GRE Psychology
universal ethics principles phase
*final phase in developing morality, morality based on universal ethics* -part of post conventional morality phase
Wenicke's aphasia
disorder that occurs when there is left temporal lobe damage, speech is fluent but nonsensical
anxiety disorders
disorders caused by issues with GABA
somatoform disorders
disorders characterized by physical symptoms for which no known physical cause exists
Trauma Related Disorders
disorders in which a person experiences long-term problems with adjustment following a traumatic event (new to DSM)
dissociative disorders
disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings -still have intact sense of reality (not schizophrenia)
mood disorders
disorders in which mood is severely disturbed
bipolar disorders
disorders marked by alternating or intermixed periods of mania and depression
Parasomnias
disorders that relate to abnormal behaviors during sleep
Dyssomnias
disorders that relate to sleep abnormalties
word salad
disorganized speech with no apparent goal or direction (schizophrenia)
dissociative disorders include
dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder, depersonalization/derealization disorder
depersonalization disorder
dissociative disorder in which individuals feel detached and disconnected from themselves, their bodies, and their surroundings
arbitrary inference
distortion of thinking in which a person draws a conclusion that is not based on any evidence
Personalizing
distortion of thinking in which a person inappropriately takes responsibility
Magnifying/minimizing
distortion of thinking in which a person makes too much or too little our of something
Overgeneralization
distortion of thinking in which a person mistakes isolated incidents for the norm
retrograde amnesia
disturbs memory for events that happened BEFORE brain injury occurred
anesthetics
drug that depresses the reticular formation to cause unconsciousness
dual code hypothesis
hypothesis that claims that items will be better remembered if they are encoded both visually and semantically; Allan Paivio
Value Hypothesis
hypothesis that states risky shift occurs in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued (risk in business ventures)
Method of savings formula
(no of trials for original learning)-(no of trials for relearning)/(no of trials for original learning) x 100 (for percentage =
Gender labeling stage
*1st stage (2-3 yo) of Kohlberg's gender stages where children achieve gender identity and can label others gender*
gender stability stage
*2nd stage (3-4 yo) of Kohlberg's gender stages where children can predict they will continue being their gender as an adult but superficial understanding*
gender consistency stage
*3rd stage (4-7 yo) of Kohlberg's gender stages where children understand the permanency of gender (regardless of clothes or behavior)*
exposure therapy
*A classical conditioning based behavioral treatment for phobias* -involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus, thereby providing maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear response to be extinguished -forcing client to directly experience the feared object to show no negative effect
Cerebellum
*A large structure at the top of hindbrain that controls fine motor skills (posture, balance, coordination) -damage to cerebellum causes slurred speech, clumsiness, and loss of balance
additive color mixture
*A mixture of lights*. If light A and light B are both reflected from a surface to the eye, in the perception of color the effects of those two lights add together.
Humanistic/Existential
*finding meaning in one's life in own choices* - mental disorders are problems of alienation, depersonalization, loneliness, and lack of meaningful existence
quasi-experiment (mixed-design)
An experiment in which investigators make use of control and experimental groups that already exist in the world at large: -IV manipulated -subjects not randomly assigned
Sequential cohort studies
An experimental method used in developmental psychology to study groups of subjects at different ages, repeatedly over time.
induced motion
An illusion of movement occurring when everything around the spot of light is moved
Guilford
Devised divergent thinking test to measure creativity
Collins and Loftus
Devised the spreading activation model of semantic memory
elimination disorders
Difficulty managing the elimination of bodily wastes (i.e. nocturnal enuresis)
ipsilaterally
Hemispheres communicate on the same side of the body (smell)
midbrain (mesencephalon)
*A small part of the brain above the pons that is associated with involuntary reflex responses to visual or auditory stimuli*
Axon
*A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body* -communication route of the nerve cell -cannot regenerate
Maslow on personality
*Behavior motivated by biological and psychological needs.* Needs are universal and arranged in hierarchy.
Konrad Lorenz and imprinting
*Ethologist that famously demonstrated the power of instincts when he was able to get young birds to imprint on him* -found all imprinting takes place during certain sensitive periods
Paul Broca
*Examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage.* -first person to demonstrate that specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions -Broca's area in the brain is due to his discovery that a certain man who was unable to talk was that way because of a lesion on the left side of his brain, now known as Broca's area.
Bennington College Study (Theodore Newcomb)
*Experiment that studied the influence of group norms in a small, female only, liberal college: individuals did conform to group norms* -The student's parents were conservative. But the students became liberal with time and stayed that way 20 years after. Those who didn't marry liberal men changed back to old beliefs
basic anxiety
*Horney's primary concept based on the child's important early perception of self* -sense of helplessness and insecurity
moving away
*Horney's strategy for avoiding people as a way of coping with ones basic anxiety toward them* -withdrawal results in detached personality
thanatos
*The death instinct, reflected in aggressive, destructive, and self-destructive actions*
free association
*a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind* -used by Freud to reconstruct original conflict
reticular formation
*a neural structure in the brainstem that keeps our cortex awake and alert* -if disconnected from cortex, the person sleeps too much
Vygostsky's theory of cognitive development
*child's internalization of culture (rules, symbols, language) drives cognitive development*
Carl Rodgers personality theory
*client-centered therapy (nondirective therapy* -people control their own behavior and have the power to make choices, and take positive action -unconditional positive regard
Two-Sided Messages
*contains arguments for and against a position* -often used for persuasion since such seems to be "balanced" communication. (News reporting)
relative size
*cue for depth perception: as an objects gets farther away, its image on the retina gets smaller -can compare size of two things on the retina and determine which is closer based on knowledge of actual size
Suppression
*defense mechanism by which a deliberate, conscious form of forgetting occurs* example: a woman deliberately pushes away her worries of losing touch with school friends after graduation
Projection
*defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others and accusing others of unacceptable feelings* example: someone who wants to cheat might accuse their partner of cheating
limbic system
*developed after the brainstem: associated with emotion and memory (aggression, fear, pleasure, pain)
general paresis
*disease caused by syphilis that leads to paralysis, insanity, and eventually death* -discovery of this disease helped establish a connection between biological diseases and mental disorders
Doll Preference Study (Clark & Clark)
*ethnic self concept experiment:* study that showed both race children both race dolls; both races majorly chose white doll -may have had influence on race of experimenter and society at the time
reticular formation
*extends from the hindbrain into the midbrain and composed of a number of interconnected nuclei* *regulates Arousal, Alertness, and Attention (sleeping and waking)*
Down Syndrome
*genetic anomaly of an extra 21st chromosome that causes intellectual disability of varying levels* -older age of biological parents is a factor
Stanley Schachter's Research
*greater anxiety leads to greater desire to affiliate* BUT anxious people prefer company of other anxious people SO the perceived similarity other other anxious people is a factor in affiliation *both anxiety and tendency to compare self to others play a role in determining when/who we afiilliate with*
formal operational stage
*in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts* example: form hypotheses and make deductions
concrete operational stage
*in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events* -conservation is mastered
Transference
*in psychoanalysis, the patient's unconscious transfer to the therapist emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)* -therapist can recreate patient's experiences to understand the relationship example: the therapist may be viewed as an all-knowing guru, an ideal lover, the master of a person's fate, a fierce opponent, and so on
Sir Charles Sherrington
*inferred the existence of synapses* -thought it was an electrical process but it is a chemical process
instinct
*innate psychological representation (wish) of a bodily (biological) excitation (need)
Erik Erikson
*neo-Freudian, humanistic ego psychologist who developed 8 psychosocial stages of development reworked to cover life span* -showed how even negative events could have positive effects on personality
Autism Spectrum Disorders
*neurological disorders that appears in childhood (age 3) and are marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors, & over-sensitivity to sensory stimuli* -often persists into adulthood and many cannot have an autonomous life
cell body (soma)
*neuron's energy center* -Largest part of a typical neuron: contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm
Empathy-Altruism model
*people who put themselves in the shoes of a victim and imagining how the victim feel will experience empathic concern that evokes an altruistic motivation for helping* experiment: subjects witness person receiving shocks -> given choice to help or not help and leave (easy escape) or asked to stay (hard-escape) -> then given questionnaire on distress and empathy -> then were told distressed person had childhood trauma and they could take their place ->easy escape reported more distress and tended to leave and reported more empathy and more likely to help
Spatial Proximity in Attraction
*people will generally develop greater liking for someone closer than farther and even small differences have an effect* -proximity may increase the intensity of the initial interactions
Peripheral route persuasion
*persuasion that occurs when non-interested people do not clearly understand an argument and can be influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness, location, etc.* -strength of argument doesn't matter
Cones
*photoreceptor that function best in color vision, fine detail, in bright light* -allow us to see chromatic and achromatic colors
rods
*photoreceptor that works best in reduced light and only perceives achromatic colors* -low sensitivity to detail and no color -most numerous in the human eye
social smiling
*response where newborn infants gaze at their parents and smile at them, signaling positive participation in the relationship* -beginning in the 2nd month, one of the earliest social and communicative signals -at first any face will elicit a smile, then at 5 months only familiar
Klinefelter Syndrome
*sex chromosome abnormality: a disorder related to an extra X chromosome (XXY) causing sterile and intellectual disability
Turner's Syndrome
*sex chromosome abnormality: a disorder that occurs in females with only 1 X chromosome (X) causing short fingers and weird shaped mouths
Seligman - Learned Helplessness Dog Study
*shocked dogs with high walls -> learned they couldn't reach over walls -> replaced high walls with low walls -> dogs learned to be "helpless" and didn't try to jump over* -depression, learned helplessness, external locus of control
Piaget's pendulum experiment
*showed formal operational stage*: kids could hold all variable but one (length of string, push force, height etc) to methodologically find out what determined the frequency of the swing
Hypnosis
*state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion* -used by Freud to release repressed thoughts from unconscious
pons
*structures that lie above the medulla oblongata and connects brain parts to spine and cerebellum* *controls muscle coordination, balance, and posture*
prefrontal lobotomies
*surgical disconnection of the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain* -was used to treat schizophrenia but introduction of antipsychotics stopped lobotomies and electroshock
mother's uterus environment
*temperature and chemical balance controlled and constant, fetus attached to uterine wall and placenta by umbilical cord, placenta gives nutrients from maternal blood*
Belief in a Just World (MJ Lerner)
*tendency to believe in a just world: good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people* -increases likelihood of victim blaming
Halo Effect
*tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic* example: I like Jill, so Jill must be a good writer. -explains why people are often inaccurate in evaluations of people they like or dislike
superego
*term for the part of the personality that acts as a moral center* -strives for perfection and the ideal -2 subsystems: conscience and ego-ideal
babbling
*term for the stage of language development at 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds: precursor to language* -Lenneberg, Rebelsky, and Nichols found children babble at highest frequency at 9-12 months. also found deaf children cease babbling soon after it begins -Petitto found deaf children babble in sign language if taught
object permanence
*the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived*
Bystander Intervention Effect (Darley & Latane)
*the effect that occurs when there's a failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when others are present* hypothesis: social influence and diffusion of responsibility
Social Influence
*the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior* experiment: in an emergency, subject first defined the situation, had the presence of others (social influence) and did not respond b/c they didn't think it was a fire if others didn't respond.
Testosterone
*the most important of the male sex hormones* -both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
*the part of the peripheral nervous system that AUTOMATICALLY regulates involuntary functions of organs and glands (heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions, regulate body temp)* -active in fight or flight -has two subdivisions (sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system)
object relations theory
*the psychodynamic theory that views the desire for relationships as the key motivating force in human behavior* -object is symbolic representation of a young child's personality
primary circular reactions
*the repetition of actions that first occurred by chance and that focus on the infant's own body* example: sucking indiscriminately when hungry
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
*the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body* -subdivided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Fundamental Attribution Error
*the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition (general bias)* -opposite for self
Erik Erikson development
*theorist known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development* -development is a sequence of life crises -each crisis has a favorable or unfavorable possible outcome -emphasizes emotional development and interactions with social environment
Noam Chomsky
*theorist who believed that humans have an inborn or "native" propensity to develop language* -transformational grammar and LAD
Jean Piaget
*theorist who believed that there were qualitative differences between adult & childhood thought. Also believed that cognitive growth is a continuous process that begins at birth & proceeds through 4 stages. * -founded the development of schemata
Lawrence Kohlberg
*theory of moral development in children in 3 phases with 2 stages* -made use of moral dilemmas in assessment
behavior therapy
*therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors* -abnormal behavior is learned -> faulty coping patterns maintained with reinforcement
Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider)
*there is a tendency to infer causes of other's behaviors* dispositional or situational causes
cell membrane
*thin layer of fatty molecules that separate inside and outside of the neuron
Herman Witkin
*trait theorist who classified people according to their field dependence*
David McClelland and trait
*trait theorist: came up with "the need for achievement (N-Ach)*
idiographic approach
*trait theory: approach to personality that focuses on case studies* -Allport thought this was the best approach
nomothetic approach
*trait theory: approach to personality that focuses on groups of individuals* -Allport thought this was the wrong approach
functional autonomy
*trait theory: term for when behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior* example: a hunter may initially hunt for food but may keep hunting once they have enough food
Gordon Allport
*trait theory:* Three basic traits: cardinal, central, secondary
cardinal traits
*traits around which a person organizes his or her life* example:Mother Teresa's cardinal trait was self-sacrifice -not everyone has cardinal traits
personal unconscious and collective unconscious
*two parts of the unconscious mind*
tricyclic antidepressants
*type of antidepressants used to treat severe depression by facilitating tranmission of norepineephrine or serotonin* -tricyclic chemical structure -MAO inhibitors: inhibit MAO, increase norepinephrine and serotonin
Ebbinghaus experiment
*used nonsense syllables to study memory on himself* -used method of savings to see if he still remembered the list he was trying to memorize
maze running study (Tyron)
*very specific behaviors can have a genetic basis* -study that found that there was a slight correlation between running the same maze and passing it down to offspring -learning ability had a genetic basis (maze-bright rats breeding with maze-bright rats passed down the specific maze skills)
Reciprocity Hypothesis
*we tend to like people who indicate that they like us, dislike those who indicate they don't like us* -take into account the other's evaluation of us
instrumental relativist stage
*when a person only acts in self interest "you scratch my back and ill scratch yours"* -part of pre-conventional morality stage
punishment and obedience stage
*when a person only acts to avoid punishment* -part of pre-conventional morality stage
Depolarization
*when a stimulus has been significant enough to raise membrane potential to threshold potential (-50 mV)* -actual firing of the neuron
Self-Perception Theory (Bem)
*when attitudes are weak or ambiguous, you observe your own behavior and attribute attitude to yourself* example: i must like bread because i eat it a lot. $20 subject: i said experiment was fun b/c of $20 $1 subject: i said experiment was fun because it must have been (looks at behavior and attributes liking experiment to himself)
Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) Study
- Participants did a boring task, then were asked to tell next participant it was fun for $1 or $20 - Results: $1 participants reported enjoying task more than $20 participants - Explanation: $20 participants could attribute behavior (saying it was fun) to the $20 they received, but $1 isn't enough to justify the dissonant behavior. So, $1 participants instead changed their attitudes about the task to reduce dissonance and rated the task higher. *Exemplifies the *minimal justification effect*
association areas
- integrates inputs from diverse brain regions example: multiple inputs needed to do a complex puzzle, plan ahead for future, or reach a difficult decision (prefrontal lobe)
Peter Wolff and Crying
-3 cry patterns: basic (hunger), angry, and pain -all adults react to infant pain cries -infants learn that caregiver will respond to crying -infants will cry when person leaves room and stop when they return
action potential spike
-After reaching threshold, membrane allows sodium into cell -Sodium rushes in, and makes cell very positive for a brief time -cell membrane produces a rapid electrical pulse -then potassium ions leave the cell and the membrane's original negative charge is restored -cell is repolarized
difference between Freud, Jung, and Adler?
-Freud: behavior is motivated by inborn instincts -Jung: a person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes -Adler: people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority
pituitary gland
-The endocrine system's "master" gland -regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands by triggering hormone release
Hovland and Weiss (1952) source credibility experiment
-articles on controversial topics presented to subjects, either written by perceived expert or discredible source *trustworthy sources changed attitudes of subjects right after the experiment* but sleeper effect persuasive impact of low-credible sources increased over time while impact of credible sources decreased
animal studies and visual perception
-experience plays important role in developing vision, sensitive periods
Illumination vs. Brightness
-illumination: physical, objective measurement of amount of light on a surface -brightness: subjective impression of the intensity of a light stimulus
fight or flight response
-increases in heart rate, blood sugar levels, and respiration -decrease digestive processes -dilated pupils -adrenaline
visual field and what side of brain
-information in left visual field is processed in right hemisphere -information in right visual field is processed in left hemisphere
Need Complementarity Hypothesis
-people seek and are more satisfied with marital partners who are the opposite of themselves (dom/sub, introvert/extrovert) *opposites attract*
primary vs. secondary sex characteristics
-primary: at birth (sex organs, gonads, genitalia) -secondary: breasts, wide hips, facial hair, deeper voices
pathway of neurons
-receptors in foot detect pain -pain signal transmitted by sensory neurons to the spinal cord -sensory neurons connect with interneurons in spinal cord and replay pain impulses to brain -reflex arc sends information from interneurons in the spinal cord to the motor neurons to move your foot -interneurons still send information to brain but spinal cord is closer to foot
sensory preconditioning
-stage 1: 2 neutral stimuli (light flash and bell) -stage 2: bell (CS) and food (UCS) -stage 3: light flash elicits salivation even though never directly paired
image of stimulus and left/right side of retina
-stimulus on right side of each eye's field forms left half of each eye's retina -stimulus on left side of each eye's field form right half of each eye's retina
major schools of psychology
-structuralism -functionalism -behaviorism -Gestalt psychology -cognitive psychology -psychoanalysis -systems psychology -humanism
Schacter-Singer Experiment
-subjects injected with adrenaline to increase physiological arousal -half told vitamin, half told adrenaline -then went into a room with a playful person -those on vitamin reported euphoria, those on adrenaline reported nothing *once the physiological arousal was induces, subjects labeled emotions based on situation*
2 types of ability tests
1. aptitude tests 2. achievement tests
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational
difference between personality inventories and projective tests
1. stimuli in projective tests are ambiguous and 2. projective tests do not limit the possible responses to stimuli (more an interpretation than an answer)
how many classifications in DSM-5?
18
Dorothea Dix
19th century american advocate of asylum reform
deny, falsify, and distort reality AND operate unconsciously
2 common characteristics of defense mechanisms
hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), stirrup (stapes)
3 tiny bones in the middle ear (ossicles)
epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
3 types of catecholamines
phonology, semantics, syntax, pragmatics
4 components of language
cell body, dendrites, axon, terminal buttons
4 components of neurons
Thorazine/chlorpromazine, phenothiazine, haloperidol, and lithium carbonate
4 main antipsychotics
rooting, moro, babinski, grasping
4 neonatal reflexes
thinking, feeling, sensing, intuiting
4 psychological functions (jung) -usually, one of the four functions is more differentiated than the other three
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
4 stages of cognitive development (Piaget)
zygote, germinal, embryonic, fetal
4 stages of prenatal development
touch, pressure, pain, temperature
4 things that the somatosensory cortex controls
fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval
4 types of schedules of partial reinforcement
How many chromosomes do humans have?
46 (23 pairs)
sweet, bitter, sour, salty, umami
5 fundamental taste qualities
oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
5 stages of psychosexual development
siblings and fraternal twins have what percent of genes in common with each other?
