocrates)
1) black bile - melancholic 2) yellow bile - choleric 3) red blood - sanguine 4) white phlegm - phlegmatic
two main theories of forgetting
1) decay theory 2) interference theory
strategies for compliance
1) door-in-the-face - offer big amount first and then "settle" for less 2) foot-in-the-door - small favor first and then willing to do large ones later 3) low-ball technique - person offered something at a very low cost, raised after they agree 4) that's not all technique - sweetening a deal before the person has had a chance to say yes or no 5) deadline technique - threat of a looming deadline 6) ingratiation - using flattery
Obstacles to problem solving
1) functional fixedness 2) logical reasoning errors (atmosphere effect, semantic effect, confirmation bias)
gestation
1) germinal stage - lasts two weeks 2) embryonic stage - lasts until end of 2nd month; consists of organ formation 3) fetal stage; lasts from the 3rd month until birth
4 categories of recreational drugs
1) hallucinogens 2) stimulants 3) sedatives 4) narcotics
neurodevelopmental disorders
1) intellectual disability 2) learning disorders 3) autism spectrum disorder (ASD) 4) ADHD 5) tic disorders 6) motor skills disorder 7) communication disorders
three major parts of the ear
1) outer ear 2) middle ear 3) inner ear
types of anxiety disorders
1) panic disorder 2) agoraphobia 3) phobia 4) social anxiety disorder 5) generalized anxiety disorder
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
1) pre-conventional 2) conventional 3) post-conventional
Instinctual/innate behaviors
1) present in all normal members of a species; 2) stereotypic in form throughout the members of a species, even when performed for the first time; 3) independent of learning or experience
principles of attraction
1) proximity 2) physical attraction 3) similar attitudes 4) reciprocity
Adler's typology
1) ruling-dominant (choleric) 2) getting-leaning type (phlegmatic) 3) avoiding type (melancholic) 4) socially useful type (sanguine)
neonate reflexes
1) sucking reflex 2) head turning reflex (elicited by stroking the baby's cheek) 3) Moro reflex (the throwing out of arms and legs elicited by loud or frightening noises) 4) Babinski reflex (fanning of the toes elicited by touching the bottom of the baby's foot) 5) Palmar reflex (hand grasping elicited by placing an object in the baby's hand)
counter-conditioning techniques
1) systematic densensitization 2) flooding/implosive therapy 3) aversion therapy 4) shaping 5) modeling 6) assertiveness training 7) role playing
an individual speaker is most likely to change a listener's attitude if:
1) the speaker is an expert and/or trustworthy 2) the speaker is similar to the listener 3) the speaker is acceptable to the listener 4) the speaker is overheard rather than obviously trying to influence 5) the content is anecdotal, emotional, or shocking 6) the speaker is part of a two-person debate rather than a one-sided argument
language acquisition milestone: 3 years
1,000 word vocabulary, but their use has many grammatical errors.
Anal Stage (Freud)
1-3 years: - anus (bowel and bladder control) - successful resolution: toilet training - fixation: anal retention (overly neat/tidy) or anal expulsion (disorganized)
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral Stage 2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage 4. Latency Stage 5. Genital Stage
Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Competence vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 8. Integrity vs. Despair
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational
Sherif's Robber's Cave Experiment
11 & 12 year old boys; separated prior to arrival and housed out of site from each other; 3 stages (Creating ingroups, instilling intergroup competition, and encouraging intergroup cooperation); group conflict is most effectively overcome by the need for cooperative attention to a higher superordinate goal
formal operational
12+ years - understanding of abstract relationships, such as logic, ratios, values
Genital Stage (Freud)
12+ years: - other people's genitals - successful resolution: intimate relationships - fixation: fixation in prior stage could result in sexual and intimacy issues
Kurt Lewin
1890-1947; Field: social psychology; Contributions: German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; Studies: Leadership styles-studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities
Anna Freud
1895-1982; Field: psychoanalysis; Contributions: focused on child psychoanalysis, fully developed defense mechanisms, emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle; differed from Melanie Klein
Carol Gilligan
1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg's work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of boys and girls; girls focus more on relationships than laws and principles
online vs. offline measurement
2 methods of measuring language processing - online measurement does not require interrupting the speaker to get their understanding of what they are saying - offline measures stop the speaker at various points to get their interpretations
preoperational
2-7 years - egocentric understanding - rapidly acquiring words and symbols for things - inability to perform mental operations, such as causality or true understanding of quantity
how many major categories of psychological disorders are there?
20 major categories
HM
27 years old and suffered severe epilepsy. cut out hippocampus. episodic and semantic memory damaged. couldn't remember anything after operation. could still learn procedural things like star task
Phallic Stage (Freud)
3-6 years: - genitals; Oedipus complex; Electra complex - successful resolution: gender identification - fixation: difficulty w/ intimate relationships
Latency Stage (Freud)
6-12 years: - N/A (sexual feelings dormant during this stage) - successful resolution: social interaction - fixation: arrested development
What percent of scores will fall into a +1 and -1 standard deviation?
68%
concrete operational
7-12 years - understanding of concrete relationships, such as simple math and quantity - development of conservation (knowing changes in shape are not changes in volume)
__% of the cerebral cortex is neocortex
90%
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
A Swiss Psychologist, is a significant figure in developmental psychology. Their most important work concerned **cognitive development in children (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational).** Explained that **people either "assimilate" or "accommodate" when learning.** Also dabbled with moral development in children Their three most classic works are "The Language and Thought of the Child" (1926), "The Moral Judgement of the Child" (1933), and "The Origins of Intelligence in Children" (1952).
Bandura and Ross (1961)
BOBO DOLL A: investigate social learning theory P: have girls and boys watch adults playing with bobo dolls R: the children who watched adults play aggressively played aggressively, children were more likely to imitate same-sex models
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats; Skinner box
situationists
Behaviorists - argue that only circumstances determine behavior.
courting
Behaviors that precede sexual acts that lead to reproduction
Konrad Lorenz (1903-1992)
Best known as the founder of ethology, was famous for their work with **imprinting** in goslings and ducklings. They also wrote "On Aggression" (1966). Suggested aggression was an inherited instinct to make sure the strongest survive and pass their genes to the next generation. **Also discovered "releasing stimuli" or "sign stimuli" that led to a fixed action pattern in animals**
Bipolar I vs Bipolar II
Bipolar I: cycling from extreme manic episodes to major depressive episodes Bipolar II: same but mania tends to be less severe (hypomania)
Hawthorne effect
A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied
overshadowing
A classical conditioning concept referring to an animal's inability to infer a relationship between a particular stimulus and response due to the presence of a more prominent stimulus.
Alfred Adler (1870-1936)
A colleague of Freud, eventually broke from Freud to create their own "individual psychology" **Individual psychology = people are creative, social, and whole; they are in the process of realizing themselves or the process of "becoming."** They asserted that people were largely motivated by "feelings of inferiority," for which people try to compensate, and "social needs." **They also created a four-type theory of personality: ruling-dominant (choleric), getting-leaning (phlegmatic), avoiding (melancholic), and socially useful (sanguine).** Had **psychodynamic approach to therapy that examined a person's lifestyle and choices via their motivations, perceptions, goals, and resources. Pioneered work in family therapy** Goal of therapy was to reduce feelings of inferiority and to foster social interest and social contribution in patients
approach-avoidance conflict
A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made.
experimental design
A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship
Waves
A disturbance that transfers energy from place to place
antabuse
A drug that, when combined with alcohol, causes violent nausea; it is used to control a person's drinking.
sexual selection
A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.
histogram
A graph of vertical bars representing the frequency distribution of a set of data.
bar graph
A graph that uses horizontal or vertical bars to display data; bars separated by spaces
gamete
A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm; contain 23 single chromosomes; Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
Victor Frankl (1905-1997)
A key figure in "existential psychology," wrote "Man's Search for Meaning" (1963). **Existential psychology posits that people innately seek meaningfulness in their lives and that perceived meaningfulness is the root of emotional difficulty.** Had **phenomenological view of personality theory which focuses on the individual's unique self and experiences.** The response to perceived meaninglessness in life is neurosis or "neurotic anxiety" (as opposed to normal or justified anxiety) They devised **"logotherapy,"** a form of therapy that focuses on the person's "will to meaning."
paired-associate learning
A learning task in which participants are first presented with pairs of words, then one word of each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word. ex: learning Spanish, we remember that "hombre" means "man. We pair the Spanish word with the English word
split-half reliability
A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.
linear perspective
A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.
trial and error
A problem-solving strategy in which someone tries various combinations at random until they find the solution or give up trying - can take a great deal of time
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
will to power
A quest for feeling of superiority is referred to as this, by Alfred Adler; pursuit of goals that are outside of himself and beneficial to society
mixed methods
A research approach that combines quantitative and qualitative elements; it involves the description of the measurable state of a phenomenon and the individual's subjective response to it.
Melanie Klein (1882-1960)
A series of lectures in Britain formed the basis of their first book, "The Psychoanalysis of Children." They were one of the **founders of "object-relations theory,"** a variation of psychoanalysis in which interpersonal relationships are the primary focus, especially the relationship between the child and mother. They developed a technique of **"play therapy,"** which is still used for therapeutic work with children.
Skinner box
A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled; used with rats and pigeons
Johann Gaspar Spurzheim
A student of Franz Joseph Gall who introduced phrenology, the correlation between the shape of the human skull and human behavior, to America, where it became part of the classification method used to evaluate newly admitted prisoners.
posthypnotic suggestion
A suggestion made to a hypnotized person that specifies an action to be performed after awakening, often in response to a cue.
Performance = Drive x Habit
A theory by Clark Hull. Individuals are first motivated by drive, and then they act according to old successful habits. They will do what has worked in the past to satisfy the drive.
Performance = Expectation x Value
A theory by Edward Tolman, also known as the expectancy-value theory. People are motivated by goals they think they might actually meet. An important factor is the value of the goal.
afterimage
A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed (if you look at something red for a long time, then focus on a white image, you see a green afterimage)
Heinz dilemma (Kohlberg)
A woman is dying and needs an expensive medication. Husband cannot afford the medication, should he steal it or should she die?
Scarr and Weinberg (1977)
A: To investigate the relationship between IQ and genetics as well as the environment P: Sample was trans-racial adoption participants who were African American children adopted by middle class caucasian families. Gave IQ tests R: No significant difference in IQ correlations. Genetics must not control IQ a lot.
Mead (1935)
A: compare gender roles cross-culturally P: examination of gender roles in 3 different New Guinean tribes R: gender roles vary based on culture
Capsi (2003)
A: determine if there's a connection between the 5-HTT gene and depression P: comparison of people with the mutated gene and with the normal gene R: people with the mutated gene who also experienced many stressful events were more likely to get depression
Van Ijzendorn and Kroonenberg (1988)
A: figure out cultural implications in attachment P: analyzed pre-done studies on attachment from several countries R: Secure attachment in the West; ambivalent (but no avoidant) in Japan
Bond and Smith (1996)
A: investigate Asch paradigm in other cultures P: meta-analysis of previous studies of Asch paradigm in 17 countries R: there are higher rates of conformity in collectivist countries
Yehuda (2001)
A: investigate PTSD's affect on development P: looked at mental health of kids of Holocaust survivors R: the children of Holocaust survivors were more likely to develop PTSD
Carion (2009)
A: investigate PTSD's affect on development P: fMRI scans on abuse victims/trauma survivors R: these people had less hippocampal volume and did worse on verbal memory tests
Posey and Smith (2003)
A: investigate SSB P: math problems with pairs of friends or non-friends R: friends who failed attributed it to situational, friends who succeeded gave friends credit; non-friends who both failed and succeeded showed the SSB
Hazan and Shaver (1987)
A: investigate attachment in adult relationships P: love quiz in newspaper with questions about adult relationships and attachment history R: basically, the attachment of when you are a kid predicts what kind of love relationships when you're an adult
Ainsworth (1978)
A: investigate attachment patterns P: strange situation R: found three patterns: secure, avoidant, and ambivalent
Suedfeld (2003)
A: investigate attributions made by Holocaust victims P: questionnaires of people who were actually in concentration camps and people who were alive during the time R: concentration camp people said their success was due to environmental factors, non-survivors said it was due to dispositional (FAE)
Chugani (1999)
A: investigate cognitive development in infants P: PET scans on infants of varying ages R: lower levels of brain develop first
Wei (2001)
A: investigate collectivism vs individualism in conflict resolution P: questionnaires given to managers in several cultures R: culture cannot totally predict conflict resolution, but in general, the more individualist, the more dominating
Zimbardo (1973)
A: investigate conformity to assigned roles P: mock prison with students as either guards or prisoners R: both guards and prisoners stepped into roles with the whole situation quickly becoming a mess: highly unethical
Sherif (1936)
A: investigate conformity to the group norm P: autokinetic effect on participants in varying group sizes R: those in a group of 3 or 4 tended to align their answers
Ferron (1997)
A: investigate cultural differences in perceptions of puberty P: surveys of French and American teenaged boys and girls R: Americans believe they could change appearance with diet and exercise, French believed that you could not
Kashima and Triandis (1986)
A: investigate culture in SSB P: showed slides to Japanese and American students, asked them to remember details R: Americans showed SSB, Japanese showed modesty bias
Hofstede (1980)
A: investigate culture in behavior P: survey of IBM employees from different countries R: Hofstede argued that culture is "mental software"
Rutter (2004)
A: investigate deprivation on cognitive development P: interviews in home with observations and questionnaires R: the more time the kids had spent in the Romanian orphanages, the more cognitively impaired they were and the more likely they were to have disinhibited attachment disorder
Fessler (2005)
A: investigate disgust in first trimester P: web-based questionnaire R: higher feelings of disgust in first trimester, especially when it came to food
Dickerson (1992)
A: investigate foot-in-the-door P: field experiment about conserving water (sign a poster, do a survey about water usage, experimenters monitored showers) R: students who signed the poster and did the survey spent less time showering
Smith and Lloyd (1978)
A: investigate formation of gender roles P: baby X R: adults played with babies according to snowsuit color
Bouchard (1990)
A: investigate genetic inheritance in intelligence P: IQ tests of MZ twins reared together and apart R: 70% of the differences in intelligence can be attributed to genes
Milgram (1963)
A: investigate how authority influences conformity P: confederate learning words, if they get them wrong, the participant MUST (according to experimenter) shock them R: people obeyed the experimenter even when the confederate was clearly distressed and in pain
Speisman (1964)
A: investigate how cognitive appraisal influences emotions P: genital cutting film with different soundtracks R: trauma soundtrack participants showed more stress than the other soundtracks (supports ledoux)
Charlton (2002)
A: investigate if kids on St. Helena would be more aggressive after tv introduction P: naturalistic observation before and after R: no increase, even after 5 years
Tajfel (1970)
A: investigate in-group and out-groups P: boys allocated into groups based on if they overestimated or underestimated groups, boys had to allocate money to other boys R: boys allocated more money to their own group even though the groups were meaningless
Jones and Harris (1967)
A: investigate making the FAE even when told roles are assigned P: participants read either pro or anti Castro essays; half the participants were told the positions were assigned, half were told free choice R: people made the FAE even when they knew the positions were assigned
Palva (2010)
A: investigate neural networks of cerebral cortex (visual working memory) P: EEGs and MEGs during visual tasks R: syncronization of neural networks during tasks, supports baddely's model
Asch (1951)
A: investigate percieved group pressure on minorities P: line test (remember photo) R: in the control, no errors were made, but people in groups of 7 said what the others said
Riniolo
A: investigate reliability of eyewitnesses memory of the titanic P: Used archival data from court cases R: 75% said ship sank in two pieces, showing that central memories are pretty much intact, contrary to popular belief
Rozenweig and Bennet 1972
A: investigate role of environment on brain P: rats in enriched and impoverished environments R: Enriched rats had better developed cerebral cortex
Baumgartner (2008)
A: investigate role of oxytocin after trust breaches in a game P: trust game, some people's trust was broken R: those who received oxytocin instead of placebo continued to invest/trust while those who received placebo did not
Ross (1977)
A: investigate the FAE and judgements P: quiz game (10 questions based on your own knowledge, contestants answered these) R: contestants made the FAE by saying the questioners were smarter even though they knew they came up with the questions based on their own knowledge
Zak
A: investigate the biological connection between morality and the brain P: trust games involving blood draws before and after to examine oxytocin levels R: oxytocin levels were higher in people who received money, these people then sent more money back
Harris and Fiske (2006)
A: investigate the brain's response to extreme outgroups to find the cause of stereotypes and prejudices P: fMRI scans of students who were shown pictures of extreme outgroups and also objects R: people viewed the outgroups as objects
Milner 1957
A: investigate the case of HM P: memory tests R: hippocampus is crucial for memory formation
Rutter (1976) identity
A: investigate the concept of identity crisis (challenge Erickson) P: All adolescents on Isle of Wight between 14-15 were given questionnaires. Teachers and parents were also interviewed. R: very few teenagers reported identity crises or showed signs of identity issues
Brown and Peterson
A: investigate the duration of short-term memory, and provide empirical evidence for the multi-store model P: 24 students had to recall trigrams (meaningless three-consonant syllables). To prevent rehearsal participants were asked to count backwards in threes or fours from a specified random number until they saw a red light appear. R: The longer the interval delay the less trigrams were recalled. Short-term memory has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented. It is thought that this information is lost from short-term memory from trace decay.
Martin and Halvorson (1983)
A: investigate the effect of gender role schemas P: 5-6 yr olds saw pics that were consistent (girl playing with doll) or inconsistent (girl with gun) with gender role schemas R: children distorted the memories of the inconsistent images
Steele and Aronson (1995)
A: investigate the effect of stereotypes on behavior P: gave African-Americans and whites a test, had different conditions for what they told them the test was about R: African-Americans scored worse when told it was a test of verbal ability, but scored better when told it was a test of problem-solving
Farah (2008)
A: investigate the relationship between environmental stimulation and parental nurturance on cognitive development P: interviews and checklists of kids in their homes at ages 4 and 8 R: positive correlation between environmental stimulation and language development; positive correlation between parental nurturance and LTM
Martinez and Kesner 1991
A: investigate the role of ACh in memory formation P: rats and mazes, 3 groups (control, more, less) R: those with more ACh did better than control, less did worse
Curtis
A: investigate universal patterns of disgust P: internet survey of 20 pairs of disgusting images (one an immune threat, one not) R: immune threats found to be more disgusting
Ashtari (2009 or 4/20?)
A: investigate weed on the developing brain P: MRI on heavy users and a control group R: brain abnormalities demonstrated, thinner myelin sheaths (only correlational!)
Brown and Kulik (1977)
A: investigate whether shocking events are recalled more vividly and accurately than other events. P: Questionnaires asked 80 participants to recall circumstances where they had learned of shocking events R: emotionally shocking events were remembered well, researchers thought this was because of increased physiological arousal (amygdala)
Bremner (2003)
A: measure hippocampal volume based on stress P: MRI scans and tests of veterans and sexual abuse victims R: In these people, hippocampus was smaller and short-term memory loss demonstrated
Talarico and Rubin
A: see the properties of flashbulb memories and their influence of emotion on the person P: students at Duke were called on and were tested on memories of hearing about the terrorist attack (9/11) the previous morning, then several times at later dates R: the recall consistency of these "flashbulb" memories was no different than that of everyday memories.
Bhoomika (2008)
A: study the effect of malnutrition on cognitive performance P: gave Indian kids tests R: malnourished kids did worse on tests of attention, working memory, and visuospatial tasks
Epsin (1990)
A: test Erickson's ideas P: Longitudinal case study of a Latin-American girl's letters to her teacher (she experienced trauma as a kid) R: themes of identity increased in her letters from ages 13-18
Regan (1971)
A: test if people who recieved a favor would be more likely to return a favor P: rate the paintings, confederate left, returned with cokes, confederate later asked for raffle tickets R: those who got cokes bought twice as many raffle tickets
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Acquired fame as the winner of a Nobel Prize for work on digestion. In their later work investigating dogs and digestion, they accidentally uncovered the behavioral concept now called "classical conditioning." **All over test, should know all facets of classical conditioning.**
criticisms of cognitive therapy
Addresses how person thinks, does examine cause of problems; removing the symptoms (maladaptive cognitions) may not cure the problem
Waber (2007)
Age predicts performance on tests; as kids mature, cognitive processing speeds up
Newcomber et al. 1999
Aim: investigate how levels of cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory Procedure: cortisol given for 4 days, verbal declarative memory tested Results: those who received cortisol did worse on tests
social cognitive perspective psychologists
Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel
The Brink of Psychology (1800-1900)
By this time period, psychology was the pressing issue for philosophers and physiologists alike. So many professionals were preoccupied with unlocking the secrets of the mind that by the end of the century, psychology emerged as a distinct field.
Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen, and Karl von Frisch
All shared the Nobel Prize in 1973 for their work in ethology
inferential statistics
Allows one to generalize findings from the sample study to a larger population
secondary traits
Allport's term for specific traits that influence behavior in relatively few situations
proprium
Allport's term for the ego or self
Lau and Russel (1980)
American football players and coaches attribute success to disposition when they win, but environment when they lose
Sandra Bem (1944-2014)
An American psychologist, was best known for their pioneering work in gender studies. They created the **Sex-Role Inventory,** did extensive research on **androgyny,** and developed the **gender schema theory**, which described how gender identity is formed.
reactance
An attitude change in response to feeling that options are limited (ex: when subjects react negatively to being in an experiment by intentionally behaving unnaturally or when an individual becomes set on a certain flavour of ice cream as soon as he is told it is sold out)
anorexia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by an obstinate and willful refusal to eat, a distorted body image, and an intense fear of being fat
Anne Treisman
Came up with **Attenuation model of attention** which altered Broadbent's theory to account for phenomena such as "cocktail party effect" (having conversation, hear your name in different conversation, than suddenly focusing on that conversation). This person said that instead of going through a selective filter, the information goes through an attenuating filter, turning the volume up or down on the information. Rather than decaying, the unattended info still goes through higher level processing and into working memory, so it is available on this other channel if need be.
Donald Broadbent (1926-1993)
Came up with **Filter Model of Attention.** This idea says that any info not attended to is filtered out and decays. Only the info attended to makes it into our working memory
Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall
Came up with **Gate Control Theory of Pain.** This theory looks at pain as a process rather than just a simple sensation governed in one center in the brain. Pain may or may not be perceived based on different factors, including cognition Assert that pain perception is related to the interaction of large and small nerve fibers that run to and from the spine
J.A. Swet
Came up with **Theory of Signal Detection (TSD)** which suggests that subjects detect stimuli not only because they can, but also because they want to. Essentially, TSD factors motivation into the picture. The factor of motivation in signal detection is referred to as **"response bias"** The interplay between response bias and stimulus intensity determines detection
Fritz Heider
Came up with **balance theory** = if people see a set of cognitive elements as being a system, then they will have a preference to maintain a balanced state among these elements. Called into question because individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction. Founder of **Attribution Theory** = people will actually attribute intentions and emotions to just about anything - even moving geometrical shapes on a screen.
Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum
Came up with **congruity theory** = is similar to balance theory in that it postulates that people tend to prefer elements within a cognitive system to be internally consistent with one another. Called into question because individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction
self-efficacy
An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
Daryl Bem (1938 -)
Came up with **self-perception theory** as well as **overjustification.** Self-perception theory is similar to cognitive dissonance, but this person alternated it by explaining that when someone is unsure of their beliefs, they take cues from their own behaviors (rather than actually changing their beliefs to match their actions). For example, if a man demanded $1000 to work on a Saturday, he would probably realize that he does not like his job all that much. Overjustification follows self-perception theory and is the tendency to assume that we must not want to do things that we are paid or compensated to do bc the activity is now overjustified.
Robert Sternberg
Came up with **triangular model of love**. Consummate love is the most ideal kind of love.
E.H. Weber / Weber's Law
Came up with just noticeable difference (JND) which is the minimum difference that must occur between two stimuli in order for them to be perceived as having different intensities. **Weber's Law = a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value in order to be perceived as noticeably different**
Ewald Hering (1834-1918)
Came up with opponent-process theory The **Opponent-Process Theory posits that two types of color-sensitive cells exist: cones that respond to blue-yellow colors and cones that respond to red-green.** Their theory explains why we don't see reddish-green colors or yellowish-blue. If an object seems red to us, then our ability to see green is inhibited Found that if you focus on the color green for a while you will see a red **"afterimage"** Works in the lateral geniculate body
client-centered therapy (AKA person-centered therapy or non-directive therapy)
Carl Roger's technique based on the idea that clients have the freedom to control their own behavior and that the client is able to reflect upon his or her problems, make choices, and take positive action
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
Category of disorders involving physical symptoms that have psychological causes. Includes: 1) conversion disorder 2) somatic symptom disorder 3) illness anxiety disorder 4) factitious disorder
Evans-Pritchard (1976)
Central Africans believed witchcraft was why the doorway fell, not the termites
Conflict (psychoanalytic theory)
Central to human nature, between different drives vying for expression (particularly conscious and unconscious
cultural competence
An understanding of how a patient's cultural background shapes his beliefs, values, and expectations for therapy.
greatest conflict in psychoanalytic theory
Eros (life instinct) and Thanatos (death instinct)
within-subject
Every single subject experiences every single condition
paradoxical sleep (REM)
Everything is paralyzed except for heart and organs
who came up with opponent-process theory?
