GSMST Literary Devices and Literary Terms

Aposiopesis

Aposiopesis is derived from a Greek word that means "becoming silent." It is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a figure of speech in which the speaker or writer breaks off abruptly, and leaves the statement incomplete. It is as if the speaker is not willing to state what is present in his mind, due to being overcome by passion, excitement, or fear. In a piece of literature, it means to leave a sentence unfinished, so that the reader can determine his own meanings. Types of Aposiopesis Aposiopesis examples may be classified according to the following types: Emotive aposiopesis - This type of aposiopesis is used in conditions of conflict between emotional outbursts of a speaker, and an environment that does not react. Usually, the writer or speaker pauses in the middle of a sentence. Calculated aposiopesis - This type of aposiopesis is based on the conflict of missing thought and its opposing force that rejects the substance of that thought. Hence, the idea is removed that is explicitly expressed afterwards. Audience-respecting aposiopesis - It is based on the removal of thoughts which are unpleasant to the readers, or offensive to the audience. Transitio-aposiopesis - It removes the ideas from the end part of a speech in order to immediately get the audience interested in the subsequent section. Emphatic aposiopesis - It avoids the use of full utterance, to present the idea as greater and really inexpressible. Some Forms of Aposiopesis Sometimes a word is used to indicate something completely different from its literal meaning. Such as in this example, "Tis deepest winter in Lord Timon's purse; that is, one may reach deep enough, and find little" (Timon of Athens, by William Shakespeare). Sometimes a word is used to indicate something whose actual name is not used like, "A chair's arm." Sometimes a paradoxical statement is used to create illogical strained metaphors. Such as, "Take arms against a sea of troubles." Abusio is a subtype of Aposiopesis, which results from the combination of two metaphors. Examples of Aposiopesis in Literature Example #1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) King Lear: "I will have revenges on you both That all the world shall - I will do such things - What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be The terrors of the earth!" Shakespeare has used this technique wonderfully to show moods of his characters. Here, it is employed when King Lear gets furious against his wicked daughters. He cannot declare punishment, but he breaks down and burst into tears. Example #2: Ulysses (By James Joyce) "All quiet on Howth now. The distant hills seem. Where we. The rhododendrons. I am a fool perhaps, He gets the plums, and I the plumstones. Where I come in." In this passage, Joyce deliberately paused twice in order to create dramatic effect. The idea is left unfinished. This break also gives an impression of reluctance to continue. The unfinished thoughts are shown in bold. Example #3: Henry IV (By William Shakespeare) Hotspur: "O, I could prophesy, But that the earthy and cold hand of death Lies on my tongue. No, Percy, thou art dust, And food for — Prince Hal: "For worms, brave Percy: fare thee well, great heart!" Shakespeare has been famous for using emotional pauses, or moments of sudden silence in soliloquies. The unfinished thought in this extract is shown with a long dash (—). This is a pivotal moment in the play where a character pauses abruptly. Example #4: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (By Mark Twain) "She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely, but still loud enough for the furniture to hear: 'Well, I lay if I get hold of you I'll -' She did not finish, for by this time she was bending down and punching under the bed with the broom, and so she needed breath to punctuate the punches with. She resurrected nothing but the cat ..." There are two examples of aposiopesis in this excerpt. First, the writer pauses at "hold of you I'll -," and then at the end of the excerpt, "nothing but the cat." Both sentences are left incomplete. Example #5: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) "O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts, And men have lost their reason. Bear with me, My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, And I must pause till it come back to me..." Again, Shakespeare uses aposiopesis in the soliloquy spoken by Antony at Caesar's funeral ceremony. Anthony is making an emotional speech; hence, he is unable to finish his thought. This gives a perfect dramatic impact. Function of Aposiopesis The purpose of using aposiopesis is to create dramatic or comic effect. The writers or speakers use it whenever they want to express ideas that are too overwhelming to finish. Several playwrights use this technique to make dialogues seem sincere and realistic. But the most effective use of aposiopesis is seen when readers successfully figure out the missing thoughts that the writer has left unfinished.

Auditory Imagery

Auditory imagery is used to explain things, ideas and actions using sounds that appeal to our sense of hearing. It is intended to invoke up sound images in the minds of the readers. In literature, it means to use words and literary devices in a way that they make readers experience sounds when reading poetry or prose. It gives the writers a tool to make their texts vibrant and gripping with the use of the words targeting to the sense of hearing of the readers. In fact, it is deliberately inserted to evoke sensory experiences. In this sense, it makes the text appealing to the ears. Its pivotal role is to make the readers connect to the text. It is written as a phrase of two words auditory and imagery. It means that it is related to the images of sounds that we feel in our ears through words. Examples Auditory Imagery from Literature Example #1 To Autumn by John Keats Where are the songs of spring? Ay, where are they? Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,— While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day, And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue; Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn Among the river sallows, borne aloft Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies; And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn; Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft The red-breast whistles from a garden-croft; And gathering swallows twitter in the skies. To Autumn is a phenomenal poem that relates the life's stages to the autumn season. The poem explores the phenomenon of unconventional appreciation for the fall season. It comprises the experience of the poet, his meditation and poetic imagination. However, Keats has used auditory imagery in this final paragraph of the poem where animal sounds appealing to the sense of hearing such as, "lambs loud bleet", "hedge cricket sing", "the red-breast whistles" and "gathering swallows twitter". Example #2 Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening by Robert Frost My little horse must think it queer To stop without a farmhouse near Between the woods and frozen lake The darkest evening of the year. He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake. The poem captures the pull between man and nature. It is about the limitations in which human beings lead their lives, and which never allow them to get distracted from their targets in life. The wandering speaker intends to stay longer in the catchy woods, but the pull of obligations forces him to leave the woods. Therefore, he suppresses his desire and moves on. Frost has used auditory imagery in the poem to make the scenes even more realistic such as, "harness bells a shake" and sound of "easy wind and downy flake." This auditory imagery is coupled with the thematic strand of the poem giving the readers a sense of the bells shaking and wind blowing. Example #3 Macbeth by William Shakespeare, Act-II, Scene-III, Lines 1-8 PORTER: "Here's a knocking indeed! If a man were porter of hell-gate, he should have old turning the key. Knock Knock, knock, knock, knock! Who's there, i' the name of Belzebub? Here's a farmer that hanged himself on th' expectation of plenty. Come in time! Have napkins enow about you; here you'll sweat for't. Knock Knock, knock! Who's there, in th' other devil's name?" This extract has been taken from the third scene of the second act of the play, Macbeth by William Shakespeare. Porter speaks these lines after the murder of King Duncan. He thinks that he is going to be a guard on the gate of the hell. He is hallucinating and delivering dirty jokes to provide comic relief after the gruesome incident. To show all this, Shakespeare has used auditory imagery. The repetition of 'knock' shows how auditory imagery is effectively used to make readers perceive sounds. Example #4 The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore— While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door— Only this and nothing more." The Raven is one of the excellent literary pieces. The poem comprises the fear and loneliness of a person, victim of unfortunate circumstances. The use of auditory imagery has made this text more engaging and vibrant. For example, "came a tapping", gently rapping" and "I muttered" are the words that can help readers to develop an ability to create imagery using auditory senses. This imagery helps readers construct the murky atmosphere when the raven comes to tap on the door. Example #5 Splinter by Carl Sandburg The voice of the last cricket across the first frost is one kind of good-by. It is so thin a splinter of singing. Splinter is a beautiful short poem, and it comprises the reality of life that it is continually. The "voice of cricket" symbolizes a new beginning and the last song of cricket represents its last goodbye before winter. The poet tries to show that life moves on. Therefore, people should also move on, leaving the memories behind. However, the use of auditory imagery throughout the poem has made the poem effective and captivating, as, it connects the readers with the symbolic meaning of the poem. Auditory Imagery Meaning and Functions Auditory imagery aids the reader's imagination about different sounds, types of sounds and their impacts on the readers. This imagery provides the audience with an opportunity to perceive things with their sense of hearing. It also gives them a chance to understand the fictive world and to envision the writer's imagination about sounds. Its effective use can make the text more lifelike and descriptive.

Autobiography

Autobiography is one type of biography, which tells a life story of its author, meaning it is a written record of the author's life. Rather than being written by somebody else, an autobiography comes through the person's own pen, in his own words. Some autobiographies are written in the form of a fictional tale; as novels or stories that closely mirror events from the author's real life. Such stories include Charles Dickens' David Copperfield, and J.D Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye. In writing about personal experience, one discovers himself. Therefore, it is not merely a collection of anecdotes - it is a revelation to the readers about author's self-discovery. Difference between Autobiography and Memoir In an autobiography, the author attempts to capture important elements of his life. He not only deals with his career, and growth as a person, he also uses emotions and facts related to family life, relationships, education, travels, sexuality, and any types of inner struggles. A memoir is a record of memories, and particular events that have taken place in the author's life. In fact, it is the telling of a story or an event from his life; an account that does not tell the full record of a life. Examples of Autobiography in Literature Example #1: The Box: Tales from the Darkroom (by Gunter Grass) A noble laureate and novelist, Gunter Grass, has shown a new perspective of self-examination by mixing up his quilt of fictionalized approach in his autobiographical book, "The Box: Tales from the Darkroom." Adopting the individual point of view of each of his children, Grass narrates what his children think about him as their father and a writer. Though it is really an experimental approach, due to Grass' linguistic creativity and dexterity, it gains an enthralling momentum. Example #2: The Story of My Life (by Helen Keller) In her autobiography, The Story of My Life, Helen Keller recounts her first twenty years, beginning with the events of the childhood illness that left her deaf and blind. In her childhood, a writer sent her a letter and prophesied, "Someday you will write a great story out of your own head that will be a comfort and help to many." In this book, Keller mentions prominent historical personalities, such as Alexander Graham Bell, whom she met at the age of six, and with whom she remained friends for several years. Keller paid a visit to John Greenleaf Whittier, a famous American poet, and shared correspondence with other eminent figures, including Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Mrs. Grover Cleveland. Generally, Keller's autobiography is about overcoming great obstacles through hard work and pain. Example #3: Self Portraits: Fictions (by Frederic Tuten) In his autobiography, "Self Portraits: Fictions," Frederic Tuten has combined fringes of romantic life with reality. Like postmodern writers, such as Jorge Luis Borges, and Italo Calvino, the stories of Tuten skip between truth and imagination, time and place, without warning. He has done the same with his autobiography, where readers are eager to move through fanciful stories about train rides, circus bears, and secrets to a happy marriage; all of which give readers glimpses of the real man. Example #4: My Prizes (by Thomas Bernhard) Reliving his success of his literary career through the lens of the many prizes he has received, Thomas Bernhard presents a sarcastic commentary in his autobiography, "My Prizes." Bernhard, in fact, has taken few things too seriously. Rather, he has viewed his life as a farcical theatrical drama unfolding around him. Although Bernhard is happy with the lifestyle and prestige of being an author, his blasé attitude and scathing wit make this recollection more charmingly dissident and hilarious. Example #5: The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (by Benjamin Franklin) "The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin" is written by one of the founding fathers of the United States. This book reveals Franklin's youth, his ideas, and his days of adversity and prosperity. He is one of the best examples living the American dream - sharing the idea that one can gain financial independence, and reach a prosperous life through hard work. Function Through autobiography, authors can speak directly to their readers, and to their descendants. The function of the autobiography is to leave a legacy for its readers. By writing an autobiography, the individual shares his triumphs and defeats, and lessons learned, allowing readers to relate and feel motivated by inspirational stories. Life stories bridge the gap between peoples of differing ages and backgrounds, forging connections between old and new generations.