50%
Large, large
A distribution with high variability would have ___ variance and ____ standard deviation
small, small
A distribution with low variability would have ___ variance and ____ standard deviation
L-dopa
A drug for Parkinson's disease & tardive dyskinesia that increases dopamine levels in the brain
Antabuse
A drug that, when combined with alcohol, causes violent nausea; it is used to control a person's drinking.
variable
A factor that can change in an experiment
significance test
A statistical technique used in inferential statistics to test the probability of an observed hypothesis in reference to other possible hypotheses (null hypothesis)
unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning; dog food
maintenance rehearsal
A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it (keep information in short-term memory)
one
A tone that occurs ____ second(s) after a letter vanishes from a display would enhance memory of the letters since they would still be in sensory memory
control group design
A type of experiment in which, at its simplest, subjects are randomly assigned to either an experimental (or treatment) group or a control group -subjects assigned to the experimental group are exposed to a certain manipulation or treatment, while those assigned to the control group are not.
spreading activation model
a connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences -the closer the items, the more related
secondary reinforcement
a learned reinforcing stimulus (i.e. money); often learned through society
method of savings
a measure of retention in which the difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed is calculated
prototype
a mental image or representative best example of a category
CAT scan
a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography
elaborative rehearsal
a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way
Lithium Carbonate
a mood stabilizing chemical used to counteract symptoms of mood swings and mania in bipolar disorder
Neuron
a nerve cell: the basic building block of the nervous system
semantic memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world (meanings of words and concepts)
suprachiasmatic nucleus
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm; damage could cause interference with the biological clock
Tegmentum
a part of the midbrain that is involved in movement and arousal (analgesic effects of opiates)
insecure-resistant attachment (Type C)
a pattern of attachment in which the child shows little exploratory behavior when the parent is present, great distress when the parent leaves the room, and resists contact with mother upon the parent's return
active phase
a period in the course of schizophrenia in which psychotic symptoms are present
prodromal phase
a period in the course of schizophrenia of poor adjustment (vague symptoms and malaise) - can serve as a warning of more symptoms to come but may not be noticed
N-Ach
a person is high in _________ when he takes personal responsibility for solving problems, setting moderate goals, not too hard nor too easy. There needs to be a balance for accomplishment and satisfaction to occur.
bogus pipeline
a phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
a postsynaptic potential that depolarizes the neuronal membrane, making the neuron more likely to fire an action potential
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
a postsynaptic potential that hyperpolarizes the neuronal membrane, making a cell less likely to fire an action potential
Peter Principle
a principle of organizational life according to which every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence which is where they remain
meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies to come to a general conclusion
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors: used to assess selected personality traits. -people may not tell truth
difference threshold is expressed how?
a ratio
within-subjects design
a research design that uses each participant as his or her own control: for example, the behavior of an experimental participant before receiving treatment might be compared to his or her behavior after receiving treatment
field study
a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting
correlational study
a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other: IV not manipulated
Iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil therefore control amount of light coming in
California Psychological Inventory (CPI)
a self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics in normal populations (high school and college students) -20 scales
t-test
a statistical test used to evaluate the size and significance of the difference between two groups' means
conditioned stimulus
a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
factoral design
a study in which there are two or more independent variables, or factors
correlation matrix
a table showing the relationships among discrete measures
dichotic listening
a task to study selective attention in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear -show people listen to one message and tune out the other
dream interpretation
a technique used in psychoanalysis in which the content of dreams is analyzed for unconscious conflicts, disguised or symbolic wishes, meanings, and motivations
cluster analysis
a technique used to divide an information set into mutually exclusive groups such that the members of each group are as close together as possible to one another and the different groups are as far apart as possible
regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
a technique used to record patterns of neural activity based on blood flow to different areas of the brain measured using detection of inhaled radioactive marker (CAT, PET, and MRI scans) -noninvasive
activation effect
a temporary change in behavior resulting from the administration of a hormone to an adult animal (ie: gonadal hormones altering sexual behavior)
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past -past experiences influence problem solving
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions (ie: Jake believing his friend lied to him, so he reviews they texts looking for instances in which he lied)
Hypothesis
a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance through training
psychodynamic theory
a theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces
Performance = Drive x Habit
a theory where individuals are first motivated by drive, and then they act according to old successful habits. They will do what has worked in the past to satisfy the drive; Clark Hull
Performance = Expectation x Value
a theory where individuals are motivated by goals that they think they might actually meet; Tolman
existential therapy
a therapy that encourages clients to accept responsibility for their lives and to live with greater meaning and value; lacks well-defined therapeutic techniques
instrumental
a thief harming a store clerk so he can steal money is an example of ______ aggression
PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)
a trauma-related disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
innate releasing
according to ethologists, fixed patterns of responses to particular classes of stimuli as a result of ________ __________ mechanism
id
according to freud, a child who grabs food from another child because of hunger is driven by what?
axon
action potential is electrically transmitted along this structure to the terminal buttons
behavioral schemata
action tendencies (reflexes)
korkasoff's syndrome
an alcohol related disorder marked by extreme confusion, memory impairment, and other neurological symptoms caused by lack of b1 (thiamin)
Sensitization
an increase in behavioral response to the environment after exposure to a stimulus
Personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
shaping/differential reinforcement
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide little behaviors toward the overall desired behavior and extinguish unwanted behaviors example: to train dog to fetch slippers, you reward when they look at it then only reward when they walk towards it, then only reward when they touch it etc.
self archetype
an unconscious image of the center of the self, representing unity, wholeness, completion, and balance -symbolized as a mandala (magic circle) and harmony
3 ways to resist persuasion
analogy of inoculation, belief perseverance, and reactance
Neo-freudian Approach to psychoanalysis
approach that places emphasis on current interpersonal relationships rather than child experiences & psychosexuality -cheaper, less time, modification to psychoanalysis
damage to association area of motor cortex
apraxia
Neurons in the motor cortex
arranged systematically according to the parts of the body which they are connected (starts with toes, ends with face) -some areas have more space because more muscles to control
supernormal sign stimulus
artificial stimuli that exaggerate the naturally occurring sign stimulus or releaser; stickleback fish (red belly = fights); herring gull chicks red spot on beak is pecked at
achievement tests
assess what one knows or can do now (learning content and skill)
adaptation take place through what two complementary processes?
assimilation and accomodation
most common hallucination
auditory
Where is the pituitary gland located?
base of the brain
encoding for long term memory
based on meaning
frequency theory
basilar membrane vibrates as a whole: the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Altruism
behavior marked by unselfish concern for the welfare of others
John Watson
behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
Bandura
behaviorist theorist known for his social learning theory -did modeling experiment using "Bobo" doll and studied observational learning
Thomas Hobbes
believed that people are born selfish and need a strong central authority
two major types of psychological processing of object recognition
bottom-up processing and top-down processing
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
medial amygdala
brain structure that inhibits parental behavior in rodents
amygdala
brain structure that plays a crucial role in regulating and moderating an organism's emotional responses and learning about emotional events
theta waves
brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep
sleep spindles
bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity
how are experimental hypotheses confirmed?
by disconfirming the null hypothesis
7+/-2 pieces or chunks
capacity of short term memory
efferent fibers
carry motor signals from the CNS to effectors (DOWN)
afferent fibers
carry sensory signals from receptors to the CNS (UP)
representativeness heuristic
categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category
power
changing from a two tailed to a one tailed test increases what?
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons when a neuron fires
evidence-based practice
clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences
FACS
coding system that can determine genuine emotions
Attitudes
cognition or beliefs, feelings, & behavioral predispositions (opinion statements, likes and dislikes) *key in social psychology*
creativity and problem solving
cognitive ability that results in new ways of viewing problems or situations
Walter Cannon
coined the term homeostasis
dendrites
component of a neuron that can regenerate
axon
component of a neuron that cannot regenerate
backward conditioning
conditioning procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is presented after the unconditioned stimulus; pavlov presenting dog with food and then ringing bell; proved to be ineffective
types of test validity
content, face, criterion/concurrent, predictive, construct/convergent, and discriminate
emotion-focused coping
coping strategies that change the impact of a stressor by changing the emotional reaction to the stressor (ie: trying to feel better about some of his less pleasant duties)
difference between correlation and cause and effect relationship
correlation just shows a possible relationship, not a cause and effect connection
Correlation between affiliation and similarity
correlations found between affiliation & similarity of intelligence, attitudes, education, height, age, religion, SES, habits, and mental health.
Perls, Wertheimer, Koffka
created Gestalt theory
Jung
created analytical theory
Skinner, Pavlov, Wolpe
created behavior therapy
Back
created cognitive theory
anterograde amnesia
damage to the hippocampus results in this
aphagia
damage to the lateral hypothalamus can cause this lack of hunger
hyperaphagia
damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus can cause this excessive eating (obesity)
bottom-up processing
data driven information processing: object perception that responds directly to the components of incoming stimulus and sums up components to arrive at whole pattern
nominal data
data of categories only. Data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme. (Gender, Race, Religion)
2 types of long term memory
declarative and procedural
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
what did schizophrenia used to be called?
dementia praecox
do dendrites or axons change over time?
dendrites (change significantly) -axons are stable even with aging
dendrite v. axon function
dendrites are receptors of information while axons are the communication pathway
high reliability test measures are
dependable, reproducible, and consistent
too little norepinephrine
depression
undersupply of serotonin
depression
reactive depression
depression resulting from particular events; noted for likeness to Seligman's learned helplessness
E.L. Thorndike's puzzle box
designed with cat in box aimed at escape, once it escapes once, it escapes quicker each time: best explained by the law of effect (trial and error)
Fechner
developed Fechner's law, which expresses the relationship between the intensity of the stimulus and the intensity of the sensation
Stern
developed IQ: an equation to compare mental age to chronological age
Yerkes and Dodson
developed Yerkes-Dodson law which states that performance is best at intermediate levels of arousal
Kohler
developed insight learning based on experiments with chimps trying to get bananas (used insight to assess the situation and problem solve to get the bananas)
Cephalocaudal
development from head to tail
Olds and Milner
discovered "pleasure-centers" in the limbic system: stimulation creates immense pleasure
dichotomous thinking
distortion of thinking in which a person thinks black-and-white
anterograde amnesia
disturbs LTM for events that happen AFTER brain injury occurs -damage of hippocampus
split-half reliability
dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are (80% positive correlation is high)
amygdala lesions
docility and hypersexuality
behavioral stimulants
drug category that increases motor activity and counteracts fatigue
Alcohol
drug that affects the cerebellum
Opium
drug that binds directly to opiate receptors
Holophrasic Speech
early speech stage in which a child uses one word (holophrases) to convey a whole sentence (ie. Me -- give it to me)
hippocampus
encoding of new memories is most likely to be disrupted by damage to which neural structure
3 mental processes of memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
Asylum Reform
end inhumane treatment of people who were mentally ill, separate from criminals.
striving towards superiority when socially oriented (leads to endeavors that benefit all people) leads to what?
enhances the personality
Tinbergen
ethologist who introduced experimental methods into field situations
phylogeny
evolutionary development
catatonic motor behavior (schizophrenia)
extreme behaviors characteristic of some people living with schizophrenia. Spontaneous movement and activity may be greatly reduced orpatient may maintain a rigid posture, refusing to be moved. On the other extreme may include useless or bizarre movements not caused by any external stimuli.
chunking
facilitates memory by clumping items together
non-sensory factors
factors based in experience, motives, and expectations
sunk costs fallacy
fallacy that causes continued commitment because a person has already invested in a course of action and does not recognize what they invested initially is sunk (gone)
Delusions
false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that are maintained despite being proven wrong that may accompany psychotic disorders
delusions of persecution
false, persistent beliefs that one is being pursued by other people, discriminated/plotted against, threatened
purpose, initiating activities, enjoy accomplishment
favorable outcome of Initiative vs. Guilt
love, commitment, intimacy
favorable outcome of Intimacy vs. Isolation
uniqueness & loyalty
favorable outcome of identity vs. role confusion
wisdom & integrity (acceptance and assurance)
favorable outcome of integrity v. despair
trust environment and themselves
favorable outcome of trust v. mistrust
acrophobia
fear of heights
the four F's of hypothalamus functioning
feeding, fighting, fleeing, and sexual functioning
inhibition theory
forgetting is due to the activities that have taken place between original learning and the later attempted recall -two types: retroactive and proactive
Pavlov
founder of classical conditioning
Hall
founder of developmental psychology
William James
founder of functionalism: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
four brain lobes
frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal (FTOP)
forgetting curve
graphs retention and forgetting over time
Social Loafing
group phenomenon for the tendency of people in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when alone
mesomorphy body type
hard, muscular, and rectangular
Vitamin A deficiency and sight
have hard time seeing in the dark
layers of neurons between receptors and optic nerve
horizontal, amacrine, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells
epinephrine acts as both a neurotransmitter and a ____
hormone
catecholomines
hormones produced by the adrenal glands, which sit on top of the kidneys.
trait theory's approaches to personality
idiographic and nomothetic
recall
independently reproducing the information that you have previously been exposed to
Charles Spearman
individual differences in intelligence are largely due to variations in the amount of general, unitary factor (g) and second factor to describe individual differences in ability in performing specific tasks (s)
Habituation
infants: new stimulus is presented and the infant stops responding to it eventually. different stimulus presented and infant responds to it = can perceive difference between new and old stimulus
proximal stimulus
information our sensory receptors receive about the object ( image on the retina)
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
inhibits serotonin reuptake and increases supply of serotonin -ex: Luvox, Paxilo, Prozac, Zoloft
cochlea, semicircular canals, vestibule
inner ear parts
what are the propelling aspect's of Freud's dynamic theory of personality?
instincts
Keller and Marion Breland experiment
instinctual drift: tried to train raccoon to pick up coins and put them in a piggy bank -reinforced when they picked them up -but racoons couldn't learn past their instinct to rub the coins together (like they rub crayfish in the wild)
Tachtiscope
instrument used in cognitive/memory experiments; presents image to subject for fraction of a second (tap-image-scope=few seconds of image instrument)
most important function of glial cells
insulate axons with protective myelin sheath
Humanism and Personality
intellectual movement of emphasizing internal processes over overt behavior
ANOVAs tell us what about two or more IVs
interaction example: a high protein breakfast is good for a spelling test if you are female but not male
synergistic effect
interaction of two or more medicines that results in a greater effect than when the medicines are taken alone
Overshadowing
interference with the conditioning of a stimulus because of the simultaneous presence of another stimulus that is easier to condition
assimilation
interpreting our new information in terms of our existing schematas
James Cattell
introduced mental testing to the US
Bleuler
introduced the term "schizophrenia" "Splitting of the mind"
Frequency is _____ related to wavelength
inversely (shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency)
law of good continuation
law where elements that appear to follow the same pathway tend to be grouped together
Law of Pragnanz
law where perceptual organization will always be "good" (simple, regular, and symmetric) as possible
law of similarity
law where similar elements tend to be grouped together
law of closure
law where the tendency to see incomplete figures as complete
Maslow
leader of humanistic movement
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it (ie watching someone play chess but not playing it, playing it later and knowing what to do)
Two types of instincts
life (eros) and death (thanatos)
not everyone experiences each stage
limitation of Kubler-Ross' stages of coping
cohort limitations
limitations of any longitudinal study -cost -lose people -some disease outcomes too rare
abnormally enlarged ventricles
linked to schizophrenia - social withdrawal, flat affect, catatonia
oversupply of serotonin
mania
too much norepinephrine
mania
Machiavellianism personality traits
manipulative and deceitful
animus archetype
masculine aspects of the female psyche
mean and standard deviation of distribution of z scores
mean=0, standard deviation= 1
ceiling effect
measurement limitation that occurs when the highest possible score or close to the highest score on a test or measurement instrument is reached, thereby decreasing the likelihood that the testing instrument has accurately measured the intended domain
mode, median, mean
measures of central tendency
reproductive isolating mechanisms
mechanisms that prevent interbreeding between different species -provide animal with way of identifying own species (example: calls)
electrical simulation of temporal lobe
memories of past events (hippocampus in temporal lobe)
Screen memory
memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences
episodic memory
memory for one's personal past experiences
IQ formula
mental age/chronological age x 100
2 impediments on problem solving
mental sets and functional fixedness
PET scan
method of brain imaging using positron emissions used to scan glucose metabolism & measure activity
sociometric techniques
methods for determining who is well liked and popular and who is disliked or neglected in a group
Example of Amphetamine
metyhlphenidate (ritalin)
what is the mesencephalon
midbrain
what do psychoactive drugs do to brain?
modify neurotransmissions
a-ha! experience
moment of insight; Kohler; chimps
Dimensions of Personal Identity
more salient the identity in a particular situation, the more we conform to role expectations of that identity
dopamine
most antipsychotic medications work by blocking receptors for what neurotransmitter?
phonetic errors
motor articulation errors
questions that test recognition
multiple choice
why is REM sleep paradoxical?
muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active
Mesomorph
muscular, athletic body; energetic, aggressive behavior
myelin sheath divisions
myelinated and unmyelinated areas to speed up impulse
Horney's Neurotic Needs
need for affection and approval, need for a partner, need to restrict one's life within narrow borders, need for power, need to exploit others, need for prestige, need for personal admiration, need for person achievement, need for self-sufficiency and independence, and need for perfection/unassailability
reflex arcs
neural circuits that control reflexive behavior AND control interneurons
basal ganglia
neural structure where high concentrations of dopamine occurs
axon terminal
neuronal structure where neurotransmitters are released from
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Walter Dill Scott
one of the first to apply psychology to business, specifically in advertising; also involved in helping military implement psychological testing to aid with personnel selection
5 stages of psychosexual development
oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
generalization (operant conditioning)
organism's response to similar stimuli is also reinforced -example: pigeon learns to peck for food when a green light is on and will peck for any colored lights esp lights closer to green
Proprioception
our sense of body position (vestibular and kinesthetic senses)
sodium is usually ____ the cell and potassium is usually ____ the cell
outside, inside
Step 3 of Natural Selection
over time, more and more members will have the genetic variation that increases chances of reproduction/survival
public conformity
overt behavior consistent with social norms that are not privately accepted
mother parenting style
parenting style marked by stressing verbal reactions over physical reactions
father parenting style
parenting style marked by vigorous play
parietal lobe
part of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for the somatosensory system -rear of frontal lobe
Bem's gender identity and personality
people can be androgynous so important to separate masculinity and femininity dimensions
semantic differential charts
people plot meanings of words on graph; similar backgrounds plotted similarly; Charles Osgood
Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon
people who refuse a large initial request are more likely to agree to a later smaller request
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
3-5%
percentage of ADHD in children
25%
percentage of REM in adulthood
90%
percentage of females who have bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa compared to males
ground perception
perception of background on which the figure appears
figure perception
perception of the integrated visual experience that stands out at center of attention (a ball in the foreground)
Ernst Weber
perception: identified just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law -published De Tactu (investigation of muscle sense)
acquisition
period during which an organism is learning the association of the stimuli
low self esteem
person who use external loci & attributes their failures to bad luck: Rotter
Major Jungian archetypes
persona, anima, animus, shadow, self
William Sheldon's Somatotypes
personality assumptions based on body types. (endomorphy, mesomorphy, ectomorphy)
paranoid personality disorder
personality disorder characterized by distrust and suspicion
Schizotypal personality disorder
personality disorder characterized by eccentricity and distorted reality
histrionic personality disorder
personality disorder characterized by excess emotions and attention seeking
obsessive compulsive personality disorder
personality disorder characterized by excessive orderliness and control: perfectionism
avoidant personality disorder
personality disorder characterized by social inhibitions, hypersensitivity, and perceptions of inadequacy
dependent personality disorder
personality disorder characterized by the need to be taken care of: clinging
California Personality Inventory (CPI)
personality measure used for more "normal", less clinical groups than MMPI (common person inventory); 13+
eidetic memory
photographic memory
hierarchy of needs
physiological/safety, belongingness & love, esteem, and self-actualization
symbolic play
play in which children (1-2 y/o) make believe that objects and toys are other than what they are. Also called pretend play.
parallel play
play in which children (2-3 y/o) play with similar toys in similar ways, but not together
null hypothesis
population mean is the same as the sample mean
prefrontal lobe
portion of the frontal cortex involved in higher-order thinking (executive function), such as memory, moral reasoning, and planning -governs and integrates numerous cognitive and behavioral processes example: reminds you that you have something to remember, tells you to wake up or relax (with reticular formation)
The nurture side of the nature vs. nurture debate refers to
position that human capabilities are determined by the environment and shaped by experience; individual differences come from environmental and experiential differences
aptitude tests
predict what one can accomplish through training/predict future performance (intelligence tests)
embryonic period
prenatal development stage from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop
zygote stage
prenatal development stage where sperm fertilizes egg and creates zygote -lasts between the first 10-14 days
Kelly's views on psychotherapy
process of insight where the person acquires new constructs to predict troublesome events -> person able to direct new constructs into already existing constructs
binding
process of neurotransmitters at the presynaptic membrane attaching themselves to receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane -communication occurs
vicarious reinforcement
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior
adrenal medulla gland
produces adrenaline (epinephrine), increases heart rate, fight or flight
L-dopa side effects
psychotic symptoms in Parkinsons patients
hedonism
pursuit of pleasure, avoidance of pain, especially of the senses
Encoding
putting new information into memory
Timbre
quality of sound (complexity of sound wave or mixture of different frequencies)
Phineas Gage
railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior -case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
Pick's disease
rare neurological disorder that results in prehensile dementia characterized by personality changes
multiplication and division are only meaningful on what measurement scales?
ratio
addition and subtraction are only meaningful on what measurement scales?
ratio and interval
100
ratio iq number where a person's mental age is equal to chronical age
five different ways to make a light look like its moving
real motion, apparent motion (phi phenomenon), induced motion, autokinetic effect, and motion aftereffect (waterfall illusion)
recognition
realizing that a certain stimulus event is one you have seen or heard before
Lorenz and ethology
rejected studying animals in lab -> observed animals in natural environment
Type 1 error
rejecting a true null hypothesis: false positive
color perception
related to the wavelength of the light entering the eye
Neuropeptides (neuromodulators)
relatively slow, long lasting brain chemicals that regulate the activity of neurons
monocular depth cues
require one eye (all depth cues except stereopsis)
Asch
researcher famous for line study of conformity
Albert Bandura
researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment
family studies
researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait example: schizophrenia risk runs in families and siblings -constrained because family share environment so may be environmental
free nerve endings
respond to pain and temperature changes
Ruffini endings
respond to stretch
fixation at oral stage
results in excessive dependency (smoking, eating, drinking)
fixation in phallic stage
results in excessive masturbation, flirts frequently, excessively modest, excessively timid, overly proud, promiscuity
fixation in genital stage
results in fetishism
Fixation in Latency Stage
results in sexual desire not being dormant
Lewis Terman
revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life
Terman
revised Binet's test (became the Stanford-Binet)
methylphenidate
ritalin: to treat hyperactive children with ADHD (increases alertness and decreases motor activity)
cones or rods: which amount is greater that converge on ganglion cells?
rods
what is in the periphery of the retina?
rods
photoreceptors in retina
rods and cones
connectivity of layers of neurons
rods and cones connect to bipolar cells that connect to ganglion cells
Fovea
rods are not present in the _______ of the eye
reactive schizophrenia
schizophrenia develops suddenly in response to a particular event: higher rate of recovery
school of behaviorism
school of thought that Watson created; conditioning was key to behavior
discriminant validity
scores on the measure are not related to other measures that are theoretically different
convergent validity
scores on the measure are related to other measures of the same construct
depolarization
second step of an action potential firing
low dose
sedative-hypnotics dose that reduces anxiety
2 types of declarative memory
semantic and episodic
3 stages of memory
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory
hindbrain
severe injury to what part of the brain is most likely to be life threatening
twins raised apart
shared genotype but not environment *identical twins raised apart are more similar in personality than fraternal twins raise together SO personality characteristics are somewhat heritable*
subordinate goals
shared goals obtained through intergroup cooperation that override differences among people
Reciprocity of disclosure
sharing secrets/feelings facilitates emotional closeness
proximal vs distal stimulus
shoe on the floor (proximal= image of retina) (distal= shoe itself)
questions that test recall
short answer and fill in the blank
ADHD and attention
short attention spans, difficulty staying on task, unable to follow directions, can't stick to activities over long period of time
sleep spindles
short bursts of alpha waves
peptides
short chains of amino acids involved in neurotransmission
Ebbinghaus and experimental psychology
showed that higher mental processes could be studied using experimental methodology
research method used to measure cell responses
single-cell recording
independence phase
sixth stage in development of attachment at 3yo when child is able to separate from mother without prolonged distress
Narcolepsy
sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks -may lapse directly into REM sleep at inopportune times.