Ewald Hering
hoarding disorders
Excessively collecting various things
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Experiment to test reconstructive memory in relation to eyewitness testimony. Participants saw a car crash and were asked to estimate the speed. Use of the word smashed made participants answer with higher speeds. Established a cause effect relationship between use of specific words and memory reconstruction.
stroop effect
Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors.
Walter Mischel
Extremely critical of personality trait-theory and of personality tests in general. He felt that situations and not traits decide actions
FACS coding
Facial Action Coding System; can determine whether a smile is genuine or fake
F scale
Fascism scale
Hippocrates
Father of medicine; humors in the body
Inez Beverly Prosser
First African-American woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Cincinnati - researched self-esteem and person variables in African American schoolchildren - controversial conclusion that Black people fared better in segregated environments
Neal Miller and John Dollard
First person in the pair proved experimentally that anomalous behavior can be learned. **Integrated the behavioral perspective with psychoanalysis thinking.** They examined the Freudian concept of displacement in a learning context where they put two rats in an apparatus and gave them electric shocks until they started **fighting.** After they learned this response, the researchers put a doll in with them, but the rats still fought each other when the shocks started. But when one animal was removed and the shock started, the animal took out its aggression on the doll. They also studied fear as an acquired drive and types of conflict, including **"approach-avoidance conflict"**
assimilation (Piaget)
Fitting new information into existing mental structures (schema)
Lupien et al. (2002)
Follow up from 5 year study; tried reversing cortisol related memory problems using cortisol prohibiting drugs. Participants given drugs, memory test, restored cortisol to normal levels, memory test; moderate level of cortisol had memory restoration, high had no memory improvement
Lupien et al. (1998)
Followed group of elderly for 5 years, studied role of cortisol on memory; cortisol secretion too high in ~30% of elderly, excessive secretion showed memory impairment and atrophy of hippocampus; damage can be repaired if had not passsed point of no return
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967), & Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)
Forged the school of **"Gestalt psychology"** around the early 1900s in reaction to attempts to study the mind and experience in distinct parts. Gestalt psychology asserts that in perception the **whole is greater than the sum of its parts** (subjectivist view of perception for example). (focuses on top-down processing) Goal is to fully experience and perceive the present in order to become a whole and integrated person
William Labov
Found that **African American Vernacular English (AAVE) has its own complex internal structure.** It is not merely slang, but a separate and independent dialect of English.
M.E. Olds
Found that **animals perform behaviors to receive electrical stimulation** to the pleasure centers of the brain. Seen as evidence against Hull's drive-reduction theory that performance = drive x habit.
George Miller
Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.
George A. Miller
Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items; credited w/ applying the information processing model to cognitive psychology
"The aim of all life is death"
Freud
psychic determinism
Freud's assumption that all our mental and behavioral responses are caused by unconscious traumas, desires, or conflicts.
Structural model (psychoanalysis)
Freud's revised model - mental life has particular organization other than layers
balance theory
Fritz Heider's consistency theory that is concerned w/ balance and imbalance in the ways in which three elements are related
attribution theory
Fritz Heider's idea that people tend to infer the causes of other people's behavior as either dispositional or situational
gestalt psychologists
Fritz Perls, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka
Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)
Further refined Allport's traits, declaring that there were **16 essential personality factors**, using a combination of life data and experimental data to determine these factors. Their 16PF was still considered too broad and did not stand up to experimental research. It was replaced with the Five-Factor Model (OCEAN) by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa.
Eleanor Maccoby
Gender differences -- better verbal in females, better spatial in males; effects of divorce on children's development
New school: trait theory
Gordon Allport emphasized an ideographic approach to personality theory; attempts to capture an individual's unique, defining characteristics, as opposed to a nomothetic approach which uses large numbers of people to study the commonalities of personality
American Psychology Association (APA)
Hall; founded 1892; governing body of psychology; purpose to "advance psychology as a science, as a profession, and as a means of promoting human welfare" - American Psychologist is the official journal - Psychological Bulletin is the monthly publication
Inez Beverly Prosser (1897-1934)
Her research into self-esteem and person variables in African American school children led her to the controversial conclusion that **Black people fared better in segregated environments.** Was first African American female psychologist, earning her PhD in 1933 from the University of Cincinnati.
Elizabeth Loftus
Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony
schizoid personality disorder
Cluster A; detachment, small range of emotions
schizotypical personality
Cluster A; eccentricity, distorted reality
avoidant personality disorder
Cluster C; social inhibitions, hypersensitivity, perceptions of inadequacy
proprioception
Cognitive awareness of of balance/position of body in space.
empirical criterion-keying approach
Comparing the answers between diagnosed and undiagnosed persons to establish the validity of a test (ex: Strong Interest Inventory)
Criticisms of Humanistic Theory
Concepts are "fuzzy", unclear about nature of concepts; no diagnostic tools
Solomon Asch
Conducted famous **conformity** experiment that required subjects to match lines.
superior colliculus
Controls visual reflexes- appears as bumps on the brainstem
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Countered Locke's previous claim by asserting that our **minds were active, not passive.** They followed Hippocrates's and Galen's models of the humors, but believed there was no overlap between the categories.
Alfred Binet
Created first intelligence test for Parisian school children
Donald Campbell and Donald Fiske
Created multitrait-multimethod technique to determine validity of tests
Charles Osgood
Created semantic differential charts, which allowed people to plot the meanings of words on graphs (like near "good" but far from "relaxed"). **Indicated that words have similar connotations (implied meaning) for cultures or subcultures.**
multicultural therapy
Cultural sensitivity, knowledge, and empathy; looks at client's issues in the context of various social identities to see how they impact the client's experience
circadian rhythms
Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a schedule approximating a 24-hour day
Money and Ehrhardt (1972)
David/Brenda Reimer
electroconvulsive shock therapy
Delivers voltages of shock to people that are severely depressed and has no long term effects but may cause memory loss
Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967)
Demonstrated **insight learning** in their work with chimpanzees. Insight learning occurs when the solution to a problem appears all at once rather than building up to a solution
Sapolsky (1968)
Demonstrated that prolonged stress can damage neurons in hippocampus but can be reversed if normal cortisol levels are restored. Long term stress can cause irreversible damage
R.M. Cooper and John Zubek
Demonstrated the interaction between **heredity and environment,** **bright rats performed better than dull only when both sets raised in normal conditions,** both groups performed well in enriched environment (lots of food and activities), both performed poorly in impoverished environment
Allen Newell and Herbert Simon
Designed first Computer Simulation Models called LOGIC THEORIST, then revamped it and called it GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVER
computer simulation models
Designed to solve problems as humans do - Allen Newell and Herbert Simon introduced the first of these (called the logic theorist) and then revamped it (the general problem solver)
Albert Ellis
Developed "rational emotive behavior therapy" (REBT)
Jean Charcot & Pierre Janet
Developed hypnosis that was later used by Freud
Leon Festinger (1919-1989)
Developed social-comparison theory as well as the theory of **cognitive dissonance,** which they showed experimentally with their famous forced compliance experiments where he gave people either $1 or $20 for lying to others about why a boring task was actually interesting. Those given $1 said after they lied that they genuinely thought the task was interesting (action don't match cognition so mind compensates to match action to cognition (relieves unpleasant feeling): "I only got $1 to lie, and I still did it, so I must have liked the task") Called into question because individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction
Julian Rotter
Developed terms: **internal/external locus of control.** External locus of control is a personality characteristic that causes one to view events as the result of luck or fate. Too much of this breeds helplessness. Internal locus of control causes a person to view events as the outcome of their own actions. Too much of this can breed self-blame.
Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999)
Developed the **Strange Situation experiment**, which operationalized Bowlby's attachment theory. **They identified three types of attachment:** secure (happy with mother and stranger, sad when mother leaves, happy when she returns/is able to be calmed), ambivalent (resistant) (highly distressed by presence of stranger and by maternal separation, refusing to interact with mothers when they returned), and avoidant (little or no emotion during play with mother or stranger or upon return of mother). They also identified "disorganized" attachment which is when the child does not engage in coherent or consistent behavior during the reunion with the caregivers. The child may freeze or run away from the caregiver. Usually this results from neglect or abuse from the caregiver.
David McClelland (1917-1998)
Developed the need theory (also known as the three needs theory), which described motivation in terms of a need for achievement, power, or affiliation. They also developed a new scoring system for the **Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)**, a projective personality measure.
William Sheldon
Devised a personality system based on **somatotypes (body types)**: 1. Endomorph = short, plump body = pleasure seeking, social behavior 2. Mesomorph = muscular, athletic body = energetic, aggressive behavior 3. Ectomorph = skinny, fragile body = inhibited intellectual behavior Was important to the evolution of the field of personality, even though this system no longer has any credence
Sigmund Freud and Joseph Breuer
Devised the technique of free association which is the central process in which a patient reports thoughts without censure or guidance. Free association, according to them, works because unconscious material is always looking for a way out thus, through this practice, the patient cant uncover and express repressed material (catharsis / abreaction).
insomnia
Difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep
catharsis/abreaction
Discharge of repressed emotion
Celeste McCollough
Discovered **McCollough effect or Afterimages** which are perceived because of fatigued receptors. Once one side is overstimulated and fatigued, it can no longer respond and is overshadowed by its opposite. This effect explains why you see a dark afterimage after staring at a white light
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Discovered that **cells in the visual cortex are so complex and specialized** that they respond only to certain types of stimuli. For example, some cells respond only to vertical lines, whereas some respond only to right angles and so on
biochemical factors of schizophrenia
Dopamine hypothesis: schizophrenia symptoms are produced by over-activity of the dopamine system in areas of the brain that regulate emotional expression, motivated behavior, and cognitive functioning
Middle Ages (500-1600)
During this time period, philosophy changed hands twice. Understanding the mysterious world temporarily became a question for the church. Then, at the brink of the modern world, philosophy was reclaimed by scholars.
Who defined the differential threshold?
E. H. Weber
learning curve
Ebbinghaus, when learning something new, rate of learning usually changes over time; can be positively or negatively accelerated
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa
The BIG FIVE **OCEAN** Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism (or stability) Found that personality changes very little after age 30
oppositional defiant disorder/conduct disorder
Indicated by patterns of behavior that violate rules, norms, or rights of others
Alfred Adler
Individual theory and family therapy
Primary or Instinctual Drives
Individuals are motivated by drives such as hunger or thirst.
Julian Rotter
Internal-External Locus of Control Scale; determines whether a person feels responsible for the things that happen (internal) or that he has no control over the events in life (external)
self-serving attributional bias
Interpreting one's own actions and motives in a positive way, blaming situations for failures and taking credit for successes. We like to think we are better than average.
Cole and Scribner (1974)
Investigated how memory strategies are influenced by culture. Asked Liberian children to memorize lists of words in categories, schooled children became better at it, whilst non schooled children did more poorly. This leads to the conclusion that memory strategies such as chunking can be learned.
Albert Bandura (1925 -)
Is a Canadian-born psychologist best known for developing the **social cognitive perspective of personality,** based on the principles of social learning theory (posits that individuals learn through their culture. People learn what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors through interacting with society). In the **Bobo Doll experiment**, them and their colleagues showed for the first time empirically that people learn through **modeling (observational learning).**
Elizabeth Loftus (1944 -)
Is an American cognitive psychologist best known for their **research into memory, especially in relation to the fallibility of eyewitness testimony.** Found that memory of traumatic events is altered by the event itself and by the way that questions about the event are phrased. **Called the Misinformation effect** Finding was particularly important for law psychology issues.
David Buss (1953 -)
Is an American evolutionary psychologist who is known for their work on **mating strategies in women and men,** and how **jealousy and other challenging experiences may be evolutionarily adaptive.**
Derald Wing Sue (1942 -)
Is an American psychologist best known for their work on multiculturalism and cross-cultural counseling. They have extensively researched **"microaggressions,"** small verbal or behavioral ways in which racism and ethnocentrism are expressed daily, whether intentionally or unintentionally.
Martin Seligman (1942 -)
Is an American psychologist who first gained fame from their research into **learned helplessness.** Found that with cognitive training, learned helplessness can be countered and turned into learned optimism They are now best known for their role as the **founder of the field of positive psychology, a field that looks at a person's character strengths and how those strengths can bring about happiness.**
John Bowlby (1907-1990)
Is best known for their articulation of **attachment theory,** which states that children will form an attachment to a primary caregiver by the age of about 12 months, and that attachment relationship will impact how the child relates to others generally.
Donald Hebb (1904-1985)
Is considered one of founders of neuropsychology. They described how neural pathways form in the brain — that **"what wires together fires together"** — long before the discovery of brain imaging techniques **(Long-term Potentiation).** Memory involves changes of synapses and neural pathways, making a memory tree Postulated that a medium amount of arousal is best for performance, later Yerkes-Dodson Law made
Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
Is considered one of the founders of the **"trait perspective"** of personality. They went through the dictionary (lexical approach), identifying about 4500 words related to traits and sorted them into **three categories: cardinal, central, and secondary.** They also conducted groundbreaking research into types of racism and prejudice. Emphasized the **ideographic approach to personality theory.** This approach attempts to capture an individual's unique, defining characteristics as opposed to a nomothetic approach, which uses large numbers of people to study the commonalities of personality. Was concerned with conscious motives governed by the **proprium or propriate** function (his version of the ego), and believed that the proprium acted somewhat consistently based on traits it had developed through experience..
Hippocrates (BCE/CE)
Is considered the father of medicine. **Earliest theory of personality = personality or temperament based on the fluids, or humors, in the body.** Black bile = melancholic temperament Yellow bile = choleric temperament Red blood from the heart = sanguine temperament White phlegm from the lungs = phlegmatic temperament.
Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) / Fechner's Law
Is credited with carrying out the first systematic psychology experiment to result in mathematical conclusions, when they developed the idea of the "just noticeable difference" in sensation and perception. Their classic work was "Elements of Psychophysics" (1860). **Fechner's Law = different from Weber's law. The strength of a stimulus must be significantly increased to produce a slight difference in sensation**
John Locke (1632-1704)
Is famous for asserting that, upon entering the world, a person's mind is a **tabula rasa, or blank slate.** They asserted that what we know and what we are comes from experience. Knowledge was not innate.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Is famous for their creation of "client-centered therapy." In client-centered therapy, the client (not patient) directs the course of therapy and receives **"unconditional positive regard," "empathy," and "genuineness/congruence" from the therapist.** This therapy is classified as **"humanistic" because it focuses on the whole human being, rather than on behaviors or drives or the unconscious.** People who **"lack congruence" between their real selves and their self concept develop psychological tension** They also made a contribution to research: they were the first to record their sessions for later study and reference.
Aaron Beck (1921 -)
Is most associated with **"cognitive" therapeutic techniques.** According to them and other cognitive theorists, problems arise from maladaptive ways of thinking about the world. Thus, cognitive therapy involves reformulating illogical conditions rather than searching for a life-stress cause for these cognitions. Devised **maladaptive cognitions** (cognitions that lead to maladaptive behaviors or disturbed affect): Arbitrary Interference = drawing a conclusion w/o solid evidence: "My boss thinks I'm stupid because he never asks me to play golf." Overgeneralization = mistaking isolated incidents for the norm: "No one will ever want to be with me." Magnifying/minimizing = making too much or little of something: "It was luck that I did well on my exam." Personalizing = inappropriately taking responsibility: "Our office's failed project was all my fault." Dichotomous thinking = black-and-white thinking: "If I don't score a 750 on the GRE, I'll have no future." Postulated that a **"cognitive triad"** (negative views about the self, the world, and the future) caused depression. They also wrote the **"Beck Depression Inventory"** which gauges the severity of diagnosed depression.
Erik Erikson
Known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development; coined the term "identity crisis"
Jean Piaget
Known for his theory of cognitive development in children
drive theories of aggression
Konrad Lorenz - aggression is an inherited instinct to make sure the strongest survive and pass their genes to the next generation; - Freud suggested that aggression is a result of the Thanatos or death drive (underlies the desire to hurt oneself or others)
cognitive dissonance theory
Leon Festinger's idea that people are motivated to reduce dissonant elements or add consonant elements to reduce tension
retina
Light sensitive layer of the eye; contains rods and cones; located at the back of the eye
telencephalon
Limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus
Soloman Asch
Line experiment, conformity; 33% of the participants conformed to the group and chose the incorrect lines
animal aggression
Lorenz, certain aggression necessary for survival of species, instinctual rather than learned
fixed action patterns
Lorenz, triggered by releasing stimuli, automatic and innate, instinctual, complex chains of behaviour; four defining characteristics: 1) uniform patterns 2) performed by most members 3) more complex than simple reflexes 4) cannot be interrupted
imprinting
Lorenz: the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life; imprint on first moving object they see after birth; commonly displayed by "following response"
agraphia
Loss of the ability to write, resulting from injury to the language center of the cerebral cortex
Corkin
MRI scans on HM to observe exact hippocampal damage
R.E. Petty and J.T. Cacioppo
Made **Elaboration Likelihood Model** of persuasion that suggests people who are very involved in an issue listen to the strength of the arguments in the issue rather than more superficial factors, such as the characteristics of the speaker. If the audience is interested in the argument and is able to understand it, persuasion is via the central route, and the likelihood of permanent change is high. If the audience is unwilling or unable to listen to an argument, persuasion is best through the peripheral route - make the audience comfortable and happy and hope some of the message sticks. An individual speaker is most likely to change a listener's attitude if: the speaker is an expert and/or trustworthy, the speaker is similar to the listener, the speaker is acceptable to the listener, the speaker is overheard rather than obviously trying to influence, the content is anecdotal, emotional, or shocking, and if the speaker is part of a two-person debate rather than a one-sided argument.
Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)
Made important, but random, contributions to psychology. Was the first to use statistics in psychology, and they created the correlation coefficient. Most notably, they wrote "Hereditary Genius" (1869) and used Darwinian principles to promote "eugenics." **Eugenics = a plan for selective human breeding in order to strengthen the species.** They also proposed the theory that humans have general intelligence that can be scientifically measured. They are also credited with being the first to use the phrase "nature versus nurture," **Nature v nurture = the debate about whether psychological phenomena are the result of inborn, genetic factors, or the result of cultural and societal influences.**
Arnold Gesell
Maturational Developmental Theory: - nature provides a "blueprint for development" through maturation and environment (nurture) fills in the details - identified 4 areas of growth and development that have normative trends: 1) motor 2) adaptive 3) language 4) personal/social behavior
Rogoff and Waddel (1982)
Mayan children did better in memory task if given one that was meaningful to them in local terms. Model of Mayan village, selected 20 objects and put into village, then taken out and put back, children were asked to reconstruct the scene they were shown. Mayan children did slightly better than USA children. Content and context of memory tasks are important and useful memory strategies are learned in sociocultural context.
Mean IQ
Mean of Americans is standardized to 100, with SD 15 or 16 depending on test; correlates most with IQ of biological parents and socioeconomic status
academic tests
Measure past learning, how well you know a subject
serial learning
Memorization of a series of items in a particular order - subject to primacy and recency effects - serial-position curve (U-shaped curve) shows this savings effect
Frederick Barlett
Memory is reconstructive rather than rote Using the story "War of Ghosts" he discovered that people are more likely to remember the ideas or semantics of a story rather than the details or grammar of a story.
gender differences in psychopathology
Men: - substance abuse - disorders involving impulse control - antisocial behavior Women: - depression - anxiety
serious mental illness (SMI)
Mental disorders that interfere with some area of social functioning.
language acquisition milestone: 2 years
More than 50 spoken words, usually in two- and three-word phrases.
Noam Chomsky
Most important figure in psycholinguistics. **Transformational grammar** differentiates between surface structure and deep structure. Surface structure = the way words are organized Deep structure = the underlying meaning **Language Acquisition Device (LAD) = innate ability to adopt generative grammar rules of the language that they hear** **Will have at least 1 - 2 questions about this person**
Alfred Adler
Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" and stressed the importance of birth order; 4-type theory of personality: 1) ruling-dominant 2) getting leaning 3) avoiding 4) socially useful
paralanguage
Nonlinguistic means of vocal expression: rate, pitch, tone, and so on.
Sroufe (1993)
P: observed 10-11 yr olds R: those who behaved outside of gender norms were unpopular
Hughes (1975)
P: policeman task with kids R: kids could mostly do the task, undermining Piaget's theory
acute stress disorder
PTSD symptoms that appear for a month or less
too little dopamine
Parkinson's disease
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
Participants heard list of words then had to recall them; showed primacy and decency effects, which shows the serial position effect- first and last items remembered most
Quinn and McConnel (1996)
Participants learned a list of words using imagery or rehearsal, then had to repeat words with a visual or auditory distraction; showed that if different components of working memory are used then memory isn't interfered with
McGuire's inoculation theory
People's beliefs are vulnerable if they have never faced challenge. Once they have experienced a challenge to their opinions, however, they are less vulnerable. A challenge is like a vaccination.
Hazel Markus
Performed cross-cultural research; Eastern countries value **interdependence over independence;** for example, in Japan, individuals likelier to demonstrate conformity, modesty, and pessimism; where in the U.S., likelier to show optimism, self-enhancement, and individuality; some criticizes generalizations about cultures
gestalt theory criticisms
Perls, Wetheimer, Koffka; not suited for low-functioning or disturbed clients
objective tests
Personality tests that are administered and scored in a standard way
Baddeley's model of working memory
Phonological loop, central executive, Visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer
Aristotle
Plato's pupil, recognized as the world's first professor; - studies based on order and logic - unlike Plato, believed that truth would be found in the physical world
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Postulated eight stages of psychosocial development. Their theory have been noted for its completeness, because their stages span development from **infancy through old age.** **Make sure to know all stages and general ideas behind them.** They coined the term "identity crisis" in naming the key crisis of adolescence.
stereotypes
Preconceived generalizations about certain groups of people.
illness anxiety disorder
Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness despite minimal or no somatic symptoms
Carol Gilligan
Presented feminist critique of Kolhberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense guided by relationships
backward masking
Presenting a stimulus, called the target, to the participant and then covering, or masking, the target with another stimulus; mask is more successful if it is similar to the original stimulus
word association test
Projective test in which the interviewer says a word and the respondent must mention the first thing that comes to mind
schizophreniform disorder
Psychotic disorder involving the symptoms of schizophrenia but lasting at least one month and less than 6 months.
Tegmentum
Houses the rest of the reticular formation. It is also involved in the sensorimotor system, and the analgesic effect of opiates.
Carl Rogers
Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality
Carl Rogers
Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality; client-centered therapy; first to record his sessions for later study and reference
Abraham Maslow
Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"
LeDoux (1999)
Humans emotional reactions are flexible due to evolution. 2 pathways- short route where amygdala reacts immediately and the long rout where the sensory cortex relates info to the hippocampus. This shows a possible cognitive appraisal
age and learning
Humans primed to learn ages 3-20, remains constant 20-50, drops after 50
What did Freud use initially and then switch to?
Hypnosis (borrowed from Jean Charcot & Pierre Janet) and then switched to the technique of free association (developed by Joseph Breuer)
Hans Eysenck (1913-1999)
Identified personality traits, which they called **superfactors,** that are then subdivided into the different personality types. They also believed that personality traits were **genetically determined** and insisted on rigorous experimental method in forming theories of personality.
assimilation
In Piagetian theory of cognitive development, the process of understanding new info in relation to prior knowledge or existing schemata
accomodation
In Piagetian theory, modification of cognitive structures because new information or experiences do not fit into existing cognitive structures
traveling wave
In the auditory system, vibration of the basilar membrane in which the peak of the vibration travels from the base of the membrane to its apex.
saltatory conduction
Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.
Roger Brown
Researched the areas of social, developmental, and linguistic psychology. He found that children's understanding of grammatical rules develops as they make hypotheses about how syntax works and then self-correct with experience.
Roger Brown
Researched the areas of social, developmental, and linguistic psychology. They found that children's understanding of grammatical rules develops as they make hypotheses about how syntax works and then **self-correct with experience.**
Existential theory
Revolves around age old philosophical issues, particular the issue of meaning. A person's greatest struggle is being vs. nonbeing and of meaningfulness vs. meaninglessness. Frankl dubbed this as the "will to meaning". Rollo May is a major contributor to ET.
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Said "I think, therefore I am." Their focus was figuring out truths through reason and deduction. They pondered dualism or the mind-body problem, **Mind-body problem = mind is a nonphysical substance that is separate from the body.**
Clark Hull (1884-1952)
Secured a place for themselves in the history of psychology with their mechanistic behavioral ideas. **Hypothetico-Deductive model = was designed to deduce logically all the rules that govern behavior (input variables lead to output variables equation)** They used math to explain motivation: **Performance = Drive x Habit (drive-reduction theory).** In other words, we do what we need to do and we do what has worked best in the past. Kenneth Spence later modified their theory. Called into question because individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction
self-handicapping
Self-defeating behavior that allows one to dismiss or excuse failure
Types of verbal learning and memory tasks
Serial learning Serial-anticipation learning Paired-associate learning Free-recall learning
Who came up with eugenics
Sir Francis Galton
neocortex
Six layered cortex of relatively recent evolution
Ectomorph
Skinny, fragile body = inhibited, intellectual behavior
terminal buttons
Small knobs at the end of axons that contain synaptic vessels that hold neurotransmitters
reciprocal socialization
Socialization that is bidirectional; children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children.