Claim

A statement essentially arguable, but used as a primary point to support or prove an argument is called a claim. If somebody gives an argument to support his position, it is called "making a claim." Different reasons are usually presented to prove why a certain point should be accepted as logical. A general model is given below to explain the steps followed in making a claim: Premise 1 Premise 2 Premise 3 ... Premise N Therefore, Conclusion In this model, the symbol and the dots before it signify that the number of premises used for proving an argument may vary. The word "therefore" shows that the conclusion will be restating the main argument, which was being supported all the way through. With the help of a claim, one can express a particular stance on an issue that is controversial, so as to verify it as a logically sound idea. In case of a complex idea, it is always wise to start by classifying the statements you are about to put forward. Many times, the claims you make stay unnoticed because of the complex sentence structure; specifically, where the claims and their grounds are intertwined. However, a rhetorical performance, such as a speech or an essay, is typically made up of a single central claim, and most of the content contains several supporting arguments for that central claim. Types of Claim There are many types of claim used in literature, and all of them have their own significance. The type that we will be discussing here has great importance in writing and reading about literature because it is used frequently to build arguments. It is called evaluative claim. Evaluative claims involve the assessment or judgment of the ideas in the original piece. They have been divided further into two types: ethical judgment and aesthetic judgment. As the name implies, aesthetic judgment revolves around deciding whether or not a piece of writing fulfills artistic standards. You can easily find evaluative claim examples in book reviews. This type is about assessing an argument, or the entire essay on ethical, social, political, and philosophical grounds, and determining whether an idea is wise, good, commendable, and valid. The evaluative and interpretive claims typically consist of well-versed viewpoints. Where interpretive claims strive to explain or clarify the views communicated in and by the text, evaluative claims study the validity of those views by drawing comparison between them and the writer's own opinions. Claim Examples Interpretive Claims Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) The great thing about Animal Farm by George Orwell is that it has presented all animals equal in the eyes of the laws framed by them. They framed Ten Commandments when they expelled Mr. Jones from Manor Farm, and this rule, "All animals are equal," became a shibboleth for them. This interpretive claim presents an argument about the exploration of the meanings, and the evidence that is given within quotation marks has been interpreted as well. Similarly, "To be or not to be..." is an evidence of the excessive thinking of Prince Hamlet in the play Hamlet, written by William Shakespeare. If a person interprets the play, he has evidence to support his claim. Papers on literary analysis are treasure troves of examples of claim. Evaluative Claims Example #2: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) As the majority of the animals were in the process of framing rules, it was understood that, although rats and several other animals were not present, whatsoever had four legs is an animal, and therefore is equal to any other animal. Hence, a general rule was framed that whatever walks on four legs is good. Later on, birds (having two wings and two legs) and other non-four-legged animals were also considered as animals. Therefore, all are equal. Now this argument clearly shows the judgment given at the end, but it is after evaluation of the whole situation presented in the novel. This is called evaluative claim. Function of Claim The role of claims in writing any narrative or script is essential. If used correctly, they can strengthen the argument of your standpoint. The distinction between different types of claim can be highly confusing, and sometimes complicated. For instance, a composition that claims that Vogel's play gives out a socially and ethically impolite message about abuse, can also assert that the play is aesthetically flawed. A composition that goes on developing and advocating an interpretive claim about another script shows that it at least deserves philosophical or aesthetical interpretation. On the other hand, developing an evaluative claim about a composition always remains in need of a certain level of interpretation. Hence, the dissimilarities are subtle, and can only be identified after close and profound observation; but all things considered, they are important. Thus, lest it is suggested you do otherwise, you must always leave the evaluative claims for conclusions, and make your essay an interpretive claim.

Bias

Bias is as an undue favor, support or backing extended to a person, group or race or even an argument against another. Although bias mostly exists in the cultural context, it can creep into various other forms of academic life and in literature such as sexuality, gender, nation, religion, subjects, and general life. In other words, it is a single-side or one-side illogical and non-neutral support of a viewpoint in favor against the other side. Etymologically the word 'bias' has been derived from the French word "biais" which means angle or slant. Types of Bias There are various types of biases. It exists even in the non-literary texts. It could be propaganda, gender-related, age-related, racial discrimination, religious discrimination, marginalization and also stereotyping. Examples of Bias in Literature Example #1 "None of your damned business," Al said. "Who's out in the kitchen?" "The ******." "What do you mean the ******?" "The ****** that cooks." "Tell him to come in." "What's the idea?" "Tell him to come in." ("The Killer" by Ernest Hemingway) Although Hemingway is never accused of being biased, however, his story "The Killers" has words that show the characters are biased toward the African American community. The use of the word "******" is an insult to their ethnicity, which was used to call the African American young man. Max uses this word to tell Al that he is working in the kitchen which shows his racial bias toward him. Example #2 "Scout," said Atticus, "******-lover is just one of those terms that don't mean anything—like snot-nose. It's hard to explain—ignorant, trashy people use it when they think somebody's favoring Negroes over and above themselves. It's slipped into usage with some people like ourselves, when they want a common, ugly term to label somebody." "You aren't really a ******-lover, then, are you?" "I certainly am. I do my best to love everybody... I'm hard put, sometimes—baby, it's never an insult to be called what somebody thinks is a bad name. It just shows you how poor that person is, it doesn't hurt you." (To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee) This is an extract from Harper Lee's novel, To Kill a Mockingbird. Scout's explanation, though seems highly unbiased and effective, does not impact Atticus. Atticus believes that these are just fancy words for drawing room discussions. This does not happen in reality. Bias exists and will continue to exist in life. The use of the word "******-lover" is too prominent to disappear in reality. Example #3 Has she," asked the Doctor, with a smile, "has she been associating of late with a circle of pseudo-intellectual women-super-spiritual superior beings? My wife has been telling me about them." "That's the trouble," broke in Mr. Pontellier, "she hasn't been associating with anyone. She has abandoned her Tuesdays at home, has thrown over all her acquaintances, and goes tramping about by herself, moping in the street-cars, getting in after dark. I tell you she's peculiar. I don't like it; I feel a little worried over it." (The Awakening by Kate Chopin) The doctor is clearly against women and assumes that modern women have impacted the mind of Mrs. Pontellier. Mr. Pontellier is describing how his wife, Edna Pontellier has acted in a different way than a woman having children and a husband should behave. However, the doctor's views reflect his gender bias. Leonce has also verified these comments of a doctor. This shows that both the men are biased against the only female in the story, Edna Pontellier. Example #4 Mark you this, Bassanio, The devil can cite Scripture for his purpose. An evil soul producing holy witness Is like a villain with a smiling cheek, A goodly apple rotten at the heart. (The Merchant of Venice, Act-I, Scene-III by William Shakespeare) Antonio, a character in the Merchant of Venice speaks these words about Shylock, the Jew. He is referring to him in highly scornful terms to demonstrate that the Jew is an evil incarnate. These lines are important as Antonio and Bassanio display bias against Shylock or the entire Jewish community. He is being referred to as a wicked person due to his profession and as if he is on the devil's side. Example #5 IAGO "Even now, now, very now, an old black ram Is tupping your white ewe. Arise, arise! Awake the snorting citizens with the bell, Or else the devil will make a grandsire of you. Arise, I say!" (Othello Act-1. Scene-I, by William Shakespeare) These lines from Othello shows how Iago uses bias to make Barbantio and other senators turn against Othello. He terms him an "old black ram" which is a racist term. He is using a racial slur against Othello to make people hate him. Bias Meaning and Function Bias in literature is used to implicitly send a message to the readers about specific prejudice against a community, faith, sect or race. It is used to make people aware of certain defects in people. It is also used to make people think in a different way than they usually do. In fact, bias is used to create prejudice, leading to hatred and war-mongering. It is also called "othering" of the people different from us.

Balanced Sentence

A balanced sentence is made up of two segments which are equal, not only in length, but also in grammatical structure and meaning. It could be a periodic or cumulative sentence. A reader finds both parts equal when he goes through such a sentence. For instance, Abraham Lincoln, in his Gettysburg speech, "... government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth," gives us an example of parallel forms. In writing, both parts are clearly parallel forms, and they appear grammatically parallel. If there are multiple parts of a balanced sentence, then they are separated by a semicolon or adjoining words, such as "but," "or," "and," etc. Since balanced sentences always have parallelism, writers need to use parallelism with similar grammatical forms, structure, and word order. Use of Balanced Sentence in Presidential Address "While the Inaugural Address was being delivered from this place, devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, insurgent agents were in the city seeking to destroy it without war, seeking to dissolve the Union and divide effects by negotiation" and "All dreaded it, all sought to avert it." [Abraham Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address, 1865] Lincoln has used balanced syntax in this address, with a combination of short and long sentences, which evokes an idea of a united and balanced nation. This difference in sentence lengths represents differences between North and South, and by combining them he emphasizes on the unity of the divided nation. Use of Balanced Sentence in Advertising "Light is faster, but we are safer." (Global Jet Airlines' advertising slogan) "Buy a bucket of chicken and have a barrel of fun." (KFC's advertising slogan) Examples of Balanced Sentence in Literature Example #1: Coon Tree (by E.B. White) "On days when warmth is the most important need of the human heart, the kitchen is the place you can find it; it dries the wet socks, it cools the hot little brain." This is a good example of a balanced sentence. The last two clauses are parallel in this sentence, having the same length and the same grammatical structure. The two identical pieces are giving rhythmical flow to the lines. Example #2: In Cold Blood (by Truman Capote) "Like the waters of the river, like the motorists on the highway, and like the yellow trains streaking down the Santa Fe tracks, drama, in the shape of exceptional happenings, had never stopped there." This balanced sentence is also a periodic sentence, as the main action happens at the end. There are parallel grammatical structures in each part of this sentence which makes its rhythmic and clear to understand. Example #3: The Life of Samuel Johnson (by James Boswell) "Every man has a right to utter what he thinks truth, and every other man has a right to knock him down for it." This is another very simple and clear example of a balanced sentence. Both clauses have the same length and word order, emphasizing the idea of truth and adding pleasing rhythm. Example #4: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen) "... and though the mother was found to be intolerable, and the younger sisters noted worth speaking to, a wish of being better acquainted with them was expressed towards the two eldest." Austen is famous for using balanced sentences to illustrate contrast between things, people, or duality of situations. In these lines, she does the same and compares Bennet sisters and their mother. Example #5: The Scarlet Letter (by Nathaniel Hawthorne) "Her needle-work was seen on the ruff of the Governor; military men wore it on their scarfs, and the minister on his band; it decked the baby's little cap; it was shut up, to be mildewed and moulder away, in the coffins of the dead." By using a series of parallel clauses, narrator compares members of government, military, and religion to rotting dead and infants. This balanced syntax makes a commentary on the corruption and blindness of governing bodies. Function of Balanced Sentence A balanced sentence gives rhythmical flow to the text. It draws attention of the readers to the sentence and makes it stand out among the rest. Writers use balanced sentences to emphasize particular ideas to make meanings clear, as well as to create pleasing rhythms. In fact, it puts a spotlight on a series of clauses or a sentence. Hence, it helps the writers to make their work stand out from the rest of the text. On the other hand, public speakers, singers, and advertising agencies use it, because its rhythmical qualities have a good impact on the audience.

Biography

A biography is simply an account or detailed description about the life of a person. It entails basic facts, such as childhood, education, career, relationships, family, and death. Biography is a literary genre that portrays the experiences of all these events occurring in the life of a person, mostly in a chronological order. Unlike a resume or profile, a biography provides a life story of a subject, highlighting different aspects of his of her life. A person who writes biographies, is called as a "biographer." Types of Biography There are three types of biography: Autobiography An autobiography tells the story of a person's own life. While that person writes his own account, he or she may take guidance from a ghostwriter or collaborator. Biography A biography narrates the life story of a person, as written by another person or writer. It is further divided into five categories: Popular biography Historical biography Literary biography Reference biography Fictional biography Memoir This is a more focused writing than an autobiography or a biography. In a memoir, a writer narrates the details of a particular event or situation that occurred in his or her lifetime. Examples of Biography in Literature Example #1: Shakespeare: A Life (By Park Honan) This biography is the most accurate, up-to-date, and complete narrative ever written about the life of William Shakespeare. Park Honan has used rich and fresh information about Shakespeare in order to change the perceptions of readers for the playwright, and his role as a poet and actor. This book completely differs from other biographies that imagine different roles for him, commenting on his sexual relationships and colorful intrigues. Though detailed psychological theories and imaginative reforms about the famous playwright could be amusing, in fact, they damage the credibility of the sources. Therefore, many attempts have been made to know about Shakespeare, but this one is a unique example. Example #2: Arthur Miller: Attention Must Be Paid (By James Campbell) This biography is written in the form of a drama, presented in just two acts. In the first act, the author shows the famous dramatist, Arthur Miller, in his early success, having the love of the most beloved woman in the world, and resisting tyranny. However, in the second act of this biography, the author shows that the hero was badly assaulted and ridiculed by a rowdy mob called critics, who are expelled from the conventional theater. He ends his book with rhetorical details related to a revitalization in the fortunes of the playwright. Example #3: The Life of Samuel Johnson (By James Boswell) This biography is frequently hyped as a perfect example of modern biography, and all-time best example in the English language. This masterpiece of James Boswell has covered the whole life of the ubiquitous literary writer Samuel Johnson, with whom Boswell was well-acquainted. The unique quality of this book is that it shows Johnson as a walking intellectual amongst us. Example #4: The Bronte Myth (By Lucasta Miller) Emily, Anne, and Charlotte Bronte were very famous and eminent writers in the history of English literature. Many rumors and gossips were associated with them when they reached the peaks of their careers and received great approval for writing the most admired novels of the nineteenth century. In their biography, Lucasta Miller chunks the myths related to these young enigmatic women. This is a fine example of a biography. Example #5: Why this World: A Biography of Clarice Lispector (By Benjamin Moser) After perusing his own private manuscripts and writings, this modernist writer, Benjamin Moser, has explored the mystique surrounding Brazilian writer Clarice Lispector. This is one of Moser's biographies, which comes a little closer to finding her true nuances. All those readers who are going to read her myriad of works for the first time would find this biography interesting, and her life as beautiful and tragic, yet riveting. Function of Biography The function of writing biographies is to provide details regarding the life of a person or a thing in an entertaining but informative manner. By the end of a biography, readers feel like they are well-acquainted with the subject. Biographies are often non-fictional, but many biographers also use novel-like format, because a story line would be more entertaining with the inclusion of strong exposition, rising conflict, and then climax. Besides, the most inspirational life stories could motivate and put confidence into the readers.