resting potential
slight electrical negative charge stored inside the cell's membrane (energy potential when neuron is at rest) (-70 mV)
phoneme
smallest unit of sound example: field has 4 phonemes (f sound, ie sound, l sound, and d sound)
Morpheme
smallest units of meaning in a language example: walked has 2 morphemes (walk and ed)
What two factors contribute to bystander intervention effect?
social influence and diffusion of responsibility
Primary Effect
social perception effect when 1st impression is more important than subsequent impressions
Recency Effect
social perception effect when most recent information we have is the most important in forming impressions
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
society is unneccessary and detrimental to optimal development
*endomorphy* body type
soft and spherical
somatform disorders include
somatic symptom disorder, conversion, illness anxiety
sensorimotor cortex
somatosensory cortex and motor cortex (movement and touch)
Phonology/Phonemes
speech sounds in language; 40 in english -children learn to distinguish these from noises
Collins and Loftus
spreading activation model of semantic memory
Variance
standard deviation squared
T-score
standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 -used in test score interpretation
test norms are derived from
standardized, large samples that are representative of the population
descriptive statistics
statistics that summarize the data collected in a study
gonadotropins in females
stimulate ovaries to secrete estrogen to develop female genitals and menstrual cycle
gonadotropins in males
stimulate testes to produce sperm, surge in testosterone that leads to facial hair and deep voice
Wilder Penfield
stimulated brain with electrical probes while patients underwent surgery for epilepsy -created maps of sensory and motor cortices
Rods
structures that function best in reduced illumination; perception only of achromatic colors; low sensitivity to detail
Vygotsky
studied cognitive development and stressed the importance of the zone of proximal development
Norman Triplett (1898)
studied cyclists - had children wind fishing reels in a group or alone Group --> faster winding; ** one of the FIRST social psychology experiments on effect of competition on performance**
Pavlov conditioning experiment
studied dog's automatic reflex to salivate in response to food
Elizabeth Loftus
studied eyewitness memories and the tendency for eyewitnesses to be influenced or confused by misleading information -also inaccuracy of repressed memories
Witkin
studied field-dependence and field-independence using the rod and frame test
Kluver and Bucy
studied loss of normal fear and rage reactions in monkeys resulting from damage to temporal lobes -also studied the amygdala's role in emotions
Kohlberg
studied moral development using moral dilemmas
metapsychology
study of nature of the mind -metacognition & metamemory
Proxemics (Edward Hall)
study of personal space; how people place themselves in relation to others *cultural norms govern our proxemics* - In the US, talking to someone intimate with is around a foot and talking to a stranger is several feet apart
functionalists view on reflex processes
study the process as a whole and not break down the reflex arc into different motor and sensory phases
Bem
suggested that masculinity and femininity were two separate dimensions -also linked with concept of androgyny
Jensen
suggested that there were genetically based racial differences in IQ; this suggestion has been much criticized
theory of kin selection
suggests that animals act to increase their inclusive fitness rather than their reproductive fitness
Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
suggests that there are 3 aspects to intelligence: componential (performance on tests), experiential (creativity), and contextual (street smarts/ business smarts)
cocktail party phenomenon
talking with someone and you hear your name across the room (in the background noise) -was focusing on conversation but still slightly attending to background noise
receptors of taste
taste buds
flooding
technique for treating phobias and other stress disorders in which the person is rapidly and intensely exposed to the fear-provoking situation or object and prevented from making the usual avoidance or escape response
Group Polarization Effect
tendency for group discussion to enhance group's initial tendency towards riskiness or caution
A-not-B error
tendency of 8- to 12-month-olds to search for a hidden object where they previously found it even after they have seen it moved to a new location -Piaget
response bias
tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors like personality traits, experiences..
niche-picking
tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity (ie: a physically fit child decides to get involved in sports)
Attractiveness Stereotype
tendency to attribute positive qualities and desirable characteristics to attractive people
primacy effect
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
language acquisition device (LAD)
term for a hypothesized innate mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation and triggered by language exposure
flat affect
term for a lack of emotional responsiveness
high self esteem
term for a person who uses internal loci & attributes their failures to inability: Rotter
Ablation (extirpation)
term for a surgically produced brain lesion in animals (to study relationship between brain and behaviors)
phobia
term for abnormal/irrational fear
Cynophobia
term for an abnormal fear of dogs
claustrophobia
term for an abnormal fear of narrow, enclosed spaces
agoraphobia
term for an abnormal fear of open or public places
social anxiety disorder
term for an anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations
diathesis
term for biological predisposition
Type A
term for competitive and compulsive personality
Androgyny
term for displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
Type B
term for easygoing, relaxed personality
specific phobias
term for fear of specific objects or specific situations or events
sham rage
term for incredible rage easily provoked when the cerebral cortex is removed
Blunted expression
term for severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression
pragmatics
term for the appropriate use of language in different contexts (inflections)
Alexia
term for the inability to read
agraphia
term for the inability to write
errors of growth
term for the misuse of grammar characterized by universal application of a rule, regardless of exceptions -seen in children during language development. (I runned instead of I ran) -evidence that language is not imitation/reinforcement but internalized set of rules
nAch
term for the motivation to pursue success and avoid failure
internal loci of control
term for the perception that we control our own fate: Rotter
Syntax
term for the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
Empathy
the ability to understand and share the feelings of another *strong influence on helping behavior*
supplication
the action of asking or begging for something earnestly or humbly
response latency
the amount of time it takes to respond to a stimulus, such as an attitude question
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
psychic determinism
the assumption that all psychological events have a cause; Freud
Gene
the basic unit of heredity that is transferred 50% from each parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring. -contains 2 alleles
circadian rhythm
the biological clock: regular waking and sleeping bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle -somewhat affected by external cues like day light and night (minor changes)
Central Nervous System
the body system that is made up of the brain and spinal cord
olfactory bulb
the brain center for smell, located below the frontal lobes
reproductive fitness
the capacity to get one's genes passed on to subsequent generations
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
predictive validity
the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure (SAT->GPA)
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
concurrent validity
the extent to which two measures of the same trait or ability agree example: written driving test and a road test
menarche
the first menstrual period
cerebrospinal fluid
the fluid in ventricles and spinal cord/canal
depth of processing
the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered; Craik & Lockhart
synapse/synaptic cleft
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron -neurons transform chemical energy to electrical energy and vice versa
Glutamate
the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system (amino acid); involved in memory
behavior
the most fundamental characteristic of traits is that they are inferences based on _____________
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. -550 statements of true or false (ten clinical scales)
bell
the neutral stimulus in Pavlov's experiment
Frequency
the number of complete wavelengths (cycles) that pass a point in a given time (per second): Hz
subjective contours
the perception of contours where none actually exist
categorical perception
the perception of speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories
Mere Exposure Effect (Zajonc)
the phenomenon that repeated exposure (familiarity) to stimuli increases liking of it
Radical Behaviorism
the philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences; Skinner
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
avoidance learning
the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present (i.e. following a stop sign, not crashing)
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
reconstructive memory
the process whereby memories of an event become distorted by information encountered after the event occurred
subliminal perception
the processing of information/perception of a stimulus below the threshold by sensory systems without conscious awareness
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
negative correlation
the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases
kinesthetic sense
the sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other (muscle, tendon, and joint position)
dominant hemisphere
the side of the brain that provides analytic, language, logic, and math skills -in most individuals (97%), the left hemisphere (located opposite to the hand used for writing) -Brocas and Wernickes area
variability of scores
the standard deviation of a sample of test scores is a measure of what?
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
surface structure of language
the superficial way in which words are arranged in a text or in speech
actor-observer bias
the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to situational factors but to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you knew it all along
size constancy
the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance -depends on perceived distance: the harder to perceive distance, size constancy diminishes
duplexity theory of vision
the theory that cones and rods (photoreceptors) in the retina mediate different kinds of vision
Theory of Association
the theory that knowledge results from linking or associating simple ideas to form complex ideas; grouping things together
dopamine theory of schizophrenia
the theory that schizophrenia is caused by too much dopamine and, conversely, that anti-schizophrenic drugs (phenothiazines) exert their effects by decreasing dopamine levels
metacognition
thinking about thinking
escape conditioning
training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus
central traits
traits that are major characteristics and can be easily inferred (honesty, fatalism) -everyone has them
fear of punishment & overcompensation (showing off)
unfavorable outcome of Initiative vs. Guilt
identity crisis
unfavorable outcome of identity vs. role confusion
bitterness & despair & fear of death
unfavorable outcome of integrity v. despair
MRI scan
uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue
base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
cohort differences
variations in the characteristics of an area of study over time among individuals who are defined by some shared temporal experience or common life experience, such as year of birth
cognitive-structural approach
ways in which people conceptualize and solve problems through experiences with environment emphasizing developmental changes in modes and styles of thinking
Morphemic Error
when morphemes change places (ie: "I'm not in the reading for mood")
spinal cord
where the gate theory of pain mechanism is located
Somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe)
where touch information travels to in the brain
what does tracking the neonatal reflexes tell about a baby?
whether neural development is taking place in a normal fashion, delays could be a sign of developmental difficulties/disabilities
amnestic disorder
which disorder has a known organic basis
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
widely used test designed to measure the intelligence of children 6 years and older
Truddi Chase
woman who was thought to have 92 different personalities
trace conditioning
A classical conditioning procedure in which the conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus but is removed before the unconditioned stimulus is presented so that the two stimuli do not occur together.
Edward Tolman (Learning)
*concept of cognitive maps: rats formed cognitive maps of various mazes and used these to adopt alternative routes
conscience
*inner feeling or voice viewed as acting as a guide to the rightness or wrongness of one's behavior.* example: whatever parents disapprove of goes into the conscience
law-and-order orientation stage
*morality defined by the rules of authority* -part of conventional morality phase
cerebral cortex
*most recent development of the human brain: outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres* -language processing, problem solving, impulse control, long-term planning, etc.
ventromedial hypothalamus
*satiety center, provides signals to stop eating: lesions lead to hyperphagia (very hungry)* (VH= very hungry)
moving toward, moving against, moving away
3 stages to overcome basic anxiety
Children have an average of what percent of their genes in common with each parent?
50% (addresses the heritability of traits)
percentage of scores within 1 SD in a normal distribution
68%
Tay-Sachs disease
A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that leads to the accumulation of hexosaminidase A. symptoms may resemble psychological disorders
rhodopsin
A light-sensitive pigment found in the rod cells that is formed by retinal (vitamin A) and opsin (protein).
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in defensive and aggressive behaviors
best-fitting straight line
A line drawn through a correlation studies scatter plot. Pos line = pos relation. Neg line = neg relation. Flat line = no relation.
conversion disorder
A rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. (used to be hysteria)
Dorothea Dix
A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's, she was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada.
Gestalt Laws of Organization
A series of principles that describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Estrogen
A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males, that release the egg
heuristic
A shortcut to problem solving also known as a rule of thumb.
Important object relations theorists
*Melanie Klein, D. W. Winnicott, Margaret Mahler,* and *Otto Kernberg*
Rogers
created client-centered theory
conventional morality phase
level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed bygaining approval and following the law and authority (based on social rules)
medium arousal
level of arousal the Hebb postulated is best for performances
Kraepelin
developed a system in the 19th century for classifying mental disorders
Projection
electrochemical energy is sent to various projection areas in the brain along various neural pathways and processed by nervous system
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone: any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
source traits
extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, self-control; Cattell
3 types of research to determine degree of genetic influence on individual differences:
family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Bobo doll experiment
nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively
Klein
object relations theorist
psychoanalysis
object relations therapy is most closely related to what type of therapy?
ordinal scale of measurement
observations are ranked in terms of size or magnitude example: 1st highest score, 2nd highest score, 3rd highest score
Clark Hull's theory of motivation (drive reduction theory)
goal of behavior is to reduce biological drives and reinforcement happens when a drive is reduced
post conventional morality phase
level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed beyond black and white of laws' attentive to rights and social welfare and making decisions based on abstract ethical principles
pre-conventional morality phase
level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by avoiding punishments and gaining rewards (learn right and wrong)
anxiety disorders
GAD, SAD, phobias, panic
schizoid personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by social detachment and little expression of emotion
generation-recognition model
a recall task taps the same basic process of accessing information in memory as does a recognition task BUT recall is an additional step (to generate the information rather than recognizing it)
distal stimulus
actual object or event in the world
surface structure of a sentence
actual word order of the words in a sentence
factors involved in brightness perception
adaptation and simultaneous brightness contrast
MMPI-2
added content scales (more theoretical)
Are axons or dendrites myelinated?
axons
Wolfgang Kohler
considered to be the founder of Gestalt Psychology: theory of isomorphism
Balance Theory (Heider)
consistency theory that is concerned with the way 3 elements are related: the person whom we're talking about (symbolized as P), some other person (symbolized as O), and a thing, idea, or some other person (symbolized by X). Balance exists when all three fit together harmoniously. When there isn't balance, there will be stress, and a tendency to remove this stress by achieving balance
differentiated self concept
contains the actual self, ideal self, feared self
action potential spike
third step of an action potential firing
Heinz Dilemma
*Kohlberg: determines the moral level of someone (hypothetical moral dilemmas)* -A woman is dying and needs an expensive medication. Husband (Heinz) cannot afford the medication, should he steal it or should she die?
divergent thinking
type of thinking used when more than one possibility exists in a situation; most commonly associated with creative thinking; playing chess
cause of schizophrenia
unclear
deep structure of language
underlying meaning of words
dominant hemisphere
usually left hemisphere
Attitude change occurs when behavior come from ______ pressure.
*Minimum* pressure.
Titchener
*Structuralism*, used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind, trained individuals to report elements of their experiences -Wundt trained psychologist
Stage 4
*The stage of sleep where deepest sleep occurs* -slowest EEGs, steepest spindles, relaxed muscles -decreased respiration and heart rates
z score formula
(x-mean)/standard deviation
Agnosia
*affects perceptual recognition*
Ions
positively and negatively charged atoms
2 major research methods for studying visual perception in infants
preferential looking and habituation
fetal period
prenatal development stage 3 months after conception until the birth of the child; measurable electrical activity in the brain
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)
preschool IQ test
2 basic types of inhibition
proactive and retroactive
subtractive color mixture
*A mixture of pigments*. If pigments A and B mix, some of the light shining on the surface will be subtracted by A, and some by B. Only the remainder contributes to the perception of color.
high dose
sedative-hypnotics dose that results in anesthesia or coma
medium dose
sedative-hypnotics dose that results in sedation
Gibson, J.
studied depth cues (especially texture gradients) that help us to perceive depth
mnemonic device
techniques that we use to improve the likelihood that we will remember something
transformational rules
tell us how we can change from one sentence form to another example: change a statement to a question
physiological zero
temperature that is sensed as neither warm nor cold (just temp of skin)
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity in CNS, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes -stimulate receptors for dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
what results in loss of detail?
each ganglion cell represents combined activity of rods and cones
Thorndike
early psychologist who studied learning: functionalist (how mind functions in adapting to the environment) and behaviorist -law of effect
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.
Hippocampus
A neural center involved in learning and memory, STM => LTM
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement, posture, and the brain's pleasure and reward system.
socially useful type
Adler personality type; sanguine; people with a great deal of social interest and activity
test-retest method
a method of calculating reliability by repeating the same measure at two or more points in time
controversial status youth
Aggressive kids who are either highly liked or intensely disliked by their peers; who are most likely to become engaged in antisocial behavior
kleptomania
a continual urge to steal regardless of economic motive
motion parallax
a depth cue in which there is a variation in apparent speed and motion (car ride) -when looking at a fixed point, objects closer to you appear to move in the same direction -perceived speed the objects appear to move depends on how close the object is to the point
stereotaxic instrument
a device for the precise placement of electrodes in the brain to create lesions in animals
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
Phenothiazine
a group of antihistamine drugs that became the first group of effective antipsychotic medications
innate releasing mechanism
a hypothetical neural mechanism thought to control an innate response to a sign stimulus
partial report procedure
a sensory memory task in which observers are cued to report only certain items in a display of items (based on a tone) *nine item limit actually for capacity of sensory memory*
whole-report procedure
a sensory memory task that requires observers to report everything they see in a display of items in 1 second: found sensory memory can hold 4 items
graded potential
a shift in the electrical charge at the axon hillock that fires impulses down axon to terminal buttons
supernormal stimulus
a sign stimulus whose features have been artificially enhanced or exaggerated to produce an abnormally large modal action pattern
olfactory epithelium
a thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that contains the receptors for smell
laissez-faire leadership
allows the group to function more or less on its own; less efficient, organized, and satisfying
eye movements and cognition
an "on-line" (measured as subject is actually performing tasks) measure of information processing -used to study reading and language comprehension
language acquisition device (LAD)
an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language
primary reinforcement
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (ie: food & water)
proactive forgetting
an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory
dementia praecox
an older term for schizophrenia, believed then to be an incurable and progressive deterioration of mental functioning beginning in adolescence
male sex development requires the presence of what?
androgens
somatosensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes touch, pressure, temperature, and pain sensory signals
Cultural Truisms
beliefs that are rarely attacked SO especially vulnerable to attack because we rarely have to defend them
Watson
believed psychology should be an objective study of behavior wherein mind and consciousness serve no purpose
Kulpe and experimental psychology
believed that there could be imageless thought (Wundt thought that there could be no thought without an image)
delusions of grandeur
believing that one is a very powerful or important person
association
bell ring became paired/associated with food
negative z scores fall _____ the mean and positive z scores fall _____ the mean
below, above
3 and 20
best age range for learning
four characteristic EEG patterns
beta, alpha, theta, and delta waves (BAT-D)
F ratio formula
between-group variance estimate/within-group variance estimate
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
big 5 superfactors in order
if the distance is constant: the bigger the object, the _____ the visual angle and retinal size
bigger
auditory canal
channels sound to the eardrum
Anna Freud
child (ego)psychoanalysis: emphasized importance of the *ego* and its constant struggle in relation to the world, to the unconscious, and to the superego -founder of ego psychology
demand characteristics
cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected -may cause them to perform as expected rather than naturally
Parkinson's disease
damage of the basal ganglia can create this
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
Displacement
defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet
Antagonist
drugs that decrease the effects of a specific neurostransmitter; Botox
Barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement (sedatives)
Agonist
drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter; SSRIs
opium, heroin, and morphine
examples of narcotics
external validity
extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings
type 2 error
failing to reject a false null hypothesis: beta
productivity & caring
favorable outcome of Generativity vs. Stagnation
separation anxiety phase
fifth stage in development of attachment at 2yo when child reacts to mother's absence with strong protest
neurotransmitters
fires when the action potential reaches the terminal buttons
resting potential (polarization)
first step of an action potential firing
cornea, pupil, iris, lens, retina
five main structures of the eye
Brenda Milner
followed the case of HM, who had his hippocampus removed
Franz Joseph Gall
founder of phrenology
Gustav Fechner
founder of psychophysics, formulated Weber's law -mathematical expression of JND
reciprocal attachment phase
fourth stage in development of attachment occurring at 9-12 months of age characterized by increased bonding & stranger anxiety
hyperpolarization
fourth step of an action potential firing
Where in the eye is visual acuity the best?
fovea
Two types of dissonance
free choice and forced compliance
John Dewey
functionalist believed that psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment
What forms the optic nerve?
ganglion cells
Kohlberg's gender stages
gender labeling, gender stability, gender consistency
Spearman's g
general intelligence
Individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
Collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly
syntax
grammar and sentence structure
Chomsky's theory on grammar
grammar is a formal device with a finite set of rules that generates an infinite set of well-formed sentences: we're born with a capacity to learn language -deep and surface grammatical structure, transformational rules
Bimodal
having two modes, or most common scores
George Kelly
he believed (personal construct theory) our personality consists of our thoughts about ourselves, including our biases, errors, mistakes, and false conclusions -individual is a scientist
auditory hallucinations
hearing voices, noises, music, or sounds that are not actually real: most common delusions
2 types of prosocial behavior
helping behavior and altruism
where are the three major divisions on the brain located?
hindbrain (base), midbrain (on top of base), and forebrain (closer to top)
what two structures form the brainstem
hindbrain and midbrain
which brain structures were the first to develop?
hindbrain and midbrain b/c necessary for survival
construct validity
how well performance on the test fits the theoretical framework related to what the test is supposed to measure
anterior pituitary gland is controlled by which brain area?
hypothalamus
time-out procedure
if you remove the patient from the reinforcing situation before he receives reinforcement for his behavior, the behavior will not be reinforced and will cease.