Plato
Socrates's pupil, declared that the physical world was not all that could be known; asserted the presence of universal forms and innate knowledge; - abstract and unsystematic philosophy
Dorothea Lynde Dix
Spearheaded the 19th century movement to provide better care for the mentally ill through hospitalization
Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802-1887)
Spearheaded the 19th-century movement to provide better care for the mentally ill through hospitalization.
rods
Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision; sensitive to dim light
Mary Ainsworth
Strange Situation; 3 attachment styles + disorganized attachment: 1) secure 2) ambivalent/resistant 3) avoidant
Edward Titchener
Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology.
James Stoner
Studied **group polarization,** the concept that group discussion with like-minded people generally serves to strengthen the already dominant point of view. Group polarization explains **"risky shift"** or why groups will take greater risks than individuals.
Elaine Hatfield
Studied different kinds of love, specifically, **passionate love,** the intense longing for another and a state of profound physiological arousal (biophysiological, can be positive and negative), and **companionate love,** the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined (achieved via mutual trust, respect, commitment, later stages)
George Sperling
Studied the **iconic memory: the sensory memory for vision.** Found that people can see more than they can remember.
H-Y antigen
Substance that appears to trigger the transformation of gonads into testes within the first few weeks of prenatal development
Bartlett (1932)
Suggested that schemas influence memory during memory reconstruction
Bartlett (1932) herdsman
Swazi herdsman can recall characteristics of their cattle
Edward Titchener (1867-1927)
Taught at Cornell University and was the founder of "structuralism." **Structuralism = the analysis of human consciousness (focused on bottom-up processing).** Through **"introspection," lab assistants attempted to objectively describe the discrete sensations and contents of their minds.** They were an English person who studied with Wundt. The structuralist method dissolved after their death.
continuation
Tendency to create a whole or detailed figures based on our expectations rather than what is seen
scientific approach
Testable hypothesis --> reproducible experiment that can be replicated --> observable/measurable concept in a study
Neisser and Harsch (1992)
Tested theory of flashbulb memory. Participants had to write a description of how they heard a certain shocking event, and answer questions about where they were. What they were doing, their feelings, etc. answered less than 24 hours after disaster, then asked 2 1/2 years later. Many could not remember most of the things they remembered 24 hours after. Challenged flashbulb memory theory, although no sure way to measure levels of emotional arousal of each individual.
Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders
These are conditions involving problems controlling emotions and behaviors, such as kleptomania, pyromania, conduct disorder
Harlow and Contact Comfort
This experiment was used to examine the need for comfort and security in addition to food. Experimenter used two different "mothers" to test attachment using one made of barbed wire and one of terry cloth; found that the infant monkeys always ran to the mother that comforted them (terry cloth) never the one that fed them (barbed wire). p.375
The Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution (1600-1800)
This time period created the world we know today. Major discoveries shaped the way people viewed existence. Philosophy was back in the hands of scholars, and they all had different ideas about the nature of things.
who came up with trichomatic theory?
Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz
connectionism
Thorndike's approach to learning; based on connections between situations and responses.
estrus
Time periods when females are receptive to mating
Sensitive or critical periods in learning
Times when a developing animal is particularly vulnerable to the effects of learning (or to the lack of such learning).
stickleback fish
Tinbergen, males develop red coloration on belly, which is the releasing stimulus for attacks; males attacked red-bellied crude models rather than the detailed but non-red models
herring gull chicks
Tinbergen, peck at end of parents' bills which have a red spot on the tip, parents then regurgitates food for chicks; chicks pecked more at a red-tipped model bill than at a plain model bill; the greater the contrast between bill and red spot even when unnaturally strong; supernormal sign stimulus
prosody
Tone inflections, accents, and other aspects of pronunciation that carry meaning - the icing on the cake of grammar and meaning
tic disorders
Tourette's syndrome, for example, is indicated by motor and vocal tics
Traits vs. States
Trait: internal, stable, enduring personality aspects State: situational (unstable, temporary) variable aspects of personality influenced by external environment
Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)
Tricyclic chemical structure; ex. amitriptyline (Elavil®)
clustering
The brain's tendency to group together similar items in memory whether they are learned together or not. Most often, they are grouped into conceptual or semantic hierarchies.
Leon Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory
The conflict that you feel when your attitudes are not in sync with your behaviors. It can be reduced by changing dissonant elements or by adding consonant elements.
generalizability
The degree to which the results from an experiment can be applied to the population and the real world.
cohort effects
The effects of being born and raised in a particular time or situation where all other members of your group has similar experiences that make your group unique from other groups
attachment styles
The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants
anima
The female elements that a man possesses; this complements his own maleness.
response learning
The form of learning in which one links together chains of stimuli and responses. ex: leaving a building in response to a fire alarm
Lazarus
The long route: stress is a two-way process; it involves the production of stressors by the environment, and the response of an individual subjected to these stressors. His conception regarding stress led to the theory of cognitive appraisal.
self-monitoring
The process of attending to one's behavior and using these observations to shape the way one behaves.
item analysis
The process of examining each question on a test to see how it is related to the objectives being tested; internal consistency
selective breeding
The process of selecting a few organisms with desired traits to serve as parents of the next generation
Reactance
The refusal to conform that may occur as a result of a blatant attempt to control. People will often not conform if they are forewarned that others will attempt to change them
Barnum effect
The tendency to consider a personal description accurate if it is stated in very general terms.
oversimplification
The tendency to make simple explanations for complex events. People also hold onto original ideas about cause even when new factors emerge.
risk aversion
The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff.
Zeigarnik effect
The tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed ones.
orienting reflex
The tendency to turn toward an object that has touched you.
learned optimism
The term used by Martin Seligman to describe an optimistic style that people can be trained to achieve
opponent process theory of color vision
The theory that color vision is the product of opposing pairs of color receptors, red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white; when one member of a color pair is stimulated, the other member is inhibited.
cognitive triad
The three forms of negative thinking that Aaron Beck theorizes lead people to feel depressed. The triad consists of a negative view of the world, oneself, and the future.
striate cortex
The visual receiving area of the cortex, located in the occipital lobe.
Purkinje shift
The way that perceived color brightness changes with the level of illumination in the room. With lower levels of illumination, the extremes of color spectrum (especially red) are seen as less bright.
Anna Freud (1895-1982)
The youngest child of Sigmund Freud, followed in their father's footsteps as a psychoanalyst, working mostly with children. They are considered the **founder of child psychoanalysis,** but differed in many ways from their contemporary Melanie Klein, especially in thinking that while play was important for children, it was not necessarily able to reveal unconscious conflicts, as Klein believed. They also expanded upon Freud's **defense mechanisms of the ego.** They established the Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic, later it was renamed after them.
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
Their research focused on the importance of social interaction in learning and development. Their concepts of the "zone of proximal development"** and **"scaffolding"** = teachers demonstrate the process of problem solving for their students and explain the steps as they go along. After a few initial explanations the instructor will then remove themselves from the students and only offer help when needed are still foundational in many schools around the world. Worked with Alexander Luria and found that word meanings are altered by interpersonal experience. Also, they asserted that language is a tool involved in the development of abstract thinking.
Henry Murray
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Henry Murray
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT); studies achievement motivation
countertransference
Therapist has transference reaction to the patient
The formula for Weber's law
k = (Change in I)/I Change in I = increase in intensity needed for Just Noticeable Difference (JND) I = original intensity
rehearsal
key to keeping items in the STM and to transferring items to LTM
procedural memory
knowing how to do something - physical actions and motor skills
explicit (or declarative) memory
knowing something and being consciously aware of knowing it, such as knowing a fact. 2 types: 1) episodic memory 2) semantic memory
implicit (or nondeclarative) memory
knowing something without being aware of knowing it
self-esteem
knowing that you are worthwhile and being in touch with your actual strengths
size constancy
knowing the size of something doesn't change (like an elephant is always large)
M. Fischbein and I. Ajzen
known for their theory of reasoned action: people's behavior in a given situation is determined by their attitude about the situation and social norms -- later renamed the theory of planned behavior
M. Fischbein and I. Ajzen
known for their theory of reasoned action: people's behavior in a given situation is determined by their attitude about the situation and social norms. Later renamed **"theory of planned behavior"**
strange situation
lab study designed to measure the quality of the caregiver-child attachment relationship
Harlow (social isolation)
lack of interaction and socialized with normal young monkeys hampered isolated monkeys social development; once brought together with other monkeys, male monkeys did not display normal sexual functioning and isolated female monkeys lacked maternal behaviors
Noam Chomsky
language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language
aphasia
language disorder associated w/ Broca's or Wernicke's area in the brain
social interactionist theory of language
language is learned through social learning and interaction with others (Lev Vygotsky)
cell body (soma)
largest central portion and makes up gray matter; has a nucleus that directs the neuron's activity
fetal period
last stage of prenatal development; onset marked by beginning of measurable electrical activity in the brain
where in the brain is opponent-process theory at work?
lateral geniculate body
Edward Thorndike
law of effect; precursor to operant conditioning
inductive reasoning
leads to general rules that are inferred from specifics ex: "most of the PhD students I know studied hard for their GRE. therefore, studying hard probably helps one do well on the test and then get into graduate school"
deductive reasoning
leads to specific conclusion that must follow from the information given ex: "all coats are blue. she wears a coat. therefore her coat must be blue"
Martin Seligman
learned helplessness
conditioned response
learned response to a CS
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart
learning and recall depend on depth of processing; from most superficial phonological (pronunciation) to deep semantic level, the deeper the easier to learn and recall
classical conditioning (AKA respondent conditioning)
learning connections b/t different events
retroactive inhibition
learning something new that interferes w/ something learned earlier
latent learning
learning that happens but does not demonstrate itself until it is needed later on - ex: watching someone play chess, learning may not be evident until you yourself play chess later
operant conditioning (AKA instrumental conditioning or reward learning)
learning the relationship b/t one's actions and their consequences
Lev Vygotsky
learning through the zone of proximal development, in which a lower achieving student in a particular subject is placed with someone who is just a bit more advanced - also discussed scaffolding learning
Harry Harlow
learning to learn; monkeys became better at learning tasks as they acquired different learning experiences; eventually they could learn after only one trial
Broca's area location
left frontal lobe
Wernicke's area location
left temporal lobe
goal of psychoanalysis
lessen the unconscious pressures on the individual by making as much of this material conscious as possible. this will allow the ego to be a better mediator of forces
libido
life drive present at birth
eros
life instincts that serve the purpose of individual survival--hunger, thirst, sex
neuromodulators
like neurotransmitters but cause long-term changes in postsynaptic cell
criterion of significance
likelihood of making a type I error
Grant Dahlstrom
linked Type A personality to heart disease and other health problems
cingulate gyrus
links areas in the brain dealing with emotion and decisions
Broca's area
located in the dominant hemisphere (usually left) of the frontal lobe of the brain and is associated with speech production
Wernicke's area
located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the dominant hemisphere of the brain (the left for most people) and is asst'd with the comprehension of speech and written language. damage to Wernicke's area results in fluent aphasia, in which a person cannot understand language, but can produce sounds with the rhythm and prosody of language
rods
located int he periphery of the retina, sensory receptors for vision that work best in reduced illumination and only allow perception of achromatic colors have low sensitivity to detail, and are not involved in color vision
genes
located on the chromosomes, they are the basic units of hereditary transmission
Julian Rotter
locus of control
Elaine Hatfield
looked at different kinds of love; the two basic types of love are passionate love and companionate love
aphasia
loss of ability to speak or understand language in spoken or written form
alexia
loss of capacity to read due to an inability yo comprehend written words, read aloud or both; asst'd with damage to left angular gyrus
Getting-leaning type (phlegmatic)
low in activity and high in social contribution; dependent
Avoiding type (melancholic)
low in activity and low in social contribution; withdrawn
Charles Darwin
made evolution a scientifically sound principle by positing that natural selection was its driving force
morphemes
made up of phonemes; the smallest units of meaning in language. ex: "boy" and "-ing"
Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen, and Karl von Frisch
major figures in ethology, shared the Nobel Prize in 1973
mirrors
make people more self-aware (especially large)
overconfidence bias
making of predictions and judgments about ourselves without considering relevant facts
elaboration likelihood model peripheral route
making the audience comfortable and happy and hoping the message sticks
behaviorist model of psychopathology
maladaptive behavior is simply the result of learning maladaptive responses
Cognitive theory model of psychopathology
maladaptive cognitions lead to maladaptive behaviour or disturbed affect
persona
mask that is adopted by a person in response to the demands of social convention
encoding specificity principle
material is more likely to be remembered if it is retrieved in the same context in which it was stored
dementia pracecox
meaning "split mind" this was the old term for schizophrenia
semantics
meaning of words and sentences
punishment
meant to promote extinction of an undesirable behavior; after an unwanted behavior is performed, the punishment is presented; this acts as a negative stimulus which should decrease the likelihood that the earlier behavior will be repeated
operational definitions
measurable definitions of variables in research
Electroencaphalogram (EEG)
measure brain-wave patterns and used to study waking and sleeping states
criterion-referenced tests
measure mastery in a particular area or subject
variability
measure of how loosely or tightly bunched scores are
IQ
measure of intelligence aptitude using an equation comparing mental age to chronological age
standard deviation
measure of the typical distance of scores from the mean
lie detector tests
measure the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, which becomes stimulated by lying (and anxiety)
aptitude tests
measure your innate ability to learn (constantly debated); intended to predict later performance
long-term memory retention
measured by recognition, recall, and savings
incidental learning and memory
measured through presenting subjects with items they are not supposed to try to memorize and then testing for learning
F-scale or F-ratio
measurement of Fascism or authoritarian personality
dependent variable
measurement of the response that is expected to vary w/ differences in the IV
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)
measures cognitive triad and gauges severity of diagnosed depression; determines number of depressive symptoms, for research and clinical settings
savings
measures how much information about a subject remains in LTM by assessing how long it takes to learn something the second time as opposed to the first time
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
measures oxygen flow in different areas of the brain
internal validity
measures the extent to which different items within a measure "hang together" and test the same thing
innate releasing mechanism (IRM)
mechanism in the animal's nervous system that serves to connect the stimulus w/ the right response
reproductive isolating mechanisms
mechanisms that prevent interbreeding between different species; 4 types: 1) behavioral isolation 2) geographic isolation 3) mechanical isolation 4) isolation by season
Clark Hull
mechanistic behavioural ideas; - motivation: performance = drive x habit; - we do what we need and what worked best in the past; - Kenneth Spence modified theory
collectivist societies
members are communally oriented and focus on the common good
episodic memory
memories for particular events from personal experience
screen memory
memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences
mnemonics
memory cues that help learning and recall - ex: OCEAN
declarative memory (AKA fact memory)
memory for explicit info
procedural memory
memory for how things are done
eidetic memory
memory for images
Atkinson-Shiffin model
memory involves 3 structures--sensory, short-term, and long-term)
limbic system and memory
memory is encoded in the brain via this system; hippocampus and amygdala
retrograde amnesia
memory loss for events that occurred before brain injury
anterograde amnesia
memory loss for new info following brain injury
long-term memory
memory system that holds a permanent store of info
short-term memory
memory system w/ limited capacity and a relatively short duration
IQ
mental age/chronological age x 100
schemas
mental frameworks we use to process the enormous amount of information we process. we try to match what we are experiencing with our schemas in order to help determine our response
cognitive map
mental representation of a physical space
single-cell recording
method of study in sensory perception that records the response cell by placing a microelectrode in the cortex
median
middle value when observations are ordered from least to most or from most to least
two-point threshold
min distance necessary b/t 2 points of stimulation on the skin so that the points will be felt as 2 distinct stimuli
two-point threshold
minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli
absolute threshold
minimum of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system
source monitoring errors
misremembering the source of info
type II error
mistakenly failing to reject the null
type I error
mistakenly rejecting the null
method of loci
mnemonic device of associating info w/ some sequence of familiar places
elaboration likelihood model
model of persuasion stating that people will either elaborate on the persuasive message or fail to elaborate on it and that the future actions of those who do elaborate are more predictable than those who do not
Accomodation (Piaget)
modification of cognitive schemata to incorporate new info
Interposition
monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one partially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away
major depressive disorder
mood disorder characterized by at least a 2 wk period during which there is a prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood or loss of interest in all or almost all activities
bipolar disorder
mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania
Lawrence Kohlberg
moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?
Premack principle
more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
most abundant inhibitory transmitter in the nervous system
glutamate
most common excitatory neurotransmitter
reaction time
most frequently used to measure cognitive processing; also called latency
binocular disparity
most important depth perception cue; eyes view objects from 2 slightly diff angles; allows us to create 3d image
intrinsic motivation
motivation by some reward that is inherent to the task
dolphins and language
much research points to dolphins' ability to understand language, but not necessarily using true language to communicate themselves
Atkinson and Shiffrin
multi-store model of memory -serial position effect -amnesiacs
Derald Wing Sue
multiculturalism and cross-cultural counselling; researched microaggression
mesomorph
muscular, athletic body; energetic, aggressive behavior
hindbrain
myelencephalon metencephalon reticular formation
nature vs nurture
name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior
primary reinforcement
natural reinforcement, without requirement of learning; food and water
self-actualization
need to realize one's fullest potential
discrimination
negative treatment or behavior based on prejudicial beliefs
correlations
neither purely descriptive nor purely inferential
Karen Horney
neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety"
Karen Horney
neo-Freudian; emphasized culture and society over instinct; suggested that neuroticism is expressed as movement toward, against, and away from people
Schachter-Singer Theory
nervous system arousal and interpretation of context lead to a cognitive response
dementia
neurological disorder characterized by a loss in intellectual functioning
endorphins
neuromodulators that kick in to reduce or eliminate the perception of pain
dendrites
neuron branches that receive impulses; their branching patterns change throughout life
interneurons
neurons located in the spinal cord that connect sensory neurons w/ motor neurons to form the reflex arc
sensory neurons
neurons that transmit sensory info to the spinal cord and then to the brain via afferent fibers
motor neurons
neurons transmitting motor commands from the brain to the muscles along efferent fibers
acetylcholine
neurotransmitter found in both central and peripheral nervous systems; linked to Alzheimer's disease; used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles
serotonin
neurotransmitter loosely classified as a monoamine or biogenic-amine transmitter generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and arousal
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
neurotransmitter that produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain
conditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus that has been paired w/ an UCS to elicited a CR
neologisms
newly invented words
two components of sleep
non-REM and REM (stage R)
regional cerebral blood flow (RCBF)
non-invasive procedure that detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to diff parts of the brain
signal detection theory
non-sensory factors influence sensory perception
criticisms of social cognitive theory
not a unified, systematic approach to studying personality
negative
not normally absent; flat affect (absence of appropriate emotion); restrictions in thought, speech, avolition or behaviour
positive symptoms
not normally present; delusions, perceptual hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behaviour
psychogenic disorders
now known as dissociative disorders
frequency
number of sound wave cycles per sec
significant
numbers that describe the sample are describing a real difference or pattern rather than just random variation
mean
numerical halfway point b/t the highest score and the lowest score; arithmetic avg
Pearson r correlation coefficient
numerically calculating and expressing correlation; -1 to +1
Bobo doll
nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively
Stanley Milgram
obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions; participants went through the entire experiment 66% of the time
bottom-up processing (AKA data-driven processing)
objects are recognized by the summation of the components of incoming stimulus to arrive at the whole pattern
primacy effect
occasions when 1st impressions are more important than subsequent impressions
recency effect
occasions when the most recent info we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions; tendency for items presented last to be remembered the best
automatic processing
occurs when a task is effortlessly done b/c the task is subsumed under a higher organization process
scaffolding learning
occurs when a teacher encourages the student to learn independently and only provides assistance with topics or concepts that are beyond the student's capability; as the student continues to learn, the teacher aidds with less to encourage the student's independence
ambiguity
occurs when a word (lexical ambiguity) or text (linguistic ambiguity) is open to multiple interpretations or has multiple meanings
self-fulfilling prophecy
occurs when one's expectations somehow draw out, or in a sense cause, the very behavior that is expected. in the beginning, there is a false definition of a situation, which evokes a new behavior, which then makes the original false definition true
insight learning
occurs when the solution to a problem appears all at once rather than building up to a solution
subtractive color mixture
occurs when we mix pigments; primary colors are yellow, blue, and red
dishabituation
occurs when you remove the stimulus to which the organism had become habituated, but if you reintroduce the stimulus, the organism will start noticing it again
Donald Meichenbaum
offered **stress inoculation training**: teaching people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations. Prepares people for foreseeable stressors.
auditory system pathway consists of?
olivary nucleus, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate body
Walter Dill Scott
one of the first to apply **psychology to business,** specifically in advertising; also involved in helping military implement psychological testing to aid with personnel selection
Walter Dill Scott
one of the first to apply psychology to business, specifically in advertising; also involved in helping military implement psychological testing to aid with personnel selection
nikolaas tinbergen
one of the founder of modern ethology; best known for his use of models in naturalistic settings - most famous for experiments involving stickleback fish and herring gull chicks
aversive conditioning
uses punishment to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. ex: drug antabuse, person associates nausea with alcohol and no longer wants to drink
alternate-form method
using 2 or more different forms of a test to determine the reliability of a particular test
convenience sampling
using a sample of people who are readily available to participate
authoritarian parenting style
using punitive control methods and lacking emotional warmth
cued recall
using sensory or verbal hints to stimulate memory ex: fill-in-the-blank tests
language development: children
usually use nouns first, then verbs ex: "me want," "mommy shirt"
mode
value of the most freq observation in a set of scores
independent variable
variable whose effect is being studied
ordinal variables
variables for which response categories are ordered but the distances between adjacent categories are not necessarily equal (ex: marathon finishers)
ratio variables
variables that meet the criteria for interval variables but also have meaningful zero points (ex: age)
sexual dysfunctions
variety of diagnoses related to pain during sex, a loss of interest in sex or an inability to achieve orgasm
honeybee mating
very few male bees (drones) are produce; serve only one purpose which is to mate with the queen
iconic memory
visual memory
afterimage
visual sensation that appears after prolonged or intense exposure to a stimulus
iconic memory
visual sensory memory
Method of Loci
visualizing a place you know very well with something you are trying to remember and then creating associations between the two
Clive Wearing
was a great conductor but got a virus and lost his hippocampus. can't make new long term memories and his short term lasts between 7-30 seconds. procedural memory was not affected (he could still play piano) but episodic was. hippocampus must control memory transfer from short to long term memory.