Cliffhanger

A cliffhanger is a type of narrative or a plot device in which the end is curiously abrupt, so that the main characters are left in a difficult situation, without offering any resolution of conflicts. As a result of a sudden end, suspense is created at the very end of the novel, leaving the readers in such a state that they could not help but to ask, "What will happen next?" This type of end is common to serially-published novels, which end at a dramatic or suspenseful moment. The cliffhanger plot device ensures readers will buy the next installment, in order to read and find out what happens. Cliffhanger Examples in Everyday Life Cliffhanger examples in television series are abundant. Episodes of TV series end during moments of high drama in order to ensure the following of viewers in the next episode. One famous example is the TV series Lost, which ended almost every episode with a cliffhanger. Commercial breaks compel writers to include a cliffhangers in the plot before each break to maintain suspense, and ensure viewership following the break. Examples of Cliffhanger in Literature Example #1: One Thousand and One Nights (By Muhsin Mahdi) Cliffhanger has its roots in ancient oriental literature. One example is in the collection of stories known as One Thousand and One Nights, in which the king Shehreyar orders his queen Scheherzade to be hanged. She devises a plan to tell a story to the king every night, ending that story with a cliffhanger. The king postponed the order of execution every day to hear the rest of the story. Example #2: A Pair of Blue Eyes (By Thomas Hardy) The term "cliffhanger" seems to get its name from the Thomas Hardy's novel A Pair of Blue Eyes, which was published in a magazine in a series format, with a chapter published every month. At the end of one of the episodes, Hardy left his main character, Henry Knight, hanging onto a cliff, staring at the stony eyes of a fossil embedded in rocks below. Since then, every abrupt end has been termed a "cliffhanger." Example #3: The Tempest (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare could not afford for his audience to be bored, and for this reason he uses a cliffhanger in Act 1, Scene 1 of his play The Tempest. The scene of a storm and shipwreck is depicted in a most vivid manner, but the audience is unsure if anybody on the ship has survived. The device is employed with the purpose that the audience will return to see the next act. Finally, the fate of the crew on board is revealed in Act 2, Scene 1 and the focus of the audience is ensured by that time. Example #4: Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (By J. K. Rowling) J. K. Rowling, in her famous work Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, employs many cliffhangers. To cite an example from Chapter 3, " Letters from No One": "One minute to go and he'd be eleven. Thirty seconds...twenty...ten...nine - may be he'd wake Dudley up, just to annoy him - three...two...one... BOOM! The whole shack shivered and Harry sat bolt upright, staring at the door. Someone was outside, knocking to come in." Obviously, you will turn the page and start reading the next chapter to know who was outside knocking at the door. The obvious reason for such endings is to create interest in the readers, so they will move on to the next chapter without the slightest hesitation. Function of Cliffhanger By nature, man is a curious creature. Cliffhangers in any form of literature appeal to our curiosity. The main purpose of employing this device is to maintain suspense in the plot in order to ensure the interest and focus of the readers. It acts as bait to lead the readers from one part of the text to another with more interest than before. Cliffhangers, undoubtedly, are enjoyable to read at the end of the chapters of novels. However, it can be very frustrating at the very end of a novel, as it leaves readers discontented after all the effort they put in to read the novel. In TV series, where the cliffhanger tool is perhaps most popular, they make use of this device to great effect. The viewers' favorite characters are left in a lurch, and the viewers yearn to know more about their fate. As a result, viewers are likely to want to keep up in the next episode.

Atmosphere

A literary technique, atmosphere is a type of feeling that readers get from a narrative, based on details such as setting, background, objects, and foreshadowing. A mood can serve as a vehicle for establishing atmosphere. In literary works, atmosphere refers to emotions or feelings an author conveys to his readers through description of objects and settings, such as in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter tales, in which she spins a whimsical and enthralling atmosphere. Bear in mind that atmosphere may vary throughout a literary piece. Difference Between Atmosphere and Mood Many people use both terms interchangeably, as there is no concrete difference between them. However, in literature we find a mild difference. This is because atmosphere is a broader term, and may be set by a certain venue, such as a theater. However, mood is a more specific and narrow term, concerning emotions of a certain individual or group of individuals, and it does not incorporate the emotions or feelings radiating throughout a venue. Simply, mood is about internal feelings, while atmosphere exists at a particular spot. Besides, a mood contributes for building up the entire atmosphere of a narrative. Examples of Atmosphere in Literature Example #1: An Unspoken Hunger (By Terry Tempest Williams) "It is an unspoken hunger we deflect with knives - one avocado between us, cut neatly in half, twisted then separated from the large wooden pit. With the green fleshy boats in hand, we slice vertical strips from one end to the other. Vegetable planks. We smother the avocado with salsa, hot chiles at noon in the desert. We look at each other and smile, eating avocados with sharp silver blades, risking the blood of our tongues repeatedly." Here, Williams creates a dangerous atmosphere, where she presents the hazards of knives and avocados. In fact, when an author tries to establish atmosphere by using objects, these objects represent unspoken reality. Besides, appearance of two characters also adds to a sexually charged atmosphere. Example #2: The Vision (By Dean Koontz) "The woman raised her hands and stared at them; stared through them. Her voice was soft but tense. 'Blood on his hands.' Her own hands were clean and pale." When we read these lines, they immediately bring to our mind an emotional response, and draw our attention. This is exactly what atmosphere does in a literary work. Example #3: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe) "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore - While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door - "Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door - Only this and nothing more." In this excerpt, the experience of readers is suspenseful and exciting, as they anticipate horror due to feelings within the narrative. As we see, this character hears tapping on the door and, when opens it, he finds nobody there, only darkness; making the atmosphere fearful and tense. Example #4: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens, in A Tale of Two Cities, creates an important atmosphere whenever a major event occurs in a plot. For instance, we see a ghostly mood of a messenger's entrance in Dover mail, which indicates things of the future. Then, Dickens builds up an atmosphere through the actions of his characters in the room of Dr. Manetas. Within this, the author gives attributes to these places with different concepts and ideas. For instance, when Jerry goes to find Dover mail, to convey a message to Mr. Lorry, Dickens creates a gloomy and mysterious atmosphere, alluding to the darker end. Another type of atmosphere we see in the courtroom towards the end. During the scene, you would notice the public is searching and buzzing for victim after victim. Thus Dickens links the atmosphere of this place with death. Function of Atmosphere The purpose of establishing atmosphere is to create emotional effect. It makes a literary work lively, fascinating, and interesting by keeping the audience more engaged. It appeals to the readers' senses by making the story more real, allowing them to comprehend the idea easily. Since atmosphere makes the audience feel in an indirect way, writers can convey harsh feelings with less severity. Writers control the impact of prevailing atmosphere by changing the description of settings and objects.

Antimetabole

Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means "turning about." It is a literary term or device that involves repeating a phrase in reverse order. For example: "You like it; it likes you." "Fair is foul and foul is fair." Chiasmus and antimetabole are usually expected to be overlapped in usage, and this overlap is also often used as a synonym for epanados (the repeating of a phrase or sentence in reverse order) in modern day books. However, the writer would make them distinct through his use. Famous Antimetabole Examples Since the time of Socrates, we see the use of antimetabole. Some of them are: "Eat to live, not live to eat." - Socrates "I go where I please, and I please where I go." - Attributed to Duke Nukem "In America, you can always find a party. In Soviet Russia, Party always finds you!" - Yakov Smirnoff "If you fail to plan, you plan to fail." "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." - John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961. "He who questions training only trains himself at asking questions." - The Sphinx, Mystery Men (1999) "The great object of [Hamlet's] life is defeated by continually resolving to do, yet doing nothing but resolve." - Samuel Taylor Coleridge on Shakespeare's Hamlet "We do what we like and we like what we do." - Andrew W.K., "Party Hard" "We didn't land on Plymouth Rock. Plymouth Rock landed on us." Malcolm X, "Malcolm X" "If you can't be with the one you love, love the one you're with." - Billy Preston "You stood up for America, now America must stand up for you." - Barack Obama, December 14, 2011. Difference Between Chiasmus and Antimetabole Antimetabole and chiasmus are very closely related, and some experts even use them interchangeably. However, both the terms still exist to refer to two distinct literary devices. According to scholars, when a sentence is repeated by reversing it, so as to convey an idea or stress a point, it is called chiasmus. Antimetabole is not very much different from chiasmus, only that in an antimetabole the words and grammatical structure is also reversed, because just reversing the meaning is not enough. So in the light of these facts, it can be deduced that all the antimetaboles are chiasmus, but not all instances of chiasmus are antimetaboles. A chiasmus is a sentence repeated inversely. The only condition of a chiasmic sentence is that the two clauses in the phrase are opposite in meaning. For example, the popular saying by Havelock Ellis: "Charm is a woman's strength, strength is a man's charm," the sentence is an example of chiasmus, but is not an antimetabole. This is because the two clauses have opposite meanings, but the words and the grammatical makeup are dissimilar. In an antimetabole the word order in a sentence is reversed to contrast the meanings. One very good example is Mae West's catchphrase, "It's not the men in my life; it's the life in my men." As you can see, in this sentence the words, rhythm, and grammatical structure in the second phrase are exactly similar to the first one, but the meaning is opposite. Many experts refer to antimetabole as a subtype of chiasmus. Functions and Effectiveness of Antimetabole For antimetabole to be effective, it does not only have to be grammatically correct, but should also be logical. People, after studying literature for a while, start thinking that they can churn out antimetaboles with a snap of a finger. They fail to understand the fact that a sentence cannot be called an antimetabole if it is not based on a logical theme. Antimetaboles are popular and effective solely because they appeal to reason and are easy to remember. If the first half is relatable, then the reader or listener will automatically make sense of the second half. For example: "It is not about the years in your life, but about the life in your years." A sentence like this can be called an antimetabole because it is appealing, correct (logically and grammatically) and has a message to convey to the readers.

Bildungsroman

Bildungsroman is a special kind of novel that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of its main character, from his or her youth to adulthood. A bildungsroman is a story of the growing up of a sensitive person, who looks for answers to his questions through different experiences. Generally, such a novel starts with a loss or a tragedy that disturbs the main character emotionally. He or she leaves on a journey to fill that vacuum. During the journey, the protagonist gains maturity, gradually and with difficulty. Usually, the plot depicts a conflict between the protagonist and the values of society. Finally, he or she accepts those values, and they are accepted by society, ending the dissatisfaction. Such a type of novel is also known as a "coming-of-age" novel. Examples of Bildungsroman in Literature There are numerous examples of bildungsroman or coming-of-age novels in English literature. Let us briefly analyze a few: Example #1: The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (By Henry Fielding) This is among the famous bildungsroman examples written in a comic mode. Squire Allworthy, a wealthy landowner, discovers a foundling, Tom Jones, on his property. Tom Jones grows up into a lusty but honest young man, in contrast to his half-brother Blifil, who was a personification of hypocrisy. Tom falls in love with Sophia Western, but the relationship is opposed by her father, on the basis that Tom is a "bastard." After this loss, Tom undergoes many experiences, and finally it is revealed that Tom is the son of Mr. Summer, a friend of Allworthy, and Mrs. Waters, who is Allworthy's sister. Therefore, society accepts him when it is established that he is not a bastard. Example #2: David Copperfield (By Charles Dickens) This can be termed as a bildungsroman, as it traces the life of David Copperfield from his childhood to maturity. His mother re-marries a man named Edward Murdstone, who sends David to work for a wine merchant in London. He then runs away to finally reach his eccentric aunt Betsey Trotwood, who agrees to raise him, and calls him "Trot." We see a change in David's "undisciplined heart," as after Dora's death, he does some soul-searching, and chooses sensible Agnes - a woman who had always loved him - as his wife. Example #3: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) This is a coming-of-age story of the character Stephen Dedalus. The story starts with Stephen in a boarding school at the age of sixteen. One day he goes back to his room, falls sick due to the unbearable load of his sins, and decides to change himself. He goes to the church for a confession, and the cleric is exceptionally kind. Thus, Stephen discovers another path in his life, as he becomes a cleric. Later in the novel, Stephen's life takes another turn. He realizes that he cannot waste his life as a cleric. He needs to live in society and be innovative like an artist. Example #4: Never Let Me Go (By Kazuo Ishiguro) This is a recent example of a bildungsroman novel. The novel is divided into three acts: childhood, adult and donor. It traces the life of Kathy, the protagonist and narrator of the novel. She is a "donor" who is harvested for organs to be donated to gravely ill patients. We see Kathy as free-spirited, kind, and loving in her childhood. As a young woman she shows less emotion looking back at her past. At the end of the novel, she is a mature woman, and accepts the lives of herself and her friends. Function of Bildungsroman The bildungsroman novel depicts and criticizes those vices of society which cause the protagonist to suffer. The novel conveys a sense of realism, because the protagonist is a common sensitive person who is affected by the loss that they suffer, and this loss, ultimately, changes the course of their life. In addition, the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist gives us a deep insight into the character, and also helps to understand the conflict in his or her life. As a result, we can identify ourselves with the coming-of-age characters, and feel emotionally attached and interested as we see them pass different stages of their lives, until they finally change for the good.