Muller-Lyer Illusion
illusion of line length that is distorted by inward-turning or outward-turning corners on the ends of the lines, causing lines of equal length to appear to be different
autokinetic effect
illusion that a stationary point of light in a dark room is moving because there is no frame of reference
Apraxia
impaired ability to carry out motor activities despite intact motor function (not paralysis just disorganized) -damage to association area of motor cortex
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or Wernicke's area
damage to the prefrontal cortex
impairs decision making, more impulsive, less in control, depressed, vulgar/inappropriate
connotations
implied meanings
variable ratio
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses (i.e. slot machines)
fixed ratio
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (i.e. food every 5 lever pulls)
Chaining
in operant conditioning, combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action (ie learning the alphabet)
Rosenhan
investigated the effect of being labeled mentally ill by having pseudopatients admitted into mental hospitals
Kahneman and Tversky
investigated the use of heuristics in decision-making: studied the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic
3 prominent theories of emotion
james-lange theory, cannon-bard theory, and schachter-singer theory
metamemory
knowledge about memory
Noam Chomsky
language development: disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language
cognitive developmental theory of language
language has to do with child's capacity for symbolic thought, language continues to develop according to child's cognitive level (Piaget)
learning theory of language
language is acquired through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and/or modeling (Skinner)
If the variance between groups is low and the variance within the groups are high, what is the f ratio?
large F, more likely to be significantly significant
Releasing stimuli
stimuli that elicits fixed action patterns from another individual in the same species; Lorenz, continued by Tinbergen; aka releasers or sign stimuli
standard stimulus
stimulus whose intensity remained the same
the more transmitters bind, the ____ the post synaptic potential
stronger
Meissner's corpuscles
structures that detect touch or contact
Hubel and Wiesel
studied feature detection in visual cortex and discovered simple, complex, and hypercomplex cells
Morphine
narcotic drug derived from opium, used to treat severe pain
phantom limb pain
pain in a limb (or extremity) that has been amputated
occipital lobes
part of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information -visual cortex & striate cortex
inner ear
part of the ear responsible for both hearing and balance
Telencephalon
part of the forebrain: contains the limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus
criticism of flooding and implosion therapies
patient goes through great deal of anxiety
optic chiasm
point at which optic nerve fibers closest to nose (nasal) cross paths in the brain
Helmholtz and Young
proposed the place-resonance theory of pitch perception
four areas of personality theories
psychodynamic, behaviourist, phenomenological, type-and-trait
Excoriation Disorder
skin picking disorder
Ectomorph
skinny, fragile body; inhibited, intellectual behavior
sleep apnea
sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
insomnia
sleep disorder marked by recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
John Locke
tabula rasa (blank slate)
Interactionism
the idea that situations and personality interact to determine behavior
pitch
the subjective highness or lowness of a sound
*ectomorphy* body type
thin, fragile, and lightly muscled
tympanic membrane (eardrum)
the membrane at the end of the ear canal that relays vibrations into the middle ear to the inner ear
oval window
the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear that is on the edge of the stirrup
vestibular sense
the sense of balance and equilibrium
linguistic and logical math
two abilities within the theory of multiple intelligences that are valued by western culture most
Alternate-form method
two different versions of a test on the same content is given to the same test takers at different times then compared
estrogen and progesterone
two female sex hormones that the ovaries produce
cerebral hemispheres
two halves of the cerebral cortex, each of which serve distinct yet highly integrated functions
pinna, auditory canal
two parts of the outer ear
Darley and Latane
two people who proposed that there were two factors that could lead to not helping: social influence and diffusion of responsibility
taste & smell
two types of chemical senses (receptors must have contact with stimulus molecules)
Schachter and Singer
two-factor theory of emotion
chemical process
type of process in neural conduction between neurons (at synapse)
dog food
unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov's experiment
deep structure (Abstract) of a sentence
underlying form that specifies the meaning of the sentence example: can have different surface structure "the boy picked up the book" and "the book was picked up by the boy" with similar deep structure meaning
doubt and lack of control (what happens is the result of external factors not self)
unfavorable outcome of Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Selfishness, stagnation
unfavorable outcome of Generativity vs. Stagnation
incompetence, low self-esteem, inadequacy
unfavorable outcome of Industry vs. Inferiority
Noncommitment, withdrawn
unfavorable outcome of Intimacy vs. Isolation
suspicion of the world
unfavorable outcome of trust v. mistrust
reflex
unlearned response to a stimulus
method of loci
use of familiar locations as cues to recall items that have been associated with them
visual cliff experiment
used to determine when infants can perceive depth with 2 different "levels" presented -infants as young as 6 months can perceive depth
prefrontal lobotomy
used to treat schizophrenia: surgical procedure that severs fibers connecting the frontal lobes of the brain from the underlying hypothalamus/limbic system
interval scale of measurement
uses actual numbers and not ranks example: number of answer correct on a test
what determines the size of an image on the retina?
visual angle
dorsal stream
visual path in the parietal cortex that helps the motor system locate objects; the "where" path
iconic (visual) memory
visual sensory memory: George Sperling, people can see more than that can remember
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
we learn social behavior by *modeling* (observing and imitating) and by *reinforcement* (being rewarded and punished)
lightness constancy
we perceive an object as having a constant lightness even while its illumination varies example: when the sun goes behind the clouds, a sail on a boat still appears white and not gray
cognitive triad
what Beck believed causes depression; negative views about self, the world, and the future
severe abuse
what DID stems from
all or nothing law
what action potential is governed by
Ratio IQ
what did William Stern develop
excessive stress
what increases diathesis to lead to a disorder
prolongation of neurotransmitter effects
what is most likely to occur quickly when cocaine blocks the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine?
-50mV
what mV is reached when the neuron fires
Exploratory drive
when individuals are motivated simply to try something new or to explore their environment
accommodation
when new information doesn't fit in our existing schemata, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
acquiesence bias
when people agree with opposing statements
empirical
when psychology first emerged, it was distinguished from philosophy because of emphasis on _______ data
bleaching
when rhodopsin (in rods) absorbs a light photon, pigment decomposes in retinene & opsin
retroactive inhibition
when you forget what you learned earlier as you learn something new example: if you learn List A, then learn List B, then you can't recall List A
dark adaptation
when your eyes adapt to a darker environment and recover from bleaching of the photopigment in rods
papillae
where taste buds are located
taste center in thalamus
where taste information travels to
axon hillock
where the action potential is triggered: small elevation on a neuron where the axon meets the cell body
Ainsworth
Devised the "strange situation" to study attachment
damage to amygdala
reduced fear and aggression
limbic system is first or second major area of brain to evolve?
second
lateral, ventromedial, anterior
Hypothalamus subdivisions
Rods
_____ allow you to see in a poorly lit environment
Sample
a subset of the population
amnesia
loss of memory
John A. Swets
refined the use of ROC curves
Merkel's disks
respond to light pressure, pain
continuous reinforcement
the reinforcement of each and every correct response (FR 1)
find percentile for normal distribution using z score (positive)
z score +1= 50% +34%= 85% look at text
find percentile for normal distribution using z score (negative)
z score -1= 50%-34%= 16% look at text
overregularization
"I runned to the car" is an example of?
what does signal detection theory measure?
(1) how well the stimulus is sensed and (2) response bias
techniques to research neuropsychology
(1) lesions and ablations (2) stereotaxic instrument (3) electrical simulation and recording of neurons [EEG] (4) noninvasive imaging and recording techniques [CAT and PET scans]
purpose of myelin sheath
(1) Surround and protect nerve fibers from each other (2) speed of impulse
Weber's Law Equation
(change in I) / I = k referred to as just noticeable difference (JND)
differences between graded potentials and action potentials
(1) graded potential are NOT all or nothing (weak or strong) (2) graded potentials lose voltage as they travel along dendrite and action potentials do NOT
Endorphins
"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neuropeptide linked to pain control and to pleasure
Julian Rotter
*trait theorist (internal and external locus of control)*
pros and cons of 3 research methods: (parental reports, naturalistic observations, and lab observations)
-parental reports: biased but parents are well aware of infant in wide range of situations -naturalistic: time consuming but more objective -lab observations: artificial situations but controlled conditions
H.M and hippocampus
-patient whose amygdala and hippocampus were removed to cure seizures -drastic loss of memory (anterograde amnesia)
preferential-looking technique
2 objects presented together, longer time looking at different one = perceived differences in objects in infants -the object they look at the longest is preferred (usually prefer complex and socially relevant stimuli and patterns rather than uniform surfaces)
tympanic membrane (eardrum) and ossicles
2 parts of the middle ear
Eysenck
2 personality dimensions; extravert/intravert & emotional stability/instability.
conscience and ego-ideal
2 subsystems of the superego
amphetamines and antidepressants
2 types of behavioral stimulant drugs
image on our retina is what dimension?
2-D
how long will information stay in short-term memory without rehearsal?
20 seconds
Which chromosomes are the sex chromosomes?
23
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
3 Greek philosophers who studied psychology
crying, social smiling, fear response
3 early social and emotional behaviors in infants
consensus, consistency, distinctiveness
3 notions of Kelley's covariation model
inner, middle, outer
3 parts of the ear
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior 1. pre-conventional morality phase a. obedience and punishment stage b. instrumental relativist stage 2. conventional morality phase a. good girl, nice boy stage b. law and order orientation stage 3. post-conventional morality phase a. social contract orientation stage b. universal ethical principles stage
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
7 defined intelligences: linguistic ability, logical-mathematical ability, spatial ability, musical ability, bodily-kinesthic ability, interpersonal ability, and intrapersonal ability -Western cultures value first 2 over the others and they determine IQ score
Thurstone
7 primary mental abilities (i.e verbal comprehension, number ability, perceptual speed, general reasoning) -critic of Spearman
how long is a complete cycle of sleep
90 minutes
percentage of scores within 2 SD in a normal distribution
96%
amnestic disorder
A cognitive disorder marked by severe impairment in memory due to effects of substance use or a medical condition.
androgen insensitivity syndrome
A condition caused by a congenital lack of functioning androgen receptors -in a person with XY sex chromosomes, causes the development of a female with testes but no internal sex organs
Cross-Sectional
A developmental psychologist is interested in conducting a study on children's gender perceptions. The psychologist recruits children who are 5, 8, and 10. Which research design is this?
Stereoscope
A device that gives the impression of depth to a flat picture by presenting each eye a separate but slightly different picture
Parkinson's disease
A disorder of the central nervous system that affects movement, often including tremors.
stratified random sampling
A form of probability sampling: a random sampling technique in which the researcher identifies particular demographic categories of interest and then randomly selects individuals within each category. -assures that each subgroup of the population is randomly sampled in proportion to its size
diathesis-stress model
A framework explaining the causes of mental disorders as an interaction between biological causal factors (a predisposition toward developing a specific mental disorder) and psychological causal factors (excessive stress).
Genie
A girl who was captive with no social contact for 14 years and when she was found, she had missed the critical period where she could have learned language so she could not speak and was extremely socially disabled.
Population
A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area -> group to which the researcher wishes to generalize her results
limbic system
A group of interconnected structures (including the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and septal nuclei) that are crucial for emotion, motivation, and many aspects of learning and memory.
Progesterone
A hormone produced by the ovaries to prepare uterus for implantation of fertilized egg
Adrenaline
A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress
serial learning
A list of items is learned and repeated according to their sequence of occurrence within the list
semipermeable membrane
A membrane that allows small ions to pass through and blocks passage of others (cell membrane)
Counterbalancing
A method of controlling for order effects in a repeated measure design by either including all orders of treatment or by randomly determining the order for each subject example: half of subject do high protein first, other half do low protein first
Introspection
A method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings
linear perspective
A monocular cue for perceiving depth: the more parallel lines seem to converge, the greater their perceived distance.
Reactance
A motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action. *if you try too hard to persuade someone of something, they will choose the opposite of your position*
extrapyramidal system
A motor system that includes the basal ganglia: relays motor information and body position from basal ganglia to brain and spinal cord -makes our movements smooth and posture steady
relative refractory period
A period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarized state and will fire again only if the incoming message is much stronger than usual: after action potential
depressive episode
A period of at least two weeks in which there is a prominent and persistent depressed mood or lack of interest and at least four other depressive symptoms.
Cognitive physiological theory of emotion
A person who drank coffee before a comedy set and then laughed more at the comedy set because of increased physiological arousal would describe which theory?
Emil Kraepelin
A pioneer of diagnostic categorization in mental health who was one of the first to assign formal labels to particular clusters of symptoms
Reuptake
A process in which neurotransmitters are drawn back into the vesicles of the terminal buttons
luteinizing hormone (LH)
A protein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates *ovulation* in females and androgen production in males.
dissociative identity disorder
A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder.
tardive dyskinesia
A side effect of long-term use of traditional antipsychotic drugs causing the person to have uncontrollable facial tics, grimaces, and other involuntary movements of the lips, jaw, and tongue.
Chi-square test
A significance test used to determine if two frequencies or proportions are equal: use categorical data (nominal)
sodium-potassium pump
A special transport protein in the plasma membrane that transports Na+ out of the cell and K- into the cell against their concentration gradients to maintain resting potential for nerve impulse
ANOVA
ANalysis Of VAriance - btwn means of 3 or more groups
Extirpation
Ablation: term for intentional lesioning or removal of brain regions
Fictional Finalism
According to Adler, self-selected, imagined life goal that motivates an individual toward the future rather than past experiences
Congruence
According to Carl Rogers , the goal of therapy is to achieve _____
Maladaptive cognitions
According to Cognitive Psychology, these types of cognitions lead to abnormal behavior or disturbed affect; Beck
D
According to the Inoculation Theory, a person's belief can be inoculated against a persuasive attack by: A. providing arguments to support that initial belief prior to the attack B. providing arguments to support the initial belief subsequent to the attack C. warning the individual that there will be an attack D. anticipating the attacker's arguments and discrediting those arguments E. refuting the persuasive attack subsequent to its presentation
Paivio's dual code hypothesis
According to this theory, information can be stored (or encoded) in two ways: visually and verbally. Abstract information tends to be encoded verbally, whereas concrete information tends to be encoded visually (i.e., as an image) and verbally.
How can dissonance be reduced? Be able to provide examples.
Adding consonant elements (stop smoking low tar cigs, criticize negative reports on smoking) and changing dissonant elements (convince self the enjoyment is worth the risk)
Scaffolding
Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance; mother helping a lot at first and then little by little diminishing the help
ruling-dominant type
Adler personality type; choleric; high in activity but low in social contribution, dominant
Avoiding type
Adler personality type; melancholic; low in activity and low in social contribution, withdrawn
getting-leaning type
Adler personality type; phlegmatic; low in activity and high in social contribution, dependent
Ebonics
American black English regarded as a language in its own right rather than as a dialect of standard English; William Labov
Allele
An alternative form of a gene that controls whether a trait will be dominate or recessive.
EEG (electroencephalogram)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
panic disorder
An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations.
Broca's aphasia
An aphasia associated with the impairment in producing understandable speech -lesions in Broca's area
empirical criterion-keying
An approach to test development that emphasizes the selection of items that discriminate between normal individuals and members of different diagnostic groups, regardless of whether the items appear theoretically relevant to the diagnoses of interest. Hathaway and McKinley
parallel distributed processing
An approach to understanding object recognition in which various elements of the object are thought to be simultaneously analyzed by a number of widely distributed, but connected, neural units in the brain.
biological clock
An innate mechanism in living organisms that controls the internal rhythms to keep the animal in sync with the environment
RIASEC model
An interest framework summarized by six different personality types including realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional.
biological constraints on learning
Any limitations on an organism's capacity to learn that are caused by the inherited sensory, response, or cognitive capabilities of members of a given species.
projection areas
Areas in which the brain tissue seems to form a "map" of sensory information.
No correlational relationship
As values of X increase, values of Y change randomly
Domain-referenced testing
Assessment results are interpreted in terms of a relevant and clearly defined set of related tasks (called a domain) *tests what the test taker knows and can do*
Sheldon
Attempted to relate somatotype (body type) to personality type
multimode theory of attention
Attention is flexible and can change how much processing can happen depending on needs of task; Johnson & Heinz
social learning theory
Bandura: the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating (modeling) and by being rewarded or punished (vicarious reinforcement)
Kelly
Based personality theory on the notion of "individual as scientist"
Helping Behavior
Behavior that intentionally helps or benefits another person (but may be motivated by selfishness or ego)
species-specific behavior
Behavior that is typically engaged in by all members of a species under certain environmental circumstances. Very close to what others call instinctive behavior.
Skinner
Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats -positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction
Dollard and Miller
Behaviorist theorists who attempted to study psychoanalytic concepts within a behaviorist framework -also known for their work on approach-avoidance conflicts
Ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.
Gesell
Believed that development was due primarily to maturation
Anton Mesmer
Believed that the healing of physical ailments came from manipulation of people's bodily fluids. His technique of mesmerism was used with hypnotism.
William McDougall and E.H. Ross
Both published the first textbooks in social psychology.
Preattachment, Attachment in the making, Clear-cut attachment, Reciprocal attachment, separation anxiety, independence
Bowlby's phases of attachment
Timing in Classical Conditioning
CS must be before and close together to UCS (forward conditioning)
Penfield
Canadian neurosurgeon who used electrodes and electrical stimulation techniques to "map" out different parts of the brain during surgery
aptitude
Capacity for learning; natural ability
Organ of Corti
Center part of the cochlea on the basilar membrane, containing hair cells (receptors for hearing), canals, and membranes
Trait theories of personality
Characteristic patterns of behaviour or conscious motives. Assumed that most traits exist in all people to a certain degree and that we can measure the degree to which a trait exists in a person Thousands of words to describe traits.
pragmatic errors
Children make these errors when they know two objects are conceptually different but do not yet have a name for one of the objects and intentionally substitute a semantically related word
telegraphic
Children's earliest sentences are considered ______ because they frequently omit many words or word endings
Kandel
Demonstrated that simple learning behavior in sea snails (aplysia) is associated with changes in neurotransmission
Kohler
Developed theory of isomorphism
Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural settings." 8 intelligences, everyone has all 8, but in different proportions. You can strengthen your weaker areas.
Delusion of thought insertion
Delusion that thoughts are being implanted in a person's mind by other persons or forces
Delusion of thought broadcasting
Delusions that a person's thoughts can be heard by others, as though being broadcast over the air
Olds and Milner
Demonstrated existence of pleasure center in the brain using "self-stimulation" studies in rats
Nature vs. Nurture
Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being or behavior? -generally recognized that there is a dynamic interaction between environment and genetics for development
Anxiolytics
Drugs that alleviate the symptoms of anxiety by increasing GABA; Valium, Xanax
recording brain wave activity during sleep
EEG
primary prevention
Efforts to correct the conditions that foster mental illness and establish the conditions that foster mental health. -stop mental illness before it occurs
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Erikson's 2nd conflict from 1-3 in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently
Initiative vs. Guilt
Erikson's 3rd conflict from 3-6 in which the child finds independence in planning, playing, and other activities
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson's 4th conflict between 6-puberty when the child learns to be productive and competent
identity vs. role confusion
Erikson's 5th conflict in teen years in which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves (physiological revolution)
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Erikson's 6th conflict in young adulthood in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson's 7th conflict of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service
integrity v. despair
Erikson's 8th conflict where the older adult is reflecting at the end of life
Trust v. Mistrust
Erikson's first conflict from birth to 1 during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers
von Frisch
Ethologist who studied communication in honeybees: able to communicate the direction and distance of food source by special dances
Von Frisch
Ethologist who studied communication in honeybees; communicate through a dance
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
a childhood disorder marked by severe recurrent temper outbursts along with a persistent irritable or angry mood
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Bobo Doll Experiment (Bandura)
Experiment where nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnessed the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively
Stroop Effect
Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors (ie yellow printed in blue ink)
flooding therapy
Exposure to fear but start with most frightening fear first
Cognitive
Eye movements, gaze durations, latency, and semantic recognition are all measures used by ______ psychologists
Verplank (1950's)
Feedback (approval) from others changes course of conversation *reinforcement theory: social approval influences behavior*
antipsychotics
a class of psychotropic medications used for the treatment of schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis -block receptor sites for dopamine
Oligodendrocytes
Form myelin sheath in CNS
Maccoby and Jacklin
Found support for gender differences in verbal ability
Maccoby and Jacklin
Found support for gender differences in verbal ability: girls have better verbal abilities
Freud, Anna
Founder of ego psychology
pressure, pain, warmth, cold
Four tactile(touch) sensations of humans
Broca
French anatomist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with producing spoken language
Broca
French anatomist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with producing spoken language (Brocas area)
Rousseau
French philosopher who suggested that development could unfold without help from society
Huntington's disease
Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30.
Wernicke
German neurologist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with understanding spoken language
Wernicke
German neurologist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with understanding spoken language (Wernicke's area)
Herman Ebbinghaus
German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve.
Immanuel Kant
Greatest German philosopher of Enlightenment-separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge-science could describe nature, it could not provide a guide for morality. Wrote Critique of Pure Reason
Garcia Experiment
Group 1: sweet water + shock Group 2: sweet water + nausea Group 3: bright-noisy water + shock Group 4: bright-noisy water+ nausea *conditioning only in groups 2 and 3 because of preparedness theory*
which color vision theory is true?
Helmhotz trichromatic: 3 cones (red, blue, and green sensitive) in the retina
Bekesy's traveling wave theory
High-frequency sounds maximally vibrate basilar membrane near beginning of cochlea close to oval window, and low frequences maximally vibrate near apex of cochlea
round dance
Honeybee dance in a circular motion; indicates that food is very nearby; von Frisch
Gonadotropins
Hormones produced by the pituitary gland that signal the gonads to control the production of reproductive hormones and gametes.
communicator, communication, and situation: which model?
Hovland's model of persuasion components
Perception of form
How we abstract perceptual objects (like a book) out of everything appearing on our retinaq
simultaneous conditioning
a classical conditioning procedure in which the CS and the US are presented at the same time on each conditioning trial
Rene Descartes
I think therefore I am; mind-body problem
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Gender schematic processing theory
Martin and Halverson's theory (building off of Kholberg) that once children label their gender they tend to focus on behaviors typical to that gender.
Analogy of Inoculation - McGuire
McGuire's analogy that people can be psychologically inoculated against the "attack" of persuasive communications by first exposing them to a weakened attack.
F ratio
In ANOVA, the ratio of the mean square between groups to the mean square within groups
life space
In Kurt Lewin's theory, all the internal and external forces that act on an individual (valence, vector, barrier)
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
fixed action pattern
In animal behavior, a sequence of unlearned, innate acts that is essentially unchangeable and, once initiated, usually carried to completion. (i.e. courtship ritual) -more complex than Pavlovian response (salivating)
Inoculation Theory
McGuire; people's beliefs are vulnerable if they have never faced challenge
Counter-transference
In psychoanalysis, it occurs when the therapist experiences emotions towards the patient
receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve
In studies of signal detection, the graphical plot of the hit rate as a function of the false-alarm rate. If these are the same, points fall on the diagonal, indicating that the observer cannot tell the difference between the presence and absence of the signal. As the observer's sensitivity increases, the curve bows upward toward the upper left corner. That point represents a perfect ability to distinguish signal from noise (100% hits, 0% false alarms).