Harry Stack Sullivan
was an American **Neo-Freudian** psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who held that the personality lives in, and has his or her being in, a **complex of interpersonal relations.** Emphasized social and interpersonal relationships
Arnold Gesell
was an early child developmentalist who believed that **nature provided a blueprint for development through maturation and that environment, or nurture, filled in the details.** Observed that children go through same predetermined developmental stages, but at their own rates and paces, and that a child's chronological and developmental ages may be significantly different. Identified four areas of growth and development that have normative trends: motor, adaptive (cognitive), language, and personal/social behavior. Their multifaceted approach is still widely used today
social exchange theory
we are motivated to affiliate w/ others based upon the rewards and costs of affiliation--the more the rewards outweigh the costs, the great the attraction to the other person
excitation-transfer theory
we attribute our excitement or physiological arousal about one thing to someone else (ex: bungee jumping on first date)
modeling
we do not require reinforcements or associations or practice in order to learn
resource model of attention
we have a limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks
reciprocity hypothesis
we tend to likely those who seem to like us and dislike those who seem to dislike us
social norms
what is considered normal behavior for a particular society
extinction
when a CS is repeatedly not reinforce and as a result, the CR is no longer produced as consistently
brightness contrast
when a particular luminance appears brighter when surrounded by a darker stimulus than when surrounded by a lighter stimulus
optimism bias
when a person anticipates more positive outcomes than they do negative outcomes
body dysmorphic disorder
when a person has an unrealistic sense of their body or perceives flaws or defects that are not actually there. this often accompanies the feeding and eating disorders
magical thinking
when a person imagines something will happen but is unlikely when examined realistically (ex: believing in superstitions)
stereotype boost
when a person who belongs to a group that has a positive stereotype attached to it subconsciously conforms to the positive stereotype
illusory correlation
when a relationship is inferred when there actually is none (ex: insisting a relationship exists b/w physical and personality characteristics despite evidence that no such relationship exists)
size constancy
when an object appears to retain its size despite the fact that its image on the retina has changed in size
self-perception theory
when attitudes about something are weak or ambiguous, people observe their own behavior and then attribute attitudes to themselves
variable-ratio (VR)
when behavior is reinforced after a varying number of responses
variable interval (VI)
when behavior is reinforced at the 1st response made after a variable amt of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement
all-or-nothing law
when depolarization researches the critical threshold, the neuron will fire, each time, every time
pluralistic ignorance
when most of the people in a group privately disagree with something but incorrectly believe that most people in the group agree with it
hostile attributional bias
when people perceive hostility in others, they are more likely to respond with hostility
top-down processing (AKA conceptually-driven processing)
when people recognized objects by using conceptual processes such as memories and expectations about the whole object
acquiscence
when people say yes or strongly agree to every item instead of thinking about each one
incongruence in humanistic perspective
when person enocunters experiences in life that contradict with self-concept. Must modify or distort self-concept in order to be "normal."
reactance
when social pressure to behave in a particular way becomes so blatant that the person's sense of freedom is threatened and they act in a way to reassert that sense of freedom
demand characteristic
when subjects act in ways they think experimenter wants or expects
placebo effect
when subjects behave differently just because they think that they have received the treatment substance or condition
object relations therapy
when the therapist uses the patient's transference to help him or her resolve problems that were the result of previous relationships by correcting the emotional experience in the therapist-patient relationship
countertransference
when therapist experiences emotions in response to patient's transference
social exclusion
when we are "left out" of a group - diminishes our desire to help others
stereotype threat
when we are at risk for confirming a negative stereotype about our group and causes us to underperform
proactive inhibition
when what you learned earlier interfered w/ what you learn later
Type 1 error
when you incorrectly reject the null hypothesis; you thought your findings were significant but they were really only caused by chance
axon hillock
where soma and axon connect
face validity
whether test items appear to measure what they are supposed to measure
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
widely used test designed to measure the intelligence of children 6 to 16 years old
semantic priming
words that are semantically related to each other make each other faster during lexical decision
prefrontal cortex
working memory; sensory input from thalamus
decision making
working on solving a problem until an acceptable solution is found; usually based on some sort of assumption, which could either be rational or irrational, and the solution is usually found by relying on reasoning and/or emotion - ex: making a list of pros and cons, flipping a coin, divination, and consulting an expert
type 2 error
wrongly accept the null hypothesis; tests showed your findings to be insignificant when in fact they were significant
age and SMI
young adults in their late teens and early 20s are more likely to be diagnosed with SMI than adults in any other age group, followed by adults in their mid-20s to age 50; adults over 50 are least likely to report an SMI
Lev Vygotsky
zone of proximal development and scaffolding
Vygotsky
zone of proximal development- gap between what kid can do alone and with help scaffolding- when an adult gives help
John Locke
tabula rasa (blank slate); knowledge is not innate
conception
takes place in the fallopian tubes where the ovum or egg cell is fertilized by the male sperm cell
existential theory therapy
talking therapy; deep questions relating to client's perception/meaning of existence discussed
avoidance conditioning
teaches an animal how to avoid something the animal does not want; occurs when you avoid a predictable, unpleasant stimulus
matched-subjects design
technique of matching subjects on the basis of the variable that the researcher wants to control
control group design
technique of treating experimental and control groups equally in all respects except that one group is exposed to the treatment in the experiment and the other is not
clustering
technique to enhance memory by organizing items into conceptually-related categories
token economy
technique used in behavior therapy to reinforce behavior by giving tokens which can be cashed in for something desirable for appropriate behavior
mnemonic device
technique used to improve the likelihood that we will remember something
systematic desensitization
technique used to treat phobias by pairing the object of fear w/ relaxation
mesencephalon (midbrain)
tectum and tegmentum
deviation quotient
tells us how far away a person's IQ score is from the average score for that person's particular age group
physiological zero
temperature of the skin
physiological zero
temperature that is sensed as neither warm nor cold
working memory
temporary memory that is necessary for the successful performance of a task on which one is currently working
actor-observer effect
tendency for actors to see observers' behavior as due to external/situational factors and for observers to attribute actors' behavior to internal/dispositional characteristics
law of good continuation
tendency for elements appearing to follow in the same direction to be grouped together
law of proximity
tendency for elements close to each other to be perceived as a unit
group polarization
tendency for ground discussion to enhance the group's initial tendencies toward riskiness or caution
law of closure
tendency for people to perceive complete figures even when the actual figures are not complete
mere-exposure hypothesis
tendency for people to prefer things with which they are familiar
social loafing
tendency for people to put forth less effort when part of a group than when acting individually
law of pragnanz
tendency for perceptual organization to be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible
centration
tendency for preoperational children to be able to focus on only 1 aspect of a phenomenon
response bias
tendency for research participants to respond to sensory perception in a particular way due to nonsensory factors
law of similarity
tendency for similar objects to be grouped togetehr
groupthink
tendency of decision-making groups to strive for consensus at the expense of not considering discordant info
Hawthorne effect
tendency of people to behave differently if they know that they are being observed
constancy
tendency of people to perceive objects in the way that they are familiar with them, regardless of changes in the actual retinal image
overjustification effect
tendency of people to stop liking something that they previously enjoyed b/c of receiving a reward for the behavior
fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute individual characteristics as causes of others' behaviors and situational characteristics to one's own behavior
just world hypothesis
tendency to believe that the world is fair and that people who are good are rewarded while people who are bad are punished
dissonance theory
tendency to change thoughts or behavior in response to perceived inconsistencies
exchange theory
tendency to evaluate interactions and relationships in terms of relative costs and benefits
social comparison theory
tendency to evaluate self in comparison to other people drives affiliation
halo effect
tendency to generalize from one attribute or characteristic to a person's entire personality
similarity
tendency to group together items that are alike
proximity
tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group
phi phenomenon
tendency to perceive smooth motion (apparent motion)
social loafing
tendency to work less hard in a group than one would if working individually; guarded against when each individual is closely monitored
hypothesis
tentative and testable explanation of the relationships b/t 2+ variables
t-score
test score converted to a normal distribution w/ a mean of 50 and a standard dev of 10
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
tests whether at least two groups co-vary; importantly, the ANCOVA can adjust for preexisting differences between groups
one-way ANOVA
tests whether the means on one factor or independent variable are significantly different across groups
diencephalon
thalamus and hypothalamus
DSM-5
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.
backward conditioning
the NS is presented after the UCS is presented. for Pavlov's dog, they would have been presented with the food and then the light. - has proven to be ineffective - only accomplishes inhibitory conditioning (means that later the dogs would have a harder time pairing the light and the food even if they were presented in a forward fashion)
trace conditioning
the NS stimulus is presented and terminated before the UCS is presented
simultaneous conditioning
the UCS and NS are presented at the same time
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
feature detection
the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges
Colour constancy
the ability to perceive the colour of an object as constant even if it appears to change with changes in lighting
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions; no scientific instrument to measure this has been developed; some believe it is another name for interpersonal skills
chaining
the act of linking together a series of behaviors that ultimately result in reinforcement; one behavior triggers the next, and so on
companionate love
the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined; intimacy and commitment, no passion
Behavior Theory
the application of classical and operant conditioning principles to human abnormal behavior; a model based on learning
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
criticisms of REBT
the approach does not emphasize feelings, the counselor client relationship, and REBT is mechanistic or even sterile; may be too complex for those with psychosis or thought disorders
syntax
the arrangement of words into sentences as prescribed by a particular language
Harold Kelley
the attributions we make about our actions or those of others are usually accurate; we base this on consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of the action
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information; causes retroactive inhibition
M.J. Lerner's just world bias
the belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people. It is uncomfortable for people to accept that bad things happen to good people, so they blame the victim
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster; area of greatest VISUAL ACUITY
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity
the claim that the structure of a language shapes what people think and do; the social construction of reality - has been use for the importance of nonsexist language - however, cultures that don't have words for certain colors can still recognize them, so it is unclear to what extent language really affects our perceptions
reciprocal interaction
the constant exchange of influences between people is a constant factor in our behavior
shadow
the dark side, often projected onto others; symbolized in cultures by devils and evil spirits
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group
gender identity
the extent to which a person identifies with different aspects of "maleness" and/or "femaleness;" typically develops prior to age of 4, but some individuals experience changes later in life
Hermann Ebbinghaus
the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well; forgetting curve
meditation
the focusing of attention to clear one's mind and produce relaxation
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information; causes proactive inhibition
self
the full individual potential, symbolized in cultures by figures such as Buddha or Jesus, the mandala
REBT goal of therapy
the goal is for effective rational beliefs (E) to replace previous self-defeating ones. then a client's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours can coexist
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
empathy-altruism hypothesis
the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain
agnosia
the inability to process sensory information; often involves damage to the occipital or parietal lobe
Nikolaas Tinbergen
one of the founder of modern ethology; best known for their use of models in naturalistic settings - most famous for experiments involving stickleback fish and herring gull chicks to find evidence of **fixed action patterns**. Stickleback fish develop red coloration on their belly, and they fight each other. This person hypothesized that the red belly acted as a releasing/sign stimulus for the attacks. > attacks with red belly than no red belly. Herring gull chicks peck at the end of their parents' bills, which have a red spot on the tip. The parent then regurgitates food for the chicks. This person hypothesized that the red spot on the bill is what signals the chick to peck at this particular spot. The greater the contrast between the bill and the red spot, the more vigorously the chicks would peck, even when the contrast was so strong as to be unnatural (**supernormal sign stimulus** = artificial stimuli that exaggerate the naturally occurring sign stimulus or releaser. They are more effective than the natural releaser).
Socrates
one of the founders of Western philosophy and mentor to Plato; pondered the abstract ideas of truth, beauty, justice
Donald Hebb
one of the founders of neuropsychology, "what fires together, wires together"
biosocial model
one's health is affected by a combination of biological, psychological, behavioral, and social factors
rhodopsin
only photopigment in rods, made up of a vitamin A derivative and a protein
menarche
onset of the menstrual cycle
James Cattell
opened more psychology labs, thought psychology should be more scientific than Wundt
Big Five
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
B. F. Skinner
operant conditioning
stimulus generalization
opposite of stimulus discrimination; to generalize is to make the same response to a group of similar stimuli
hormone effects
organizational or activational
taxonomies
organized categorization systems, by statistical techniques for personality
schema
organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event - process of categorizing new events and objects based on how well they match the existing attributes of schemas -- Piaget called this process "assimilation"
vestibular sacs
organs in the inner ear that connect the semicircular canals and the cochlea and contribute to the body's sense of balance
type theory
originally dominated personality theory; as far back as Hippocrates, people were placed into personality-type categories often based on physical appearance
self-awareness theory
our behavior is influenced by an awareness of self and there are certain situations that trigger a focus on ourselves
terror management
our efforts to control an uncontrollable world and keep our fear of death at bay
linguistic relativity hypothesis (AKA Whorfian hypothesis)
our perception of reality is determined by the content of language
inner ear
oval window, cochlea, basilar membrane, hair cells
overregularization
overapplication of grammar rules (e.g. i founded that) found=past, -ed is also past - typical in children approx 2-5 years old
Base-rate fallacy
overestimating the general frequency of things we are most familiar with
frequency
pace of vibrations or sound waves per second for a particular sound
phantom limb pain
pain in a limb (or extremity) that has been amputated
Ronald Melzack, Patrick Wall, and Gate control theory of pain
pain perception is related to the interaction of large and small nerve fibers that run to and from the spine; pain may or may not be perceived depending on different factors, including cognition
behaviorists explanation of memory
paired-associate learning; one item is learned with, and then cues the recall of, another
aversion therapy
pairing unpleasant stimuli w/ undesirable behavior
somatic nervous system (SNS)
part of the PNS that interacts with the external environment by controlling voluntary movements of striated muscles
projection area
part of the brain receiving incoming sensory info or sending out motor-impulse commands
Photons
particles of light
self-presentation
particularly positive self-presentation; act in ways that are in line with our attitudes or in ways that will be accepted by others
fatuous love
passion and commitment, no intimacy
Brenda Milner
patient "HM" lesion of hippocampus, remembered things before surgery, STM intact, but could not store new LTMs (anterograde amnesia)
personality disorder
pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress and/or impaired functioning in 2+ of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, and impulse control
role theory
people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill and behavior can be understood and attributed to the adoption of those social roles
expectancy-value theory
people are motivated by goals that they think they might actually meet; another factor is how important the goal is
Premack principle
people are motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves after with something they like to do (Pre-mack (pre-kissing), you have to do work)
Peter principle
people are promoted at work until they reach a position of incompetence, the position which they remain
James-Lange theory of emotions
people become aware of their emotions after they notice their physiological reactions to some external event
negative state relief model
people behave prosocially in order to feel better about themselves or their situation
empathic joy hypothesis
people behave prosocially speifically to feel good
catharsis hypothesis
people can redirect aggressive energy by releasing it in other ways (ex: punching a pillow to diminish aggressive impulses)
Simmel (1944)
people described movement of geometric shapes as having intentions
functional fixedness
people develop closed minds about the functions of certain objects ex: cannot think of creative uses or think divergently. "a bird cage is good only for housing birds"
equity theory
people feel most comfortable in situations in which rewards and punishments are equal, fitting, or highly logical
implicit theories of personality
people often make assumptions about the dispositions of an individual based on the actions of that person
dispositionists
people who emphasized internal determinants of behavior
humanistic model of psychopathology
people who lack congruence b/w their real selves and self-concept develop psychological tension
illusion of control
people's belief that they can influence events, even when they have no control over what will happen (manipulating the lottery, gambling, superstition)
impression management
people's efforts to control the impressions that others receive of them
personology
people's needs interact with presses, which refer to the environmental stimuli impacting the needs
endorphins
peptides that are natural painkillers produced in the brain
color constancy
perceived color of an object does not change when we change the wavelength of the light we see
subliminal perception
perceiving a stimulus that one is not consciously aware of
nativist theory of perception
perception and cognition are innate
empiricist theory of perception
perception is learned and develops as the individual adapts to their environment
multistability
perception of an object can alternate b/w 2 or more possible interpretations
hallucinations
perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality
Yerkes-Dodson law
performance is worst at extremely low or extremely high levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level
John Garcia
performed classical conditioning experiments in which it was discovered that animals are programmed through evolution to make certain connections; the concept that certain associations are learned more easily than others is called **preparedness**
relative refractory period
period following the absolute refractory period in which the neuron will fire in response to a strong stimulus
refractory period
period following the firing of a neuron just before the neuron is able to fire again
germinal period
period of rapid cell division during prenatal development that lasts approx 2 wks and ends w/ the implantation of the cellular mass into the uterine wall
obsessions
persistent irrational thoughts
George Kelly
personal constructs determine personality and behaviour
projective tests
personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind
social-cognitive perspective
personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors
California Personality Inventory (CPI)
personality measure used for more "normal", less clinical groups than MMPI (common person inventory)
California Personality Inventory (CPI)
personality measure used for more "normal", less clinical groups than MMPI; developed by Harrison Gough at UC Berkeley (common person inventory)
field independence
personality style characterized by an ability to distinguish experience from its context
field dependence
personality style characterized by an inability to distinguish experience from its context
consistency theories
perspectives from social psychology that hold that people prefer consistency b/t attitudes and behaviors and that people will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference
prodromal phase
phase before schizophrenia is actually diagnosed, characterized by poor adjustment
eidetic imagery
photographic memory; more common in children and rural cultures
Franz Joseph Gall
phrenology
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
secondary sex characteristics
physical characteristics that do not appear until puberty; enlarged breasts and widened hips for females; facial hair and deeper voices for males
brightness
physical intensity of light
Aaron Beck
pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression.
Albert Bandura
pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
Melanie Klein
pioneered object-relations theory and psychoanalysis with children
Melanie Klein
pioneered object-relations theory and psychoanalysis with children; developed play therapy technique
Hermann von Helmholtz
place-resonance theory of sound perception in which different parts of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies
ego
the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
diffusion of responsibility
the larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels to help
variable ratio schedule
the learning is less likely to become extinguished; is different from a fixed ratio schedule b/c reinforcement are delivered after different numbers of correct responses. the ratio cannot be predicted. learning is very powerful with this behavior - ex: slot machines
Benjamin Whorf
posited that language, or how a culture says things, influences that culture's perspective (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis / linguistic relativity check / Whorfian Hypothesis). It is not clear to what extent language affects our perceptions
Benjamin Whorf
posited that language, or how a culture says things, influences that culture's perspective (Whorfian Hypothesis)
Donald Hebb and memory
posited that memory involves changes of synapses and neural pathways, making a "memory tree" - described the process of Long-Term Potentiation
Leonard Berkowitz
posited the frustration-aggression hypothesis: a frustration in achieving a goal (no matter how small) leads to the show of aggression
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
positive charges from the outside are allowed into the cell (DEPOLARIZATION) - increase the chance that a cell will fire
attitude
positive, negative, or neutral evaluation of a person, issue or object
Klinefelter's syndrome
possession of an extra X chromosome in males that leads to sterility and often to mental retardation
law of effect
postulated a cause-and-effect chain of behaviour revolving around reinforcement
mental set
preconceived notion of how to look at a problem. this may help future problem solving
social influence
presence of other people affects an individual's judgment about an event
self-promotion
presenting of our best selves to others
denial
preventing painful or anxiety-producing truths from entering one's consciousness
positive transfer
previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task later
negative transfer
previous learning that makes it more difficult to learn a new task
all-or-none law
principle that the action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; the neuron either fires at full strength or it does not fire at all
punishment
probability that a response will be made is decreased by giving the organism something undesirable whenever the response is made
negative reinforcement
probability that the desired response will be performed is increased by removing something undesirable whenever the desired response is made
why does it take longer to make associations between pictures than between words
probably b/c pictures must mentally be put into words before associations can be made
order effects
problem in research design when the results of the study are attributed to the sequence of tasks in the experiment rather than to the IV
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
problem w/ memory retrieval where some parts of the info are available to memory but not enough for complete recall
algorithms
problem-solving strategies that consider every possible solution and eventually hit on the correct solution. this may take a great deal of time for humans, but computers use algorithms and process them very quickly
heuristics
problem-solving strategies that use rules of thumb or short-cuts based on what has worked in the past. - cannot guarantee a solution but is faster than an algorithm
nonequivalent control group
problematic type of control group is used when an equivalent one cannot be isolated
Bona fide pipeline
procedure used to determine a person's implicit associations or beliefs about other social groups. Participants have to rate adjectives as positive or negative, but before they rate the adjectives, they are exposed to faces of people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds
availability heuristic
process in which people think there is a higher proportion of one thing in a group than there really is b/c examples of that one thing come to mind more easily
lateral inhibition
process of inhibiting the response of adjacent retinal cells resulting in the sharpening and highlighting of the borders b/t dark and light areas
elaborative rehearsal
process of organizing info and associating it w/ what you already know to get info into long-term memory
encoding
process of putting new info into memory
maintenance rehearsal
process of rehearsing info so that items remain in short-term memory for a longer duration than usual
extirpation
process of removing various parts of the brain and then observing behavioral consequences
storage
process of retaining info in memory over time
vicarious punishment
process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior
vicarious reinforcement
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior
language development: reading and writing
processed in the same regions of the brain as producing and understanding speech - slight differences as there are people who are unable to read (alexia) or write (agraphia) but have no problems speaking or understanding speech
controlled processing
processing of data with systematic, logical, thoughtful awareness
retrieval
processing of recovering stored material in memory
shaping
processing of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior
automatic processing
processing of the data in the world without conscious awareness
oligodendrocytes
produce myelin in CNS
schwann cells
produce myelin in PNS
gonadotropic hormones
produced by the pituitary gland during puberty and activate a dramatic increased in the production of hormones by the testes or ovaries
estrogen
the main class of female sex hormones causes secondary sex characteristics to develop and genitals to mature
androgens
the main class of male sex hormones causes secondary sex characteristics to develop and genitals to mature
David Buss
prominent evolutionary theorist who explored, among many other topics, gender differences in human mate preferences; researched how jealousy and other challenging experiences may be evolutionarily adaptive
frustration-aggression hypothesis
proposed by Dollard and Miller - posits that frustration in achieving a goal (no matter how small) leads to the show of aggression
M.J. Lerner
proposed concept of belief in a just world or **"just world bias":** the belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people. It is uncomfortable for people to accept that bad things happen to good people, so they blame the victim.
animus
the male elements that a female possess; this complements her own femaleness
pituitary gland
the master gland of the endocrine system
language
the meaningful arrangement of sounds
Neil Miller
proposed the **approach-avoidance conflict** - refers to the state one feels when a certain goal has both pros and cons. The further one is from the goal, the more they focus on the pros while the closer they are, they focus more on the cons
Nancy Cantor
proposed the **cognitive prototype approach** in which cognitive behavior (such as the formulation of and attention to prototypes) is examined in social situations. **The consistency of behavior is the result of cognitive processes, rather than the result of personality traits per se.**
Nancy Cantor
proposed the cognitive prototype approach in which cognitive behavior (such as the formulation of and attention to prototypes) is examined in social situations
blood-brain barrier
protects the brain by preventing toxic substances from entering its tissues
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)
protocol commonly used in the medical setting to help alleviate stress; meditators have increased alpha and theta waves while they are medidating
Neal Miller
proved experimentally that abnormal behaviour can be learned
somatosenses
provide information about what is happening on the surface of our body and inside it
free association
psychoanalytic technique in which the client says whatever comes to their mind regardless of how personal, painful, or seemingly irrelevant it may appear so that the analyst and patient together can reconstruct the nature of the client's original conflict
Alderian therapy
psychodynamic approach in which unconscious feelings do play a role; examination of a person's lifestyle and choices
Analytical therapy
psychodynamic; to become aware of unconscious-analyze unconscious materials (dreams, artwork, personal symbols)
dissociative disorders formerly known as ...
psychogenic disorders
social cognitive model of psychopathology
psychological problems are usually the result of dysfunctional expectancies in which a person has expectations that either cannot or will not be fulfilled in the way desired
conversion disorder
psychological problems converted to bodily symptoms; relate to voluntary movement and may be manifested as "paralysis" in part of the body; formerly known as "hysteria" from Freud's work
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
psychologists; sensation and perception--discovered feature detectors, groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual stimuli
model of psychopathology for analytical theory
psychopathology is a signal that smth is wrong in the makeup of the psyche; provides clues about how one could become more aware
double-bind hypothesis
psychosocial theory of schizophrenia which holds that people w/ the disorder received contradictory messages from primary caregivers during childhood and that these contradictory messages led them to see their perceptions of reality as unreliable
central traits
qualities that one possesses across situations
Psychophysics (Fechner)
quantitative relations b/w psychological sensations and physical stimuli
honeybee hierarchy
queen bee is at the top, constantly tended to and fed by all the other bees, lays thousands of eggs
encoding specificity theory
recall is best if the context at recall approximates the context during the original encoding
state-dependent learning
recall is better if the psychological or physical state at the time of recall is the same as the state when original learning occurred
generation-recognition model
recall tasks tap the same basic process of accessing info in memory as recognition tasks but also require an additional processing step
hippocampus
receives LTM and then sends it to the appropriate sensory cortex for storage
3 steps of sensation
reception, sensory transduction, transmission down neural pathways
osmoreceptors
receptors in the hypothalamus that control the maintenance of water balance in the body
phobia
recognized, unreasonable, intense anxiety symptoms and avoidance anchored to a stimulus
bottom-up processing
recognizing an item or pattern from data or details (data driven) - this is opposed to top-down processing, which is guided by larger concepts
flashbulb memories
recollections that seem burned into the brain, such as "what is your memory of the World Trade Center collapsing?"
electroencephalograph (EEG)
records a gross avg of the electrical activity in diff parts of the brain
panic disorder
recurrent panic attacks and persistent worry about another attack; this disorder is often accompanied by a mitral valve heart problem
z-scores
refer to the number of standard deviations a score is from the mean
stimulus discrimination
refers to a person's ability to perceive differences in stimuli. ex: a doorbell ringing means smth different from a phone ringing
empathy
refers to a person's literally feeling what another is feeling, as if they are in another's shoes, as opposed to sympathy, which is feeling bad for another person
aptitude
refers to a set of characteristics that are indicative of a person's ability to learn
ego depletion
refers to a situation in which a person's resources or coping skills have been exhausted, which can make it more difficult for that person to self-regulate
ingroup/outgroup bias
refers to a situation in which individuals in one group think their members have more positive qualities and fewer negative qualities than members of the other group even though the qualities are the same in each; basis for prejudice
tokenism
refers to admitting one or a very few members of a previously excluded group, often to display supposed inclusion and reduce claims of discrimination from minority groups
glass ceiling
refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual's gender, race, or ethnicity
concurrent validity
refers to how well scores on a new measure positively correlate with other measures known to test the same construct; this process is cross validation
self-reference
refers to making information personally relevant in order to remember it
social identity
refers to person's self-concept as defined by the groups and social categories to which he or she belongs
state dependent learning
refers to the concept that what a person learns in one state is best recalled in that state
face validity
refers to the degree to which a test is effective in its aims
content validity
refers to the degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover
construct validity
refers to the degree to which the test really taps the abstract concept being measured
metacognition
refers to the process of thinking about your own thinking. it might involve knowing what solving strategies to apply and when to apply them, or knowing how to adapt your thinking to new situations
sexual dimorphism
refers to the structural differences between the sexes ; has arisen through both natural and sexual selections
Raymond Cattell
refined Allport's personality traits, declared there were 16 essential personality factors; was later replaced with the 5-factor model
Variance and Standard Deviation
reflect how much the scores in a distribution are spread out in relation to their mean
primary circular reactions
reflex activities characteristic of behavior during the sensorimotor phase
association area
region of the brain that integrates info from different cortical regions
fixed ratio schedule
reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made. ex: if the ratio is 6:1, after every 6 correct responses, there is a reward
repeated exposure effect
related to proximity and suggests that the more contact we have with something or someone will increase our positive feelings
Stevens' power law
relates intensity of the stimulus to the intensity of the sensation
figure-ground relationship
relationship b/w the meaningful part of a picture (the figure) and the background (the ground)
traits
relatively stable characteristics, such as abilities, psychological motives, or consistent patterns of behavior
thalamus
relays sensory info to the appropriate cortex (occipital for visual input and temporary for aural input) and sends it to the prefrontal cortex
Acetylcholine
released at the neuromuscular junction to cause the contraction of skeletal muscles; involved in the parasympathetic nervous system
availability heuristic
relies on using examples that immediately come to mind rather than facts to make a decision ex: if news of a plane crash is on constantly, a person may think they are more likely to die in a plane crash than by heart disease or cancer, which are statistically far more likely. but b/c they can call the example of the plane crash to mind, they declare death by plane crash more likly
bystander effect
reluctance of people to intervene to help others in emergency situations when other people also witness the situation
confirmation bias
remembering and using information that confirms what you already think
shadow
repeat message to ensure that the other message is not consciously attended to in dichotic presentation
rehearsal in encoding
repetition of information over and over
Sample must be
representative of the population and unbiased
recall
requires that subjects generate information on their own - cued recall vs. free recall
single-blind experiment
research design that controls for influence of the research participants' expectations by not revealing whether they're in the control or experimental group
double-blinding
research design that controls for the influence of the researcher and research participants since neither group knows which participants are in the control group and which are in the experimental group
true experiments
research designs that use random assignment and manipulate the IV
method of savings
research technique for studying memory by measuring the amt of time it takes to learn material and comparing it to the amt of time it takes to relearn the same material later; decrease in time represents an indication of original learning
Harry Harlow
researched development with rhesus monkeys; particularly significant relating to developmental psychology were his results with social isolation and maternal stimulation
Anne Anastasi
researched intelligence in relation to performance
nonequivalent group design
researcher doesn't use random assignment so the control group isn't necessarily equivalent to the experimental group
Martin Seligman
researcher known for work on learned helplessness and learned optimism as well as positive psychology
Wolfgang Kohler
researcher who studied insight learning in chimps; chimps try to get bananas out of reach, spent most of their time frustrated by their inability to reach the banana, then all of a sudden realized they could stack the boxes, climb up and reach the banana
experimenter bias (Rosenthal effect)
researchers see what they want to see; minimized in a double-blind experiment
Pacinian corpuscles
respond to displacements of skin
opiate receptors
respond to endorphins as well as narcotics
free nerve endings
respond to pain and temperature
unconditional response
response that occurs w/o any behavioral conditioing
conditioned response (CR)
response that the CS elicits after conditioning. the UCR and the CR are the same (dogs' salivation)
temporal lobe
responsible for hearing; includes Wernicke's area which is involved in language comprehension
parietal lobe
responsible for somatosensory system
occipital lobe
responsible for vision
tardive dyskinesia
resting tremors and jerky motor movements caused by disruptions of dopamine transmission
dark adaptation
result of regeneration of retinal pigment
what is considered the oldest part of the brain?