Aside

Normally playwrights use characters' dialogues to tell their stories, but often it becomes difficult for them to express what their characters are thinking. Hence, they use a typical dramatic device, called "aside," to solve this problem. An aside is a short comment or speech that a character delivers directly to the audience, or to himself, while other actors on the stage appear not to hear. Only the audience knows that the character has said something to them. In essence, through an aside, a character comments on what happens in the play. Simply, we can define aside as a short commentary that reveals private opinions and reactions of the character. However, it refers to the major conflict in a play, though it may not involve his personal conflict. Difference Between Aside and Soliloquy Both asides and soliloquies are dramatic devices; they have similarities and differences. The similarity between them is that a single character speaks directly to himself, or to the audience, and no other character can hear his comments. The difference between them is that an aside is a shorter comment, while a soliloquy is a longer speech. Another difference is that an aside reveals hidden secrets or judgments, whereas the soliloquy reveals motives, inner thoughts, or internal struggles going on in the mind of the character. Examples of Aside in Literature Aside became a popular dramatic technique during the Elizabethan era, when structure and arrangement of the theaters themselves were changing. The structure of stages was transformed into a three-sided shape that allowed spectators to come closer to actors than ever before. Hence, this friendly setting made asides more realistic. Following are a few examples of aside from literature: Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "Time thou anticipat'st my dread exploits. The flighty purpose never is o'ertook Unless the deed go with it. From this moment The very firstlings of my heart shall be The firstlings of my hand." Here, readers learn that the leading character, Macbeth, feels regret to launch an attack on MacDuff. However, his speech announces that Macbeth would attack MacDuff's castle and kill his family. This speech reveals Macbeth has lost his moral values. First, he struggles with the decision to kill the king, but now he does not feel hesitation to murder the king's whole family. This aside makes it clear that he has transformed into a violent and ambitious man. Example #2: Crucible (By Arthur Miller) Arthur Miller, in his play Crucible, uses aside through the last words of Elizabeth towards the conclusion of the play, when she says: "He have his goodness now. God forbid I take it from him." Elizabeth forgives her husband of his adultery, and John - after making many mistakes - makes the right decision and confesses his sin. This good moral decision restores his goodness. Therefore, when Reverend Hale asks Elizabeth to convince her husband not to give up his life, she makes an aside, saying that she cannot do this when he finally realizes that he has his goodness. Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Another example of aside occurs in Shakespeare's Hamlet. In this play, after the death of the King of Denmark, the king's brother Claudius takes the charge of the throne, rather than Prince Hamlet. Moreover, Claudius marries the king's wife. In the first act of this play, when Claudius talks to Hamlet, by calling him his son and nephew, Hamlet makes an aside by saying: "A little more than kin, and less than kind." Example #4: Cherry Orchard (By Anton Chekhov) Yasha: (Aside.) "Lyubov Andreyevna, could I have a word? I was wondering if Madame would be going back to Paris ... the food's uneatable, that old man wandering about muttering to himself ..." In this example, Yasha makes an aside to express that he wants to go back to Paris with Mrs. Ranavesky, as there are no standards living in her estate, and also he is not satisfied with the behavior of its residents. Function of Aside Aside gives special information to the audience about the plot and other characters onstage. It is like a window into the thoughts of characters. Since aside is a comment about the characters without bringing into their knowledge, it gives better understanding to the audience about the essence of the matter. Asides also create an enjoyable experience for the audience, as a character talks to them directly, drawing them closer to his or her actions and thoughts. They can enter into the true thoughts and feelings of the characters. However, in comedies asides are delightful, and as a result, playwrights could imagine how the audience enjoys their work.

Appositive

When a noun or word is followed by another noun or phrase that renames or identifies it, this is called appositive. This is a literary device that appears before or after a noun or noun phrase. It is always used with a comma. Simply, we can define it as a noun phrase or a noun that defines or explains another noun, which it follows. In this grammatical structure, writers place elements like noun phrases side-by-side, where one element serves to define the other, and one is in apposition to the other. For instance: "We were waiting outside the condemned cells, a row of sheds fronted with double bars, like small animal cages." (A Hanging, by George Orwell) In this line, "the condemned cells" is a noun phrase, while "a row of sheds" is an appositive that explains this noun phrase. Types of Appositive Restrictive Appositive Restrictive appositive gives essential information to identify the phrase or noun in apposition. It clarifies the meaning of a phrase but, if the appositive is removed, the meaning of the entire sentence changes. Commas are not necessarily used in this type of appositive, such as in, "John's friend, Michael, likes chocolates." Here, John has others friends, but the statement is restricted to only Michael. Non-Restrictive Appositive Non-restrictive appositive gives non-essential or extra information, which is not important to identify the phrase or noun in apposition. This type of appositive is often used with commas, for example, "John, my friend, likes to eat chocolates." Here, my friend is a non-restrictive appositive, because it is not necessary for identifying John. Examples of Appositive in Literature Example #1: A Christmas Memory (By Truman Capote) "Christmas Eve afternoon we scrape together a nickel and go to the butcher's to buy Queenie's traditional gift, a good gnawable beef bone." In the above excerpt, a restrictive appositive is clarifying and describing a noun "traditional gift." Here, this literary device has appeared after the noun, specifying the type of gift. Example #2: Bronx Primitive (By Kate Simon) "Though her cheeks were high-colored and her teeth strong and yellow, she looked like a mechanical woman, a machine with flashing, glassy circles for eyes." In this example, the noun "mechanical woman" is defined and identified by a long noun phrase, a restrictive appositive, "flashing, gassy circles for eyes," which serves as a useful device in this excerpt, and brings variety to the sentence, enhancing its meaning. Example #3: The Pride of the Yankees (By Gary Cooper as Lou Gehrig) "I have had the great honor to have played with these great veteran ballplayers on my left -Murderers Row, our championship team of 1927. I have had the further honor of living with and playing with these men on my right — the Bronx Bombers, the Yankees of today. Gehrig identifies a noun, "ballplayers," by using the restrictive appositive "murderers row," and he adds a noun "championship team." These two appositives are used with commas and add meaning and significance to the sentence. Example #4: Inside Cape Town (By Joshua Hammer) "The Koeberg Nuclear Power Station, Africa's only nuclear power plant, was inaugurated in 1984 by the apartheid regime and is the major source of electricity for the Western Cape's 4.5 million population." In the above extract, Hammer has used an appositive immediately after the noun phrase "Nuclear power station," which adds information to the sentence. This presents an example of non-restrictive appositive which, if removed, does not change the meaning of the sentence. Example #5: Beauty: When the Other Dancer is the Self (By Alice Walker) "My father, a fat, funny man with beautiful eyes and a subversive wit, is trying to decide which of his eight children he will take with him to the county fair." This is another good example of non-restrictive appositive, in which the noun "father" does not need extra information, but the author has used a long noun phrase, "a fat, funny man ... and a subversive wit," to describe it. Function of Appositive The function of appositive in literary works is to provide information, which is either essential or additional. It also gives meanings to different sentences in literary texts, and helps in identifying other nouns. An appositive noun also defines, explains, and clarifies the meaning of a sentence. It is helpful to combine sentences to avoid too many choppy and short sentences. In addition, an appositive phrase gives variety to a literary work by using sentences of varied lengths, allowing the writers to use interesting details with smooth flow of the reading experience.

Lyric Poem

A lyric poem or lyrical poem in literature is a poem in which the poet either expresses his feelings and emotions. The poet also presents a character in the first person to express his emotions. It is a combination of lyric and poetry where a piece of poetry is written as a lyric. Lyric has been derived from lyre, a musical stringed instrument used during the Grecian period to accompany the poetry sung during different festivities. Aristotle used the world lyric or lyrical with reference poetry to categorize it into three distinct types. A lyric poem is often short and non-narrative but keeps some elements of melody. Although odes and elegies are other categories, they, too, are placed under the lyric poetry. Lyric poems can follow any metrical pattern, be it iambic, trochaic, or pyrrhic. Lyric Poem Examples from Literarture Examples #1 "O, Wert Thou in the Cauld Blast" by Robert Burns O, WERT thou in the cauld blast ⁠On yonder lea, on yonder lea, My plaidie to the angry airt, ⁠I'd shelter thee, I'd shelter thee. Or did Misfortune's bitter storms ⁠Around thee blaw, around thee blaw, Thy bield should be my bosom, ⁠To share it a', to share it a'. These are the first two stanzas of a famous lyric poem by Robert Burns. The very first line expresses deep emotions of the poet about his beloved. The musical quality of the poem turns it into lyrics which can be sung with some instruments. The expression of feelings in the perfect metrical pattern with love as the subject matter makes it one of the best lyric poems. Examples #2 "The Pains of Sleep" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge "ERE on my bed my limbs I lay, It hath not been my use to pray With moving lips or bended knees; But silently, by slow degrees, My spirit I to Love compose, In humble trust mine eye-lids close, With reverential resignation, No wish conceived, no thought exprest, Only a sense of supplication." These are the first few lines of the famous lyric poem of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. This poem, as the title suggests, is about the pains that the poet has to go through when sleeping. He explains how he loves to go to sleep as his eyes become quite humble before sleeping. These first lines have a perfect metrical pattern and rhyme scheme to make it an excellent lyric poem. Examples #3 "Hymn of Pan" by Shelley "FROM the forests and highlands ⁠We come, we come; From the river-girt islands, ⁠Where loud waves are dumb ⁠Listening to my sweet pipings. The wind in the reeds and the rushes, ⁠The bees on the bells of thyme, The birds on the myrtle bushes, ⁠The cicale above in the lime, And the lizards below in the grass, Were as silent as ever old Tmolus was, ⁠Listening to my sweet pipings." This simple introduction of the forest, breeze, and hunger display the lyrical quality of the poem. The repetitive and elliptical structure of these two stanzas points out that the hymn has been actually composed for singing. Therefore, it is also considered one of the best lyric poems having perfect rhyme scheme suitable for singing. Examples #4 "A Dream of Fair Women" Lord Tennyson "I READ, before my eyelids dropt their shade, ⁠"The Legend of Good Women," long ago Sung by the morning star of song, who made ⁠His music heard below; Dan Chaucer, the first warbler, whose sweet breath ⁠Preluded those melodious bursts that fill The spacious times of great Elizabeth ⁠With sounds that echo still." This is an extract from the lyric poem of Lord Tennyson "A Dream of Fair Women." This poem is a perfect lyric poem as it shows almost all its features, as it has the musicality due to its rhyming pattern and meter. Its main theme is also the expression of the poet's emotions. Therefore, it makes a good lyric poem. Example #5 "Go, Lovely Rose" by Edmund Waller "Go, lovely Rose- Tell her that wastes her time and me, That now she knows, When I resemble her to thee, How sweet and fair she seems to be. Tell her that's young, And shuns to have her graces spied, That hadst thou sprung In deserts where no men abide, Thou must have uncommended died." Edmund Waller speaks to the rose flower he is going to send to his beloved to convey his emotions. The rhyming pattern shows that this lyric poem could be sung on occasion with the accompaniment of some instrument. It also shows the best expression of his personal feelings for his beloved. Lyric Poem Meaning and Function A lyric poem provides the poet with space to express his personal feelings he cannot show otherwise in prose or any other form. He is free to address anything and write in a way that it could be sung. It also provides the poet an opportunity to show how he can turn words into emotional outbursts that could be turned into music. The poet can freely compose, repeat and use rhyming patterns for music.