Parkinson's and dopamine
Parkinson's associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons in basal ganglia -disruptions of dopamine transmission -> tremors and jerky movements
factor
a cluster of variables highly correlated with each other and assumed to be measuring the same thing
What does increased dissonance lead to?
Increased pressure to decrease dissonance.
positive reinforcement
Increasing desired behaviors by presenting positive stimuli (reward) -example: give dog a biscuit every time he comes to your call, will come to your call more often
Sperry and Gazzaniga
Investigated functional differences between left and right cerebral hemispheres using "split-brain" (severed corpus callosum) studies in epileptic patients
Sperry and Gazzaniga
Investigated functional differences between left and right cerebral hemispheres using "split-brain" studies
Bartlett
Investigated the role of schemata in memory: concluded that memory is largely a reconstructive process
Cerletti and Bini
Italian physicians who came up with ECT in 1938 by creating seizures in patients by passing electric currents through their brains (electroshocks)
extroversion and introversion
Jung: two major orientations of personality
shyness
Kagan stated that young children with strong physiological reactions to new situations are more likely than others to display ____ during social situations
L-dopa vs dopamine
L-dopa can pass the blood-brain barrier to increase production of dopamine in brain -orally ingested dopamine cannot get past blood brain barrier
medulla oblongata
Part of the brainstem/hindbrain that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion.
paired-associate learning
Learning procedure in which items to be recalled are learned in pairs. During recall, one member of the pair is presented and the other is to be recalled; behaviorists
incidental learning
Learning without trying to learn, and often without awareness that learning is occurring.
Chomsky
Linguist who suggested that children have an innate capacity for language acquisition
John Watson and classical conditioning experiment
Little Albert: 11- mo child who learned to associate a loud noise with a rat -> became scared of rat and similar objects
Stimulus-overload theory
Milgram; explains why urbanities are less prosocial than country people; they do not need any more interaction
Generation-recognition model
Model that proposes that recall tasks tap the same basic process of accessing information in memory as recognition tasks, but recall tasks also requires an additional processing step.
When do most sleep disorders occur?
NREM sleep
Garcia effect
Named after researcher John Garcia, it is basically food aversion that occurs when people attribute illness to a particular food.
object permanence
Peek a boo is a child's game that centers on the development of what?
Epinephrine
Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress that increases sugar output in the liver and increases heart rate (also known as adrenaline) -fight or flight
universal grammar
Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure; telegram language is an example
Where does depolarization occur?
Nodes of Ranvier (Action potentials skip from node to node)
OCD Disorders include
OCD, body dysmorphic, hoarding, trichotillomania, and excoriation
Kernberg
Object relations theorist
Mahler
Object relations theorist
Winnicott
Object relations theorist
Idiographic
Term for the approach to personality theory that focus on individual case studies
criterion of statistical significance
aka "alpha level"--usually 5%
Sybil
One of the most famous cases of dissociative identity disorder. This woman claimed to have 16 distinct personalities. The cause of this disorder were believed to be abuse by the mother.
George Berkeley
Only perceptions exist, 'to be is to be perceived'. He developed cues to distance perception.
Freud, Sigmund
Originator of psychodynamic approach to personality -developed psychoanalysis
Erikson
Outlined eight stages of psychosocial development covering the entire lifespan
Piaget
Outlined four stages of cognitive development
recessive genetic disorders
PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay Sachs are caused by which type of disorders
5 different types of tactile receptors
Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure), Meissner corpuscles (touch), Merkel discs (pain), Ruffini endings (stretch), free nerve endings (pain and temp)
Barnum effect
People have the tendency to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality given to them -pseudo validation
Terman
Performed longitudinal study on gifted children
Type theories of personality
Personality types can be categorized eg. four humors, somatotypes, Type A/B, Myer-Briggs
basic (hunger), angry, pain
Peter Wolff's three patterns of crying
Rogers
Phenomenological personality theorist
Maslow
Phenomenological personality theorist known for developing a hierarchy of needs and for the concept of self-actualization
Lewin
Phenomenological personality theorist who developed field theory
Cannon
Physiologist who studied the autonomic nervous system, including "fight or flight" reactions -investigated homeostasis and with Bard, proposed the Cannon-Bard theory of emotions
Refuted Counterarguments
Presenting arguments against cultural truisms then refuting these arguments. Motivates people to practice defending their beliefs
S.S. Stevens
Proposed the power law and that Fechner's law was incorrect
Wever and Bray
Proposed volley theory of pitch perception in response to a criticism of the frequency theory of pitch perception
Neil Miller
Proved experimentally that abnormal behavior can be learned
Exemplification
Providing examples in service of a point; (i.e. in a job interview Kathy tells her prospective employer that she once found a bag of money and returned it even though she desperately needed the money fo rent)
Adler
Psychodynamic theorist best known for the concept of inferiority complex
Horney
Psychodynamic theorist who suggested there were three ways to relate to others: moving toward, moving against, and moving away from
George Sperling
Psychologist associated with early research into the capacity of sensory memory: partial report procedure
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross
Psychologist who theorized the terminally ill progress through stages of coping: Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance
Saccades
Rapid voluntary movements of the eyes seen in information processing while reading
Swets
Refined ROC curves in signal detection theory
Babinski reflex
Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched
Pinel
Reformed French asylums in late 18th century
reinforcement contingencies
Relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response; based on BF Skinner's principles
Spreading of Alternatives
Relative worth of alternatives is spread apart--> alternatives are seen as more different (the one we chose as better, the one we rejected as worse) after we choose compared to before
Monocular depth cues
Require one eye (all depth cues except stereopsis)
contingency explanation of classical conditioning
Rescorla: classical conditioning will occur based on how good of a signal CS is for the UCS
Autoshaping
Responding in the absence of a relationship with reinforcement (ie pecking)
Estrus
Term used by comparative psychologists to refer to the period of time in which a female is sexually receptive
Chi square
Testing method (analysis) used any time you are placing groups or individuals into different categories or groups
Endomorph
Round and heavy body type; pleasure seeking, social behavior
A.R. Luria
Russian neurologist who studied how brain damage leads to impairment in sensory, motor, and language functions
Luria
Russian neurologist who studied how brain damage leads to impairment in sensory, motor, and language functions
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
transformational rule
Simple rules for changing a sequence into another form (e.g., statement into question)
Emmert's law
Size-distance invariance of retinal afterimages: the perceived size of an afterimage is proportional to the distance of the surface on which it's projected
terminal buttons
Small knobs at the end of axons that secrete neurotransmitters
Percentile
Specific point in a normal distribution of data that has a given percentage of cases below it. -percentile tells you the percentage of scores that fall at or below that score
Deviation quotients
Stanford-Binet: A deviation IQ score that tells us how far away a person's score is from the average score for that person's particular age group.
binocular depth cue
Stereopsis because it requires two eyes
ratio IQ
Stern: mental age/physical age x 100 -IQ decreases with age
J.J. Gibson
Studied Texture Gradients
Bowlby
Studied attachment in human children
Loftus
Studied eyewitness memory and concluded that our memories can be altered by presenting new information or by asking misleading questions
Lorenz
Studied imprinting in birds
Rotter
Studied locus of control
Ebbinghaus
Studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings -developed the forgetting curve
McClelland
Studied need for achievement (N-Ach)
Milner
Studied severe anterograde amnesia in H.M.
Milner
Studied severe anterograde amnesia in H.M., a patient whose hippocampus and temporal lobes were removed surgically to control epilepsy
Tryon
Studied the genetic basis of maze-running ability in rats
Baumrind
Studied the relationship between parental style and discipline
Eric Kandel
Studied the sea slug Aplysia's simple neural network: that learning and memory (habituation) is evidenced by changes in synapses and neural pathways and behavioral changes.
H-Y antigen
Substance that appears to trigger the transformation of gonads into testes within the first few weeks of prenatal development; absence = female
Gilligan
Suggested that males and females have different orientations toward morality
McClelland and Rumelhart
Suggested that the brain processes information using parallel distributed processing (PDP)
Schwann cells
Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
Victor Frankl
Survived a concentration camp and wrote a mans search for meaning -believed mental illness was maladjustment to a meaningless life
neologism
Term for a new word or expression
copulation
Term for sexual intercourse
Gregory Mendel
The 19th century monk who studied pea plants and through experiments, unlocked the key to understanding the foundation of heredity (the gene) *MENDEL DISCOVERED THAT GENES EXIST*
Thomas Szasz
The Myth of Mental Illness: argues that abnormal behavior usually involves a deviation from social norms rather than an illness
Applied Psychology
The branch of psychology concerned with everyday, practical problems
Semantic Dissimilarity
This feature of how LTM is coded makes it more difficult to learn or retrieve items. If learning a list and the items on the list are similar in their meanings (i.e. all items are professions), it is harder to recall correctly which items were on the list.
Acoustic Dissimilarity
This feature of how STM is coded uses auditory coding, it is easier to remember things are dissimilar in how they sound.
Premack Principle
The concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity -example: parents say child can play after they finish homework
Osmoregulation
The control of water balance in the body by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
content validity
The degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover
normal distribution (bell curve)
The distribution characterized by the smooth, bell shaped curve: 68% of scores fall within 1 SD of the mean while 96% of the scores fall within 2 SDs of the mean, and 4% fall beyond 2 SD
secondary process
The ego process of rationally seeking an object to satisfy a desire.
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated: the variable whose effect is being studied.
Statistical distribution
This is a mathematical function that describes the probability of a random quantity taking on certain values.
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
When the pressure is greatest, will the attitude change more or less?
The great the pressure to comply the *less* the attitude changes.
private speech
The internal dialogue that occurs when children talk to themselves either silently or out loud; Vygotsky
Forebrain (diencephalon)
The largest and most complicated region of the brain above the midbrain associated with *complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes* -emotion and memory, greatest influence on behavior -divided into two cerebral hemispheres -contains thalamus and hypothalamus
Luchins water-jar problem
This is a task used to study problem-solving. It's results demonstrated how people have a tendency to repeat solutions that worked in previous situations, even if a more efficient way is available (this is called a mental set).
participant attrition
The loss of participants that occurs during the course of a research study conducted over time; can be a threat to internal validity; also known as participant mortality.
dependent variable
The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested: variable expected to change
absolute refractory period
The minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin: same time as depolarization
semantic feature-comparison model
The model, proposed by Smith, Shoben and Rips suggests that concepts are represented by sets of features, some of which are required for that concept, and some of which are typical of that concept. features of a college (required): has faculty, offers degrees features (typical): has fraternities
Wechsler test
The most widely used IQ test. It contains a verbal section and a performance section, which each test different things. However, both scores are combined to form a single IQ score.
Hyperpolarization
The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction (-90mv) -overshoots negative direction
true experiment
The only research strategy that can determine that something causes something else: involves randomly assigning people to different treatments and then looking at the outcome -IV manipulated
Neocortex
The outermost part of the cerebral cortex, making up 80 percent of the cortex in the human brain
selection limit
The point at which no further improvement can be obtained by artificial selection.
all or nothing law
The principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur
Ethology
The scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments.
nondominant hemisphere
The side of the brain associated with sensitivity to the emotional tone of language, intuition, creativity, music, and spatial processing -in most individuals, the right hemisphere.
postsynaptic membrane
The specialized membrane on the surface of the cell's dendrite that receives information by responding to neurotransmitter from a presynaptic neuron's terminal button.
Stage 2
The stage of sleep that is considered light sleeping with sleep spindles (alpha waves) -less aware of surroundings, body temperature drops, breathing and heart rate regular -K complexes appear and theta waves
comparison stimulus
The stimulus that changes until it is recognizably different from the standard stimulus.
instinctual drift
The tendency for an animal to drift back from a learned operant response to an innate, instinctual response to an object. (dogs who learn to play piano will stop)
visual cortex
The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes.
counter conditioning
a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses (relaxation) to stimuli (phobia) that trigger unwanted behaviors (anxiety): based on classical conditioning
token economies
a behavioral technique in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with a token, such as a small chip or fake coin, which can be exchanged for privileges or taken away for undesired behaviors
Stimulus Seeking
These individuals have a great need for arousal
cochlear fluid
Thick, incompressible, potassium-rich fluid that fills cochlea.
Theory of Signal Detection
This Theory suggests that subjects detect a stimuli not only because they can but also because they want to; Developed by J.A. Swet
middle child
This child has a pacemaker; may grow to be more competitive, rebellious and consistent in attempting to be best; may struggle with figuring out their place in the family and, later, in the world; eager for parental praise and thus tend to develop gifts in the arts or academia in order to accomplish this goal; also may be the most flexible and diplomatic members of the family.
youngest child
This child is dependent and selfish due to always being taken care of by family members; may also possess positive traits of confidence, ability to have fun and comfort at entertaining others.
first born child
This child is prone to perfectionism and need for affirmation; tends to become intellectual, conscientious and dominant in social settings. Adler attributes this to the child losing the parents' undivided attention and compensating throughout life by working to get it back. In addition, this child may be expected to set an example and be given responsibility for younger siblings.
only child
This type of child may have a hard time when they are told no, and school may be a difficult transition as they are not the sole focus of the teacher. On a positive note, Adler believed that, compared to others their age, these children tend to be more mature, feel more comfortable around adults and even do better in intellectual and creative pursuits.
law of effect
Thorndike: if a response is followed by an annoying consequence, the animal will be less likely to emit the same response in the future
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
Cognitive Maps
Tolman: mental representation of a place or environment
absolute and relative
Two types of refractory periods
Conformity
What did Sherif study with the auto kinetic effect?
monoamine (biogenic amines) neurotransmitters
a compound having a single amine group in its molecule (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin)
Minimal Justification Effect
When the external justification is minimal, you will reduce your dissonance by changing internal cognitions (task wasn't actually boring) When behavior is justified by means of external inducements (i.e. money), there is no need to change internal cognitions (task was boring)
Hering illusion
When the horizontal lines are actually straight, they appear to be bowed.
False consensus bias
When we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not
pyromania
a compulsion to set things on fire
Wernicke's area
a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression: usually in the left temporal lobe -understand spoken language (memory processing, emotional control, and language)
field dependence
Witkin: The extent to which an individual's problem solving is influenced by salient but irrelevant aspects of the context in which the problem occurs -more influenced by opinions of others
XX vs XY sex chromosome
XX: female XY: male -mothers (egg) give the X, fathers (sperm) give the X or Y
three
______ morphemes are in the word "dreamers"
Blacky Pictures Test
a CHILDREN projective technique designed specifically to assess information relevant to psychosexual stages using 12 cartoon pictures
corticospinal tract
connections between brain and spine
can axons or dendrites regenerate?
dendrites
Extroversion
orientation toward external, objective world
what ions pass through the cell membrane?
smaller ions -blocks larger negative ions (too big)
Human Nervous System
this system is made up of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
major depressive disorder
*A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks (one major depressive episode) of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.* -appetite disturbance, weight, sleep, no energy, worthlessness or guilt, no concentration, thoughts of death/suicide -must cause significant distress or impairment -15% of people with this disorder die of suicide
Fechner's Law
*A principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation* -magnitude of subjective sensation increases proportionally to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity.
British empiricist school of thought
*A school of thought that believes that all knowledge is gained through experience since we are born with a as a blank slate(tabula rasa)* - Members: John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, David Hume, James Mill, and John Stuart Mill.
Sigmund Freud
*Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior, personality formation, and emotional growth* -founded psychoanalysis.
dendrites
*Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information from other neurons via postsynaptic receptors* -can regenerate -branch off of cell body -external stimulation of dendrites causes neuron to fire (generate electrical impulse)
collective unconscious
*Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history* -contains images of common experiences like having a mother and a father
unconditional positive regard
*Carl Rodgers: term for an attitude of total acceptance toward another person & used in therapy
Hovland's Model of Persuasion
*Communication of persuasion has three components: communicator, communication, and situation* -The communicator produces a communication (argument) to persuade others and the situation is the surroundings of the communication. -More perceived credible (trustworthy or expert) communicator has more persuasive impact
Jerome Kagan
*Conducted longitudinal studies on temperament (infancy to adolescence) and concluded in-born temperament is strong predictor of adult behavior*
Repression
*Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious and forgotten* example: abused child later has no recollection of the events but has trouble forming relationships
anal stage
*Freud's 2nd stage of psychosexual development, from 1-3* -gratification: elimination and retention of poop -libidinal energy: anus -anal fixation: excessive orderliness or sloppiness as an adult
oral stage
*Freud's first stage of psyhosexual development, from birth to about age 1* -gratification: biting, sucking, putting things in mouth -libidinal energy: the mouth -oral fixation: excessive dependency as an adult
genital stage
*Freud's last stage of psychosexual development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood* -the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence) -if all stages were successfully resolved, healthy heterosexual relationship occurs.
Phallic(Oedipal) Stage
*Freud's third stage of psychosexual development from ages 3-5* -resolution of the oedipal conflict or electra conflict
psychodynamic perspective
*Freud: existence of unconscious internal states that motivate behaviors and determine personality*
Rhesus Monkey Experiments
*Harlow: experiment with a food surrogate mother (wire w/ feeding nipple) and a blanket surrogate mother (no food) that found that blanket surrogate mother was preferred so contact comfort was more essential in bonding* *Harlow: wire mother monkeys were less socially adept than cloth mother monkeys, monkeys raised in total isolation were severely dysfunctional but could be brought into society by other monkeys (therapist monkeys) -but monkeys in isolation too long couldn't be integrated, sexually inept and overly aggressive
moving toward
*Horney's strategy for connecting with others as a way of dealing with basic anxiety* -obtain good will of people who provide security
moving against
*Horney's strategy for seeking control and power over people as a way of coping* -fighting for the upper hand results in aggressive personality
need for achievement trait
*McClelland: The extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence -set realistic goals and ideal situations to reach goals
Carol Gilligan's critique of Kohlberg's theory
*Presented feminist critique of Kolhberg's moral development theory* -believed men and women have different perspectives on moral issues and Kohlberg's dilemmas were only presented to men -women's moral sense guided by relationships, caring, compassion, and social responsibilities
Harry Harlow
*Studied attachment in monkeys with artificial mothers and found early bonding between parent and child is important to emotional behavior*
Overjustification Effect
*The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than the genuine interest, as the motivation for performing the task and may stop liking it* example: pay someone who likes washing dishes to do it -> attribute liking washing dishes to money and not the genuine interest -> so stops liking washing the dishes.
Social Comparison Theory
*The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people* 3 principles: 1. people prefer to evaluate themselves by objective, non social means but when not possible -> compare to others 2. the less similar to the person, the less we compare 3. when a discrepancy exists, we change one's position to be more in line with the group *need for self-evaluation -> need to affiliate*
Stage 1
*The stage of sleep between wakefulness and sleep, muscle twitches, and hypnagogic hallucinations* -high amplitude theta waves -slower frequencies and irregular waveforms
Stage 3
*The stage of sleep where deeper sleep begins to occur* slower EEG -steeper spindles and low freq, high voltage delta waves -muscles relax, bp and breathing drop
Centration
*The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects.* -example: a child may complain that there is little ice cream left in a big bowl. The child will be satisfied if the ice cream is transferred to a little bowl, even though nothing is added, because he only considers how full the bowl appears to be
Consistency Theories
*Theoretical perspectives from social psychology that hold that people prefer consistency between attitudes and behaviors, and will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference. Inconsistencies are stimuli/irritants.* example: someone hates smoking --> falls in love with a smoker --> person may try to resolve it and change attitude towards smoking
slow to warm up temperament
*Thomas and Chess: term for the temperament of infant based in moodiness, inactivity, and initially withdrawn in new situations but soon able to adapt*
Difficult infant temperament
*Thomas and Chess: term for the temperament of infant based in negative mood, irregular body functions, and withdrawn in new situations*
Easy infant temperament
*Thomas and Chess: term for the temperament of infant based in positive mood, regular body functions, and easy adaptation to new situations*
zone of promixal development
*Vygotsky: skills and abilities that are not fully developed but in process of development* example: child takes cog. test and then takes cog. test with adult guidance= difference between two scores is zone of proximal development
The Strange Situation
*a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child's attachment style* -the mother brings the child into an unfamiliar room with many toys -> then child is free to explore toys -> then stranger comes in room and eventually talks to mom and plays with infant -> then mother leaves and stranger keeps playing -> then mother returns and stranger leaves -> then infant alone in room -> then stranger back in room with infant -> then mother returns and stranger leaves the room
delusions of reference
*a delusion in which events, objects, or other persons in ones immediate environment are seen as directed at the person* -usually thought to be talking about the person
bipolar II disorder
*a disorder characterized by alternating periods of extremely depressed and mildly elevated moods (hypomania)* *no psychotic features
bipolar I disorder
*a disorder characterized by extremely elevated moods during manic episodes and, frequently, depressive episodes that impairs behavior* *can include psychotic features
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
*a genetic disorder that causes degeneration of the nervous system* -when the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine is lacking -infants tested and treated with strict diet
Tourette's Disorder
*a neuro-developmental tic disorder featuring multiple dysfunctional motor and vocal tics* -tics are sudden, recurrent, and stereotyped -lifelong but remissive -4-5 out of 10,000
ADHD
*a neurological disorder characterized by developmentally atypical inattention and/or impulsivity/hyperactivity* -more males than females -usually gone by adulthood but some persist
Social Exchange Theory
*a person weighs rewards & costs of interactions* -the more the rewards outweigh the costs, the greater the attraction
temperament
*a person's individual characteristics (differences or pattern of responding to the environment* -seen as central aspect of personality -somewhat heritable, stable over time, and pervasive across situations
Schizophrenia
*a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression*
single cell recording
*a technique by which the firing rate and pattern of a single receptor cell can be measured in response to varying sensory input* -place a microelectrode in the cortex to record single nerve fibers
DSM-5
*a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders* -doesn't go by theories like (neurosis), goes by atheoretical descriptions of symptoms of disorders
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
*absence of appropriate behaviors* -flat affect, blunted emotional expression
self-actualization
*according to Maslow, the term for ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved* - the motivation to fulfill one's potential
symptom substitution
*according to psychoanalysts, the appearance of one overt symptom to replace another that has been eliminated by treatment because underlying cause wasn't addressed* -behaviorists against this
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
*added to normal behavior* -psychotic (delusions and hallucinations), and disorganized (disorganized speech and disorganized/catatonic behavior)
what strategy do healthy people use to overcome basic anxiety?