reticular formation
where in the brain is trichomatic theory at work?
retina
duplexity (AKA duplicity theory of vision)
retina contains 2 kinds of photoreceptors
Young-Helmholtz theory (AKA trichromatic theory)
retina contains 3 diff types of cones which are all differentially sensitive to red, blue, or green and all colors are produced by combined stimulation of these receptors
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina (called the fovea) and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
state-dependent memory
retrieval is more successful if it occurs in the same emotional state or physical state in which encoding occurred
regression
reverting back to an earlier psychosexual stage of development, often in response to anxiety
Lewis Terman
revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of gifted children and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life
correct rejection
rightly stating that no stimulus exists
receptor cells
rods and cones responsible for sensory transduction which happens through the chemical alteration of photopigments
transformational grammar
rules that govern the ways in which changes in word order change meaning
efferent fibers
run away from the CNS
afferent fibers
run toward the CNS
sublimation
satisfying a personally or socially unacceptable instinct by substituting a more acceptable, often creative or highly productive behaviour than the one that the individual would otherwise engage in to satisfy the impulse
nominal scale (AKA categorical scale)
scale of measurement that labels observations rather than quantifying observations
interval scale
scale of measurement using actual numbers (not ranks)
ratio scale
scale of measurement using actual numbers where there is a true zero point that indicates the total absences of the quantity being measured
ordinal scale
scale of measurement using ranks rather than actual numbers
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
scans glucose metabolism to measure activity in various brain regions
too much dopamine
schizophrenia
schizoaffective disorder
schizophrenic symptoms accompanying a depressive episode
radical behaviorism
school of thought where it is believed that all behavior, animal and human, can be explained in terms of stimuli and responses, or reinforcements and punishments; makes no allowances for how thoughts or feelings might factor into the equation
psychopharmacology
science of how drugs affect behavior
Karl von Frisch
scientist known for his extensive studies of honeybee communications and the famous bee waggle dance
z-score
score that represents how many standard devs above or below the mean a score is
permissive parenting style
scoring very low on control/demand measures
Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin
scrutinized studies of sex differences and found that relatively few existed that could not be explained away by simple social learning; females have greater verbal ability and males have greater visual/spatial ability
self-monitoring
scrutiny of one's own behaviour, motivation to act appropriately rather than honestly, and ability to mask true feelings
depolarization
second stage in the firing cycle which occurs when the membrane's electrical charge decreases--anytime the membrane's voltage moves toward a neutral charge of 0 mV
transduction
second step in sensory info processing where physical energy is translated into neural impulses or action potentials
adrenal and pituitary glands
secrete androgen (boys) and estrogen (girls) that cause the visible secondary sex characteristics and the growth spurt
follicle-stimulating hormone
secreted by the pituitary gland to stimulate the growth of an ovarian follicle
R.C. Tyron
selectively bred "maze bright" and "maze dull" rats to demonstrate the heritability of behavior
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
selectively inhibits serotonin reuptake and results in potentiation of serotonergic neurotransmissions (Luvox, Paxilo, Prozac, Zoloft)
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives - more likely to occur in a group that has unquestioned beliefs, pressure to conform, invulnerability, censors, cohesiveness within, isolation from without, and a strong leader
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
vestibular sense
sense of balance of our bodily position relative to gravity
proprioception
sense of bodily position
Gustation
sense of taste (sweet, bitter, sour, salty, umami)
Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory
papillae
sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste
vestibular labyrinth
series of interconnected structures continuous with the cochlea
role
set of behavior norms that seem suitable for a particular person
Down's syndrome
set of physiological conditions including severe mental retardation that result from an extra 21st chromosome
Libido (psychoanalysis)
sexual force
sexual sadism disorder
sexual gratification derived from the physical pain of another
reciprocity of disclosure
sharing secrets/feelings facilitates emotional closeness
endomorph
short, plump body; pleasure-seeking, social behavior
Rochel Gelman
showed that Piaget might have underestimated the cognitive ability of preschoolers; said that they can deal with ideas such as quantity in small sets of objects
J. Rodin and E. Langer
showed that nursing home residents who have plants to care for have better health and lower mortality rates
Richard Nisbett
showed that we lack awareness for why we do what we do
Muzafer Sherif
showed that win/lose gam-type competition can trigger serious conflict in groups
Muzafer Sherif
showed that win/lose game-type competition can also trigger serious conflict in groups. Performed **Robbers Cave Experiment** and showed that group conflict is most effectively overcome by the need for cooperative attention to a higher superordinate goal. The experiment also revealed how easily in-groups and out-groups can form, and it more importantly revealed strategies for conflict resolution. Also performed classic experiment that **people's descriptions of the autokinetic effect were influenced by others' descriptions.**
moon illusion
shows how context affects perception; the moon on the horizon appears to be larger than the moon in the sky
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots; validity is questionable
unconditioned response (UCR)
the naturally occurring response to the UCS. in Pavlov's experiment, it was the dogs' salivation in response to the food. - often are reflexive or instinctual behaviors
individual's motivation (psychoanalytic theory)
the need to seek pleasure and avoid pain
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
consistency paradox
the observation that personality ratings across time and among different observers are consistent while behavior ratings across situations are not consistent
Psychoanalysis
the original "talk" therapy
cerebral cortex
the outer half-inch of the cerebral hemisphere
persona
the outward mask or role that a person assumes; symbolized in cultures by masks
t-test
significance test used to compare means of 2 groups
grammar
the overall rules of the interrelationship between morphemes and syntax that make up a certain language
Pragnanz
the overarching Gestalt idea that experience will be organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and simple whenever possible.
superego
the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations; particularly influenced by moral and parental training
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the pathway that runs to and from the CNFS
apparent motion
the perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations (rapidly shown still-frame pictures)
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.
internal locus of control
the perception that one controls one's own fate
relative refractory period
the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized)
serial-anticipation learning
similar to serial learning; however, instead of being asked to recall the entire list at once, the subject is asked to recall one item at a time
ANOVA
similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups.
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank
similar to word association; subjects finish incomplete sentences
mere-exposure effect
simply having some familiarity with something or someone will increase our positiv efeelings
recognition
simply requires subjects to recognize things learned in the past - ex: multiple choice tests
autokinetic effect
single point of light in darkness appears to move (movement in own eyes)
zygote
single, fertilized cell created during conception when the egg and sperm cells combine
zone of proximal development
skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development
excoriation disorder
skin picking disorder
REM (rapid eye movement)
sleep characterized by the presence of theta waves and the absence of delta waves in which dreams occur
resting potential
slight electrical charge (~70 mV) stored inside the neuron's cell membrane which is just waiting to be transformed into a nerve impulse
language development: bilingual children
slower at language learning
ovarian follicle
small protective sphere surrounding the ovum
microexpressions
small, brief facial movements that signal emotional experiences, even in people who have been trained to hide their emotions
phonemes
smallest sound units of language
morpheme
smallest unit of meaning in language
Leon Festinger
social comparison theory and cognitive dissonance; forced compliance experiments where he gave people either $1 or $20 for lying to others about why a boring task was actually interesting
optic chiasm
the point at which the optic nerves from the inside half of each eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain; ensures that input from each eye will come together for a full picture in the brain
delayed conditioning
the presentation of the NS begins before that of the UCS and lasts until the UCS is presented
alpha level
the probability level used by researchers to indicate the cutoff probability level (highest value) that allows them to reject the null hypothesis; chance that seemingly significant errors are due to random variation rather than to true, systematic variance is less than 5/100 or less than 1/100
sound localization
the process by which the location of sound is determined
Piaget suggested
the process of language development was determined by the individual's current cognitive stage
encoding
the process of transforming information into a form more easily stored in the brain
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response even in the absence of further conditioning or training
learning
the relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as a result of experience
manifest content
the remembered story line of a dream
prototypes
the representative or usual type of an event or object
existential theory model of psychopathology
the response to perceived meaninglessness in life is neurosis or neurotic anxiety (as opposed to normal or justified anxiety)
regression (Freud)
the return to an earlier stage caused by stress
figure-ground reversal
the reversal of the relationship between one shape (the figure) and its background (the ground), so that the figure becomes background and the ground becomes the figure
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
dichotic presentation
the simultaneous delivery of different stimuli to the right and the left ears
pattern recognition
the stage of perception during which a stimulus is identified
where does visual information go after the optic chiasm?
the striate cortex to the visual association areas of the cortex
ethology
the study of animal behaviors, especially innate behaviors that occur in a natural habitat
developmental psychology
the study of changes, over the life span, in physiology, cognition, emotion, and social behavior
outliers
sores falling far outside the main cluster of scores
What causes the ossicles to move?
sound vibrations against the tympanic membrane
id
source and reservoir of all psychic energy
language acquisition milestone: 1 year
speaks first words
telegraphic speech
speech without the articles or extras, similar to the way in which it would appear in a telegram - ex: "ship arrived New York"
gametes
sperm and egg cells
what reliability reveals the internal consistency of a test?
split-half reliability
variance
square of the standard dev; description of how much each score varies from the mean
homeostasis
stable equilibrium that self-regulatory processes seek to maintain
semantics
the study of how signs and symbols are interpreted to make meaning
phonology
the study of sound patterns in languages
At which stage of NREM sleep will you feel most groggy if you are suddenly awakened from it?
stage N3
non-REM sleep
stage W - alpha and beta stage N1 - theta stage N2 - theta, sleep spindles, K complexes stage N3 - delta
kin selection theory
states that we are more likely to help members of our own family because we want to make sure our genes survive into the next generation
chi-square test
statistical method of testing an associated b/t 2 categorical variables which tests for the equality of 2 freqs or proportions
analysis of variance (ANOVA)
statistical method to compare the means of >2 groups by comparing the b/t-group variance to the within-group variance
meta-analysis
statistical procedure that can be used to make conclusions on the basis of data from different studies
significance test
statistical technique used to test probability of an observed diff
factor analysis
statistical technique using correlation coefficients to reduce a large # of variables to a few factors
Parameters vs. Statistics
statistics refer to numbers that describe a sample; parameters are numbers that describe populations
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
stimulates production of ova and sperm
unconditional stimulus
stimulus that elicits a UR w/o behavioral conditioning
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that elicits an automatic response. in Pavlov's experiment, the UCS is the food
supernormal stimulus
stimulus that is more effective at triggered the fixed action pattern than the actual stimulus found in nature
Fechner's Law
strength of a stimulus must be significantly increased to produce a slight difference in sensation s (sensation strength) = k log R (a logarithm of the original intensity)
physiological psychology
the study of the essential biology involved in the study of the mind
Donald Meichenbaum
stress inoculation training
superego
strives for the ideal rather than the real and is not directly in touch w/ reality
psycholinguistics
the study of the psychology o flanguage
clinical psychology
the study of the theory, assessment, and treatment of mental and emotional disorders
cognitive psychology
the study of thinking, processing, and reasoning
personality
the study of why people act the way that they do and why different people act differently
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman
studied **type A personality** (drive, competitiveness, aggressiveness, tension and hostility) which was later linked to heart diseases and other health problems by Grant Dahlstrom
Stuart Valins
studied environmental influences on behavior; architecture matters; students in long-corridor dorms feel more stressed and withdrawn than students in suite-style dorms
M. Rokeach
studied racial bias and the similarity of beliefs; people prefer to be with **like-minded people more than with like-skinned people**
M. Rokeach
studied racial bias and the similarity of beliefs; people prefer to be with like-minded people more than with like-skinned people
Charles Osgood
studied semantics or word meanings; he created semantic differential charts which allowed people to plot the meanings of words on graphs - the results were that people with similar backgrounds and interests plotted words similarly, indicating that words have similar CONNOTATIONS for cultures or subcultures
Richard Lazarus
studied stress and coping; differentiated between problem-focused coping (which is changing the stressor) and emotion-focused coping (which is changing our response to a stressor)
Lee Ross
studied subjects who were first made to believe a statement and then later told it was false; the subjects continued to believe the statement if they had processed it and devised their own logical explanation for it
Lee Ross
studied subjects who were first made to believe a statement and then later told it was false; the subjects continued to believe the statement if they had processed it and devised their own logical explanation for it **Fundamental attribution error**
Ellen Langer
studied the **illusion of control,** or belief that you can control things that you actually have no influence on. This illusion is the driving force behind manipulating the lottery, gambling, and superstition.
Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria
studied the development of word meanings and found them to be complex and altered by interpersonal experience - also asserted that language is a tool involved in (not just a byproduct of) the development of abstract thinking
Ellen Langer
studied the illusion of control, or belief that you can control things that you actually have no influence on
health psychology
the subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health
Henry Murray and David McClelland
studied the possibility that people are motivated by a **need for achievement (nAch);** a need to pursue success or a need to avoid failure
Henry Murray and David McClelland
studied the possibility that people are motivated by a need for achievement (nAch); a need to pursue success or a need to avoid failure; goal is to feel successful
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman
studied type A personality (drive, competitiveness, aggressiveness, tension and hostility) which was later linked to heart diseases and other health problems by Grant Dahlstrom
ethology
study of animals in their natural environment
proxemics
study of how individuals space themselves in relation to others
social psychology
study of how people relate to and influence each other
phrenology
study of the psychological functions of areas in the brain
Muller-Lyer Illusion
Two equal-length lines tipped with inward or outward pointing V's appear to be of different lengths.
Hertz (Hz)
Unit of measurement for frequency
Yerkes-Dodson effect
Upside-down shaped U curve for arousal and performance
sequential cohort studies
studying groups of subjects at diff ages repeatedly over time
longitudinal design
studying the same objects at different points in the lifespan; provides better, more valid results than most other methods
two-factor theory of emotion
subjective experience of emotion is based on the interaction b/t changed in physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal; in the absence of any clear emotion-provoking stimulus, interpretation of physiological arousal depends on what is happening in the environment
pitch
subjective experience of the freq of sound
loudness
subjective experience of the magnitude or intensity of sound
brightness
subjective impression of the intensity of a light stimulus
order of items on a list
subjects can more quickly state the order of two items that are far apart on the list than two items that are close together ex: subjects can recognize that 7 occurs before 593 more quickly than they can recognize that 133 occurs before 136
sample
subset of the population
panic attack
sudden onset of intense panic in which multiple physical symptoms of stress occur, often with feelings that one is dying
false alarm
the subject perceived a signal when none was present
problem space
the sum total of possible moves that one might make in order to solve a problem
risky shift
the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than individuals would; goes with group polarization
actor-observer attributional divergence
the tendency for the person who is doing the behavior to have a different perspective on the situation than a person watching the behavior
social facilitation
the tendency for the presence of other people to either enhance or hinder performance
Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828)
Used ideas from physiology and philosophy to create a "science" later termed "phrenology." **Phrenology = the nature of a person could be known by examining the shape and contours of the skull.** Saw the brain as the seat of the soul, certain features on the head were said to be indicators of particular personality traits. Joseph Gaspar Spurzheim carried on their work even though other scientists proved the theory incorrect.
Morton Deutsch
Used the prisoner's dilemma and trucking company game to illustrate the struggle between cooperation and competition; remaining silent is a gamble that requires trust; most people spill the beans when they should simply remain silent
play therapy
Used with child clients. During play, a child client may convey emotions, situations, or disturbances that might otherwise go unexpressed.
Darely and Gross (1938)
Videos of girl in poor and wealthy environment, then intelligence tests. Participants said poor girl would do worse than wealthy
Plato (BCE/CE)
Was Socrates's pupil. Declared that the physical world was not all that could be known. They asserted the presence of universal forms and innate knowledge. Their philosophy was abstract and unsystematic.
Johannes Muller (1801-1858)
Was a German physiologist at the University of Berlin. They wrote "Elements of Physiology" (1842) and postulated the existence of **"specific nerve energies."** Wilhelm Wundt was a student of this person.
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
Was a German-born psychoanalyst who **questioned many of the principles of Sigmund Freud (Neo-Freudian), most notably Freud's concept of the Oedipus Complex and penis envy.** They suggested that many women's issues emerged out of sociocultural gender inequality as opposed to a longing for a physical organ. Even suggested men may have "womb envy" (the desire to bear a child). They emigrated to the US where they developed their own theory of personality and neurosis, which is based on the nature of the parent-child relationship, particularly a parent's ability and interest in creating a secure environment for the child. **Suggested that neuroticism is expressed as movement toward, against, and away from people.**
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
Was a German-born psychologist who developed the "field theory" of behavior. **Field theory = human behavior is a function of an individual's environment. The total of influences upon a person's behavior.** They are considered one of the founders of social psychology. Theory of association = a forerunner of behaviorism that said association is grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space. This theory is what Pavlov later proved experimentally. Applied Gestalt ideas to social behavior: a person's "life space" is the collection of forces upon the individual. Valence, vector, and barrier are forces in the life space.
Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins
suggested **hierarchical semantic networks,** people group related items; the more closely related items, the more quickly subject can link them (e.g. Answer T/F quicker to "a canary is a bird" than "a toaster is a bird"). Related to clustering in memory
John Atkinson
suggested a theory of motivation in which people who set realistic goals with intermediate risk sets feel pride with accomplishment and want to succeed more than they fear failure
John Atkinson
suggested a theory of motivation in which people who set realistic goals with intermediate risk sets feel pride with accomplishment and want to succeed more than they fear failure; but b/c success is so important, these people are unlikely to set unrealistic or risky goals or to persist when success is unlikely
Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins
suggested hierarchical semantic networks, people group related items; the more closely related items, the more quickly subject can link them (e.g. Answer T/F quicker to "a canary is a bird" than "a toaster is a bird")
Matina Horner
suggested that females shunned masculine-type successes not because of fear or failure or lack of interest but because they **"feared success"** and its negative repercussions, such as resentment and rejection.
Matina Horner
suggested that females shunned masculine-type successes not because of fear or failure or lack of interest but because they feared success and its negative repercussions
Edward Tolman (1886-1959)
Was a behaviorist who uniquely valued both behavior and cognition. Their theory of **"purposive behavior"** asserted that learning is acquired through meaningful behavior (termed sign learning) and that rats in mazed formed **"cognitive maps"** rather than blindly attempting various routes. They also created the **"expectancy-value theory" of motivation, in which Performance = Expectancy x Value.** The idea here is that people are motivated by goals that they think they might actually meet. Another factor is how important the goal is. Victor Vroom applied this theory to individual behavior in large organizations.
Adaptation (Piaget)
the tendency to adapt to the environment 2 sub-processes, assimilation and accomodation
Closure
the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete
Allan Paivio
suggested the Dual Code Hypothesis - Items will be better remembered if they are encoded visually (with icons and imagery) and semantically (with understanding).
Allan Paivio
suggested the dual code hypothesis, which states that items will be better remembered if they are encoded both visually and semantically; one technique is the Method of Loci
diathesis-stress model
suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress
social exchange theory
suggests that humans interact in ways that maximize rewards and minimize costs
gain-loss theory
suggests that people act in order to obtain gain and avoid loss. People feel most favorably toward situations that start out negatively but end positively (even when compared to completely positive situations)
loss aversion
suggests that people are more willing to take risks when they are afraid of losing. loss or punishment is a stronger incentive than gain or reward
utility theory
suggests that people make choices based on their personal preferences
J.A. Swet's Theory of Signal Detection (TSD)
suggests that subjects detect stimuli not only because they can but also because they want to
symmetry
the tendency to perceive preferentially forms that make up mirror images
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Was a famous behaviorist who studied the ideas of Thorndike and Watson. They are the most known for their studies that used the **"Skinner Box" and that led to the principles of "operant conditioning."** Made **operant conditioning** work through a process called **shaping / differential reinforcement of successive approximation = rewarding individuals for behaviors that brought them closer and closer to actually pressing the bar** Their famous books "Walden Two" (1948) and "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" (1972) philosophically discussed the control of human behavior.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
Was a leading figure in **"humanistic psychology."** They examined normal or optimal functioning as opposed to maladaptive functioning. **They are best known for their development of the "hierarchy of needs."** **They argued that people inherently strive for self-improvement and "self-actualization."**
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
Was a natural scientist who studied sensation. Much of their work with hearing and color vision is the foundation for modern perception research. Like Wundt, they studied with Muller. Came up with **trichromatic theory with Thomas Young. **Trichromatic theory / component theory = there are three types of receptors in the retina: cones that respond to red, blue, or green** The trichromatic theory does in fact work in the retina Also came up with **"place-resonance theory" of sound perception, in which different parts of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies.**
value hypothesis
suggests that the risky shift occurs in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
Was a psychologist at Columbia University. Their idea, the **"law of effect," (cat in the box/puzzle box), was the precursor of operant conditioning.** Called their theory **"connectionism"** because they believed learning occurs through the formation of connections between stimuli and responses.
Rollo May (1909-1994)
Was a psychologist who introduced European existential philosophical and psychological principles to American audiences. In their books and their psychotherapy practice, they focused on the importance of anxiety as part of the human condition as well as the importance of creating meaning out of experience. Phenomenological view focuses on the individual's unique self and experiences
Stanley Hall (1842-1894)
Was a student of James and received America's first PhD in psychology from Harvard. They coined the term "adolescence," started the "American Journal of Psychology" (1887), and was the **first president of the "American Psychological Association" (1892).**
Kenneth Bancroft Clark (1914-2005)
Was an African American psychologist, who, along with their wife, Mamie, used dolls to study children's views about race. Black children preferred the white dolls over the black dolls (said the black dolls were bad and that they looked like the white dolls). **The Clarks also testified in the case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.**
Walter Mischel (1930-2018)
Was an American psychologist who conducted extensive research into the concept of **"delayed gratification"** with their groundbreaking study of the **Marshmallow Test,** a study that ran in various forms for more that 50 years. Contributed to the "social cognitive perspective" of personality While more recent research has questioned the universality of the findings, their work is still a must-read for psychology students.
displacement theory
suggests there are a limited number (7 +/- 2) slots that can be filled at any given time, so if there is no room for new info, old info is displaced
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
Was an American psychologist who expanded the ideas of Pavlov and **founded the school of "behaviorism."** They studied conditioning, stimulus-response chains, and objective, observable behaviors. They saw humans as "squirming bits of flesh" ready to be trained by the environment. Greatly downplayed any potential effects of genetics or innate mechanisms in favor of explanations based on classical and operant conditioning. **Also famous for "Little Albert" experiment.**
Eleanor Maccoby (1917-2018)
Was an American social and developmental psychologist known for their work on gender development and sex differences. **One of their most famous works is the 1980 book, "The Psychology of Sex Difference," which they co-authored with Carol Nagy Jacklin.** Their main conclusions were that there were **little sex differences that couldn't be explained simply by social learning other than females' greater verbal ability and males' greater visuospatial ability.** This individual also did vital research into the effects of divorce on children's development.
Chomsky's Transformational Grammar
surface structure-way words are organized deep structure-underlying meaning of sentence
James Cattell (1860-1944)
Was an American who studied with Hall, Galton, and Wundt. They opened psychology laboratories at the University of Pennsylvania and at Columbia University. They thought that psychology should be more scientific than Wundt did.