Spondee

A metrical foot, spondee is a beat in a poetic line that consists of two accented syllables (stressed/stressed) or DUM-DUM stress pattern. Spondee is a poetic device that is not as common as other metrical feet, like iamb and trochee. We rarely find poems written in spondee alone; however, poets use spondee by combining other metrical feet. For instance, the word "faithful" contains spondee. If you say this word loudly, you would notice that you are putting an equal amount of stress on both syllables "faith" and "ful." Features of Spondee It is one of the most commonly used five metrical feet, including iambic meter, trochaic meter, dactylic meter, and anapestic meter. It rarely occurs in poetic forms. Also, usually poets do not use spondaic meter in the entire poem, as it does not add a basis to the metrical line. Therefore, they combine it with other metrical patterns - a combination which changes the pace of the poem. Since it is an irregular foot, it does not add high structure or rhythm to a verse. Opposite to Pyrrhic Foot Spondee contains two long or accented syllables (stressed/stressed), while pyrrhic meter contains two short or unaccented syllables (unstressed/unstressed) in a quantitative meter, which is opposite to spondee. For example, see the pyrrhic syllables in bold in this line: "To a green thought in a green shade." We generally find pyrrhic meter in classical Greek poetry, whereas we find spondee in the modern prosodic system. Examples of Spondee in Literature Example #1: The Song of Hiawatha (By Henry Wordsworth Longfellow) "By the shore of Gitche Gumee, By the shining Big-Sea-Water, At the doorway of his wigwam,... All the air was full of freshness, All the earth was bright and joyous, And before him, through the sunshine, Westward toward the neighboring forest... Burning, singing in the sunshine." Longfellow has written this poem in tetrameter, which means the lines of this poem contains four beats, in which three beats are of spondee and one of trochee. Here, the spondaic feet are underlined. Example #2: Break, Break, Break (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "Break, break, break, On thy cold grey stones, O Sea! And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me." This is the most popular example of spondaic meter. Look at the first two lines of this stanza. Three consecutive spondaic meters are underlined. Read out these lines aloud, and you will notice both syllables are using equal stress pattern. Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare) "If I do prove her haggard, Though that her jesses were my dear heart-strings ..." This is a very good example of spondaic meter, where we can see double spondee in the first line "If I," and "do prove," and in the second line "heart-strings." Example #4: Pied Beauty (By Gerard Manley Hopkins) "Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough; And all trades, their gear and tackle and trim ... He fathers-forth whose beauty is past change ..." Hopkins uses heavy spondaic meter in this poem. The second line in this excerpt contains two consecutive accented syllables, "all" and "trades." Then, the third line also uses spondee "fathers-forth." Example #5: Troilus and Cressida (By William Shakespeare) "Cry, cry! Troy burns, or else let Helen go." Shakespeare begins these lines with double spondees. See there is a stress on both syllables of the word "cry," and then there is stress again on the two syllables "Troy burns." Example #6: Lepanto (By G. K. Chesterton) "White founts falling in the courts of the sun And the Soldan of Byzantium is smiling as they run ... " In this example, the first line contains spondee in the first two syllables. However, we do not see the use of this meter in the entire poem. Function of Spondee The purpose of using spondaic meter is to emphasize particular words, and to create heightened feeling, or provide an emotional experience to the readers by converting a normal expression into dramatic form. It also makes sense more compact and compressed. Though spondee does not add much rhythm, it adds feelings of expectancy in a verse. In addition, it governs both the individual couplet and the entire verse, and makes a poetic line structured in modern poetry. On the other hand, spondee has become more experimental.

Neologism

A neologism is a newly-created word used in expressions, in both writing and speaking. However, all neologisms are not entirely new. Some neologisms are built from new uses of old words, while others are combinations of old and new words. For instance, in the excerpt "Pardon, old father, my mistaking eyes that have been so bedazzled with the sun that everything I look on seemeth green" (The Taming of the Shrew, by William Shakespeare), Shakespeare has coined a word "bedazzled" to express the gleam of sunlight in describing rhinestone-embellished clothing. Popular Use of Neologism Banana Republic In Cabbages and Kings, a collection of short stories by O. Henry, the author introduced the term "banana republic." Later, politicians in the U.S. exploited this term in referring to unstable countries that depend upon exported products. Freelancer Sir Walter Scott, in his novel Ivanhoe, devised the term "Free Lancers" for people hired as militants. Doormat Charles Dickens first introduced the term "doormat" in his novel Great Expectations, as, "His rookie flailing set back the peace process (such as it was) and made him look like a doormat." Doormat refers to a thick piece of cloth placed on floor in front of the door to clean shoes. Use of Neologism in Internet Vernacular Twitter The onomatopoeic word "twitter" was first used by Geoffrey Chaucer. Yahoo Yahoo is one of the most popular terms in today's internet world. The word first appeared in Jonathan Swift's novel Gulliver's Travels. Types of Neologism There are a number of ways for coining new words, using a variety of neologism types. A few of these include: Blending Words or Portmanteaus This type is a blend of two words that create a completely new word such as: Smoke + fog = smog Breakfast + lunch = brunch Spoon + fork = spork Transferred Words These words are derived from other languages, adjusted in English such as, "herbs" has been taken from French herbes. Derived Words These words use Latin and ancient Greek phrases that match with their English counterparts such as, "village," "villager," and "villa" have all been derived from the Latin word villa. Examples of Neologism in Literature Example #1: NCIS (by Michael Weatherly) "McGee: What are we looking for? Abby: Just anything that's hinky. McGee: Why do you use that word? Abby: What word? McGee: Hinky. It's a made-up word. Abby: All words are made-up words." In this excerpt, the underlined word "hinky" is a coined word that is also a police slang, which means nervous or uneasy. Example #2: Jabberwocky (by Lewis Carroll) "And hast thou slain the Jabberwock? Come to my arms, my beamish boy! O frabjous day! Callooh! Callay!" He chortled in his joy." In this poem, Carroll has made up the words "calloh, callay" to express a laughing tone that comes between a snort and a chuckle. Example #3: If I Ran the Zoo (by Dr. Seuss) "And then, just to show them, I'll sail to Ka-Troo And Bring Back an It-Kutch a Preep and a Proo A Nerkle a Nerd and a Seersucker, too!" Here "Nerd" is a nickname for a creature with long mustaches, wild hair, red face, and yellow skin. It refers to a person having high-intelligence, but lacking social skills. Function of Neologism Neologism shows us that new words can be added to any language. It is not something to stay stagnant. Language constantly evolves and changes with new additions, deletions, and emissions. The task of a good neologism is to create new meanings of some abstract or material ideas that are evolving in new environments. It happens quite often that old words fail to convey the meanings of new circumstances. New words are coined to reflect the changing moods of the time. If a neologism does not convey a true meaning of the new situation, it soon ceases to exist.

Simple Paragraph

A paragraph contains a group of sentences intertwined with each other to discuss, or debate, or explain a central idea. It conventionally begins with an indented line. A beginner writer or a student usually starts writing a paragraph having seven sentences, while some professors of composition advise beginners to start with nine sentences, and some others ask them to start with eleven sentences. Some, however, teach all three paragraph types step by step. Elements of a Simple Paragraph A simple paragraph is comprised of three major components. The first sentence, which is often a declarative sentence, is called the "topic sentence." It introduces the topic of the paragraph, setting its tone and mood. The next few sentences elaborate, explain, and exemplify the topic introduced in it. These sentences also provide supporting details for the explanation or examples. The final sentence is the concluding sentence, which wraps up the topic discussed in the paragraph. Difference Between a Simple Paragraph and Body Paragraph of an Essay A simple paragraph is the first element taught in writing. It is an independent entity, without any connection to any other topic, thought or idea. It exists on its own. However, a body paragraph is part of an organized essay where several thoughts on a topic are discussed, and the body paragraph discusses one of them mentioned in the thesis statement of the essay. It has no ending sentence, as it connects the thought with the next paragraph. Examples of General Paragraphs in Literature Example #1: Politics and English Language (by George Orwell) "The inflated style itself is a kind of euphemism. A mass of Latin words falls upon the facts like soft snow, blurring the outline and covering up all the details. The great enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one's real and one's declared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms, like a cuttlefish spurting out ink. In our age there is no such thing as 'keeping out of politics.' All issues are political issues, and politics itself is a mass of lies, evasions, folly, hatred, and schizophrenia. When the general atmosphere is bad, language must suffer. I should expect to find — this is a guess which I have not sufficient knowledge to verify — that the German, Russian and Italian languages have all deteriorated in the last ten or fifteen years, as a result of dictatorship." Although this is a body paragraph, it can exist on its own. As this a typical example from literature, there are more sentences than a general student-written paragraph has. Example #2: The Theory of Knowledge (by Bertrand Russell) "The question how knowledge should be defined is perhaps the most important and difficult of the three with which we shall deal. This may seem surprising: at first sight it might be thought that knowledge might be defined as belief which is in agreement with the facts. The trouble is that no one knows what a belief is, no one knows what a fact is, and no one knows what sort of agreement between them would make a belief true. Let us begin with belief." This is another example of a good paragraph. It has also discussed a single point that is knowledge and then elaborated it further. It has just four sentences, but they are quite long to make it a unified whole. Example #3: The Olive Tree (by Aldous Huxley) "With clarity and definition is associated a certain physical spareness. Most of the great deciduous trees of England give one the impression, at any rate in summer, of being rather obese. In Scandinavian mythology Embla, the elm, was the first woman. Those who have lived much with old elm trees—and I spent a good part of my boyhood under their ponderous shade—will agree that the Scandinavians were men of insight. There is in effect something blowsily female about those vast trees that brood with all their bulging masses of foliage above the meadows of the home counties. In winter they are giant skeletons; and for a moment in the early spring a cloud of transparent emerald vapor floats in the air; but by June they have settled down to an enormous middle age." This is a very good example of a typical paragraph Aldous Huxley wrote for his essay "The Olive Tree." It has more sentences than a common paragraph has but it can exist on its own. Function of Simple Paragraph A paragraph is the smallest writing piece that can exist on its own. It discusses a complete thought or idea or point. It tells readers in an organized way about the thing that it discusses, describes or defines. For students, a paragraph is a first step to composition before writing a complete essay.

Passive Voice

A passive voice is a type of a clause or sentence in which an action (through verb), or an object of a sentence, is emphasized rather than its subject. Simply, the subject receives the action of the verb. The emphasis or focus is on the action, while the subject is not known or is less important. For instance, in the sentence "[Fern] found an old milking stool that had been discarded, and she placed the stool in the sheepfold next to Wilbur's pen" (Charlotte's Web, by E.B. White), the underlined phrase is an example of a passive voice in which the author has not identified the subject - the reader does not know who discarded the milking stool. Rather, the focus is on the action of placing the abandoned stool. Everyday Use of Passive Voice A book was written. The focus in this sentence is on the action of a book that was written; however, readers do not know who wrote the book. Many people were killed in the war against terrorism. The emphasis is on the action "were killed." Here again the subject is not identified. The house was renovated last week. The "house" has become the subject in this sentence, as it receives the action. The function is ruined. The focus in on something having been ruined, but the readers do not know who has ruined it. Types of Passive Voice Short Passive - In this type of construction, the subject or the performer is not known. For instance, in the phrase "a mistake is made," there is no subject, or the subject is unknown. Long Passive - In this type of construction, the object becomes the subject of the sentence. For instance, in the sentence, "The house was cleaned by aunty," the object "the house" has become the subject. Examples of Passive Voice in Literature Example #1: The Oxford History of the American People (by Samuel Eliot Morison) "America was discovered accidentally by a great seaman who was looking for something else... America was named after a man who discovered no part of the New World. History is like that, very chancy." Here, author Samuel Eliot Morison has employed passive voice in the underlined phrases. The first one is a short passive, while the second one is a long passive. Example #2: The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (by Douglas Adams) "In the beginning the Universe was created. This has made a lot of people very angry and has been widely regarded as a bad move." Both of these sentences have used passive voice. They have identified neither the subject, nor the performer. However, the action is clear; the readers able to understand the meanings. Example #3: Psychological Foundations of Educational Technology (by W.C. Trow and E.E. Haddan) "Thus it is believed that in the elementary school a class of fifteen pupils for one teacher gives better results than either a class of three or a class of thirty." In this long sentence, the subject is not identified, as the emphasis is on the action of "believing." This leaves the question of who believes. Example #4: Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well (by Maya Angelou) "Her bones were found round thirty years later when they razed her building to put up a parking lot." The underlined phrase is an example of a short passive voice construction in which the subject (who found her bones) is not known, because the sentence emphasizes the action and not the subject. Example #5: The Master of the Game (by Sidney Sheldon) "The large ballroom was crowded with familiar ghosts come to help celebrate her birthday... Earlier, dinner had been served outdoors. The large and formal garden had been festively decorated with lanterns and ribbons and balloons. Their corpses had been perfectly preserved by the ammonia in the air, and their hair had turned a bright red." Sidney Sheldon has not mentioned who crowded the ballroom, who served the dinner, or who decorated garden. He has only mentioned the actions to draw the attention of the readers to the preparations. Function of Passive Voice Style guides do not support the use of passive voice in technical writings, because it makes the text lengthy, slow to read, and often ambiguous. However, it is very common in literature, lab reports, and scientific writings, where the performer is given lesser importance than the action. In these types of writings, a passive voice is very helpful to avoid taking responsibility of the actions. It is also useful when a writer wants to shift focus from the subject to an action.