*all three* -neurotic children focus on one rigidly and exclusively
Gain-Loss Principle / Aronson and Linder
*an evaluation that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that remains constant* - We will like someone more if their liking for us has increased than someone who has consistently liked us. -We will dislike a person more whose liking for us has decreased than someone who has consistently disliked us.
Behaviorist theories of personality
*argue behavior is learned as people interact with their environment BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT* -the reinforcement contingencies to which one is exposed creates one's personality -therefore, by changing people's environments, behaviorists believe we can alter their personalities
Gibson, E. and Walk
Developed the visual cliff apparatus, which is used to study the development of depth perception
adoption studies
*assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents* -adopted children's IQ is more similar to their biological parent's than their adopted SO IQ is heritable
Situational Attribution
*attributing behavior of others to the environment (threats, $$, social norms, peer pressure)* example: he did it because of the money
Dispostional Attribution
*attributing the features (beliefs, attitudes, personality) of a person to their behavior* example: he did it because he's mean
Dollard and Miller on personality
*behaviorist theorists-combined psychoanalytic concepts with behavioral framework* -personality: conflicting motives and tendencies
Karen Horney
*believes neurotic personality governed by one of ten needs directed toward making life and interactions bearable -primary concept: basic anxiety*
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)
*consistency theory that the conflict or inconsistency between internal attitudes and external behaviors which may result in a change of attitude.* the greater the pressure to comply, the less the attitude changes. attitude change occurs when behavior comes from minimum pressure -major influence in social psychology
Transduction
*conversion of one form of energy into another*: second step in sensory information processing -physical energy to neural impulse
Prisoner's Dilemma
*cooperation vs. competition* -a particular "game" between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficial; betray other prisoner or stay silent? -we don't trust the other and want the best outcome
Sublimination
*defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities* example: a person with extreme anger might take up kickboxing to vent frustration
reaction formation
*defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings* example: a young boy who hates his brother may turn his feelings into affection
Regression
*defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated* example: after his parents divorce, child might start wetting the bed again
Rationalization
*defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions* example: you dont get the job and think "I didnt want it anyway" to avoid feelings of rejection
sedative-hypnotic drugs
*depressants: drugs that slow down the functioning of the CNS* -low dose: reduce anxiety and cause calmness, medium dose: sleepiness, sedation, and high dose: anesthesia or coma -synergistic: additive in effect (alcohol and barbituates)
Lewin's Leadership Study
*determine effects of different leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire* -autocratic: more hostile, aggressive, dependent kids but did the most work -democratic: more satisfied, cohesive, motivated, and interested kids -laissez-faire: least efficient, organized, satisfied kids
John Bowlby
*developed phases of attachment* -Identified the characteristics of a child's attachment to his/her caregiver and the phases that a child experiences when separated from the caregiver by studying kids raised in institutions/foster care
Mary Ainsworth
*developmental psychologist who compared effects of maternal separation in Ugandan infants* -devised patterns of attachment -"The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment
James Stoner Experiment (1968)
*dilemma of aborting baby to save mother's life were presented to couples and showed a shift in group decisions towards caution* -opposite of risky shift SO content of the dilemma can determine shift direction
Free-Choice Dissonance
*dissonance where a person decides between several desirable outcomes* example: Scott likes Debra and Sally --> he chooses Sally and dumps Debra --> creates dissonance from cognition of likely Debra but having to dump her -post-decisional dissonance
Forced-Compliance Dissonance
*dissonance where a person is forced into behaving in an inconsistent manner from their beliefs because of anticipated reward or punishment* example: reward-ice cream -> force- you can have ice cream if you eat kale -> dissonance- forced into behavior (eating kale) at odds with attitude (hates kale) for reward (ice cream)
Sleeper Effect
*effect where persuasive impact from a low credibility source may increase later while communication from high credibility source may decrease* -can increase credibility by arguing against one's self-interest (past criminals who argue against crime)
Obedience Experiment (Stanley Milgram)
*electric shock experiment:* demonstrated that blind obedience to authority and pressure to conform could override moral conscience; 2/3 of subjects complied fully up to 450 (max) volts; when two confederates defied experimenter, 90% of subjects also disobeyed ethical problems: deception during the experiment and psychological harm
frontal lobe
*executive function: cerebral lobe that controls speech, reasoning, and problem solving* -prefrontal lobe, motor cortex, and Brocas area
Robbers Cave Experiment (Muzafer-Sherif)
*experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause and reduce hositlities between teams, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases* -cooperative activities between teams brought them together, while competition increased hostility
Hallucinations
*false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus* -can be any and all senses
G. Stanley Hall
*father of developmental psychology* -opened first psychology lab in the US, first psychologist to do research on children, and he founded and became the first president of the APA
Pierre Flourens
*first person to study the functions of the major sections of the brain* -extirpation/ablation (parts of brain are removed and behavioral consequences observed): concluded that different brain regions have specific functions
Hermann von Helmholtz
*first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse and credited with the transition of psychology into a field of the natural sciences*
ventricles
*fluid-filled cavities in the middle of the brain that link up with spinal canal that goes down spinal cord* -ventricles and spinal canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Alfred Adler's Psychodynamic Theory
*focused on immediate social imperatives of family and society (social variables) and their effects on unconscious factors* -originator of concept of inferiority complex
Max Wertheimer
*founder of Gestalt psychology: experience of phi phenomenon is more than sum of its parts
Charles Darwin
*functionalist school of thought: studying the mind as it functioned to help individual adapt to environment* -individual differences in abilities like hearing, seeing, & problem solving
Diana Baumrind
*her theory of parenting styles had three main types (permissive, authoritative, & authoritarian)*
Narcotics (opiates)
*highly addictive drugs derived from opium that relieve pain* -bind to opiate receptors that normally bind to endorphins -mimic effects of natural painkillers
Piaget's idea about language and thought
*how we use language depends on what cognitive stage we are in* -development of thought that directed development of language
Kurt Lewin's Field Theory
*humanistic approach that personality is dynamic and constantly changing* -can be divided up into ever-changing "systems" that function in an integrated fashion under optimal conditions but are diffused when person is under anxiety or tension
lateral hypothalamus
*hunger center (tells you when to eat and drink): lesions lead to aphagia (lacking hunger)* (LH= lacking hunger)
pleasure principle
*id functions to immediately discharge any energy buildup (relieve tension)*
Freud's Model of Personality
*id, ego, superego* -structural dynamic model
Johannes Muller
*identified the law of specific nerve energies* -each sensory nerve is excited by only one kind of energy -brain interprets any stimulation of that nerve as being that kind of energy
Egocentrism
*in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view* example: a preschool child might sympathize with his or her father and try to comfort him by offering a favorite toy or stuffed animal, reasoning that what helps the child feel better will also comfort the adult
preoperational stage
*in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic* -beginning of representational thought -centration, egocentrism -NO conservation
sensorimotor stage
*in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities* -primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, object permanence
Sir Francis Galton
*interested in individual differences: measured sensory abilities of nearly 10k people*
Lewis Terman IQ study
*large-scale longitudinal study looking at children with high IQ v general population for similarities and differences*
Leadership Communication Effects
*leaders engage in more communication* -if you artificially increase amount a person speaks, it increases their perceived leadership status
semantics
*learning of word meanings* example: child learns certain combos of phonemes represent certain objects and certain words refer to entire categories
Asch Conformity Experiment
*length of lines experiment:* experimented how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong (even without explicit pressure)
Eros
*life instinct, which drives people towards survival (hunger, thirst, and sex)*
Thomas and Chess temperament study
*longitudinal study to examine temperament* -three categories of infant emotional and behavioral style: easy, slow to warm up, and difficult
Deindividualization
*loss of self-awareness and personal identity (conform to roles)* What Zimbardo believed was to blame for behavior in the Stanford Prison Experiment
Hindbrain
*manages vital functioning necessary for survival (balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, sleeping, waking)* -located where brain meets spinal cord
secondary circular reactions
*manipulation is focused on something outside the body* example: a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.
persona archetype
*mask that is adopted by a person in response to the demands of social convention* -originates from social interactions where a social role served a useful purpose
social contract orientation stage
*moral rules are seen as convention to ensure the greater good* -part of post conventional morality phase
Arnold Gesell
*nativism: development occurs as a biological process, regardless of practice or training* -against behaviorism
Carl Jung
*neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" and wrote books on dream interpretation* -libido was psychic energy in general, not just psychosexual
Acetylcohline (ACh)
*neurotransmitter found in central and peripheral nervous systems* -in CNS: linked to Alzheimers (loss of acetylcohline in neurons connected to hippocampus)
"good girl, nice boy" orientation stage
*one seeks approval of others* -part of conventional morality phase
cerebral cortex
*outer surface of the brain made of neural cells* the body's ultimate control and information-processing center -split into lobes -newest brain area to evolve
authoritative parenting style
*parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making* -results in socially & academically component
authoritarian parenting style
*parenting style in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child* -results in difficulty in school & peer relations
permissive parenting style
*parenting style that allows freedom, lax parenting that doesn't set limits or enforce rules constantly* -difficulties in school & peer relations
ego ideal
*part of the superego that contains the standards for good, moral behavior* example: whatever parents commend goes into the conscience
Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
*phenomenon where there's a tendency to stick to our initial beliefs when you presented an explanation even when then proven false* example: told chocolate causes acne and asked to explain it (fat clogs pores) -> will continue to believe chocolate causes acne even if its proven false
germinal period
*prenatal development stage in the first two weeks of prenatal development after conception when the fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube and is implanted into the uterine wall* -characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.
septal nuclei
*primary pleasure center of the brain* -also inhibits aggression
reality principle
*principle by which the ego functions: postpones the pleasure principle until actual object to satisfy need is available* -works with reality and id's pleasure principle -cannot be independent of id
Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)
*prison simulation: study conducted to investigate the effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard and role playing* -led to deindividuation: loss of self-awareness and of personal identity (conformed to roles)
neurodevelopmental disorders
*psychopathologies due to various forms of damage to the nervous system arising before adulthood* -learning and communication disorders
Diffusion of Responsibility
*reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect* -the more people present, the less likelihood that any individual will offer help
Hypothalamus and homeostasis
*regulate metabolism, temperature, and water balance* -when homeostasis is imbalanced, hypothalamus signals the body to correct it
case study (clinical method)
*research study of one individual in one environment in great detail* -more detailed look at the development of one particular child
Id
*reservoir of unconscious psychic energy present at birth that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives* -functions in primary process -pleasure principle -wish fulfillment
Fear response
*response first evoked with any sudden change in stimuli* -then 1 year = separation anxiety, stranger anxiety -1 year+ = sudden absence of specific individual or presence of someone/something harmful
reception
*response to physical stimuli*: first step in all sensory information processing
anterior hypothalamus
*sexual behavior: lesions lead to inhibition of sexual activity (asexuality) -stimulation leads to increased sexual activity (A= Asexuality)
Post-Decisional Dissonance
*state of psychological dissonance that often occurs after making an important decision* example: choose between 2 things you want --> pick one --> dissonance from liking the one thing but not buying it
basal ganglia
*structure in the forebrain that help to control large, voluntary muscle movements* -coordinates muscle movement information from cortex and relays to brain and spinal cord -degeneration can lead to Parkson's and Huntington's, schizophrenia
Group Decision Making (Irving Janis)
*studied ways group decisions go awry because of group thinking: tendency of decision-making groups to strive for consensus by not considering discordant information*
Conformity Study (Muzafer Sherif)
*study which used the autokinetic effect to study conformity in which he evaluated the concept of norm formation* experiment: - had subjects alone in a dark room estimate the amount of movement of a point of light. -then, he brought the subjects together and had them, as a group, estimate the amount of movement. -The subject's solitary estimates changed so that the group agreed on the amount of movement. - individuals conformed to the group- their judgements converged on some group norm.
transformational grammar
*term for grammar with syntactic transformations: changes in word order that differ with meaning* -Chomsky: we acquire this early so must be innate
reaction time (mental chronometry)
*the amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus* -provides insight into organization of cognitive processes
endocrine system
*the body's "slow" (travels through blood stream) chemical communication system* -glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream
shadow archetype
*the dark side of the personality* -the archetype that contains primitive animal instincts
sympathetic nervous system
*the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations* -fight or flight/adrenaline -lie detector tests rely on the SNS
parasympathetic nervous system
*the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (resting and digesting)* -manages digestion -neurotransmitter: acetylcholine
somatic nervous system
*the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (sensory and motor neurons)*
defense mechanisms
*the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality* -2 common characteristics: (1) deny, falsify, and distort reality and (2) operate unconsciously
latency stage
*the fourth psychosexual stage from ages 6 until puberty* -primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills -libido largely sublimated
Equity Theory
*the idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experienced by both parties are roughly equal* -we also consider costs and rewards of the other
ego
*the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality* -The ego operates on the reality principle -functions through the secondary process
anterior pituitary gland
*the master: the part of the pituitary gland whose secretions are controlled by the hypothalamic hormones*
difference threshold
*the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection of difference 50% of the time* -compared in ratio
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
*the most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter: plays role in stabilizing neural activity* -causes hyper polarization in the postsynaptic membrane
Social Facilitation Effect (Zajonc)
*the presence of others leads to increases arousal and enhances dominant responses (response most likely to be performed in the situation)* -If the required response is easy or well learned, performance is enhanced. If the required response is novel or not well learned, performance suffers.
conservation
*the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects* example: kids shown 2 identical beakers with same amount of colored liquid -> then 1 beaker poured into thinner beaker that may look higher -> conservation shows it is still the same amount of liquid
what determines color of an object?
*the wavelength of light it reflects*, the rest are absorbed
signal detection theory
*theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions* -non sensory factors influence what the subject perceives like experience, expectations etc.
Reinforcement Theory
*theory that positive and negative reinforcers motivate a person to behave in certain ways* later challenged by social learning theorists
hypothalamus and emotions in high arousal states
-*fight or flight response* -*rage and fighting* seen in cats: cats without cerebral cortex but left with hypothalamus showed random rage (so cortex inhibits this rage) -cats without hypothalamus and cortex showed no ability to defend themselves (could not coordinate and organize emotional responses)
basic signal detection experiment
-2 experimenter- controlled situations (stimulus is there or not) -noise trial or signal trial -four possible outcomes in trial: hit (signal and accurate perception), miss (signal and no perception), false alarm (no signal and perception), and correct negative (no signal and no perception)
visual pathways in the brain
-Nerve impulses travel from each eye along the optic nerves and meet at the optic chiasm -Here, half of the nerves from each side cross and resume to the back of the brain -The left side of the brain receives half of the left optic nerve and half of the right optic nerve -The same goes for the right side
Ellis's rational-emotive therapy (RET)
-Point out irrational assumptions -challenge these irrational beliefs -change them to more rational ones
chemical transmission at the synapse
-action potential reaches terminal buttons -triggers release of neurotransmitters -flood into synapse -can be received by receptors (dendrites) of other neuron, washed away, or drawn back into terminal buttons via reuptake
ADHD impulsivity
-blurting out answers -inability to wait their turn -interrupting or intruding on others
dominant, recessive
-both parents contribute a gene for each trait -DOMINANT: if both parents contribute a dominate allele, or if one contributes a dominate allele and the other recessive, the dominant allele will be expressed. -RECESSIVE: if both parents contribute a recessive allele, the recessive allele will be expressed. example: eye color (BROWN v blue)
learned taste aversion
-can occur after only 1 trial -can occur even if consequence is 24 hours later
newborns and visual perception
-cannot discern fine details but can follow an object/light with their eyes -can perceive color, simple figures, contrast, see in dim light
Theories of Gender Development
-gender differences in personality, social behavior, and cognitive abilities -sociobiologists see differences in evolutionary perspective -social learning theorists emphasize social environment and modeling behavior -cognitive development theorists stress cognition kids have about gender
posterior pituitary gland
-gland also known as the neurohypophysis - made up of nervous tissue/neurons and stores and secretes oxytocin & ADH -controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus
how dark adaptation works
-go into dark environment and hard to see -rhodopsin (photopigment in rod) is bleached from light -regenerates and you begin to see better in dark
How does the trichromatic theory explain color vision?
-light enters eye, hits retina, then the three color receptor cones are simulated -ratio of activity between these cones determine color -all colors can be made from mixture of these three primary colors
Tinbergen's sign stimulus experiment
-male stickeback (fish) are agressive to each other -the red belly (sign stimulus) of the fish triggered the attack -also a releaser since one fish to another
temporal fibers vs. nasal fibers
-nasal fibers: go to opposite side of brain (nasal fiber from left eye goes to right side of brain) -temporal fibers: go to same side of brain (temporal fiber from left eye goes to left side of brain)
second-order conditioning
-stage 1: classical conditioning CS then UCS (bell ring and food) -stage 2: new UCS then CS (flash of light and bell) -dog will learn to salivate to just the light
blocking experiment
-stage 1: rats heard a hiss (CS) then got a shock (UCS) -stage 2: hiss and light presented at same time then shock -now two CS: hiss and light BUT rat did not fear light alone BECAUSE they ignored the light when the hiss was presented -CS must provide useful, nonredundant information
Freud's view on development
-the libido (sex drive) is present at birth, and the drive to reduce libido tension is the underlying dynamic force that accounts for development
Step 2 of Natural Selection
-variations that increase chance of reproduction/survival will be passed down to next generation
A test with zero reliability has how much validity?
0
a test with perfect reliability has how much validity?
0-100%: not dependent on validity
if the mean scores are the same for each group, what is the F ratio?
1
3 levels in levels of processing theory
1. physical (visual focusing on appearance, size, shape) 2. acoustical (sound combinations of words) 3. semantic (meaning of the word)
level of effort in 3 levels in levels of processing theory
1. physical- little effort 2. acoustical- more effort 3. semantic- most effort
Identical twins have what percent of genes in common with each other?
100%
percentage of scores within 3 SD in a normal distribution
100%
prefrontal lobe, broca's area, and motor cortex
3 parts of the frontal lobe
parental reports, naturalistic observations, and lab observations
3 research methods to measure temperament
septai nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus
3 structures in the limbic system
cardinal, central, and secondary
3 terms in trait theory of personality
binding, remaining, reuptake
3 things that can happen to neurotransmitters within the synapse
test conceptualization, test construction, test tryout, item analysis, test revision
5 stages of test development
psychedelic drugs
A category of psychoactive drugs that create sensory and perceptual distortions, alter mood, and affect thinking.
Hawthorne effect
A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied -solved by control group design
delayed conditioning
A classical conditioning procedure in which the conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus and remains present until after the unconditioned stimulus is presented so that the two stimuli occur together.
Discrete motor task
A motor task that is divided into different parts that do not facilitate the recall of each other;harder to learn than continuous motor tasks. (ie. setting up the chessboard)
continuous motor task
A motor task that, once started, continues naturally; easier to learn than discrete motor tasks. (i.e. Bike riding)
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal (alertness, wakefulness), as well as in learning and mood regulation -depression and mania: too much (mania) and too little (depression)
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood -plays role in depression and mania -loosely classified as a monoamine
simultaneous brightness contrast
A stimulus appears brighter when surrounded by a darker stimulus
basilar membrane
A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.
social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
feature detection theory
A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain cells fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc.
Theory of Reasoned Action
A theory suggesting that the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process in which behavioral options are considered, consequences or outcomes of each are evaluated, and a decision is reached to act or not to act.; decision is then reflected in behavioral intentions, which strongly influence overt behavior; Fishbein & Aizen
monoamine theory of depression
A theory that holds that too much norepinephrine and serotonin leads to mania, while too little leads to depression. It is also sometimes called the catecholamine theory of depression.
kinetic depth effect
A type of motion parallax where the object is in motion, not the observer. It gives us cues about the relative depth of parts of the object.
moon illusion
A visual illusion involving the misperception that the moon is larger when it is on the horizon than when it is directly overhead (inappropriate size constancy scaling)
inferiority complex
Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy and incompleteness stemming from childhood experiences
after image effect
After viewing one of the opposing colors for a while, then looking away, the other color can be seen -red/green, blue/yellow, black/white
loss of acetylcholine in hippocampus
Alzheimers
anorexia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by an obstinate and willful refusal to eat, a distorted body image, and an intense fear of being fat -females may have amenorrhea (the cessation of menstruation) -90% females -10% cases end in death (starvation, suicide, or electrolyte imbalance)
semantic error
An error in a program that makes it do something other than what the programmer intended.
sign stimulus
An external sensory cue that triggers a fixed action pattern by an animal. -usually FAP triggered by 1 stimulus
Ponzo illusion
An illusion of size in which two objects of equal size that are positioned between two converging lines appear to be different in size. Also called the railroad track illusion.