William James (1842-1910)
Was busy doing in America what Wundt was doing in Germany: combining the fields of physiology and philosophy into a new field. **Known as the father of American Psychology** Their "Principles of Psychology" (1890) inspired American psychology in a way that writings from other countries had not. They wrote about the mind's **"stream of consciousness" and about "functionalist" ideas that sharply contrasted with "structuralist" ideas of discrete conscious elements.** **Spotlight model = model of selective attention that suggests humans focus on one particular task while all the other tasks remain in the background until the spotlight focuses on a different task.** This person said attention has a "focus, fringe, and a margin." The focus is the primary area attended to, the fringe is on the periphery, and the margin is the limit.
Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983)
Was one of the first African American women to earn a PhD in psychology at Columbia University. The Clarks' **landmark doll study emerged from her master's degree thesis.** The research also paved the way for more work in self-esteem and self-concept.
George A. Miller (1920-2012)
Was one of the founders of cognitive psychology. They studied **short-term memory** and linguistics, and is often credited with applying the information model to cognitive psychology (brain like a computer). Their best known paper was "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two," written in 1956, in which they discussed the findings that short-term memory can only hold about **5 to 9 items of information at any given time.
Anton Mesmer (1734-1815)
Was the Viennese creator of a kind of popular science. **They believed people's bodily fluids had magnetic properties and that the healing of physical ailments came from the manipulation of people's bodily fluids.** Believed in "animal magnetism" = the force that controls a person's mind and body was responsible for their patients' recoveries. Their technique of "mesmerism" began to be used by others under the general term of "hypnotism" (hence, the term mesmerized, which means hypnotized)
Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
Was the first to study memory systematically. They presented subjects with lists of nonsense syllables to study the STM. They also proposed the **"forgetting curve"** that depicts a sharp drop in savings immediately after learning and then levels off, with a slight downward trend. Led to other discussions of how memory is lost (decay theory vs interference theory)
minimum principle
the tendency to see what is easiest or logical to see
ablation
surgically induced brain legion
mania
symptom of bipolar disorders characterized by an abnormally elevated mood and accompanied by a speeding up of thought processes and activities and an abnormally decreased need for sleep
L-dopa
synthetic substance that increases dopamine levels in the brain and is used to treat motor disturbances in Parkinson's disease
functionalism
system of thought concerned w/ studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environemtns
humanism
system of thought that arose in opposition to both psychoanalysis and behaviorism which is characterized by a belief in the notion of free will and the idea that people should be considered as wholes rather than in terms of stimuli and responses or instincts
psychodynamic theory (AKA psychoanalytic theory)
system of thought that postulates the existence of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality
structuralism
system of thought that refers to breaking consciousness down to its elements
interference theory
the theory that forgetting is caused by one memory competing with or replacing another; competing info blocks retrieval
lens
the transparent structure behind the cornea that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
latent content
the underlying meaning of a dream
psychopharmacology
the use of drugs to control or relieve the symptoms of psychological disorders
superstitious behavior
When someone "learns" that a specific action causes an event, when in reality the two are unrelated
social desirability
When subjects do and say what they think puts them in a favorable light
selective attrition
When the subjects that drop out of an experiment are different from those that remain. The remaining sample is no longer random.
research design
the way in which a researcher attempts to examine a hypothesis
genetic drift
the way in which particular genotypes are selected out or eliminated from a population over time
motion parallax
the way movement is perceived through the displacement of objects over time, and the way this motion takes place at seemingly different paces for nearby or faraway objects
James-Lange theory of emotion
theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion/emergency theory
theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time
Kurt Lewin
theory of association which was a forerunner of behaviorism
connectionism (AKA parallel distribution processing)
theory of info processing that is analogous to a complex neural network
self-disclosure theory
theory that refers to those conditions that prohibit or facilitate the process of revealing personal or intimate aspects of onself
Joseph Wolpe
Worked in behavioral theory and developed **systematic desensitization** which applies classical conditioning in order to relieve anxiety. The patient is exposed to increasingly anxiety provoking stimuli until the anxiety associated with those stimuli is decreased.
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Working memory model: model of short term memory, active store used to hold and manipulate information; has phonological loop, episodic buffer, and Visio-spatial sketchpad all controlled by the central executive
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Wrote "On the Origin of Species" (1859) and "The Descent of Man" (1871). Though they did not create the concept of evolution, they **made evolution a scientifically sound principle by positing that natural selection was its driving force.**
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
Wrote "Principle of Psychology" (1855) and became the father of the psychology of adaptation. (They are also the founder of sociology). They used principles from Lamarckian evolution, physiology, and associationism to understand people. **Lamarckian evolution = the idea that characteristics acquired during lifetime can be passed to future generations** They asserted that different species or races were elevated because of the greater number of associations that their brains could make.
Brenda Milner
Wrote about patient "HM" who was given a lesion of the hippocampus to treat severe epilepsy. While he remembered things from before the surgery, and his short-term memory was still intact (sort of), he could not store any new long-term memories.
Phrenology (Franz Gall)
theory that the bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and character traits
olfactory bulb
a brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes at the base of the brain
aggression
a central force in humans that must find a socially acceptable outlet
rational emotive behavioral therapy
therapeutic approach that focuses on changing irrational belief systems
placebo effect
therapeutic effect resulting from an inert substance
modeling
therapeutic technique in which the client learns appropriate behavior through imitation of someone else
paradoxical intervention
therapeutic technique that appears to contradict the therapeutic needs
behavioral contracts
therapeutic technique that is a negotiated agreement b/t 2 parties that explicitly stipulates the behavioral change that is desired and indicates consequences of certain acts
Gestalt therapy
therapist dialogues with client (no goal). Client learns from shared dialogue; focuses on "here-and-now" experience rather than talking about past (SIMPLY talk about present; no goal)
A platykurtic distribution would look approximately like
a cliff
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses; contains the basilar membrane and the organ of corti
twin studies
a common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behavior
intellectualization
a coping mechanism in which the person analyzes a situation from an emotionally detached viewpoint
major depressive disorder
a depressive episode evidenced by depressed mood, loss of usual interests, change in weight or sleep, low energy, feelings of worthlessness, or thoughts of death; the symptoms are present nearly every day for at least 2 weeks; twice as common in females as it is in males
stereotaxic instrument
a device used to implant electrodes at precise locations of animal's brains in experiments
between-subjects design
a different group of subjects is tested under each condition
Trichotillomania
a disorder characterized by the repeated pulling out of one's own hair
mental set
a framework for thinking about a problem. It can be shaped by habit or by desire, what has worked for us in the past
nodes of Ranvier
a gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve, between adjacent Schwann cells; help send the impulse down the axon
psychodynamic theory
a general term that refers to theories (such as individual or analytical) that emphasize the role of the unconscious.
Parsing
a grammatical exercise in which language is broken down into its component parts, called CONSTITUENTS, to get to the meaning of a message
limbic system
a group of structures around the brainstem involved in the four F's (fleeing, feeding, fighting, and fornicating)
phrase
a group of words that when put together function as a single syntactic part of a sentence. ex: "walking the dog"
secondary reinforcement
a learned reinforcer (money)
classical conditioning
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
free-recall learning
a list of items is learned, and then must be recalled in any order w/ no cue
slippery slope
a logical fallacy that says a small, insignificant first step in one direction will eventually lead to greater steps that will eventually have a significant impact
Rollo May
a major contributor to existential therapy
representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case (ex: assuming a woman who is 6 ft tall is a model)
test-retest reliability
a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions
Q-sort
a method of personality assessment in which a person is given a stack of cards naming various characteristics and is asked to sort them into piles; neutral goes at the hump of the curve
sociotechnical systems
a method of work design that acknowledges the interaction between people and technology in the workplace
texture gradient
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed so they appear finer and smoother in texture
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
arousal
a part of motivation. an individual must be adequately aroused to learn or perform
meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies; needed when conflicting results are found and when different studies use different methods
Alzheimer's disease
a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test developed by Henry Murray in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes; 31 cards
schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression
stress inoculation training
a reframing technique that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation
random sampling
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
REM sleep
a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity
self-awareness
a state in which the sense of self is the object of attention
Weber's Law
a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value in order to be perceived as noticeably different
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
a test for determining a person's intelligence quotient, or IQ; first revised by Lewis Terman
decay theory (trace theory)
a theory of forgetting that posits that memories consist of traces laid down in the brain that gradually deteriorate and fade away over time - called too simplistic b/c other activities are known to interfere with retrieval
template matching
a theory of pattern recognition stating that an object is recognized as a function of its overlap with various pattern templates stored in the brain
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
self-consciousness
a trait; how often one generally becomes self-aware; much attention paid to self
t-scores
a transformation of z-scores in which the mean is 50 and the standard deviation is 10 - formula: T = 10(Z) + 50
behaviorist therapy
a type of therapy based on the view that abnormal behaviors are learned and that treatment should focus on learning more appropriate behaviors (e.g., counterconditioning for the treatment of phobias); short-term and directed
interval variables
a type of variable in which the difference between any two adjacent values is the same (ex: temperature); have an arbitrary zero
defense mechanism
a way for the mind to protect us from being consciously aware of thoughts or feelings that are too difficult to tolerate
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
a well-researched, clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems; 550 true/false/not sure questions; high validity b/c it has 3 validity scales
fluid intelligence
ability to quickly grasp relationships in novel situations and make correct deductions from them
fitness
ability to survive and reproduce and pass on genes
metacognition
ability to think about and monitor cognition
metamemory
ability to think about and monitor memory
empathy
ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another; thought by some social psychologists to be a strong influence on helping behavior
parasomnias
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep: night terrors & sleepwalking
fixation (Freud)
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
objective self-awareness
achieved through self-perception, high self-monitoring, internality, and self-efficacy; deindiviuation works against objective self-awareness
bullying
acting of aggressive behavior toward another person who is perceived to be of lower status
thyroid stimulating hormone
activates the thyroid
opponent-process theory of color vision
there are 4 primary colors in additive color mixing which are arranged in opposing pairs
theory of multiple intelligences
there are 7 intelligence factors: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
Why do cones see better than rods?
there are fewer cones per ganglion cells than rods per ganglion cells
triarchic theory
there are three aspects to intelligence: componential (e.g test performance), experiential (creativity), and contextual (street smarts/business sense)
isomorphism
there is a one-to-one correspondence b/t the object in the perceptual field and the pattern of stimulation in the brain
gate theory of pain
there is a special mechanism located in the spine that can turn pain signals on or off thus affecting whether we perceive pain
structured tests
there is a statement and the individual chooses a response to it from a limited set of possibilities; seen as more objectively scored than projective tests
distal stimulus
actual object or event out there in the world as opposed to its perceived image
positive reinforcement
adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior
Attribution theory (Heider)
addresses how we infer the causes of other people's behaviour - people will attribute intentions and emotions to anything - even moving geometrical shapes on a screen
Ciliary muscles (eye)
adjust the focus by changing the shape of the lens
extrinsic motivation
affecting behavior by external rewards
McCollough effect
afterimages that are perceived due to fatigued receptors
general aggression model (GAM)
aggression is the result of multiple factors, both situational and personl
psychopharmacology therapy
aim to affect neurotransmitters; commonly dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine (monoamines)
stratified sampling
aims to match the demographic characteristics of the sample to the demographics of the population
Goal of Adlerian Therapy
aims to reduce feelings of inferiority and to foster social interest and social contribution in patients
releasing stimuli
aka releasers or sign stimuli, Lorenz, continued by Tinbergen, elicits fixed action patterns from another individual in the same species
myelencephalon
aka the medulla; mainly controls reflexes but also controls sleep, attention, and movement
levels-of-processing theory (aka depth-of-processing theory)
there is only one memory system and items entering memory are analyzed in one of three stages: physical (visual), acoustical (sound), or semantic (meaning)
nonverbal communication
all the ways people communicate without words. includes: - body language - facial expressions -microexpressions
standard normal distributions
allow you to compare one person's scores on two different distributions
statistical regression
allows you to not only identify a relationship between two variables but also to make predictions about one variable based on another variable
linear regression
allows you to use correlation coefficients in order to predict one variable y from another variable x; regressions use correlational data to make predictions based on a line fit with the least-squares method
Kenneth Bancroft Clark
along with wife Mamie Phipps Clark, used dolls to study children's views about race; testified in the case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954
evidence-based treatment
also called empirically supported treatment, refers to interventions, strategies, or techniques that have been found to produce therapeutic and desired changes during controlled research studies
psychoactive drugs
alter the mental processes of the user by affecting neurotransmitter activity
depersonalization/derealization disorder
alteration in the experience of the self and reality
phenylalanine
amino acid found in milk and other foods
difference threshold
amount of difference that there must be b/t 2 stimuli before they are perceived to be different
intensity
amplitude or height of the air-pressure wave; related to loudness
illumination
amt of light falling on a surface
Anton Mesmer
an Austrian physician who is credited with hypnosis's modern popularity. He mistakenly thought he discovered an "animal magnetism".
pica
an abnormal craving or appetite for nonfood substances, such as dirt, paint, or clay that lasts for at least 1 month
obsessive-compulsive disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by repetitive obsessions and compulsions that are time consuming, distressing, and disruptive
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging (vomiting or laxative)
double-blind experiments
an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment; considered the "gold standard" for experimental research
halo effect
thinking that if someone has one good quality, then they have many/only good qualities
embryonic stage
third stage during prenatal development; period during which the embryo increases in size dramatically, begins to develop a human appearance w/ limb motion, produces androgen in the testes of male embryos, and develops nerve cells in the spine
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
extinction burst
an increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is initially implemented. (ex: child's tantrum might get bigger at first when it is not reinforced before the child stops having tantrums). in classical conditioning, extinction begins the moment the UCS and NS are no longer paired
rates of SMI are highest among which racial group?
those who report membership in 2 or more racial groups
bogus pipeline
an instrument that measures physiological reactions in order to measure the truthfulness of attitude self-reporting
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior; in the Skinner box, rats were rewarded for being near the lever and then rewarded again for touching the lever
elaborative encoding
an organizational strategy that uses meaning and the creation of associations to remember
Harold Kelley
thought that the **attributions we make about our actions or those of others are usually accurate;** they said we base this on the consistency, distinctiveness and consensus of the action
structuralism
analysis of human consciousness; measured through introspection, attempts to describe the discrete sensations and contents of the mind
choleric types
angry
shadow
animal instincts which humans inherited in their evolution from lower forms of life
instinctual drift
animal replaces learned response with instinctual one
navigation
animals use a sort of map-and-compass navigation, some have true navigational abilities (ex: birds)
inclusive fitness
animals will be invested in the survival of not only their own genes but also the genes of their kin
Spearman r correlation coefficient
another correlation used only when the data is in the form of ranks
instrumental conditioning
another term for operant conditioning; type of learning in which a behavioral response can be conditioned through reinforcement - either punishment or rewards associated with undesirable or desirable behavior
differential reinforcement of successive approximations
another term for shaping
amygdala
thought to play a role in the strength of a memory
semicircular canals
three fluid-filled canals in the vestibular labyrinth responsible for our sense of balance
trichomatic theory/component theory
three types of receptors in the retina: cones that respond to red, blue or green
absolute refractory period
time during which another action potential is impossible; limits maximal firing rate
synapse
tiny gap b/t neurons
Spindles
tiny receptors in the muscles throughout the body, provide "muscle memory", allow us to sense how our limbs are moving in space without visual confirmation
Goal of Behavior Therapy
to change behavior in the desired or adaptive direction; effective at treating phobias, fetishes, obsessive-compulsive disorder, sexual problems and childhood disorders
goal of cognitive therapy
to correct maladaptive cognitions
test-retest method
to estimate the inter-individual stability of test-scores over time, the same test is administered to the same group of people 2x
timbre
tone quality; aspect that distinguishes the sound of one instrument from another
existential theory criticisms
too abstract for severely disturbed individuals
thorazine
antipsychotic drug thought to block receptor sites for dopamine making it effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucinations, and agitation commonly associated w/ schizophrenia
phenothiazine
antipsychotic drug thought to block receptor sites for dopamine making the drug effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucinations, and agitation commonly associated w/ schizophrenia
chlorpromazine
antipsychotic drug thought to block receptor sites for dopamine, making it effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucinations, and agitation commonly associated w/ schizophrenia
haloperidol (Haldol)
antipsychotic drug thought to block receptor sites for dopamine, making it effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucinations, and agitation commonly associated w/ schizophrenia
specific phobia
anxiety in response to a stimulus, such as flying, heights, needles, or driving
Donald Broadbent's filter model of attention
any info not attended to is filtered out and decays; only info attended to makes it into our working memory
generation-recognition model
anything one might recall should easily be recognized (e.g. multiple choice)
illusory correlation
apparent correlation that is perceived but doesn't really exist
protection-motivation theory
appeal to fear produces attitude change under particular conditions
cooing
appears at about 2-3 months old and consists solely of vowel sounds - ex: "ahhhh" or "eeee"
babbling
appears at about 4-6 months old and incorporates consonant sounds as well as vowels - ex: "bahbahbah" or "mahmahmah"
behaviorist theory of language
application of principles of operant conditioning; children learn language based on which words are reinforced and which are punished (B. F. Skinner)
Anna Freud
applied Freudian ideas to child psychology and development
Victor Vroom
applied expectancy-value theory to individual behaviour in large organizations (e.g. those lowest on totem pole have least motivation since little incentives)
nomothetic
approach to personality that focuses on groups of individuals and tries to find the commonalities b/t individuals
idiographic
approach to studying personality that focuses on individual case studies
Neil Miller
approach-avoidance conflict; state felt when a goal has both pros and cons, typically focus on pros when far from goal, cons when close to goal
Criticisms of Analytical Theory
too mystical or spiritual
types of maladaptive cognitions
arbitrary inference, overgeneralization, magnifying/minimizing, personalizing, dichotomous thinking
postsynaptic potentials
are changes in a nerve cell's charge as a result of stimulation; 2 forms: 1) excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) 2) inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
visual field
area of the world that an individual can perceive or detect at any time
cortical association areas
areas on the cortex that correspond to certain functions. The larger the area, the more sensitive and highly accessed is the corresponding function. Damage to particular areas would result in certain dysfunction
Paul Ekman
argued that humans have **six basic universal emotions: sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust;** they drew this conclusion from cross-cultural studies that show that individuals in a variety of different cultures were able to recognize facial expressions corresponding to six aforementioned emotions researchers code facial expressions for emotion using the facial action coding system (FACS coding)
Paul Ekman
argued that humans have six basic emotions: sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust; he drew this conclusion from cross-cultural studies that show that individuals in a variety of different cultures were able to recognize facial expressions corresponding to six aforementioned emotions researchers code facial expressions for emotion using the facial action coding system (FACS coding)
token economy
artificial systems based on awarding and removing tokens for positive or negative behaviors
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart
asserted that **learning and recall depend on the depth of processing** - different levels of processing exist from the most superficial pronunciation level to the deep meaning level. The deeper an item is processed, the easier it is to learn and recall.
genotype
total of all genetic material that an offspring receives (the 23 pairs or 46 total chromosomes)
meninges
tough connective tissues that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord
for complex tasks, the optimal level of arousal is ...
toward the low end so that the individual is not too anxious to perform well
Hans Eyesenck
trait theorist: classifying people along the lines of introversion and extraversion and stable vs unstable could describe personality - 4 quadrants: phlegmatic, melancholic, choleric, sanguine
Gordon Allport
trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary
Gordon Allport
trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary - researched types of racism and prejudice
hypnosis
trancelike state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus
displacement
transferring impulses or feelings from their original object to one perceived as less threatening
axon
transmits impulses of the neuron; bundles of axons are nerve fibers also known as white matter
Seymour Epstein and Walter Mischel
asserted that trait and type theories have always had a big problem: both theories assume that a person's behavior is stable across situations and that people fail to take circumstances into account. **Consistency paradox** = the possibility that a person may behave inconsistently — that a respected pastor may be a closeted adulterer for example. Presents real problems for labeling people as having one internal disposition.
substance-related and addictive disorders
associated with the abuse of drugs and other substances people take to alter the way they think, feel, and behave - alcohol-relate - caffeine-related - cannabis-related - hallucinogenic-related - opioid-related - tobacco-related - gambling disorder
false consensus bias
assuming most other people think as you do
illusory correlation
assuming that two unrelated things have a relationship
dissociative identity disorder
assumption of 2 or more identities that control behavior in different situations
logical reasoning errors
atmosphere effect, semantic effect, confirmation bias
imprinting
attachment bond b/t an organism and an object in the environment
domain-referenced tests
attempt to measure less-defined properties (like intelligence) and need to be checked for reliability and validity
projection
attempting to disown one's own unacceptable feelings or characteristics by falsely attributing them to others
detecting deception
attending to a person's microexpressions, exaggerated facial expressions, or changes in linguistic style
William James on attention
attention has a focus (primary area); fringe (periphery); margin (the limit)
boomerang effect
attitude change in the opposite direction of the persuader's message
fundamental attribution error (correspondence bias)
attributing a person's bad behavior to a character flaw rather than to the situation
elaboration likelihood model central route
audience is interested in the argument and is able to understand it; likelihood of permanent change is high
echoic memory
auditory memory
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory
kinesthetic sense
awareness of body's location and movement
Cannon-Bard theory
awareness of emotions reflects our physiological arousal and our cognitive experience of emotion
genes
basic unit of heredity; composed of DNA molecules and are organized in chromosomes
neuron
basic unit of the nervous system
Bowlby (1973)
basically said that how you attach to your parents as a child influences your adult relationships internal working model- child's mental representation of how they think their parent (attachment figure) will react Attachment history- differences in attachment history account for different adult relationships as well as disorders of attachment
frequency theory
basilar membrane of the ear vibrates as a whole, the rate of vibration equals the freq of the stimulus, and the vibration rate is directly translated into the appropriate # of neural impulses per sec
nocturnal enuresis
bed wetting
honeybee flower selection
bees can see ultraviolet light, so they see flower coloration in a more complex way than humans do; Von Frisch found that honeybees could see certain markers on flowers (HONEYGUIDES) that people could not
a garden path sentence
begins by luring the reader into believing the sentence will mean one thing when it actually means something else
action potential
begins when a cell becomes stimulated w/ enough positive ions and "fires"
reaction formation
behaving in a manner that is directly opposed to an underlying impulse that the individual considers unacceptable
social learning theory
behavior is learned through modeling or through reinforcement
fixed-ratio (FR)
behavior is reinforced after a fixed # of responses
fixed-interval (FI)
behavior is reinforced on the 1st response after a fixed period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement
Radical Behaviorism (Skinner)
behavior is related only to its consequences
fixed action pattern
behavior that is relatively stereotyped and appears to be species-typical
altruism
behavior that solely benefits another
flooding
behavioral modification technique used to treat anxiety disorders by exposing the client to the anxiety-producing stimulus
methylphenidate (Ritalin)
behavioral stimulant that increases alertness and decreases motor activity and is used to treat hyperactive children who suffer from ADD
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
behavioral stimulants that reduce depression by blocking the reuptake of serotonin and increasing serotonin in the synapse
MAO inhibitors
behavioral stimulants that reduce depression by inhibiting the action of MAO (monoamine oxidase) which normally breaks down and deactivates norepinephrine and serotonin
tricyclic antidepressants
behavioral stimulants thought to reduce depression by facilitating the transmission of norepinephrine or serotonin at the synapse
John B. Watson
behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
reproductive isolating mechanisms
behaviors that prevent animals of one species from attempting to mate w/ animals of a closely related species
Edward Tolman
behaviourist, valued both behaviour and cognition; purposive behaviour and sign learning; rats in mazes formed cognitive maps rather than blindly attempting various routes like stimulus-response suggests; also expectancy-value theory of motivation: performance = expectation x value
social facilitation
being in a group enhances performance
Fischer 2004
being in love is like an addiction as dopamine increases desire. fMRIs on people.
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
being on the verge of retrieval but not successfully doing so
dispositional or internal attribution
belief that an individual's behavior is based on long-lasting personality characteristics.
zero-sum outcomes
belief that if one group gains something, that will necessarily come at the expense of another group
situational or external attribution
belief that one's behavior is due to events in the current environment or events that cannot be controlled by the individual.