Ad Hominem

Ad hominem is a Latin word that means "against the man." As the name suggests, it is a literary term that involves commenting on or against an opponent, to undermine him instead of his arguments. There are cases in which, whether consciously or unconsciously, people start to question the opponent or his personal associations, rather than evaluating the soundness and validity of the argument that he presents. These types of arguments are usually mistaken for personal insults, but they are somehow different in nature, and the distinction is very subtle. Arguers who are not familiar with the principles of making logical arguments commonly end up saying something that would draw the audience's attention to the distasteful characteristics of the individual. Such people use this fallacy as a tool to deceive their audiences. Making such a blatant personal comment against somebody makes it hard for people to believe it isn't true. Typically, even the arguer himself believes that such personal traits or circumstances are not enough to dispose of an individual's opinion or argument. However, if looked at rationally, such arguments - even if true - never provide a valid reason to disregard someone's criticism. Examples of Ad Hominem Example #1: "How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you are enjoying that steak?" This clearly shows how a person is attacked instead of being addressed for or against his argument. Example #2: A classic example of ad hominem fallacy is given below: A: "All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn't a murderer, and so can't be a criminal." B: "Well, you're a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument." Example #3: VeloNews: The Journal of Competitive Cycling After an article about the retirement of Lance Armstrong, the VeloNews webpage shared a post with its readers. A commenter posted a comment saying how great an athlete Armstrong was, and that people should be proud of his achievements. Another commenter wrote in response to the first commenter: "He's not a great athlete; he's a fraud, a cheat and a liar. That's why not everybody is 'happy for Lance.'" The reasons given by the arguer may very well be true, but he does not support his argument with reason and logic. He rather takes the disregarding approach. He does not say anything to prove that the premises he proposes are problematic. Instead, he goes on attacking the person who proposed them. Function of Ad Hominem A writer's background is considered to be a very important factor when it comes to judging his work. A book written on a particular subject in history will be perceived differently, keeping in mind the background of the author. Therefore, it is important to understand that a writer's traits and circumstances have a pivotal role to play in his feelings, thinking, and the construction of his arguments. To put it simply, the considerations regarding the use of ad hominem can explain certain arguments and the motives behind them better. Nevertheless, such considerations are not enough on their own to evaluate an individual's opinion, and are certainly not sufficient to disregard them as false or invalid. The fact is that ad hominem is a kind of fallacy that leaves a great impression on the audience's mind. It is an argumentative flaw that is hard to spot in our daily lives. Although, the personal attack that has been made on the opponent might not have even a speck of truth in it, it somehow makes the audience biased. Ironically, despite being flawed, ad hominem has an amazing power of persuasion. The worst thing about using ad hominem purposely is that an opponent insults you publicly. Whenever this happens to you, you must recover from the humiliation and then point out the false connection in the argument, which was used as a trap for the audience. Moreover, the dilemma with ad hominem is that, once it has been used against a person, it smears his reputation. Once somebody makes such a judgmental argument about someone, the audience instead of evaluating it on logical grounds takes it to be true.

Propaganda

Propaganda is the spreading of rumors, false or correct information, or an idea, in order to influence the opinion of society. It may advance an idea or bring into disrepute an opposite idea. In literature, writers use propaganda as a literary technique to manipulate public opinion for or against one idea or another. In history, we can search a plethora of literary works used as propaganda to shape public perceptions, and direct their behavior to get a response. Generally, propaganda is a technique for convincing people, but which is misleading in nature, or promotes a false viewpoint. Popular Examples of Propaganda The U.S. dropped leaflets in a propaganda campaign in Iraq, to let the people know that Saddam Hussein was the real culprit they were looking for. People use name-calling as propaganda, such as "My enemy is a drug addict." During the McCarthy era, mass media attempted to persuade the public, through propaganda, that Communists had become very powerful, and that they would take over the U.S. Slogans or catchphrases can work as propaganda, when they are repeated over and over. Eventually, the public starts believing them. Selling happiness has become popular concept in ads, and serves as propaganda such as famous celebrities explain to the public why they need to purchase the product because it would solve their problems. Examples of Propaganda in Literature Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) Propaganda played a very important role in the Russian Revolution. George Orwell wrote his novel Animal Farm after this revolution, and used anti-communist propaganda as its major theme. The author manipulated the speech of the character Squealer, which is a pig portrayed as Napoleon's spokesperson. One example of Squealer's propaganda is to get the support of other animals. He uses manipulated speech to disapprove of Snowball's part in the uprising revolt after his banishment from the farm. He uses the stupidity of animals for his benefit, and plays with their minds by describing a different side of events in the Battle of the Cowshed. We can see another example of propaganda in this novel, when pigs twist the rules and the Seven Commandments for their own advantage. The original rule reads: "No animal shall be killed by any other animal." They change this to: "No animal shall be killed by any other animal without cause." Example #2: The Orphan Master's Son (By Adam Johnson) Adam Johnson's novel The Orphan Master's Son deals with the themes of identity, state power, and propaganda in North Korea. The story is about two men from North Korea who revolted against the tyrannical government of their country. Through their story, readers get the impression that the North Korean leaders are selfish, as they kidnap their people, steal their money, and cheat them. Example #3: Richard III (By W. H. Auden) Many critics consider some historical plays of Shakespeare as Tudor propagandas, as they depict civil war dangers, and commemorate the Tudor dynasty's founders. Similarly, in his play Richard III, Shakespeare uses propaganda, when we see Richard shapes the readers' perceptions. He gains the sympathies of other characters in the play when he declares his deformity is the root cause of wickedness in his character. Hence, he makes use of deformity as propaganda, and controls, injures, and manipulates other people for his personal gain. Example #4: Lord of the Flies (By William Golding) In William Golding's Lord of the Flies, the author introduces the concept of a beast, using propaganda by his character Jack, who plans to take control of a totalitarian government. He uses propaganda by manipulating the cognition of the young boys, frightening them about the existence of the beast in that area. He accuses Ralph, who does not carry out his duty to provide protection to the children, and consequently takes charge of a new tribe that would follow his tyrannical rules. Function of Propaganda We can easily find the use of propaganda technique in mass media advertising, politics, and literature. It is a very popular technique in academic commentary, and is taken as an interchangeable form of communication. The primary function of propaganda is to persuade the audience, and to mold their perceptions about a particular cause. Often, propaganda assists in promoting policies. In addition, it aims at getting a response of the audience taking a certain action. This is because merely securing a commitment or assent would not be enough for making this technique successful, and securing its purpose. Besides, propaganda serves as an effective weapon to rouse people by making them realize their vulnerabilities and frailties, instead of comforting them with illusions.

Explicatory Essay

"Explication" means to explain the work of an item of literature. An explication, or "explicatory" essay is used to explain and interpret a piece of literature such as a poem, a play, a novel, or a short story. It often examines sentences, verses, or passages extracted from longer literary works. Like all other types of essays, however, it also needs a clear thesis around which body parts focus, ending on a conclusion. The text is cited at different places to support the main claim and move the argument forward. Difference Between an Explicatory Essay and a Critical Essay A critical essay is also a literary type of essay. It discusses only the piece's literary merits and demerits, by comparing it with other literary pieces. An explicatory essay, on the other hand, discusses the full structure of the literary piece. Examples of Explicatory Essay in Literature Example #1: A Poetry of Proximity (By Solmaz Sharif) "Language, of course, is constantly being redefined, not just by demagogues, but by people who employ it. Language is we realized. Each word has passed mouth by mouth over the centuries, changed by intonation and accent, changed by wit and utility. Those before us decided that a certain thing—an amaranth, a colander—needs naming. Naming, as Emerson argues, is a poet's undertaking. It is not happenstance that the poet's job is the job of language itself—to reach beyond the impossible chasm of two minds, of multiple times, and make known the inner things. And language, like the other democratic things—freedom of assembly, habeas corpus—is among first casualties of war. The maiming and obliteration of language preempts and attempts to excuse the maiming and obliteration of bodies. Poets, as the caretakers of language, if by no other contested purpose of poetry—to humanize, to emote, to demand a 'total reaction' as Muriel Rukeyser puts it—are called upon to respond, to defend their medium." This is the best example of an explication of poetry. Solmaz Sharif has given a review of the what is proximity in poetry and how proximity of poetry helps poets to humanize feelings. Example #2: The Well Wrought Urn (by Cleanth Brooks) "T. S. Eliot, for example, says that 'this line ["Beauty is truth," etc.] strikes me as a serious blemish on a beautiful poem; and the reason must be either that I fail to understand it, or that it is a statement which is untrue.' But even for persons who feel that they do understand it, the line may still constitute a blemish. Middleton Murry, who, after a discussion of Keats's other poems and his letters, feels that he knows what Keats meant by 'beauty' and what he meant by 'truth,' and that Keats used them in senses which allowed them to be properly bracketed together, still, is forced to conclude: 'My own opinion concerning the value of these two lines in the context of the poem itself is not very different from Mr. T. S. Eliot's.' The troubling assertion is apparently an intrusion upon the poem-does not grow out of it-is not dramatically accommodated to it." This is another example of explication of Ode to Urn by John Keats. Cleanth Brooks has reviewed the poem and the role of Urn it along with Eliot's thought about Keats' poetry. Example #3: Metaphysical Poets (by T. S. Eliot) "Not only is it extremely difficult to define metaphysical poetry, but difficult to decide what poets practise it and in which of their verses. The poetry of Donne (to whom Marvell and Bishop King are sometimes nearer than any of the other authors) is late Elizabethan, its feeling often very close to that of Chapman. The 'courtly' poetry is derivative from Jonson, who borrowed liberally from the Latin; it expires in the next century with the sentiment and witticism of Prior. There is finally the devotional verse of Herbert, Vaughan, and Crashaw (echoed long after by Christina Rossetti and Francis Thompson); Crashaw, sometimes more profound and less sectarian than the others, has a quality which returns through the Elizabethan period to the early Italians. It is difficult to find any precise use of metaphor, simile, or other conceit, which is common to all the poets and at the same time important enough as an element of style to isolate these poets as a group. Donne, and often Cowley, employ a device which is sometimes considered characteristically 'metaphysical'; the elaboration (contrasted with the condensation) of a figure of speech to the farthest stage to which ingenuity can carry it." This is an example of Eliot's explication of poetry by metaphysical poets such as Herbert, Vaughan, and Crashaw. He has explicated several of their poems in his essay. Example #4: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen) "Mr. Bingley was good-looking and gentlemanlike; he had a pleasant countenance, and easy, unaffected manners. ... he was discovered to be proud, to be above his company, and above being pleased; and not all his large estate in Derbyshire could then save him from having a most forbidding, disagreeable countenance, and being unworthy to be compared with his friend." Mr. Bingley, the romantic interest of Jane, and his friend, Mr. Darcey, are described in this excerpt through direct characterization. She has admired Mr. Bingley for his pleasant countenance, comparing him to Mr. Darcy. Example #5: The Canterbury Tales (by Geoffrey Chaucer) "He yaf nat of that text a pulled hen, That seith that hunters ben nat hooly men, Ne that a monk, whan he is recchelees... His heed was balled, that shoon as any glas, And eek his face, as he hadde been enoynt. His eyen stepe, and rollynge in his heed, That stemed as a forneys of a leed; His bootes souple, his hors in greet estaat." Through monk's portrait, his physical and social life, readers see a satire of the religious figures that should live a proper monastic life of hard work and deprivation. This is the achievement of the description of Chaucer that he has described a character through direct characterization. Function of an Explicatory Essay An explicatory essay does not directly point out merits and demerits of a poem or a short story. Rather, it discusses the text and its structure. The merits of the work emerge out of its explicatory analysis. Readers fully understand the deficiencies or demerits if there are any, but a critic only discusses the structure and what is presents within the text in a critical essay.