Locke
British philosopher who suggested that infants had no predetermined tendencies, that they were blank slates (tabulas rasa) to be written on by experience
5 years old
age in which language is usually mastered and suggests language acquisition is fairly simple
factitious disorder
Condition where a person creates physical complaints through fabrication or self-infliction in order to assume the sick role; long history of dramatic complaints about faked medical conditions
Kagan
Conducted landmark longitudinal study to examine developmental trajectories of children's temperament
Broca's area
Controls language expression/production - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. -found in the dominant (usually left) hemisphere
Visual Pathway to the Brain
Cornea-iris-pupil-lens-retina-optic nerve-optic chiasm -lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus-occipital lobe-visual cortex (superior colliculus) MEMORIZE
levels of processing theory
Craik and Lockhart:the theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed -physical, acoustical, semantic
Mischel
Critic of trait theories of personality
Stevens
Developed Stevens' power law as an alternative to Fechner's law
Helmholtz
Developed Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision and developed place-resonance theory of pitch perception
Berkeley
Developed a list of depth cues that help us to perceive depth
natural selection
Darwin: A natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment. -different members of species have some variations that make them more suitable for survival -> gets passed down to next generation
Chomsky
Distinguished between the surface structure and deep structure of a sentence and studied transformational rules that could be used to transform one sentence into another
Erikson
Ego psychologist whose psychosocial stages of development encompass entire lifespan
Archetypes
Emotional symbols that are common to all people and have been formed since the beginning of time
Bekesy
Empirical studies led to traveling wave theory of pitch perception which, at least partially, supported Helmholtz's place-resonance theory
Locke
English empiricist philosopher who believed that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience; tabula rasa
Sherrington
English physiologist who first inferred the existence of synaptic communication between neurons
Sherrington
English physiologist who first inferred the existence of synaptic communication between neurons; neuromodulation
Skinner on personality
Environment determines personality. If we change the environment, we change behavior, and therefore change personality.
Philippe Pinel
French physician who worked to reform the treatment of people with mental disorder in asylums
first comprehensive theory of personality
Freud's theory of personality
wish fulfillment
Freudian belief that many dreams express unconscious desires
benzodiazepines and barbituates enhance action of what neurotransmitter?
GABA
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
Poggendorf Illusion
Is a geometrical-optical illusion that involves the misperception of the position of one segment of a transverse line that has been interrupted by the contour of an intervening structure
semantics
Meaning of words and sentences
face validity
Measures whether a test looks like it tests what it is supposed to test.
gate theory of pain
Melzack and Wall: *proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain* -located in spinal cord, can preferentially forward signals from other modalities (pressure, temp)
Nomothetic
Term for the approach to personality theory that focuses on groups and societal norms
gestation
Term for the period in which an unborn offspring is within its mother
dymyelination
Term for what results in slower nerve conduction Times
courting
Term that refers to behaviors intended to result in coupling
ingroup/outgroup bias
The tendency to have more negative attitudes towards outgroup members than towards ingroup member; basis for prejudice
Zeigarnik effect
The tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed ones.
orienting reflex
The tendency to turn toward an object that has touched you
Allport
Trait theorist known for the concept of functional autonomy -also distinguished between idiographic and nomothetic approaches to personality
Cattell
Trait theorist who used factor analysis to study personality
Ames Room
Trapezoidal room that creates an optical illusion with one large and one small person
Memory
Type of disorder that doesn't have its own category in the DSMV
Variable ratio
Type of reinforcement schedule that is very resistant to extinction and is connected to addictive gambling behavior
Harlow
Used monkeys and "surrogate mothers" to study the role of contact comfort in bond formation
Luchins
Used the water-jar problem to study the effect of mental sets on problem solving
interest testing
Used to assess an individual's interest in different lines of work. -Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory
nominal scale of measurement
Used when data can be organized into categories of a defined property but the categories cannot be rank ordered. example: Democrat v Republican, girl v boy
reinforcement scheulde with most rapid response rate
VR schedule (very rapid= variable ratio)
reinforcement schedule most resistant to extinction
VR schedule (very resistant= variable ratio)
Cross-validation
Verifying the results obtained from a validation study by administering a test or test battery to a different sample (drawn from the same population)
filter theory of attention
Views attention as a bottleneck through which info passes, enables us to pay attention to more important stimuli and ignore others
Wechsler's 3 IQ tests
WPPSI, WISC, and WAIS
Field independence
Witkin: The extent to which an individual's problem solving is not influenced by salient but irrelevant aspects of the context in which the problem occurs
theory of isomorphism
Wolfgang Kohler: suggests that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the object in the perceptual field and the pattern of stimulation in the brain
systematic desensitization
Wolpe: A type of exposure therapy for phobias that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli in a hierarchy
damage to association area of visual cortex
agnosia
rooting reflex
a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple
Somatotype
a body-type classification system that describes people as a mesomorph, ectomorph, or endomorph; William Sheldon
backward masking
a brief visual stimulus after another brief visual stimulus that leads to failure to remember the first
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score: square root of the variance
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
a condition, brought about by bilateral amygdala damage, that is characterized by dramatic emotional changes including reduction in fear and anxiety: hypersexuality
texture gradient
a depth cue where variations in perceived texture as a function of distance - the more distant parts of a scene appear to have smaller, denser elements -sudden changes in texture signals change in distance or direction
stereoscope
a device that gives the impression of depth to a flat picture by presenting each eye a separate but slightly different picture
cohort differences
a disadvantage of cross-sectional studies because results can be influenced by this
Trichotillomania
a disorder characterized by the repeated pulling out of one's own hair
body dysmorphic disorder
a disorder characterized by the unrealistic perception of physical flaws
impulse control disorders
a disorder in which a person acts on an irresistible, but potentially harmful, impulse (not elsewhere classified)
illness anxiety disorder
a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease; hypochondria
psychotic disorder
a disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions (schizophrenia)
Hoarding Disorder
a disorder in which individuals feel compelled to save items and become very distressed if they try to discard them, resulting in an excessive accumulation of items
cyclothymic disorder
a disorder marked by numerous periods of mild hypomanic symptoms and mild depressive symptoms (not quite bipolar disorder)
premenstrual dysphoric disorder
a disorder marked by repeated episodes of significant depression and related symptoms during the week before menstruation
reversible figure
a drawing that is compatible with two interpretations that can shift back and forth
Chlorpromazine
a drug that reduces the symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine D2 receptors
Slippery Slope
a fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer that insulates the axons of some neurons -enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
blood-brain barrier
a filtering mechanism of the capillaries that carry blood to the brain and spinal cord tissue, blocking the passage of certain substances.
implosion therapy
a form of behavior therapy involving intensive recollection and review of anxiety-producing situations or events in a patient's life in an attempt to develop more appropriate responses to similar situations in the future -forcing client to imagine the feared object
persistent depressive disorder
a form of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depressive disorder: formerly known as dysthymia
active speech
a form of expression that involves speaking or taking some other physical action such as parading with a banner; Katherine Nelson
Cretinism
a form of mental retardation that occurs in children whose mothers experienced iodine deficiency during pregnancy
democratic leadership
a leadership style that promotes the active participation of workers in taking decisions; more satisfying, cohesive, motivational, and interest
Free-recall learning
a list of items is learned, and then must be recalled in any order with no cue
z-score
a measure of how many standard deviations you are away from the norm (average or mean)
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet: the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance
Model of Helping
a model based on orders of stages that includes noticing, interpretation, perception of responsibility, knowing how to help, and actually helping; Latane & Darley
Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo)
a model that predicts responses to persuasive messages by distinguishing between the central (important issue) and the peripheral (not important/not heard) routes to persuasion
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli: if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
action potential
a neural impulse: a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A)
a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return example: not distressed when left alone, avoids contact with mother upon her return
secure attachment (Type B)
a pattern of attachment in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver example: mildly distressed during separations, greet mother positively upon return
borderline personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by disturbances in identity, in affect, in relationships, in impulse control & a fear of abandonment -suicide attempts and self-mutilation are common
narcissistic personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by need for admiration, exaggerated ideas of self-importance and achievements, preoccupation with fantasies of success, and arrogance -low self-esteem and are constantly concerned with others view them
antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder in which a person exhibits a disregard for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members and an absence of guilt -illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, and lack of remorse (serial killers)
Psychoticism
a personality pattern typified by aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility
Myers-Briggs
a personality test that taps 4 characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types; Jung
experimenter bias
a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
forward conditioning
a procedure that occurs when the conditioned stimulus signals that the unconditioned stimulus is coming
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test of 20 pictures in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes -no standardized score, similar to Rorschach
nonequivalent control group design
a quasi-experimental study that has at least one treatment group and one comparison group, but participants have not been randomly assigned to the two groups
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to 100-500 items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
postsynaptic receptor
a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter
power law
a relationship between two quantities such that one is proportional to a fixed power of the other.
postive correlation
a relationship between two variables in which both variables either increase or decrease together
Learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
Catharsis
a release of emotional tension; Freud; also abreaction
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value -mean, median, and mode NOT identical
Neobehaviorism
a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism but broader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research and laboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjective phenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such as fantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality; psychologists belonging to this school believe that behavior can be modified by rewards or punishments; Pavlov
Loudness
a sound's intensity (subjective experience)
REM sleep (waves)
a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, dreaming, fast, irregular EEGs, and a high level of brain activity -similar to alpha levels, when we have dreams
operational definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1) -cannot be anything except from -1 to +1
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test: used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
multiple regression analysis
a statistical technique which analyzes the linear relationship between a dependent variable and multiple independent variables by estimating coefficients for the equation for a straight line (ie: using SAT to predictor college GPA)
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that can reflexively elicit a response
dissociative amnesia
a sudden loss of memory for important personal information that is too extensive to be due to normal forgetting: not due to neurological disorder
Raymond Cattell
a trait theorist who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into five global factors: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control
matched-subjects design
a type of correlated-groups design in which subjects are matched between conditions on variable(s) that the researcher believes is (are) relevant to the study -ensures both groups are approximately equal on the matching variable (i.e. intelligence, PTSD severity)
tertiary circular reactions
a type of feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence that involves active exploration and experimentation -Infants explore a range of new activities, varying their responses as a way of learning about the world. "little scientist"
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened by reinforcement or diminished if punished
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
schizophrenigenic mother
a type of mother who causes children to become schizophrenic; Fromm & Reichman
confounding variable
a variable other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
mediating variable
a variable that helps explain the relationship between two other variables (violent television -> arousal*** -> aggression
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
two main types of thresholds
absolute and difference
hypercomplex cell responses give information about
abstract concepts like object shape
operational schemata
abstract representations of cognition
if an outcome is due to chance/error, what do we do to the null hypothesis?
accept the null and reject the research hypotheses
Style of Life
according to Adler, represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority
creative self
according to Adler, the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality
Oedipus complex
according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy, hatred, and fears of castration for the rival father -feels guilty about his wishes and resolves conflict by over-identifying with father -de-eroticizes his sexual energy into socially acceptable things (collecting things or focusing on schoolwork)
Electra Complex
according to Freud, term for the desire a female child feels toward the male parent (penis envy) -girls less sex-typed and less morally developed
peak experiences
according to Maslow, profound deeply moving experiences that have important and lasting effects that self-actualized people have
consistency paradox
according to Mischel, the persistent belief that human behavior is more consistent than is indicated by experimental evidence
joint
according to education psychologists, cooperative learning involves _______ effort among students
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten (i.e. the seven digits of a phone number while dialing)
2.5 to 3 years old
age at which children being producing longer sentences, their vocab expands, and errors of growth occur
30
age at which personality changes do not happen as often anymore
pituitary gland
adrenocorticotropic hormone is secreted by which gland
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
adult IQ test
complex cell responses give information about
advanced orientation information like movement
18 months
age at which a child knows dozens of words but only speaks 1 at a time; 1 word may have multiple meanings example: apple could mean the object, they want one, is it an apple? etc
18-22 months
age at which children begin combining words; 2 word sentences
generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal: constant anxiety
obsessive-complusive disorder
an anxiety-related disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) that causes significant impairment
play therapy
an approach to treating childhood disorders that helps children express their conflicts and feelings indirectly by drawing, playing with toys, and making up stories
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements and commands muscles (projection area)
frequency distribution
an arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs
covariation model
an attribution theory in which people make causal inferences to explain why other people and ourselves behave in a certain way; concerned with both social perception and self-perception; Kelley
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise -90% females
adjustment disorder
an emotional disturbance caused by ongoing stressors within the range of common experience
criterion validity
an empirical form of measurement validity that establishes the extent to which a measure is correlated with a behavior or concrete outcome that it should be related to
double-blind experiment
an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment -double blind takes away experimenter bias
single-blind experiment
an experiment in which the participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment but the experimenter is aware
type I error
an experimenter who incorrectly rejects the null hypothesis commits a _____________
inclusive fitness
an explanation for altruism that focuses on the adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such as through kin selection, rather than focusing on individual survival: altruism not problematic
phi phenomenon (stroboscopic movement)
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession they are perceived as one moving light
fMRI
an imaging scan that measures oxygen flow in different areas of the brain
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new long-term memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
altruism
animal's behavior decreases its reproductive fitness
Antisocial Acts
anonymity in a social situation produces this ___ ___
Two parts of the pituitary gland
anterior and posterior
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
antidepressants that can treat serotonin disorders by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin (Prozac)
Vasopressin
antidiuretic hormone that helps regulate water levels in the body and blood pressure
Phenothiazines
antipsychotic drugs that reduce sensitivity of dopamine receptors to treat schizophrenia
I, III
anxiety disorder would be classified in axis ____ while diabetes would be classified in axis _____
extraneous variable
any aspect of the experimetal setting that must be held constant to prevent unplanned environmental variation
Environmental
any differences between monozygotic twins must be _____ factors
punishment
any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again -send child to room when they draw on the walls to decrease the behavior
Reinforcement
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows (reward or punishment) *people will act aggressively because they may expect a reward (material benefits, social approval, attention)*
Louis Thurstone
argued against g in favor of several primary mental abilities, used factor analysis
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
brain imaging and cognition
associate cognitive processes to various parts of the brain
Guilford's test of divergent thinking
attempt to measure creativity by testing divergent thinking: attempting to produce as many creative answers to a question as possible
Central route of persuasion
attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments, evaluate arguments by generating counter-arguments, and only strong arguments will change their minds
Lewin Leadership Styles
autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire
autonomic nervous systems regulation is ...
automatic
Metacognition
awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.
conditioned aversion
based on classical conditioning: learning that occurs when negative associative memories cause something to subsequently be experienced as unpleasant (smoking, fetishes)
contingency management therapy
based on operant conditioning: a therapeutic approach used in the treatment of drug addiction and other behavior problems that works to reduce the bad behavior through a highly structured reinforcement and punishment program; (i.e. behavioral contracts, time-outs, token economics, Premack principle)
Wundt & experimental psychology
believed experimental psychology had limited use and that methodology could not be used to study the higher mental processes
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAO)
block the metabolic breakdown of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
beta waves
brain waves that cause fast EEG activity -person is awake and alert
alpha waves
brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation with eyes closed (more synchronized waves) -person is still awake with slower EEG activity
Industrial Psychology
branch of psychology that studies job characteristics, applicant characteristics, and how to match them; also studies employee training and performance appraisal
electroconvulsive shock therapy
brief electrical shock administered to the brain, usually to reduce depression that does not respond to drug treatments
amino acids
building blocks of proteins
convolutions (gyri)
bumps and folds of the cortex that provide increased cellular mass
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons via nutrients, oxygen, insulation, and protection from pathogens
right hemisphere
cerebral hemisphere that controls the left side of the body visual-faces auditory-music language-emotion spatial processing- creativity, sense of direction
left hemisphere
cerebral hemisphere that controls the right side of the body visual: letters, words auditory: language related sounds language: speech, reading, writing, arithmetic movement: complex voluntary movement
Ventricles
chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid that insulate the brain from shock
cognitive development theory
children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world; symbolic thought develops toward end of the sensorimotor period; Piaget
dementia
cognitive impairment characterized by loss of intellectual brain function
Walter Cannon
coined the term homeostasis and credited with ANS
Bleuler
coined the term schizophrenia
what do you combine to get perception of depth (stereopsis)
combine binocular disparity and binocular parallax
what do you combine to get perception of depth (stereopsis)?
combine binocular disparity and binocular parallax
400-800nm
common wavelength range of light entering eye
adaptive test
computerized achievement test that adapts to test-taker's ability by assessing the accuracy of previously answered questions
top-down processing
conceptually driven information processing influenced by beliefs and expectancies to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components
Social Psychology
concerned with social behavior, the ways people influence each other's attitudes and behaviors, impact individuals have on one another, social groups have on members, members have on group, and social groups have on other groups
Wernicke's aphasia
condition resulting in the affected person being unable to understand language -lesions in Wernicke's area
inhibitory conditioning
conditioning procedure created by backward conditioning; a type of classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
inferior colliculus
controls auditory reflexes (hearing) -role in reflexes to sudden noises
central region of parietal lobe
controls spatial processing and manipulation
superior colliculus
controls visual reflexes (seeing)
Festinger
created cognitive dissonance theory and social comparison theory
Frankl
created existential theory
Adler
created individual theory
Freud
created psychoanalytical theory
Ellis
created rational emotive therapy
Sternberg's experiential intelligence
creativity
Chomsky: 2 to puberty
critical age period for language development
Interposition (overlap)
cue for depth perception: if an object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
2 types of statistics
descriptive and inferential
Seligman
developed learned helplessness theory of depression
Hering
developed opponent process theory of color vision
Franz Gall and Phrenology
developed phrenology: if a particular trait were well-developed, then a part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand and cause a bulge on the head FALSE
Morgan and Murray
developed the TAT
Craik and Lockhart
developed the levels-of-processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
developed the visual cliff to test depth perception
Wundt illusion
diamond shape with parallel vertical lines and lines from center connect on sides. parallel lines appear bowed when they are straight because of the converging lines
David Rosenhan
did study in which healthy patients were admitted to psychiatric hospitals and diagnosed with schizophrenia- showed that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, the label, even when behavior indicates otherwise, is hard to overcome in a mental health setting
External Threats to Prenatal Development
disease, infections, drugs, medicine, maternal malnutrition (protein deficiency), smoking, alcohol, x-rays
dissociative fugue
disorder in which one travels away from home and is unable to remember details of his past, including often his identity: may assume new identity
schizophrenia
disorder that imbalances of dopamine may cause
Antidepressants
drugs that combat depression by affecting the levels or activity of neurotransmitters in the brain to elevate mood, increase activity, appetite, and improve sleep
neural transmission
electrochemical communication within and between neurons and the final destination
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention in the concrete operational stage
syntactic error
error where someone substitutes a word that is the same part of speech as the target word. (through for into); Understanding of meaning but not of phonics.
two types of negative reinforcement
escape learning and avoidance learning
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory: if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Ovaries
estrogen stimulates female sex characteristics -progesterone prepares uterus for implantation of embryo
ADHD hyperactivity
excessive motor activity ie: running around, excessive fidgeting, tapping or talking
manic episode
experience marked by dramatically elevated mood, decreased need for sleep, increased energy, inflated self-esteem, increased talkativeness, and irresponsible behavior -rapid onset and more brief than depressive episodes
Outliers
extreme values that don't appear to belong with the rest of the data -median and mode stay the same but mean changes drastically
eating disorders
extreme, harmful eating behaviors that can cause serious illness or even death
both orientations are present in the personality but normally one is dominant
extroversion and introversion
Cattell's global factors
extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation , and self-control
Kitty Genovese
famous example of the bystander effect; on March 13th, 1964 a stalker stabbed and raped her, fled, then came back and did it again. No one helped her even though 38 people witnessed it. -not bad people, just bystander effect
E.O. Wilson
father of biodiversity and sociobiology: behavior is due to complex and dynamic interplay between genetics and environment
independence, choice, and self-restraint
favorable outcome of Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
competence
favorable outcome of Industry vs. Inferiority
Follicles stimulating hormone (FSH)
female hormone produced by pituitary gland that causes *ovarian follicles* to begin to develop
anima archetype
feminine aspects of the male psyche
Binet-Simon test
first intelligence test: assess the intelligence of schoolchildren to ascertain intellectually disabled
Cattell
fluid and crystallized intelligence
decay theory
forgetting: if the information in long-term memory is not used or rehearsed, it will eventually be forgotten WRONG
Libido energy
form of energy by which the life instincts perform their work
Normal Triplett
found social facilitation in one of social psychology's first experiments on cyclists doing better when paced with others rather than riding alone
Rogers' humanistic psychology
free will plays the greatest role in which of the psychologies?
brain divided into what 3 major divisions?
hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
contralerally
how the cerebral hemispheres communicate with the side of the body (opposite side of body) example: right side of brain controls left side of body
perception of form
how we abstract perceptual objects (like a book) out of everything appearing on our retina
during what stage is a stronger stimulation needed to reach threshold potential?
hyperpolarization
endocrine system shares many characteristics with which brain area?
hypothalamus
primary process
id's response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now, not later example: if someone's hungry and food isn't available -> memory of image might alleviate the frustration
mean, median, and mode of normal distribution are ____
identical
what do significance tests help us determine?