Sir Francis Galton
believed that intelligence was a) quantifiable and normally distributed b) influenced by heredity
hindsight bias
believing after the fact that you knew something all along
semantic effect
believing in conclusions because of what you know or think to be correct rather than what logically follows from the information given
narcissism
believing you are better than you really are or look better than you really do
Criticisms of Adlerian therapy
best used with "normal" people in search of growth
depth perception cues
binocular and monocular
dopamine hypothesis
biochemical explanation for schizophrenia suggesting that the delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated w/ the disorder arise from an excess of dopamine activity at certain sites in the brain
goal of humanistic therapy
treat the person as a whole, not as a collection of behaviors or a repository of repressed thoughts
criticisms of behavior therapy
treating the symptoms rather than the underlying problem
central nervous system (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
psychophysics
branch of psych concerned w/ measuring the relationship b/t physical stimuli and psychological responses to the stimuli
ego psychology
branch of psychoanalytic theory that emphasizes the role of the ego as autonomous
Applied Psychology
branch of psychology that uses principles or research findings to solve people's problems
inbreeding
breeding within the same family
dyssomnias
broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
archetypes
building blocks for the collective unconscious in Jungian theory of personality
Galen
built on Hippocrates's theory of the humors; believed that imbalances of these humors led to both physiological and psychological disorders; gave more details for the 4 personality types
gyri
bumps on the brain
E.R. Kandel
by studying **sea slug Aplysia, similar ideas to Donald Hebb involving synaptic and neural pathway changes** in memory; young chicks brains are altered with learning and memory
Kitty Genovese Case
bystander effect (woman murdered; no one helped-less likely to help when others present) -caused by diffusion of responsibility
phlegmatic types
calm
forebrain
can be divided into diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus) and telencephalon (rest of the forebrain)
ambiguous figures
can be perceived as two different things depending on how you look at them
chunking
can increase the capacity of STM
two-way ANOVA
can test the effects of two independent variables or treatment conditions at once
long-term memory
capable of permanent retention; most items are encoded semantically, for meaning
object permanence
capacity for representational thought
intelligence
capacity to use knowledge to improve achievement in an environment
individualist societies
care more about personal gain than the welfare of the community as a whole
Mamie Phipps Clark
carried out pioneering work on how children of color grew to recognize racial differences; paved the way for more work in self-esteem and self-concept
transference
carrying over and applying to the therapist attitudes and feelings that developed in the patient's relations w/ significant others in the past
nominal variables
categorical variables for which the categories do not have a natural ordering (ex: male, female, Republican, Democrat)
Turner's syndrome
caused by lack of 1 X chromosome in females resulting in failure to develop secondary sex characteristics and cognitive impairment
luteinizing hormone (LH)
causes ovulation; stimulates the secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum; causes the secretion of testosterone in the testes
family therapy
treats the family as a system
true or false: the wider a nerve fiber, the faster its conduction of impulses
true
self-verification
trying to get others to agree with our views
undoing
trying to negate or reverse an act that one considers unacceptable by doing its opposite
Ponzo illusion
two identically-sized lines appear to be different sizes when placed over parallel lines that seem to converge as they recede into the distance.
middle ear
tympanic membrane (eardrum), ossicles (three small bones), stapes (last of the ossicles)
semantic memory
type of declarative memory that has to do w/ remembering general knowledge, esp. meanings of words and concepts
planning fallacy
type of optimism bias that suggests we believe that a task will take far less time than it actually does
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
diploid cells
cells that contain 23 pairs of chromosomes
haploid cells
cells that contain 23 single chromosomes
preparedness
certain associations are learned more easily than others
ventricles
chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid that insulate the brain from shock
Weber's law
change in stimulus intensity needed to produce a just noticeable diff divided by the stimulus intensity of the standard stimulus is a constant
thalamus
channels sensory information to the cerebral cortex
variable
characteristic or property that varies in amt or kind and can be measured
dissociative identity disorder (nee multiple personality disorder)
characterized by 2+ personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behavior
convergent thinking
type of thinking used to find the one solution to a problem - ex: math - first defined by J.P Guilford
narcissistic personality disorder
characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation w/ fantasies of success, and exhibitionist need for constant admiration and attention, and characteristic disturbances in personal relationships such as feelings of entitlement
defense mechanisms
unconscious mechanisms that deny, falsify, or distory reality
schizoid personality disorder
characterized by a pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression
dissociative disorders
characterized by an avoidance of stress by esccaping from personality identity
borderline personality disorder
characterized by an instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image that borders on psychosis
Cluster C personality disorders
characterized by anxious or fearful behaviors - avoidant - dependent - obsessive-compulsive
curvilinear
characterized by curved lines (ex: arousal and performance)
Cluster B personality disorders
characterized by dramatic, emotional, or erratic behavior: - antisocial - borderline - histrionic - narcissistic
Huntington's disease
characterized by genetically progressive degeneration of thought, emotion, and movement
Tourette's disorder
characterized by multiple motor tics and one or more vocal tics
Cluster A personality disorders
characterized by odd or eccentric behaviors that have elements related to those of schizophrenia: - paranoid - schizoid - schizotypical
antisocial personality disorder
characterized by pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
characterized by persistent irrational thoughts and/or irrational and repetitive impulses to perform certain acts that cause sginificant impairment in a person's life
somatoform disorders
characterized by the presence of physical symptoms not fully explained by a medical condition
parkinson's disease
characterized by tremors with declining neurological functioning
conversion disorder
characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions
neurotransmitters
chemical substances that allow neurons to communicate w/ one another
pheromones
chemicals detected by vomeronasal organ that act as messengers between animals; exchange of pheromones thought to be the most primitive form of communication between animals; can transmit states such as fear or sexual receptiveness
Lana and language
chimpanzee who was part of an experiment on communicating w/ lexigrams, which was an artificial language using symbols on a keyboard. Lana was able to use the keyboard to communicate her desires to her caregivers
behavioral stimulants
class of drugs that increase behavioral activity by increasing motor activity or by counteracting fatigue and which are thought to stimulate receptors for dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin
impossible objects
classic illusion; objects that have been drawn and can be perceived but geometrically impossible (infinite staircase)
prisoner's dilemma
classic method of investigating people's choices to compete or cooperate using a hypothetical case where 2 men have been taken into custody, separated, and can choose either to confess or not to confess
cornea
clear protective coating on the outside of the eye
comparative psychology
closely related to ethology; area of psychology in which the psychologists study animals and their behavior for the purpose of comparing and contrasting it to human behavior
Major or mild neurocognitive disorder
cognitive decline from a previous level of functioning
mental chronometry
cognitive psych research method of measuring the time elapsed b/t a stimulus presentation and the subject's response to it
social cognitive therapy
cognitive-behavioral therapy
Ulric Neisser
coined the term "icon" for brief visual memory and found that an **icon lasts for about one second;** in addition they found that when subjects are exposed to a bright flash of light or a new pattern before the iconic image fades, the first image will be erased **(backward masking)**
Henry Landsberger
coined the term **Hawthorne Effect** in 1955 when they were analyzing old data that was collected in the late 1920s in order to increase worker productivity; people's performance changes when they are being observed
Walter Cannon
coined the term **fight or flight** and also proposed the idea of **homeostasis** (the internal regulation of body to maintain equilibrium)
Henry Landsberger
coined the term Hawthorne Effect in 1955 when he was analyzing old data that was collected in the late 1920s in order to increase worker productivity; people's performance changes when they are being observed
Ulric Neisser
coined the term icon for brief visual memory and found that an icon lasts for about one second; in addition he found that when subjects are exposed to a bright flash of light or a new pattern before the iconic image fades, the first image will be erased (backward masking)
Eugene Bleuler
coined the term schizophrenia (formerly dementia praecox - split mind)
Walter Cannon
coined the terms "homeostasis" and "fight or flight"
consummate love
combination of intimacy, passion, and commitment
cohort-sequential design
combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches
T-tests
compare the means of two different groups to see if the two groups are truly different; this would mean that the difference between the means is large enough to be considered statistically significant rather than due to chance variation; T-tests analyze differences between means on continuous data (anything that is measured such as height or depression score); cannot test for differences between more than 2 groups
cross-sectional study
comparing different groups of individuals at different ages
upward social comparisons
comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are on a particular trait or ability
downward social comparisons
comparing ourselves to those whom we believe are worse off than we are in some way
norm-referenced testing
comparing the test-taker's performance to that test's norms that are derived from standardized samples
timbre
complexity of sound wave
monoamines
comprise two classes of neurotransmitters, indolamines (serotonin) and catecholamines (dopamine)
Divided attention
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
ground
concept in visual perception that refers to the background against which the figures appear
semantic feature-comparison model
concepts are represented by sets of features, some of which are required for that concept and some of which are typical of that concept
schema
conceptual framework used to organize knowledge
inferential statistics
concerned w/ making an inference from the sample involved in the research to the population of interest in order to provide an est. of popular characteristics
descriptive statistics
concerned w/ organizing, describing, quantifying, and summarizing a collection of actual observations
domain-referenced testing (AKA criterion-referenced testing)
concerned w/ what the test-taker knows about a specified content domain
Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)
condition involving chronic depressive symptoms that are present most of the day for more days than not during a 2-year period with no more than 2 months symptom-free; never an actual depressive episode
somatic symptom disorder
condition marked by excessive anxiety about physical symptoms with a medical or purely psychological origin; interfere w/ functioning
Wernicke's aphasia
condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to produce meaningful language; speech is fluent but nonsensical
discriminative stimulus
condition that indicates that the organism's behavior will have consequences
Norman Triplett
conducted the **first official social psychology type experiment** in 1897 on social facilitation; found that cyclists performed better when paced by others than when they rode alone
Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark
conducted the doll preference studies; demonstrated the negative effects that group segregation had on African American children's self-esteem; factored into the 1954 Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education
gender dysphoria
conflict b/w a person's assigned gender at birth and the gender with which he/she/they/etc. identify
acceptance
conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure
corticospinal tract
connections between brain and spine
reliability
consistency and stability of a test measure
episodic memory
consists of a person's experiences of the world, including details, events, and discrete knowledge
Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study
consists of cartoons in which one person is frustrating another person; the subject is asked to describe how the frustrated person responds
semantic memory
consists of facts and info - general knowledge of the world
outer ear
consists of the pinna and the auditory canal; vibrations from sound move down this canal to the middle canal
id
contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
metencephalon
contains the pons (connects brain parts to spine) and cerebellum (controls muscle coordination, balance, and posture)
counterbalancing
controlling the potential effects of unintended IVs by making sure that the experimental and control groups are similar in all respects except for in the IV being measured
hypothalamus
controls ANS biological motivations, such as hunger and thirst, and the pituitary gland
inferior colliculus
controls auditory reflexes - appears as bumps on the brainstem
amygdala
controls emotional reactions such as fear and anger
frontal lobe
controls speech, reasoning, and problem solving; contains Broca's area for speech
tectum
controls vision and hearing
hit
correctly sensing a stimulus
Immanuel Kant
countered Locke's claim by asserting that our minds were active, not passive; followed Hippocrates's and Galen's models of the humours but believed there was no overlap b/w the categories
Albert Ellis
created **Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)** which includes elements if cognitive, behavioral, and emotional theory. Believed that intertwined thoughts and feelings produce behavior. Psychological tension is created when an activating event occurs (A), and a client applies certain beliefs about the event (B), and this leads to the consequence of emotional disruption (C). Therapy is highly directive. The therapist leads the client to dispute the previously applied irrational beliefs.
kin selection
creates inclusive fitness; explains why parents protect their young and why individual animals may put themselves at risk by sounding alarm calls to warn their sibling of a predator
Charles Spearman
creator of "g-factor", or general intelligence, concept; heavily influenced by Sir Francis Galton
Seymour Epstein
critical of personality trait theory
melancholic types
unhappy
model of psychopathology (individual theory)
unhealthy individuals are too much affected by inferior feelings to pursue the will to power; they may make excuses or have a "yes, but" mentality. If they do pursue goals, they are likely to be self-serving and egotistical
Hazel Markus
cross-cultural research; Eastern countries value interdependence over independence; for example, in Japan, individuals likelier to demonstrate conformity, modesty, and pessimism; where in the U.S., likelier to show optimism, self-enhancement, and individuality; some criticizes generalizations about cultures
binocular disparity (AKA stereopsis)
cue for depth perception that depends on the fact that the distance b/t the eyes provides 2 slightly disparate views of the world that, when combined, give us a perception of depth
motion parallax
cue for depth perception that occurs during movement when objects that are closer appear to move
relative size
cue for depth perception that occurs when an object gets farther away and its image on the retina gets smaller; you can tell how far away something is relative to another object by comparing size of images on the retina w/ what is known about actual sizes
linear perspective
cue for depth perception that refers to the perception of parallel lines converging in the distance
confounding variable
unintended IV
interposition (AKA overlap)
cue for depth perception when one object covers or overlaps another object and we see the first object as being in front
texture gradients
cue for depth perception where more distance parts of a scene appear to have smaller, more densely packed elements and sudden changes in texture generally signal a change in distance or direction
demand characteristics
cues that suggest to subjects what the researcher expects from participants
incidental learning
unrelated items are grouped together ex: pets dislike riding in cars b/c it means they're going to the vet
paraphilic disorders
unusual and troublesome sexual desires: - pedophilic - exhibitionistic - sexual sadism
resistance
unwillingness or inability to related to certain thoughts, motives, or experiences
holophrastic speech
use (by a young child) of one word (holophrase) to convey a whole sentence - ex: "me" may mean "give that to me"
honeybee navigation
use landmarks as simple location cues; also use the Sun, polarized light, and magnetic fields as navigational aides
anchoring
use of a predetermined number or position as a starting point and then making adjustments from there (ex: lawyers use anchroing when they start negotiating a settlement for a client)
simulations
use perceptual cues to make artificial situations seem real
analytical therapy goal
use unconscious messages in order to become more aware and closer to full potential
Broca's aphasia
damage to broca's area, speech comprehension is intact but patient has reduced/absent ability to produce spoken language
qualitative/nonexperimental research
data collected is descriptive rather than quantitative (ex: case studies, observational studies, ethnographic studies, phenomenological studies)
osmoreceptors
deal with thirst
thanatos
death instincts that represent an unconscious wish for the ultimate absolute state of quiescence
availability heuristic
decision-making shortcut that people tend to use when trying to decide how likely something is based upon how easily similar instances can be imagined
representativeness heuristic
decision-making shortcut that people tend to used when trying to decide how likely something is by categorizing on the basis of whether it fits the prototypical/stereotypical image of that category
antagonists
decrease the effects of a specific neurotransmitter (ex: botox)
Contact with opposing party
decreases conflict
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
desensitization
decreasing sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus; often used as a behavioral treatment to counter phobias
suppression
defense mechanism involving deliberate, conscious forgetting
rationalization
defense mechanism that refers to the process of developing socially acceptable explanations for inappropriate behaviors or thoughts
projection
defense mechanism that refers to when a person attributes their forbidden urges to others
regression
defense mechanism where a person reverts to an earlier mode of satisfaction
reaction formation
defense mechanism where a repressed wish is warded off by its diametrical opposite
compensation
defense mechanism where something is done to make up for something that is lacking
repression
defense mechanism where there is unconscious forgetting of anxiety-producing memories
displacement
defense mechanisms that refers to the pent-up feelings (often hostility) discharged on objects and people less dangerous than those objects or people causing the feelings
sublimation
defense mechanisms where one transforms unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors
phenylketonuria (PKU)
degenerative disease of the nervous system occurring when a child lacks the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine
predictive value
degree to which an independent variable can predict a dependent variable
R.M. Cooper and John Zubek
demonstrated the interaction between heredity and environment, - bright rats performed better than dull only when both sets raised in normal conditions, - both groups performed well in enriched environment (lots of food and activities), - both performed poorly in impoverished environment
repression
denying painful or anxiety-producing memories, feelings or thoughts from becoming conscious
rationalization
denying the true motivations for one's behaviour in favour of false, albeit more acceptable or self-serving ones
lack of serotonin
depression
normal distribution
describes a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that shows the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes
ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought) model
describes memory in terms of procedural and declarative memory
range
descriptive statistic measuring variability
correlation coefficient
descriptive statistic that measures to what extent, if any, 2 variables are related
need for affiliation
desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships
lightness constancy
despite changes in illumination, apparent lightness of an object remains unchanged
postsynaptic receptors in the postsynaptic cell
detect the presence of neurotransmitters and cause the ion channels to open
Meissner's corpuscles
detect touch or contact
David McClelland
developed "need for achievement" theory; achievement, power, affiliation; developed a new scoring system for the TAT
Mary Ainsworth
developed Strange Situation which operationalized Bowlby's attachment theory; - identified 3 types of attachment 1) secure 2) ambivalent 3) avoidant
rational emotive behavior therapy
developed by Albert Ellis, a form of psychotherapy based on identifying and correcting irrational beliefs that are believed to underlie emotional and behavioral difficulties
Albert Bandura
developed social learning theory - Bobo doll experiment; people learn through modelling
Eleanor Gibson
developed the "visual cliff" experiment; showed that depth perception cues are innate
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
developed the visual cliff apparatus to study whether depth perception is innate
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
developed the visual cliff to test depth perception in animals and babies
Harry Harlow
development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort
Process Schizophrenia / Reactive Schizophrenia
develops gradually vs. develops suddenly in response to a particular event
William Sheldon
devised a system based on somatotypes (body types); endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph
Howard Gardner
devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic
Giedd (2004)
did MRI scans, found that 95% of brain structure is formed before age 6 and frontal lobe develops again during teenage years
allels
different forms of the same gene
cross-sectional
different subjects of different ages are compared
cognitive therapy
directed therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; short-term in which the therapist focuses on tangible evidence of the client's logic
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
Rizzolatti
discovered mirror neurons in monkeys first, then moved on to humans. mirror neurons help explain empathy
John Garcia
discovered that animals are programmed through evolution to make certain connections; studied "conditioned nausea:
phonemes
discrete sounds that make up words but carry not meaning, such as /ee/, /p/ or /sh/
frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder
disease of the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain characterized by changes in personality
sleep apnea
disorder characterized by an inability to breathe during sleep
schizophrenia
disorder characterized by any or all of the following symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thoughts, inappropriate affect, and catatonic behavior
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADD/HD)
disorder characterized by developmentally atypical inattention and/or impulsivity/hyperactivility
hypochondriasis
disorder that causes an individual to be preoccupied with fears that he or she has a serious disease based on misinterpretation of 1+ bodily signs or symptoms
autism
disorder whose essential features are lack of responsiveness to other people, gross impairment in communication skills, and behaviors and interests that are repetitive, inflexibly routined, and stereotyped
Authoritarinism
disposition to view the world as full of power relationships
personality theory was originally dominated by who?
dispositionists
depersonalization disorder
dissociative disorder that involves a sense of detachment from the self despite an intact sense of reality
amnesia
dissociative disorder where individuals are unable to recall past experience but this inability is not due to a neurological disorder
normal distribution
distribution that is symmetrical and has its greatest freq in the middle
insomnia
disturbance affecting the ability to fall asleep and/or stay asleep
split-half consistency
dividing a test into equal halves and correlating scores on one half w/ the scores on the other half
owls
do not use echolocation; hearing is similar to that of humans
Berridge and Kringlebach 2009
dopamine is connected with pleasure seeking behavior. fMRI scans on people.
catecholamines
dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
atmosphere effect
drawing a conclusion based on the way information is phrased
lithium
drug used to treat bipolar disorder
antidepressants
drugs that combat depression by affecting the levels or activity of neurotransmitters in the brain
agonists
drugs that increase the effects of a neurotransmitter (ex: SSRIs which increase serotonin activity)
anxiolytics
drugs that reduce anxiety, induce sleep, usually by increasing the effectiveness of GABA - barbiturates and benzodiazepines such as Valium and Xanax
sedative-hypnotic drugs
drugs that slow down the functioning of the central nervous system by facilitating the action of GABA
criticisms of psychopharmacology
drugs that take away symptoms do not provide interpersonal support; drugs alone are not enough; side effects; withdrawal symptoms
mood stabilizers
drugs used to control mood swings in patients with bipolar mood disorders - lithium - anti-psychotics - anti-convulsants
place theory
each diff pitch causes a diff place on the basilar membrane of the ear to vibrate
law of specific nerve energies
each sensory nerve is excited by only one kind of energy and the brain interprets any stimulation of that nerve as being that kind of energy
functionalism
early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
anorexia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight
bulimia nervosa
eating disorder involving binge eating and excessive attempts to compensate for it by purging, fasting, or excessive exercising
social support network
effects on mental health have emerged as an area of study that combines social and clinical ideas. social support has been shown to reduce effects of stress
primary prevention
efforts to correct the conditions that foster mental illness and to establish the conditions that foster mental health
secondary process
ego's mode of functioning which is to postpone the discharge of energy until the actual object that will satisfy the need has been discovered or produced
reality principle
ego's response to frustration that takes into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and its pleasure principle
Piaget
egocentrism- inability to see another's viewpoint (mountain task) inability to do conservation tasks- cannot see things remain constant when they visibly change
R.E. Petty and J.T. Cacioppo
elaboration likelihood model
Pike (1967)
emic- culture-specific etic- cross-cultrual trying to find a universal
psychopharmacology model of psychopathology
emotional disturbances are at least partly caused by biological factors and can be successfully treated with medication
fight or flight response
emotional experience associated w/ the sympathetic nervous system and managed by the hypothalamus during high arousal
Harry Stack Sullivan
emphasized social and interpersonal relationships
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
employs principles from cognitive and behavioral theory
3 main processes of memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
Sandor Ferenczi
encouraged Melanie Klein to analyze her own children
Gestalt Theory
encourages people to stand apart from beliefs, biases and attitudes derived from the past; the goal is to fully experience and perceive the present
Stuart Valins
environmental influences on behaviour; students in long-corridor dorms more stressed and withdrawn than those in suite-style
social comparison
evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others
attachment bond
evidence of a preference for the primary caregiver and a wariness of strangers
autonomic conditioning
evoking responses of the autonomic nervous system through training
phelogeny
evolutionary development in humans
mimicry
evolved form of deception
generalized anxiety disorder
excessive anxiety w/o a specific cause that occurs on more days than not for a period of at least 6 months
Hypersomnolence
excessive sleepiness
Victor Frankl
existential psychology; Man's Search for Meaning' people innately seek meaningfulness in their lives, perceived meaninglessness is root of emotional difficulty; logotherapy
Victor Frankl
existential theory
Rollo May
existentialist and prime move in this counseling movement; emphasized importance of anxiety as part of the human condition as well as the importance of creating meaning out of experience
perceptual sets
expectations we have about perception due to past experiences
cyclothymic disorder
experience mood swings similar to bipolar I and II, but symptoms are less severe and occur with regularity over a period of at least 2 years
field study
experiment that takes places in a naturalistic setting
between-subjects design
experiment where each subject is exposed to only 1 level of each IV
longitudinal studies
experimental method used in development psych to compare the same group of individuals repeatedly over time
case study (AKA clinical method)
experimental method used in developmental psychology to take a very detailed look at development by studying a small # of individuals
autoshaping
experiments in which an apparatus allows an animal to control its reinforcements through behaviors, such as bar pressing or key pecking. The animal is, in a sense, shaping its own behavior.
sleeper effect
explains why persuasive communication from a source of low credibility may become more acceptable after the fact
Stanley Milgram's stimulus-overload theory
explains why urbanites are less prosocial than country people are; urbanites don't need any more interaction
gestalt goal of therapy
exploration of awareness and full experiencing of the present; a successful therapy connects the client and their present existence
post-traumatic stress disorder
exposure to trauma that results in decreased ability to function and recurrent thoughts and anxiety about the trauma; this disorder is often linked to war veterans or victims of violence
Fechner's law
expresses the relationship b/t the intensity of the sensation and the intensity of the stimulus and states that sensation increases more slowly as intensity increases
validity
extent to which a test actually measures what it purports to measure
external validity
extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure
confounding variable
extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable
saccades
eye movements from one fixation point to another
oxytocin
facilitates birth and breast feeding; involved in pair bonding
undergeneralization
failure to generalize a stimulus
narcolepsy
falling asleep uncontrollably
true or false: opposites attract
false
delusions
false beliefs, discordant w/ reality, that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary
Emmert's law
farther away the object appears to be, the more the scaling device in the brain will compensate for its retinal size by enlarging our perception of the object
language development: girls
faster and more accurate with language learning than boys are
myelin sheath
fatty, insulating sheath on some axons that allows faster conduction of axon impulses
agoraphobia
fear of a situation in which panic symptoms might arise and escape would be difficult; this usually means fear and avoidance of being outside the home or in crowds
social anxiety disorder
fear of social situations; usually resulting in avoidance behaviour
sign stimulus
feature of a stimulus that is sufficient to bring about a particular fixed-action pattern
Carl Gustav Jung
felt Freud over-emphasized sexual instinct; analytic psychology; metaphysical and mythological components collective unconscious and unconscious archetypes; autobiography Memories, Dreams, Reflections
zygote
fertilized egg cell with 23 chromosome pairs; diploid
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
few positive charges in the cell body are let out, and the cell becomes HYPERPOLARIZED (more negative compared to the outside) - decrease the chance that a cell will fire
presynaptic cells
fires and releases neurotransmitters from its terminal buttons as a messenger to other neurons
J.P. Guilford
first defined convergent and divergent thinking
antipsychotics
first drugs used; treat positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, etc.) -->blocks dopamine receptors; inhibits dopamine production (e.g. phenothiazines, butyrophenones) (anti-psychotics/anti schiz; schiz is too much dopamine)
Norman Triplett
first official social psychology experiment on social facilitation; cyclists performed better when paced by others
reception
first step in all sensory info processing
sensory memory
fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli
phenomenological view of personality theory
focuses on the individuals unique self and experiences
overjustification effect
follows from self-perception theory; tendency to assume we must not want to do things we are paid or compensated to do (ex: a person who loves to sing and is then paid to do so will lose pleasure in singing b/c the activity is now overjustified)
absolute refractory period
follows the onset of an action potential; nerve impulse cannot be initiated
Garcia effect
food aversion that occurs when people attribute illness to a particular food
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)
for children aged 4 to 6 years old
Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test
for children, notable for its relatively cross-cultural application and simple directions; children are scored based on detail and accuracy
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)
form of dementia caused by repeated head trauma such as concussions
altruism
form of helping behavior where the animal's intent is to benefit other animals at some cost to itself
factitious disorder
formerly known as Munchausen or Munchausen by proxy; involves inducing physical symptoms in oneself or in another for the purpose of garnering attention and being able to play the sick role
Alice Eagly
found an interaction between gender and social status with regard to how easily an individual might be influenced or swayed
Katherine Nelson
found that **language really begins to develop with the onset of active speech** rather than during the first year of only listening
Kay Deaux
found that **women's successes at stereotypical "male" tasks are often attributed to luck,** while men's successes are often attributed to skill. This suggests that that gender is a social construct that colors interpretations.