Paralipsis

Paralipsis is from the Greek word paraleipein, which means "to omit," or "to leave something on one side." It is defined as a rhetorical device in which an idea is deliberately suggested through a brief treatment of a subject, while most of the significant points are omitted. It is explained through the use of this device that some points are too obvious to mention. Also, paralipsis is a way of emphasizing a subject by apparently passing over it. This is one of the finest contemporary examples of paralipsis: "I'm not saying I'm responsible for this country's longest run of uninterrupted peace in 35 years! I'm not saying that from the ashes of captivity, never has a Phoenix metaphor been more personified! I'm not saying Uncle Sam can kick back on a lawn chair, sipping on an iced tea, because I haven't come across any one man enough to go toe to toe with me on my best day!" (Iron Man 2 by Justin Theroux) Features of Paralipsis Paralipsis is a literary device in which a speaker pretends to hide what he exactly wants to say and enforce. It is a type of irony in which an outline of a message is conveyed in a manner that seems to suppress the exact message. Paraliptic strike-through is a form of paralipsis. It is a standard rhetorical device in journalism and print media. Examples of Paralipsis in Literature Example #1: The Knight's Tale (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "The music, the service at the feast, The noble gifts for the great and small, The rich adornment of Theseus's palace All these things I do not mention now." In the example above, paralipsis is used wonderfully. Though all the important points are mentioned clearly, Chaucer seems to pretend in the final line that he has not given any significance to these points. Example #2: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift) "Therefore, let no man talk to me of other expedients: of taxing our absentees ... of using neither clothes, nor house hold furniture ... of curing the expensiveness of pride, vanity, idleness, and gaming, of learning to love our country..." This excerpt is a good example of paralipsis, as Swift briefly suggests the idea of expedients, while trying to show that this idea is not of much significance and should be passed over. Example #3: Blue Shoes and Happiness (By Alexander McCall Smith) "Ssh," said Grace Makutsi, putting a finger to her lips. "It's not polite to talk about it. SO I won't mention the Double Comfort Furniture Shop, which is one of the businesses my fiance owns, you know. I must not talk about that. But do you know the store, Mma? If you save up, you should come in some day and buy a chair ..." Here, the orator emphasizes the point by passing over it, saying, "I must not talk about that." The nullifying statement is mentioning the furniture shop. The paraliptic line is in bold. Example #4: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) "Have patience, gentle friends, I must not read it. It is not meet you know how Caesar loved you. You are not wood; you are not stones, but men; And, being men, hearing the will of Caesar, It will inflame you, it will make you mad ... For if you should-oh-what would come of it! ... But here's a parchment, with the seal of Caesar; I found it in his closet. 'Tis his will. Let but the commons hear this testament— Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read— ..." This is one of the most famous paralipsis examples. Here, Mark Antony provokes the public by talking about the will of Caesar; meanwhile, he suppresses the matter without directly mentioning the subject. Function of Paralipsis The purpose of the employment of paralipsis is to deliberately emphasize or assert an idea by pretending to ignore or pass over it. Paralipsis examples are very common in literary works, journalism, and political speeches. The orators use this device to draw the attention of readers towards a sensitive matter, while the orator ostensibly seems detached from it. Often, descriptive works that lack the direct meaning of an idea use paralipsis. Besides, as a rhetorical device, its approach is ironic because the intentions of writers are different. However, writers use paralipsis in order to keep themselves away from unfair claims, though they bring them up quite often.

Parallel Structure

Parallel structure is a stylistic device, and a grammatical construction having two or more clauses, phrases or words, with similar grammatical form and length. It is similar to parallelism. In parallel structure, sentences have a series of phrases or clauses, which start and end in almost a similar fashion, by keeping the rhythm of the lines. These structures are repetitions that offer an enjoyable time for the readers to absorb and understand ideas, facts, and concepts. Everyday Examples of Parallel Structure Many people like riding, hiking, biking, and swimming. The teacher told the students that they need to get up early in the morning, that they need to sleep properly, and that they need to eat properly. The cat runs across the garden, jumps over to the plant, and moves down the road. Examples of Parallel Structure in Literature Example #1: Good Faith (by Jane Smiley) "I had been short, and now I was tall. I had been skinny and quiet and religious, and now I was good-looking and muscular. It was Sally Baldwin who brought me along, told me what to wear and do and think and say. She was never wrong; she never lost her patience. She created me, and when she was done we broke up in a formal sense, but she kept calling me." You can see how perfectly the author has repeated and emphasized the first two lines in the above paragraph. The author has combined several elements, but given them a balance by parallel clauses. Example #2: Goodbye to Forty-Eighth Street (by E.B. White) "The wheels wheeled, the chairs spun, the cotton candy tinted the faces of children, the bright leaves tinted the woods and hills. A cluster of amplifiers spread the theme of love over everything and everybody; the mild breeze spread the dust over everything and everybody. Next morning, in the Lafayette Hotel in Portland, I went down to breakfast and found May Craig looking solemn at one of the tables and Mr. Murray, the auctioneer, looking cheerful at another." The above paragraph shows parallel structures. They not only give a balance, but also a grace to the passage by enhancing its readability. Example #3: Of Studies (by Francis Bacon) "Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider." In these lines, the parallel structures use repetition to lay emphasis, and help the readers to memorize the sentences easily. Example #4: Great Expectations (by Charles Dickens) "A fearful man, all in coarse grey, with a great iron on his leg. A man with no hat, and with broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head. A man who had been soaked in water, and smothered in mud, and lamed by stones, and cut by flints, and stung by nettles, and torn by briars... and glared and growled; and whose teeth chattered in his head as he seized me by the chin." This excerpt presents a perfect example of parallel structure, describing a convict who becomes Magwitch. Notice that the first three sentences, which start in a similar way, while the next phrases follow another, similar structure. Example #5: Still Life with Woodpecker (by Tom Robbins) "Humanity has advanced, when it has advanced, not because it has been sober, responsible, and cautious, but because it has been playful, rebellious, and immature." This is another excellent example of parallel structure. These structures give rhythm to sentences and leaving them grammatically balanced. Example #6: We Real Cool (by Gwendolyn Brooks) We real cool. We Left school. We Lurk late. We Strike straight. We Sing sin. We Thin gin. We Jazz June. We Die soon. The parallel structures in this short poem give it a little waltz and jingle feel. Each parallel sentence follows a basic pattern, starting with pronouns and ending with nouns and adverbs, except the first line, which ends with an adjective. Function of Parallel Structure Parallel structure creates fluency in writing and enhances readability, as it uses patterns of words in a way that readers can easily follow, and relate them to each other. It makes language appear refined, especially in writing and advertising. It also lends consistency to professional writing, as it provides rhythm and balance that lead the readers to the exact idea, without any misguidance. In addition, parallel structures synchronize, repeat and emphasize the words and thoughts of the writers.

Parallelism

Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning, or meter. Parallelism examples are found in literary works as well as in ordinary conversations. This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences, giving ideas a smoother flow and thus persuasiveness, because of the repetition it employs. For example, "Alice ran into the room, into the garden, and into our hearts." We see the repetition of a phrase that not only gives the sentence a balance, but rhythm and flow as well. This repetition can also occur in similarly structured clauses, such as, "Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there for you." Common Examples of Parallelism Like father, like son. Easy come, easy go. Whether in class, at work, or at home, Shasta was always busy. Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe. Short Examples of Parallelism in Speech They got together, conversed, and dispersed, but to no avail. He came, he saw, and he conquered. He wanted to have a new house to live in, and a new car to drive. The applicant was approached through telephone, email, and snail mail. Their new teacher was neither a Catholic, nor an Anglican. His favorite foods are chocolate, chips, and soft drinks. The new airline claims to be fast, efficient, and safe. James liked fast food, while Mary liked conventional food. The boss said, "You need to work hard and be efficient to get a promotion." The political leader said, "The present government has ruined the economy; it has ruined the education system; and it has ruined the health system of our country." Shakespeare was a prolific playwright and an excellent sonneteer. The culprit was wanted dead or alive. He preferred fruits to sweets. The book was interesting as well as adventurous. For success in life, one needs to pursue his goal with determination and perseverance. Examples of Parallelism in Literature In literature, parallelism is used in different ways to impress upon the readers certain messages or moral lessons. Let us analyze a few examples of parallelism in literature: Example #1: An Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope) Antithesis is a kind of parallelism in which two opposite ideas are put together in parallel structures. Alexander Pope, in his An Essay on Criticism, uses antithetic parallel structure: "To err is human; to forgive divine." Imperfection is a human trait, and God is most forgiving. Through these antithetical but parallel structures, the poet wants to say that God is forgiving because his creation is erring. Example #2: Community (By John Donne) "Good we must love, and must hate ill, For ill is ill, and good good still; But there are things indifferent, Which we may neither hate, nor love, But one, and then another prove, As we shall find our fancy bent." Contrasting ideas of "good" and "ill," "love" and "hate," are placed together in parallel structures to emphasize the fact that we love good because it is always good, and we hate bad because it is always bad. Example #3: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) We see the repetition of parallel structures in the following lines from A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." By repeating "It was..." in the passage, the readers are prompted to focus on the traits of the "age" they will read about in the succeeding passages. Example #4: The Tyger (By William Blake) "What the hammer? what the chain? In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil? what dread grasp Dare its deadly terrors clasp?" Blake uses parallel structures, starting with "what" in each phrase, creating a beautiful rhythm in the above lines. Example #5: Henry VIII, Act 3, Scene 2 (By William Shakespeare) Parallelism takes form of "Diazeugma," in which a single subject is connected with multiple verbs. Read the following lines from the speech of Norfolk in William Shakespeare's Henry VIII, Act 3, Scene 2: "My lord, we have Stood here observing him: Some strange commotion Is in his brain: he bites his lip, and starts; Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground, Then, lays his finger on his temple; straight, Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again, Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts His eye against the moon: in most strange postures We have seen him set himself." The use of multiple verbs in the above lines creates a dramatic effect in the speech of Norfolk, which makes his description vivid. Example #6: I have a Dream speech (By Martin Luther King Jr.) "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal.' "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. "I have a dream today." This is a speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. in which he repeats the phrase, "I have a dream" several times. This phrase later became the title of the speech. This is a good example of parallelism. Example #7: How do I Love Thee (By Elizabeth Barrett Browning) "I love thee freely, as men strive for right. I love thee purely, as they turn from praise." These two verses from the poem of Elizabeth Barrett Browning have been made parallel by the repetition of "I love thee." Example #8: Presidential Inauguration Speech (By Barack Obama) "My fellow citizens: I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors." In this speech, U.S. President Barack Obama uses structural parallelism in the bold phrases, giving his speech beauty. Function of Parallelism The use of parallel structures in speech or writing allows speakers and writers to maintain a consistency within their work, and create a balanced flow of ideas. Moreover, it can be employed as a tool for persuasion.

Parenthesis

Parenthesis is a stylistic device that comes from the Greek word meaning "to place," or "alongside." Parenthesis is a qualifying or explanatory sentence, clause, or word that writers insert into a paragraph or passage. However, if they leave it out, even then it does not grammatically affect the text, which is correct without it. Writers mark these explanatory clauses off by round or square brackets, or by commas, dashes, or little lines. As far as its purpose is concerned, this verbal unit provides extra information, interrupts the syntactic flow of words, and allows readers to pay attention to the explanation. However, the overuse of parenthesis may make sentences look ambiguous and poorly structured. Examples of Parenthesis in Literature Example #1: One Art (By Elizabeth Bishop) "—Even losing you (the joking voice, a gesture I love) I shan't have lied. It's evident the art of losing's not too hard to master though it may look like (Write it!) like disaster." Bishop uses an abrupt, excruciating parenthesis towards the end of the poem. For this, she uses brackets, for expressing understatement, and for suggesting how to cope with losses through art by using the phrase "write it." Example #2: The Elements of Style (By William Strunk, Jr. and E. B. White) "It is now necessary to warn you that your concern for the reader must be pure: you must sympathize with the reader's plight (most readers are in trouble about half the time) but never seek to know the reader's wants. Your whole duty as a writer is to please and satisfy yourself..." The style guidebook provides parenthetical information several times. Here, you can see how the authors have explained the reader's plight by giving descriptive sentence in brackets, showing how readers are in trouble. Example #3: The Dogwood Tree: A Boyhood (By John Updike) "A little gravel alley, too small to be marked with a street sign but known in the neighborhood as Shilling Alley, wound hazardously around our property and on down, past an untidy sequence of back buildings (chicken houses, barns out of plumb, a gun shop, a small lumber mill, a shack where a blind man lived, and the enchanted grotto of a garage whose cement floors had been waxed to the luster of ebony by oil drippings ... silver water so cold it made your front teeth throb) on down to Lancaster Avenue, the main street, where the trolley cars ran." Look, the author has employed a detailed descriptive parenthesis in this passage. He explains in detail a sequence of untidy back buildings, and why they give such a miserable look. Example #4: The Horse and His Boy (By C. S. Lewis) "[I]n Calormen, story-telling (whether the stories are true or made up) is a thing you're taught, just as English boys and girls are taught essay-writing. The difference is that people want to hear the stories, whereas I never heard of anyone who wanted to read the essays." Here, Lewis uses round brackets to describe the story, specifying whether they are true or made up. He means to say that people like to listen to a story, which are not taught as are essays. Hence, essays seem boring. Example #5: Lights Out for the Territory (By Iain Sinclair) " 'Black dog' is the mood of bottomless, suicidal despair suffered, most notoriously, by Winston Churchill (himself a kind of bulldog in nappies, a logo for Empire; growling and dribbling, wheezing smoke, swollen veins fired with brandy)." In this essay, Sinclair gives the readers a unique, enlightened, provocative, disturbing, and utterly daring picture of modern city life in London, and of its people. In the process, he reveals a dark underbelly of London, as you can see his provocative understatement and parenthetical information about Winston Churchill. Function of Parenthesis Parenthesis makes the statements more convincing, as it puts the readers in a right form from the very beginning where they read it as an explanation. However, its main function is to give more explanation and add emphasis, while its repeated use can cause focus and thus makes parenthetical insertions a dominant feature of a sentence. Parenthesis also offers readers an insight into true feelings and opinions of characters and narrators, while they might tend to evade parenthetical information as unimportant. Doing this, parenthesis could leave them clueless to the actual purpose of a sentence. In addition, it often creates humorous effect by using hyperbole and understatements.