if a difference in two groups are due to change/error or a real difference (presented in probability)
increase
if a drug is an agonist, does it increase or decrease synaptic transmission release
motion aftereffect
illusion of motion of a stationary object that occurs after prolonged exposure to a moving pattern: object will seem like it is going in the opposite direction that it was
icon
image in visual memory that lasts for about 1 second; Ulric Neisser
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning example: ringing a bell
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
behavioral contract
in contingency management therapy, negotiated agreement that explicitly states the behavioral change that is desired and indicates consequences of certain acts
variable interval
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (i.e. parent responding to child from the child's point of view)
fixed interval
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (i.e. going to office to pick up bimonthly check)
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, stimulus condition that indicated that the organism's behavior will have consequences example: pigeon becks key to receive pellet, only receive pellet when a light is on, light is the SD (discriminative stimulus)
distance, attractiveness, attitude, reciprocity
in order of importance -- levels of attraction
Resistance
in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material -example: forgetting parts or dreams or missing a therapy session indicates resistance and is subject to analysis
conception
in the fallopian tubes: where the egg is fertilized by sperm
Thalamus
in the forebrain: serves as a relay station for incoming sensory information (all senses except smell) -sorts the sensory information and transmits them to the right places in the cerebral cortex
semantic priming
in the task, when word pairings are semantically related (nurse-doctor), the recognition response time is quicker
Prosopagnosia
inability to recognize faces
visual agnosia
inability to recognize objects (can see but not associate) -damage to association area of visual cortex
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
increased frustration = increased aggression
white myelin
increases the speed of the electrical impulses
standard error of measurement
index of how much, on average, we expect a person's observed score to vary from the score the person is capable of receiving based on actual ability -best SEM is 0
mental retardation
indicated by IQ of 70 or below. -mild: 55-70 -moderate: 40-55 -severe: 25-40 -profound: < 25
delirium
indicated by disturbed consciousness and cognition
learning disorders
indicated by school achievement or standardized scores at least two standard deviations below the mean for the appropriate age and IQ
developmental disorders
indicated by severe problems with social skills, communication, and interests (i.e. autism)
Raymond Cattell
intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence -personality testing: 16 Personality Factors (16PF personality test)
Norm-referenced testing
involves assessing an individual's performance in terms of how that individual performs in comparison to others (test norms) -problem: norms change frequently
if the object size remains constant: the closer the object, the _____ the visual angle and retinal size
larger
in humans, the amount of cortex devoted to association areas is larger or smaller than projectiong areas?
larger (smaller in animals)
law of proximity
law where elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
Bandura and personality
learning principles (reinforcement and environment) account for personality
Robert Rescorla
learning- developed contingency model of classical conditioning: classical conditioning was a matter of learning signals for the UCS
Hypothalamus
lies below the thalamus: directs homeostatic functions (eating, drinking, body temperature), drive behaviors (hunger, thirst, and sex), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. -divided into lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus
how does light go through the retina?
light passes through intermediate sensory neurons to reach and stimulate the photoreceptors
Dahlstrom
linked Type A personality to heart disease and other health problems
savings
long term memory measurement of how much info stays in the LTM by assessing how long it takes to learning something the second time as opposed to the first time
disorganized thought
loosening of association, exhibited as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another so you can't follow train of thought
the more decibels, the ____ the sound
louder
neologisms
made up words (schizophrenia)
autocratic leadership
making managerial decisions without consulting others; more hostile, aggressive, and dependent on leader
three strategies to overcome basic anxiety as a child?
moving toward people to obtain the good will of people who can provide security, moving against people to obtain upper hand, and moving away
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing motor information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands -transmit information through efferent fibers
sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain -transmit information through afferent fibers
Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs -most numerous and linked to reflexive behavior
Acetylecholine
neurotransmitter released at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscle axons to excite the muscle to contract
key and lock neurotransmitters
neurotransmitters can only bind to specific receptor sites (lock and key)
4 basic types of measurement scales
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
Nodes of Ranvier
non-myelinated gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined.
relational aggression
nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people; seen most in young adolescent girls
notion of distinctiveness
notion that refers to how unique the behavior is to the particular situation.
notion of consistency
notion that refers to occurrence of behavior across time
notion of consensus
notion that refers to the occurrence of behavior across different people (can be high or low)
procedural memory
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things (implicit memory)
3 research methods of cognition
reaction time, brain imaging, and eye movements
Scaffolding Learning
occurs when a teacher encourages the student to learn independently and only provides assistance with topics or concepts that are beyond the student's capability
superstitious behavior
occurs when the delivery of a reinforcer or punisher occurs close together in time with an independent behavior; the behavior is accidentally reinforced or punished, increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
septal rage
occurs when there is damage to the septal area and results in unchecked aggressive and vicious behavior
Walter Mischel and trait theory
offered famous critique of trait theory and its claims: believed that human behavior is largely determined by the characteristics of the situation, not the characteristics of the person
sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system act in ____ to each other
opposite example: SNS accelerates heartbeat and inhibits digestion while PSNS decelerates heartbeat and increases digestion
clustering
organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory
vestibular sacs
organs in the inner ear that connect the semicircular canals and the cochlea and contribute to the body's sense of balance
simple cell responses give information about
orientation and boundaries of an object
Introversion
orientation toward the inner, subjective world
Type theory
originally dominated personality theory (Hippocrates), many placed into type categories based on physical appearance
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly (analogies): tends to decrease during late adulthood
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills: tends to increase with age
releaser
sign stimuli exchanged between members of the same species
Whorfian hypothesis/Linguistic relativity hypothesis
our perception of reality is determined by the content of language: language affects the way we think and not the other way around example: the Eskimo language has a wide variety of names for different types of snow so they think about all the different types of snow
Freud
outlined five stages pf psychosexual development -stressed the importance of Oedipal conflict in psychosexual development
temporal lobes function
part of of the cerebral cortex that controls auditory function, speech, and complex visual perceptions: contains Wernicke's area
medulla, pons, cerebellum, reticular formation
parts of the hindbrain
Sternberg's componential intelligence
performance on tests
Eysenck and personality
personality theorist who used factor analysis and asserted that personality is largely determined by genes - 2 dimensions where personalities differ: introversion/extroversion & emotional stability/neuroticism - later included psychoticism
linear perspective
perspective that occurs when there is an influence of expectation on perception
Peripheral Communication
persuasive communications that focus on emotions
preattachment phase
phase in the development of attachment from birth to 6 weeks; The infant produces innate signals that bring others to his or her side and is comforted by the interaction that follows regardless of who they see
encoding specificity
phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
phenomenon where people are much more likely to agree to a large request if they first agree to a smaller one
encoding for short-term memory
phonological and acoustic rather than visual example: when asked to recall letters from ST memory, confusions occur with words that sound alike rather than look alike
The nature side of the nature vs. nurture debate refers to
position that human capabilities are innate (present at birth), and individual differences come from genetic differences
Arthur Jensen
postulated a heritability and genetic influence explanation for cultural differences in intelligence (IQ tests)
striate cortex
primary visual cortex (striped)
Sir Frederic Bartlett
prior knowledge and expectations influence recall
Beta
probability of making a type II error
random selection
procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)
projective test that is similar to a word association test in which a person completes sentences in order to reveal their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles
Gardner
proposed a theory of multiple intelligences that divides intelligence into seven different types, all of which are equally important -traditional IQ tests measure only 2 of the 7 types
Broadbent
proposed filter theory of attention
Melzack and Wall
proposed gate theory of pain
Jung
psychodynamic theorist who broke with Freud over the concept of libido -suggested that the unconscious could be divided into the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious, with archetypes being in the collective unconscious
somatic symptom disorder
psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause
anxiety disorders
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
personality disorders
psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning -impaired functioning of cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control
how is nominal data summarized?
ratios or proportions (percentage)
how do all sensory receptors work?
react to physical external energy
2 most common methods of retrieval
recall and recognition
state-dependent learning
recall will be better if your psychological or physical state at the time of recall is the same as your state when you memorized the material example: if you study while angry, remember better while angry
projection areas in the brain
receive sensory information or send out motor-impulse commands (visual cortex or motor cortex)
hippocampus
recent findings indicate that new neurons can form in which neural area
steps in all sensory information processing
reception, transduction, projection
hair cells in organ of corti
receptors for hearing: hair cells bend and transmit signals to nerve fibers in the auditory nerve
electrocencephalograph
recording of brain's electrical activity at the surface of the skull from electrodes on head -noninvasive, used in sleep studies
two-point threshold
refers to the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli -depends on density of nerves in area of skin
grasping reflex
reflex of automatically closing fingers around objects placed in hands
Moro reflex
reflex where abrupt movements of infants head causes arms to fling out, extend fingers, and bring arms back to the body
thyroid gland
regulates metabolism, growth, and development
continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforcing schedule of the desired response every time it occurs; quickest, but most fragile learning
if an outcome is NOT due to chance/error, what do we do to the null hypothesis?
reject the null and accept the research hypotheses
8 main defense mechanisms
repression, suppression, projection, reaction formation, rationalization, regression, sublimation, and displacement
between-subjects design
research design where different participants are assigned to each of the conditions in the experiment so they don't receive the same level of IV as other participants example: high protein, medium protein, and low protein groups
hostility
research has revealed that the trait most associated with heart attacks in type A individuals is ______
more
research on problem solving indicates that heuristic search strategies are ___ efficient when compared to algorithmic strategies
cross-sectional studies
research study in which people of different ages are compared with one another at one time point
longitudinal studies
research study in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
twin studies
researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical (monozygotic) twins and fraternal (dizygotic) twins with respect to a trait -shared environment, different genetics --> differences between the twins could be attributed to genetics
fixation in anal stage
results in person being extremely messy or overly orderly, overly concerned about punctuality, fear of dirt, love of bathroom humor, anxiety about sexual activities, overly giving, rebellious
storage
retaining information in memory
Bindle (1979)
role theory: perspective that people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill and their observable behavior is attributed to these roles
striving towards superiority when selfish leads to what?
root of personality disturbances
difference threshold and JND
same thing: The smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time.
process schizophrenia
schizophrenia develops gradually, lower rate of recovery: especially poor prognosis
attachment in the making phase
second phase in the development of attachment, occurring at 3 months of age and characterized by preference for familiar figures
filter theory of attention
selective attention acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems
which level in levels of processing theory results in long-term memory?
semantic
4 major constancies in visual perception
size constancy, shape constancy, lightness constancy, and color constancy
what determine the visual angle of an object (thus the retinal size of the object?)
size of the object and the distance between the object and the eye
pathway of sound
sound -> pinna -> auditory canal -> ear drum (tympanic membrane) -> inner ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup) -> oval window -> cochlea -> auditory nerve -> superior olivary complex -> inferior colliculus-> medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus ->temporal cortex
depth cues
sources of information that signal the distance from the observer to the distal stimulus
Spearman's s
specific intelligence
reflexes
specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation: control behavior crucial to survival
binocular depth cue
stereopsis because it requires two eyes
Sternberg's contextual intelligence
street smarts/business sense
According to Adler, what drives personality?
striving towards superiority
Sir Frederic Bartlett study
studied memory in a study that used the "War of the Ghosts" Native American folktale -*found that subjects reconstructed the story in line with their own culture, expectations, and schema for a ghost story*
M. Rokeach
studied racial bias and the similarity of beliefs; people prefer to be with like-minded people more than with like-skinned people
semantic verification task
subjects are asked to indicate whether or not a simple statement presented is true or false: response latency will provide information about semantic organization
Chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules and proteins that contain the genes
libido (sex drive)
term for what Freud believed was present at birth
lateral inhibition
term for when adjacent retinal cells inhibit one another: sharpens and highlights borders between light and dark areas -explanation for simultaneous brightness contrast
pitch perception
term for when different tones excite different areas of the basilar membrane and primary auditory cortex
3 best methods to test reliability
test-retest method, alternate-form method, and split-half reliability
cross validation
testing the same criterion validity of a test on a second sample, after validity is demonstrated with the first sample
Testes
testosterone produces male sex characteristics AND relevant to sexual arousal
projective tests
tests designed to reveal inner aspects of individuals' personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimuli
if sign stimulus is removed halfway...
the FAP still is completed fully
two-factor theory (shachter-singer)
the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal -individual's appraisal of the situation determines the interpretation of the arousal (to an emotion)
experiential intelligence
the ability to use knowledge and experiences in new and creative ways
Visual Constancies
the accurate perception of objects as stable or unchanged despite changes in the sensory patterns they produce
self-disclosure
the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
defensive pessimism
the adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters -contracts in bright light, expands in dim light to let more light in
Intensity
the amplitude or height of the air-pressure wave: measured in decibels
psychodynamic perspective (Freud)
the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control
Pluralistic Ignorance
the case in which people think that everyone else is interpreting a situation in a certain way, when in fact they are not example: majority of members interpret situation (fire) as dangerous but incorrectly assume that others accept it and go along with it
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, contains only cones -where visual acuity is best
private conformity
the change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others
declarative memory
the cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory: knowledge that can be declared (facts)
salavation to bell
the conditioned response after dog learned through classical conditioning
bell ringing
the conditioned stimulus after dog learned through classical conditioning
binocular parallax
the degree of disparity between the retinal images of the eyes due to the slight differences in the horizontal position of each eye in the skull
discriminate validity
the degree to which your measure does not relate to others in a predictable manner
predictor variable
the dependent variable in a correlational study that is used to predict the score on another variable
hippocampus
the destruction of which part of the brain disrupts the transfer of info from the STM to the LTM
Phrenology
the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.
E.G. Boring
the development of psychology is due to the changing spirit of the times (Zeitgeist)
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
binocular disparity (stereopsis)
the difference in images between the two eyes, which is greater for objects that are close and smaller for distant objects
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response: behavior that used to bring reward no longer does so (decreases probability)
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response: occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS) (NOT REINFORCED)
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
tectum
the dorsal part of the midbrain that includes the superior and inferior colliculi (vision & hearing reflexes)
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect -all or nothing process: we attend to something and don't attend to anything else WRONG
Weber's constant
the fraction of the intensity by which a source of physical energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived -"K" -as K gets smaller, the better the sensitivity
preparedness theory
the idea that people are instinctively predisposed to associate certain stimuli with certain consequences (food and nausea, sight/sound and pain)
reactance theory
the idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of resistance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the prohibited behavior
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Egocentrism
the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
sample size's relation to significance levels
the larger the sample size, the smaller the difference between two groups has to be in order to be significant
conditioned response
the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
Retina
the light-sensitive back surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the process of detecting images
Androgens
the main class of male sex hormones
presynaptic membrane
the membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane of an adjacent neuron's dendrite and through which the neurotransmitter is released
Median
the middle score in a distribution: half the scores are above it and half are below it -if you have an event set of numbers: add middle numbers and divide by 2
absolute threshold
the minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach -seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory
the most widely used vocational interest test: based on answers of people successful in certain fields -asked whether they like or dislike the interest listed
the farther you move from the fovea, ..
the number of rods increase and the number of cones decrease
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord enters the skull -the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions (hindbrain and midbrain)
autonomic
the part of the nervous system that primarily deals with visceral muscles and glands
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
external loci of control
the perception that luck and chance play a big part in what happens to them: Rotter
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
sound localization
the process by which the location of sound is determined
negative reinforcement
the reinforcement of a desired response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus -escape and avoidance
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. -can be brief or a lifetime
abnormal psychology
the scientific study of abnormal behavior in an effort to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning
developmental psychology
the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
tip of the tongue phenomenon
the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach= problem with retrieval
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
partial reinforcement effect
the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction: behavior only enforced occasionally (i.e. gambling)
Risky Shift
the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions after group discussions than individuals would
shape constancy
the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina example: see a door as a rectangle even when the shape changes as it's opened and closed
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions: an impediment to problem solving
Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
Tolman
the terms "purposive behaviorism" and "sign gestalt learning" are used to describe the learning theory developed by ____________
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
the theory of color vision that the retina contains three different color receptor cones—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
Cannon-Bard Theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion -gives brain more central role in emotion -subjective experience of emotion must affect specific neural circuits corresponding to different emotions
place theory of hearing
the theory that different areas of the basilar membrane vibrate (different hair cells bend) to different frequencies (higher than 1000Hz)
James-Lange Theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is due to our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli example: we feel sorry because we cry, we feel angry because we strike, we feel afraid because we tremble
excitation transfer theory
the theory that physiological arousal stemming from one situation is carried over to and enhances emotional experience in an independent situation; liking someone more because they took you bungee jumping on a first date rather than to dinner
just noticeable difference
the threshold at which one can distinguish two stimuli that are of different intensities example: if the 2 oz change is the noticeable difference than 1 JD= 2oz, 2 JD= 4oz
refractory period
the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated: period of rest
postsynaptic potential
the tiny electrical charge change in the membrane potential of a neuron that occurs when neurotransmitters bind to the receptor site on dendrites
Cornea
the transparent outer covering of the eye: gathers and focuses light
Lens
the transparent structure that lies behind the iris: controls curvature of light coming in and focuses images on the retina
drooling
the unconditioned response/reflex in Pavlov's experiment
class inclusion
the understanding that a general category can encompass several subordinate elements
unconditioned response
the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
holophrasis
the use of a single word for many things (18 months)
pinna
the visible part of the ear that channels sound waves into the auditory canal
ventral stream
the visual pathway that tells us what we are looking at; the "what" path
membrane potential
the voltage difference across a membrane
Standford-Binet Test
the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test
Flynn effect
the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance have been gradually increasing over the years
Karen Horney
theorist who proposed confrontation, avoidance, and seeking social support were ways people cope with anxiety
Erikson
theorist who revised Frued's stages of development and replaced psychosexual stages with psychosocial stages
Hering Opponent Process Theory
theory of color vision that states 3 kinds of receptors each toggle between 2 alternative signals (= 6 neural processes) (1) red OR green (2) blue OR yellow (3) black OR white -4 primaries: yellow, red, green, blue -don't mix: only one or the other
James and Lange
theory of emotion in which physiological arousal precedes the emotion
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
theory of schizophrenia that states it results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas -explains effectiveness of antipsychotics
double-bind hypothesis of schizophrenia
theory of schizophrenia which argues that faulty, contradictory communication patterns within the family as a child is the cause
traveling wave theory
theory that sound waves move in the cochlea from its base to its apex along the basilar membrane; the crest of the wave resonates at a particular point on the basilar membrane, resulting in the perception of a specific pitch
Birth Order Theory
theory that states that a person's rank within their family can have an effect on their personality and intelligence; Adler
catecholamine theory of depression
theory that too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania, while too little leads to depression
behavior therapy
therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
cognitive-behavioral therapy
therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
step 1 of natural selection
there are genetic differences between members of a species
stage theory of memory
there are several memory systems that have a different function: memories enter the systems in a specific order -sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory
Chomsky's nativist theory on language development
there is a innate, biologically based mechanism for language acquisition: LAD (language acquisition device)
spurious variable
third outside factor that influences both correlated variables
clear-cut attachment phase
third phase in development of attachment occurring at 6 months of age characterized by intensified dependence on the primary caregiver (seeking out and responding specifically to mother)
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
three aspects of intelligence: componential (performance on tests), experiential (creativity), and contextual (street smarts/business sense)
semicircular canals
three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement (balance)
Meninges
three layers of connective tissue in which the brain and spinal cord are wrapped
ADHD, autism, tourettes
three main neurodevelopmental disorders
reference, persecution, and grandeur
three main types of delusions
benzodiazepines, barbiturates, alcohol
three main types of sedative-hypnotics (depressants)
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
three major divisions of the brain
arousal, alertness, and attention
three things the reticular formation controls
Ossicles
three tiny bones in the middle ear (smallest in the body)
insecure/avoidant (type A), secure (Type B), insecure/resistant (Type C)
three types of attachment by Ainsworth
simple, complex, and hypercomplex
three types of cells in the cortex that are max sensitive to certain features of stimuli
sensory, motor, and interneurons
three types of neurons
limen
threshold of stimulus perceived
escape learning
through operant conditioning, this is the process of a behavior removing something undesirable (i.e. fasten seatbelt buzzer)
Serial-anticipation learning
to memorize list, recall one item at a time by anticipating
1000Hz
tones higher than this cannot be used in the frequency theory
Prosody
tones, inflections, accents and other aspects of pronunciation that carry meaning
schizoid, narcisstic, borderline, and antisocial
top 4 personality disorders in DSM-V
Phenotype
total collection of expressed traits that constitute the individual's physical observable characteristics -identical phenotypes can have different genotypes (BRBR, BRbl)
Genotype
total genetic makeup of an organism -identical genotypes can produce different phenotypes due to variations in the environment (plants)
secondary traits
traits that are more personal preferences/attitudes and limited in occurrence -everyone has them
Benzodiazepines
tranquilizer based drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress (Valium)
Two theories of color vision
trichromatic theory and opponent process theory
3 basic types of research
true experiments, quasi-experiments, and correlational studies
ratio scale of measurement
true zero point example: temperature
Hubel and Wiesel
two men that recorded single electrical activity in visual cortexes of cats while presenting them with visual stimuli on a screen
Hubel and Wiesel
two men who studied feature detection in visual cortex and discovered simple (orientation/boundaries of objects), complex (movement), and hypercomplex cells (shape)
inferior colliculi and superior colliculi
two parts of the tectum
auditory cortex and Wernicke's area
two parts of the temperal lobe
hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland
two structures that initiate, maintain, and halt primary & secondary sex development
sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system
aptitude and achievement
two types of ability tests
beta and alpha
two types of awake brain waves
depression and mania
two types of disorders implicated by norepinephrine
procedural and declarative memory
two types of long term memory
reflexive behavior
type of behavior that interneurons are linked to
polarized neuron
type of neuron that has more negative ions inside than outside (resting stage)
Authoritative
type of parenting that Baumrind found to be most effective in producing socially and academically competent children
graded potentials
type of potentials that postsynaptic potentials are classified as because the voltage varies and they are not subject to the all or nothing law
electrical process
type of process in neural conduction within a neuron
convergent thinking
type of thinking used to find the one solution to a problem; math; JP Guilford
base-rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
nondominant hemisphere
usually right hemisphere
mean, mode, and median
what three things are identical when scores are in a normal distribution?
proactive inhibition
what you learned earlier interferes with what you learn later example: if you learn French as a second language and then Spanish as a 3rd language, as you are learning Spanish you'll confuse it with French
brain & spinal cord
where interneurons are located
Bandura
who coined vicarious reinforcement
church
who controlled psychology in the middle ages
identical twins
who has the highest risk developing schizophrenia if one has it
rationality
word that best represents Gilligan's theories of moral development
motivation
word that best represents Kohlberg's theories of moral development
nouns, familiar
words in a young language learner's lexicon are most likely to be ______ referencing ________ objects in the enviornoment
Beck's cognitive therapy for depression
writing down negative thoughts and figure out more realistic and less destructive cognitions