John Horn and Raymond Cattell
found that fluid intelligence (knowing how to do something) declines with old age while crystallized intelligence (knowing a fact) does not
Robert Fantz
found that infants prefer relatively complex and sensical displays
Katherine Nelson
found that language really begins to develop with the onset of active speech rather than during the first year of only listening
Karl Lashley
found that memories are stored diffusely in the brain
Frederick Bartlett
found that memory is **reconstructive rather than rote.** Discovered that people are more likely to remember the ideas or semantics of a story rather than the details or grammar of a story.
George Sperling
found that people could see more than they can remember - ppts shown something like this for a fraction of a second: GPRZ ILTH TBAE - then instructed to write down the letters of a particular line. although the subjects were able to do this, they invariably forgot the other letters in the time that it took to write the first ones down - this PARTIAL REPORT shows that sensory memory exists, bt only for a few seconds
Costa and McCrae
found that personality changes very little after age 30
Robert Zajone
found that the presence of others helps with easy tasks but hinders complex tasks
Kay Deaux
found that women's successes at stereotypical "male" tasks are often attributed to luck, while men's successes are often attributed to skill
Konrad Lorez
founder of ethology as a distinct research field; did extensive research on: 1) imprinting 2) animal aggression 3) releasing stimuli 4) fixed action patterns
Konrad Lorenz
founder of ethology, famous for work with imprinting in goslings and ducklings
Sigmund Freud
founder of psychoanalysis; id, ego, superego
Wilhelm Wundt
founder of psychology - first official lab for psych at University of Leipzig - wrote Principles of Physiological Psychology - created psych that attempted to study and analyze consciousness - studied under Johannes Muller
Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka
founders of Gestalt psychology movement in reaction to attempts to study the mind and experience in distinct parts
diathesis-stress model
framework explaining the causes of mental disorders as an interaction b/t biological causal factors and psychological causal factors
nightmare disorder
frequent disruption of sleep b/c of nightmares
sleep terror
frequent disruption of sleep because of screaming or crying
amino acids
frequently present in fast-acting directed synapses; 2 important amino acids are glutamate and GABA
Leonard Berkowitz
frustration-aggression hypothesis
Eagly (1987)
gender stereotypes come from different gender roles
overextension
generalizing with names for things - often done through chaining characteristics rather than through logic - ex: 2-year old calling any furry thing a "doggie" - usually occurs in children 12 months to 2-3 years old
functional autonomy
given activity or form of behavior may become an end or a goal in itself regardless of its original reason for existence
apparent size
gives us clues about how far away an object is if we know about how big the object should be
theory of motivation
goal of behavior is to reduce biological drives and behavior reinforcement occurs whenever a biological drive is reduced
compliance
going along publicly but not privately
conformity
going along with real or perceived group pressure
language acquisition model: 4 years
grammar problems are random exceptions
morphology or morphological rules
grammar rules; how to group morphemes
syntax
grammatical arrangement of words in sentences
frequency polygon
graph has plotted points connected by lines; often used to plot variables that are continuous (categories w/o clear boundaries)
scatterplot
graphical representation of correlational data
receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve
graphical representations of a subject's sensitivity to a stimulus
risky shift
group decisions are riskier than the avg of the individual choices and the avg riskiness of the individual choices can be considered to be an est. of the group's original riskiness
James Stoner
group polarization
theory of association
grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space
Irving Janis
groupthink
overbenefited people tend to feel
guilty
E. R. Kandel
had similar ideas as Donald Hebb of long-term potentiation from studying the sea slug aplysia; also did brain studies of young chicks to show that their brains are altered with learning and memory
sanguine types
happy
Stimulus-seeking individuals
have a great need for arousal
insight
having a new perspective on an old problem: the a-ha! experience
prejudice
having negative beliefs and judgments about a group of people based on social category, such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or religion
authoritative parenting style
having reasonably high demands for child compliance coupled w/ emotional warmth
Kent Cochrane
he suffered long-term memory impairment following encephalitis, but his short-term store remained unaffected.; he is a musician and chorus master; he could not recall past events in his life, but he could remember how to play the piano and conduct an orchestra.
Johannes Muller
he wrote Elements of Physiology and postulated the existence of "specific nerve energies"
existential theory goal of therapy
help clients understand how they create meaning in the world and to help them make different choices based on what gives life meaning
vasopressin
helps to regulate water levels in the body and therefore also helps to regulate blood pressure
Diana Baumrind
her theory of parenting styles had three main types (permissive, authoratative, & authoritarian)
echolocation
used by dolphins and bats; bats emit high-frequency bursts of sound and locate nearby objects from the echo that bounces off these objects
Raymond Cattell
used factor analysis in data reduction of Allport's 5,000 traits; he eventually identified 16 bipolar source traits that seemed to underlie all of the 5,000 traits; these were Cattell's 16 personality factors tested in his sixteen personality questionnaire
Factorial Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
used in the study of more than one independent variable (i.e. 2x2 design); can isolate the main effects and identify interaction effects
predictive validity
used of some criterion scores obtained in advance and validating them against scores obtained later
Morton Deutsch
used the **prisoner's dilemma** and the **trucking company** game story to illustrate the struggle between **cooperation and competition**
systems of organization
used to encode information into long-term memory, usually semantically or categorically
concepts
used to represent the relationship between 2 things. we organize our world through concepts
twin studies
heritability of personality is about 40-50%
Abraham Maslow
hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow
hierarchy of needs; physiological needs take precedence, once satisfied, person will work to satisfy safety needs, followed by love and belonging needs, self-esteem needs and then self-actualization
deindividuation
high degree of arousal and low degree of personal responsibility
Bekesy's traveling wave theory
high frequency sounds maximally vibrate the basilar membrane near the beginning of the cochlea close to the oval window and low freqs maximally vibrate near the apex or tip of the cochlea
Socially useful type (sanguine)
high in activity and high in social contribution; healthy
Ruling-dominant type (choleric)
high in activity but low in social contribution; dominant
REBT therapy
highly directive; therapist leads the client to dispute (D) the previously applied irrational beliefs
monoamine theory of depression (AKA catecholamine theory of depression)
holds that too much norepinephrine and serotonin leads to mania while too little leads to depression
luteinizing hormone
hormone associated w/ ovulation
progesterone
hormone produced and secreted by the ovary to prepare the uterus for implantation of the fertilized egg
adrenaline (AKA epinephrine)
hormone that increases energy available for fight or flight response
external validity
how generalizable the results of an experiment are
Balance theory (Heider)
how people make their feelings and/or actions consistent to preserve psychological homeostasis
construct validity
how well a test measures the intended theoretical construct
content vailidty
how well the content items of a test measure the particular skill or knowledge area that it is supposed to measure
criterion validity
how well the test can predict an individual's performance on an established test of the same skill or knowledge are
dominant wave-length of light?
hue (colour)
Third Force Psychology
humanistic psychology, which was viewed by Maslow and others as an alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviorism
Thomas Hobbes
humans and other animals were machines, sense-perception was all that could be known; suggested that science could be formed to explain people just as physics explained machines
Spotlight model
humans focus on one particular task while all other tasks remain in the background until the spotlight focuses on a different task
Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device
humans have innate ability to adapt to grammar rules to create new sentences; adopt generative grammar rules of the language that they hear - a nativist interpretation
mesmerism
hypnotism
reject the null hypothesis
hypothesis that no real differences or patterns exist; want to reject so that results are statistically significant
Clark Hull
hypothetico-deductive model which was designed to try to deduce logically all the rules that govern behavior. created an equation involving not only input variables leading to output variables, but also included intervening variables in between that would change the outcomes
pleasure principle
id's operating principle which is to immediately discharge any energy buildup
primary process
id's response to frustration which is to obtain satisfaction now, not later
collective unconcious
idea that all humans share an unconscious residual from the experiences of our early ancestors
tabula rasa
idea that all knowledge is gained through experience
scripts
ideas about the way events typically unfold
hypotheses
ideas used to test relationships and then to form concepts
Hans Eyesenck
identified superfactors that are then subdivided into different personality types; believed that personality traits were genetically determined and insisted on rigorous experimental method in forming theories of personality
law of effect
if a response is followed by an annoying consequence, the animal will be less likely to emit the same response in the future
decay theory
if info in long-term memory is not used or reheased, it will eventually be forgotten
induced motion
illusion of movement occurring when everything around the spot of light is moved
phi phenomenon
illusion of movement that occurs when 2 dots flashed in different locations on a screen seconds apart are perceived as one moving dot
apparent motion
illusion that occurs when 2 dots flashed in different locations on a screen seconds apart are perceived as 1 moving dot
autokinetic effect
illusion that occurs when a spot of light appears to move erratically in a dark room b/c there's no frame of reference
motion aftereffect
illusion that occurs when you first view a moving pattern and then you view a spot of light in which the spot of light appears to move in the opposite direction
agnosia
impairment in perceptual recognition
aphagia
impairment in the ability to eat
apraxia
impairment in the organization of voluntary action
Wernicke's aphasis
impairment in understanding spoken language associated w/ damage to Wernicke's area
visual agnosia
impairment in visual recognition whereby the person can see an object but is unable to recognize what it is
Broca's aphasia
impairments in produced spoken language associated w/ lesions to Broca's area
functional fixedness
impediment to effective problem solving b/c of an inability to use familiar objects in unfamiliar ways
memory involved in classical conditioning and priming
implicit memory
social cognitive goal of therapy
improve a person's perceived self-efficacy beliefs
Transference
in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
acquired apraxia
inability to plan and coordinate specific motor movements; cannot perform certain learned purposeful movements on command
dissociative amnesia
inability to recall important personal information - most often related to a stressful experience - that can't be explained by ordinary forgetfulness
prosopagnosia
inability to recognize faces
fixation
inability to successfully proceed through a stage in development b/c of an overindulgence or frustration
phonological agraphia
inability to write b/c of an inability to sound out words
resting potential
inactivated state of a neuron; neuron is negatively charged at this point and the cell membrane does not let positive charges (ions) in
placebo
inactive substance or condition disguised as a treatment substance or condition; used to form the control group
preparedness
inborn tendency to associate certain stimuli w/ certain consequences
Gender Development
includes biological influences, cognitive influences (learned schemas), learning influences (cultural influences)
Neobehaviorism
incorporates internal events (such as cognition or emotion) into account when understanding behavior
hyperpolarization
increase in the membrane potential that decreases the possibility of generating a nerve impulse
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
increases the production of androgens and cortisol
sensitization
increasing sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus
positive reinforcement
increasing the probability that a desired response will be performed by rewarding that response when it does occur
standard error of measurement (SEM)
index of how much on avg we expect a person's observed score to vary from the score the person is capable of receiving based on actual ability
binge-eating disorder
indicated by consumption of large amounts of food and a sense of lack of control over this eating behavior
delirium
indicated by disturbed consciousness and cognition
motor skills disorder
indicated by motor coordination below expectations for one's chronological age
communication disorders
indicated by pervasive problems acquiring language across modalities, using language socially, or speaking intelligibly or fluently
ADHD
indicated by problems with attention, behaviour, and impulsivity; most frequently treated w/ stimulants (Ritalin and Adderall)
Learning disorders
indicated by school achievement or standardized scores at least two standard deviations below the mean for the appropriate age and IQ
Autism Spectrum Disorder
indicated by severe problems with social skills, communication, and interests
eye movements and gaze durations
indicators of information processing while reading
g
individual diff in intelligence that refers to a general, unitary factor of intelligence
temperament
individual diffs thought to have a genetic basis and thought to form the foundation of personality
fictional finalism
individual is motivated more by his or her expectations of the future based on a subjective or fictional estimate of life's values than by past experiences
dissenter
individual who speaks out against the majority
exploratory drive
individuals are motivated simply to try something new or to explore their environment
response bias
individuals are partly motivated by costs and rewards in detection
main tenet of humanistic theory
individuals have actualizing tendency that can direct them out of conflict and toward their full potential; best accomplished in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard
social learning theory
individuals learn through their culture; learn what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors through interacting in society
equity theory
individuals strive for fairness and feel uncomfortable when there is a perception of a lack of fairness
pre-linguistic stage
infants use facial expressions, eye contact, crying, and body language to communicate
divergent thinking
used when more than one possibility exists in a situation - ex: playing chess or creative thinking - in a group, the presence of a dissenter leads to divergent thinking
Chi-square tests
used when the n cases in a sample are classified into categories or cells; the results tell us whether the groups are significantly different in size, they look at patterns or distributions and analyze categorical or discrete data
representativeness heuristic
uses an existing prototype to make a decision. we are comparing one scenario to our prototype in our minds ex: if our prototype of surgeon is male, wearing scrubs, and wielding a scalpel, we will not necessarily envision that the woman in a business suit with a coffee can also be a surgeon
Paivio's dual-code hypothesis
info can be encoded in 2 ways--visually or verbally; abstract info tends to be encoded verbally and concrete info tends to be encoded visually and verbally
proximal stimulus
info our sensory receptors receive about the object
parallel distributed process (PDP)
info processing is distributed across the brain in a parallel fashion
Archetypes (Jung)
inherent templates for human thoughts and behavior. They can be thought of as patterns of human experience that have existed since the dawn of humanity. Found within the collective unconscious, some of the more prominent archetype are: The-Self, The persona, The Shadow, The Anima, and The Animus
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)
inhibit the action of monoamine oxidase, the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of norepinephrine and serotonin once released; ex. phenelzine (Nardil)
language acquisition device (LAD)
innate biologically based mechanism that helps us understand rule structures in language
What part of the ear is responsible for balance?
inner ear
spinal cord
inner gray core of gray matter (cell bodies and dendrites) and an outer covering of white matter (nerve fibers, axon bundles, myelin sheathing) that go to and from the brain
instincts
inner representations of a psychological excitation or wish; propelling aspects of Freud's dynamic theory of personality
tachtiscope
instrument often used in cognitive or memory experiments, presents visual material to subjects for a fraction of a second
John Dollard
integrated the behavioral perspective with psychoanalytic thinking; rats in an apparatus and gave them electric shocks until they started fighting
figure
integrated visual experience that stands out at the center of attention
mainstreaming
integrating students with disabilities or special needs into the overall educational program; this comparison may result in lower self-esteem for the children with problems
crystallized intelligence
intelligence that uses knowledge acquired as a result of schooling or life experiences
Robert Sternberg
intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (analytical ability, practical, and creative); believed that intelligence was more about suing what you know and have experienced to adapt to the world
passionate love
intense longing for the union with another and a state of profound physiological arousal
psychoanalysis
intensive, long-term treatment for uncovering repressed memories, motives, and conflicts stemming from problems in psychosexual development w/ the goal of gaining insight into the repressed material
prevailing view of gender differences
interactionist
circadian rhythms
internally generated rhythms that regulate our daily cycle of waking and sleeping which approximate a 24-hr cycle
mediation
intervening mental process that occurs b/w stimulus and response. it reminds us what to do how to respond based on ideas or past learning
romantic love
intimacy and passion without commitment
Sternberg's Triangular model of love
intimacy, passion, commitment
breathing-related sleep disorders
involve problems with breathing during sleep resulting in repeated awakenings throughout the night
norepinephrine (AKA noradrenaline)
involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness and implicated in mood disorders
dopamine
involved in feelings of reward; linked to addiction
hippocampus
involved in memory
brief psychotic disorder
involves a sudden onset of psychotic symptoms lasting less than one month, followed by a remission
dissociative fugue
involves amnesia plus a sudden unexpected move away from one's home or location of usual daily activities
sleepwalking
involves getting up and walking around while in a state of sleep
quasi-experimental design
involves manipulation of the independent variable but no random assignment of participants (used when not feasible or ethical to use random assignment, ex: not ethical to assign one group of people to smoke for 20 years)
secondary (elaborative) rehearsal
involves organizing and understanding material in order to transfer it to LTM
primary (maintenance) rehearsal
involves repeating material in order to hold it in STM
cooperative learning
involves students working on a project together in small groups
adjustment disorder
involves symptoms following a trauma or stressor that have been going on for up to 3 months from the time of the stressor and involve a greater response than one might normally expect under the circumstances
compulsions
irrational and reactive impulses to perform certain acts
agoraphobia
irrational fear of being in places or situations where escape might be difficult
claustrophobia
irrational fear of closed places
cynophobia
irrational fear of dogs
acrophobia
irrational fear of heights
phobia
irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid that thing
pyromania
irresistible impulse to set fires
kleptomania
irresistible impulse to steal
what happens after light passes through the receptors?
it travels through the horizontal cells to the bipolar cells to the amacrine cells then to the ganglion cells which make up the optic nerve
Desynchronosis
jet lag
forward conditioning
pairing of the CS and the UCS in which the NS is presented before the UCS. two types: 1) delayed conditioning 2) trace conditioning
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Is one of the most influential figures in clinical and personality psychology. **All of this information is important to know sadly** They are the most famous for their personality theory that advanced a three-part structure of the psyche, known as the "id, ego, and superego." Id = the part of the mind that contains the unconscious biological drives and wishes. At birth, mental life is composed solely of the id. The id operates on the "pleasure principle," the human motivation to seek pleasure and avoid pain; it's particularly salient in early life. Ego = the part of the mind that mediates between the environment and the pressures of the id and superego. The ego operates on the "reality principle" and responds to the demands of the environment by delaying gratification. Superego = The part of the mind that imposes learned or socialized drives. The superego is not something one is born with, but rather develops over time, and is therefore particularly influenced by moral and parental training. Importance placed on unconscious drives and conflicts. Eros = life drive, underlies desire to live and help others Thatanos = death drive (where aggression comes from) that underlies the desire to hurt oneself or others Came up with theory of child development that involved fixations if there was conflict during that time period Began the form of psychotherapy called "psychoanalysis." Finally, made significant contributions to the fields of psychology and philosophy through various papers, including "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1900), "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" (1905), "Beyond the Pleasure Principle" (1920), and "Civilization and Its Discontents" (1930). Also came up with defense mechanisms of the ego: repression, denial, projection, displacement, regression, sublimation, rationalization, reaction formation, and identification with the aggressor. Used dream analysis, as they believed dreams were the "royal road to the unconscious." They would analyze both the "manifest content" (the actual content of the dream) and the "latent content" (the unconscious forces the dreams are trying to express). Transference v countertransference Psychic determinism in psychoanalysis Criticized for only using single case studies to make theories*
John Dewey (1859-1952)
Is recognized as one of America's most influential philosophers. They attempted to synthesize philosophy and psychology for their work on the reflex arc. They denied that animals respond to their environment through disjointed stimulus and response chains. **They asserted that animals are constantly adapting to their environment rather than processing isolated stimuli.** This work was the foundation of **"functionalism." Drawn from Darwinian ideas, functionalism examined the adaptive nature of the mind and body through observational methods (top-down processing).**
Carol Gilligan (1936-)
Is the author of the classic feminist psychology work, "In a Different Voice," in which they outlined a theory that women's development happens through relationship and care. They worked with Erik Erikson and Lawrence Kohlberg, but extended their work by studying girls as well as boys, since most psychological theories up to that time were based on boys and men as subjects. **Specifically, said Kohlberg's moral development theory was biased towards males because it was dominated by rules, whereas women's morality focused more on compassion.**
Behaviorist Psychologists
Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Joseph Wolpe
anima
Jungian archetype referring to the feminine behaviors in males
animus
Jungian archetype referring to the masculine behaviors in females
rebound effect
Occurs when people are deprived of REM sleep. They will compensate by spending more time in REM sleep later in the night.
Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)
One of Freud's most beloved disciples, **broke away from Freud because felt that there was too much emphasis placed on the "libido," or sexual instinct. Their own school of though evolved from their work with Freud and is called "analytic psychology." **Analytic psychology = has metaphysical and mythological components, such as the "collective unconscious" and the unconscious "archetypes"** **Archetypes:** Persona = a person's outer mask, the mediator to the external world; this is symbolized in cultures by masks. Shadow = a person's dark side, often projected onto others; this is symbolized in cultures by devils and evil spirits. Anima = the female elements that a man possesses; this complements his own maleness. Animus = the male elements that a female possesses; this complements her own femaleness. Self = the full individual potential, symbolized in cultures by figures such as Buddha or Jesus; and by the mandala. Approach to therapy was dream analysis to uncover unconscious messages in order to become more aware and closer to full potential. Their autobiography, "Memories, Dreams, Reflections" (1961) is a standard required reading in many undergraduate psychology programs.
Socrates (BCE/CE)
One of the founders of Western philosophy and mentor to Plato. They pondered the abstract ideas of truth
Galen (BCE/CE)
One of the greatest physicians in Ancient Rome, built upon Hippocrates's theory of the humors. They believed that imbalances of these humors led to both physiological and psychological disorders. **Detailed more personality traits associated with the four personality types** **(sanguine types are happy, melancholic types unhappy, phlegmatic types calm, and choleric types angry)**
lateral inhibition
The pattern of interaction among neurons in the visual system in which activity in one neuron inhibits adjacent neurons' responses.
Amplitude
The physical strength of a wave; determines loudness
Puzzle Box experiment
E.L. Thorndike; cats learning complex tasks through trial and error. When a cat made a correct move, it was a "satisfying response" and the connection was "stamped" in, and the cat solved the puzzle faster in the next trials
Hull proposed that ....
Performance = Drive x Habit meaning that individuals are first motivated by drive, and then they act according to old successful habits. They will do what has worked in the past to satisfy the drive
Edward Tolman proposed that ...
Performance = Expectation x Value aka the expectancy-value theory
hedonism
The theory that individuals are motivated solely by what brings the most pleasure and the least pain.
Fritz Heider's balance theory, Charles Osgood & Percy Tannenbaum's congruity theory, Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory, Clark Hull's drive-reduction theory
all agree that what drives people is a desire to be balanced with respect to their feelings, ideas, or behaviors - called into question by the fact that individuals often seek out stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction
Continuous motor tasks vs. discrete motor tasks
continuous motions easier to learn, once started continues naturally. ex: riding a bike discrete divided into parts and do not facilitate recall of each other. ex: setting up a chessboard
Donald Hebb
created an early model of how learning happens in the brain - "neurons that fire together wire together"; proposed that a MEDIUM amount of arousal is best for performance
continuous reinforcement schedule
every correct response that is emitted results in a reward; facilitates the quickest learning but also the most fragile b/c as soon as the rewards stop coming, the animal stops performing
John B. Watson
expanded the ideas of Pavlov and founded the school of behaviorism; believed everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains and that conditioning was the key factor in developing these chains; only objective and observable elements were of importance to psychology
Edward C. Tolman
latent learning with rats in mazes; cognitive maps; rats' behavior was PURPOSIVE
perceptual or concept learning
learning about something in general rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains
secondary or acquired drives
money or other learned reinforcers
partial reinforcement schedules
not all correct responses are met with reinforcement; may require longer learning time but once learned, the behaviors are more resistant to extinction; 4 distinct types: 1) fixed ratio schedule 2) variable ratio schedule 3) fixed interval schedule 4) variable interval schedule
stimulus
refers to any events that an organism reacts to; first link in a stimulus-response chain
negative reinforcement
reinforcement through the removal of a negative event
extinction
reversal of conditioning; goal is to encourage an organism to stop doing a particular behavior; generally accomplished by repeatedly withholding reinforcement for a behavior or by dissociating the behavior from a particular cue
variable interval schedule
rewards are delivered after differing time periods; 2nd most effective strategy in maintaining behavior; the length of time varies so one never knows when the reinforcement is just around the corner. allows for slow and steady learning ex: waiting for the bus
fixed interval schedule
rewards come after the passage of a certain period of time rather than the number of behaviors. - ex: fixed interval of 5 mins, the rat will get rewarded the first time it presses the lever after a 5-min period has elapsed, regardless of what the rat did during the preceding 5 mins
E.L. Thorndike
- law of effect; precursor to operant conditioning - credited with writing the first educational psychology textbook in 1903 - developed various methods to assess students' skills and teaching effectiveness
The Garcia effect
Occurs whenever nausea is paired with either food or drink; connection is automatic and needs little conditioning
taste aversion learning
a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea. differs from traditional classical conditioning in 2 ways: 1) the response usually only takes one pairing 2) the response takes a very long time to extinguish, if it ever does
neutral stimulus (NS)
a stimulus that does not produce a specific response on its own. in Pavlov's experiments, this was the light or bell before he conditioned a response to it
Gestalt psychology
people can organize elements in a situation and think about them in relation to one another
M. E. Olds
performed experiments in which electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain were used as positive reinforcement - this was viewed as evidence against the drive-reduction theory
escape conditioning
teaches an animal to perform a desired behavior to get away from a negative stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
the neutral stimulus once it has been paired with the UCS. is paired with the UCS so that it will alone produce a response