Parody

Parody is an imitation of a particular writer, artist, or genre, exaggerating it deliberately to produce a comic effect. The humorous effect in parody is achieved by imitating and overstressing noticeable features of a famous piece of literature, as in caricatures, where certain peculiarities of a person are highlighted to achieve a humorous effect. We, in our daily lives, can employ the above technique to spoof somebody for the sake of fun. For example, there is an Indian student in your classroom, and one day, in a gathering of a few friends, you say, "Will you veddy much bring me a Coke please?" This imitation of an Indian accent is a parody. Parody examples are often confused as examples of satire. Although parody can be used to develop satire, it differs from satire to a certain extent. Parody mimics a subject directly, to produce a comical effect. Satire, on the other hand, makes fun of a subject without a direct imitation. Moreover, satire aims at correcting shortcomings in society by criticizing them. Parody Examples in Everyday Life Example #1: TV Shows of Parody and Satire In our daily watching of television, we may see extremely hilarious examples of parody in shows that blend parody and satire. Examples like The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, and The Larry Sanders Show are renowned for mimicking famous political personalities, and this allows them to target what they think are unintelligent political and social viewpoints. Example #2: Mimicking Movies Parody has entered our day-to-day life through hilarious parody movies that mimic famous blockbusters. For instance, the movie Vampire Sucks parodies and pokes fun at the blockbuster Twilight series, which was a film adaptation of Stephanie Meyer's novel Twilight. Examples of Parody in Literature Example #1: Sonnet 130 (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare wrote Sonnet 130 in parody of traditional love poems common in his day. He presents an anti-love poem theme in a manner of a love poem, mocking the exaggerated comparisons they made: "My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips' red; If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head. I have seen roses damasked, red and white, But no such roses see I in her cheeks..." Unlike a love-poem goddess, his mistress does not have eyes like the sun, she does not have red lips, nor does she have a white complexion. Her cheeks do not have a rosy color, and her hair is not silky smooth. All the cliché qualities are missing in his mistress. Such a description allows Shakespeare to poke fun at the love poets who looked for such impossible qualities in their beloved. Example #2: Don Quixote (By Miguel de Cervantes) Don Quixote, written by Miguel de Cervantes, is a parody of romances written in his day. The main character, Quixote, and his overweight sidekick Sancho, delude themselves to thinking that they are knights of the medieval romances. They believe that they are entrusted with the obligation to save the world. Therefore, the adventure starts as an imitation of the real romances but of course, in a hilarious manner. We laugh at how Quixote was bestowed knighthood in his battle with the giants [windmills]. We enjoy how the knight helps the Christian king against the army of a Moorish monarch [herd of sheep]. These and the rest of the incidents of the novel are written in the style of Spanish romances of the 16th century to mock the idealism of knights in the contemporary romances. Example #3: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels is a parody of travel narratives, as well as a satire on contemporary England. As the empire of England spread to far off lands, it became a center of navigation and exploration. Adventure and travel narratives telling stories of strange lands became popular. Example #4: Robinson Crusoe (By Daniel Defoe) Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe was a travel narrative. Swift adopted a similar mode to describe Gulliver's travels to the strange land of Lilliput, and other such places where he meets "Lilliputians," and the giant "Brobdingnagians." He also meets other strange creatures like "Laputians" and "Houyhnhnms," and the "Yahoos". The parody for Swift was intended as a satire on English society. Function of Parody Parody is a kind of comedy that imitates and mocks individuals or a piece of work. However, when it mingles with satire, it makes satire more pointed and effective. Most importantly, a parody appeals to the reader's sense of humor. He enjoys the writer poking fun at the set ideals of society, and becomes aware of the lighter side of an otherwise serious state of affairs. Thus, parody adds spice to a piece of literature that keeps the readers interested.

Paronomasia

Paronomasia is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a phrase intentionally used to exploit the confusion between words having similar sounds but different meanings. It is like a word play, and is also known as a "pun." Types of Paronomasia There are two types of paronomasia: Typographic Paronomasia Typographic paronomasia is further classified into five categories: Homophonic - The use of words that sound the same, but have different meanings, such as "Pour out corruption's slag from every pore." Homographic - Words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings, such as "David doesn't feel well today," and "My uncle is digging a new well." Homonymic - These words include both homographs and homophones. Compound - These contain two or more puns in a sentence. Recursive - In these, the second part of a pun depends upon the meaning of the first. Visual Paronomasia These are actually puns and used in non-phonetic texts. Visual paronomasia includes the "4 Pics 1 Word" word game, where players are supposed to look at four pictures and guess the word that they have in common. Examples of Paronomasia in Literature Paronomasia underscores the expertise of writers and their characters. From Jesus Christ to Shakespeare, examples of paronomasia have been crafted to create rhetorical effect. Example #1: Richard III (By William Shakespeare) Launce: "It is no matter if the tied were lost; for it is the unkindest tied that ever any man tied." Richard: "Now is the winter of our discontent ... made glorious summer by this Son of York." William Shakespeare is probably the most renowned punster in literature. Here the word "tied" is used three times as homophonic paronomasia, giving different meanings in three different places. Similarly, the word "son" is King Edward IV, not the weather of York. Example #2: A Hymn to God the Father (By John Donne) "When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more. That at my death Thy Son Shall shine as he shines now, and heretofore And having done that, Thou hast done; I fear no more." In the above excerpt, John Donne has rhymed his name with "done," and his wife's name Anne More with "more." The words are underlined. This is an example of homophonic paronomasia. Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Mercutio: "Nay, gentle Romeo, we must have you dance." Romeo: "Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles; I have a soul of lead ... So stakes me to the ground I cannot move..." This extract is again an example of homophonic paronomasia. Shakespeare has exploited the words "sole" and "soul." Both sound the same, though they have different meanings, creating comic effect. Example #4: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens) "Tickler was a wax-ended piece of cane, worn smooth by collision with my tickled frame." Here, Dickens plays on the word "tickle." This word is maneuvered in such a way that it gives two different meanings and comic effect. Example #5: Ulysses (By James Joyce) "If you see kay Tell him he may See you in tea Tell him from me -" Joyce has included this brief poem with paronomasia words in it. Here, the word "see" is used with the same spelling but different meanings. It is creating humor when spelled out. Example #6: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Claudius:"...But now, my cousin Hamlet, and my son." Hamlet: [aside] "A little more than kin, and less than kind ... Not so, my lord, I am too much in the sun." Here, Hamlet is distressed that his mother married his uncle, which is not allowed in Christianity. The word "kind" is used as a short form of kindred. Shakespeare plays with the meaning of this word "kind." Function of Paronomasia Paronomasia gives thoughtful meanings to literary texts, aside from providing humorous and witty comments. Through paronomasia, writers demonstrate the shrewdness of characters, and their own ingenuity by playing with the words. Besides, in literary works, paronomasia functions as a purposeful efforts to provide a source of comic relief, and to show their artistic ability. Being a source of fun, paronomasia is used in comedy theaters, and jokes give humorous meanings to perplexing stories. Also, it is found in limerick forms of poetry.

Parrhesia

Parrhesia is borrowed from a Greek word that means "to speak boldly, freely, or with bombastic bluntness." It is saying something boldly and freely without leaving any doubt behind. It involves not only the freedom of speech, but also implies the use of truth in speech or writing. In Parrhesia, writers open their minds and hearts fully to the readers or audience through discourse, and a speaker makes it clear what his opinion is. In simple words, it is a direct expression shown through words. Evolution of Parrhesia Parrhesia first appeared in Euripides as a rhetorical device in Geek literature, and it evolved through several centuries. Later on, parrhesia was introduced in Athenian democracy. Finally it entered into the field of philosophy, where Socrates was known as a true parrhesiastic writer. Examples of parrhesia are found in the works of Seneca, a famous Greek Epicurean, who is famous for having used parrhesia. Examples of Parrhesia in Literature Example #1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) Kent: "Royal Lear Whom I ever honoured as king, Lov'd as my father, as my master follow'd ... This hideous rashness ..." Kent shows a respectful protest to King Lear on behalf of Cordelia, which is an example of parrhesia. Though he wins sudden banishment and the enmity of the king, he persuades the audience through his uprightness and honesty. Example #2: The Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "Ne that a monk, whan he is cloisterlees, Is lykned til a fish that is waterlees; This is to seyn, a monk out of his cloistre ... ...Upon a book in cloistrealwey to poure, As Austin bit? How shal the world be served? Lat Austin have his swink to him reserved..." Chaucer criticizes a monk through free speech in this passage, by saying that the monk is supposed to do his duty for the church and the welfare of people; but instead, he involves himself in other activities like hunting. Example #3: A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) "The muddy streets were gay. He strode homeward, conscious of an invisible grace pervading and making light his limbs. In spite of all he had done it. He had confessed and God had pardoned him ... It was beautiful to live in grace a life of peace and virtue and forbearance with others..." Here, the narrator boldly reports the dialogue and thoughts of the character. He speaks in such a way as if the character himself is speaking directly and freely. Example #4: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) "Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short." "No, comrades, a thousand times no! The soil of England is fertile, its climate is good." "Man is the only real enemy we have. Remove Man from the scene, and the root cause of hunger and overwork is abolished for ever." In this passage, all the animals listen carefully to Old Major, who tells them the plain truth - that their lives are miserable and laborious solely due to human oppressors. He instructs them through free speech that human beings are the only reasons for their plight. Example #5: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift) "These mothers instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, are forced to employ all their time in strolling to beg sustenance for their helpless infants who, as they grow up, either turn thieves for want of work, or leave ... I think it is agreed by all parties that this prodigious number of children in arms, or on backs, or at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is, in the present deplorable state of the kingdom, a very great additional grievance." The writer brings into play a sense of melancholy, and delivers a fearless speech for the children and women begging on Ireland's streets. He shows his grievance about their miserable condition, and suggests that if anyone does something positive for them, it would be a great service. Function of Parrhesia Since parrhesia is free speech, this straight, bold language is preferably used in an attempt to gain the attention of readers, and then to change their beliefs instantly. Often, parrhesia is employed for logical and moral purposes; however, sometimes writers use negative parrhesia in order to unleash their ideas boldly and freely without forethought. Parrhesia examples are in literary and philosophical works. Also, politicians, religious zealots, and the business community use it frequently as a rhetorical device.

Pastiche

Pastiche is a literary piece that imitates a famous literary work by another writer. Unlike parody, its purpose is not to mock, but to honor the literary piece it imitates. This literary device is generally employed to imitate a piece of literary work light-heartedly, but in a respectful manner. The term pastiche also applies to a literary work that is a broad mixture of things - such as themes, concepts, and characters - imitated from different literary works. For instance, many of the pastiche examples are in the form of detective novels that are written in the style of the original Sherlock Holmes stories. It features either Sherlock Holmes, or a different main character that is like him. Examples of Pastiche in Literature Example #1: Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead (By Tom Stoppard) Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead - a tragicomedy written by Tom Stoppard - is one of the best examples of pastiche. It develops upon two minor characters: Rosencrantz, and Guildenstern, who appear for a brief moment in Shakespeare's play Hamlet. The title is taken from Hamlet's Act 5, Scene 3, when an ambassador from England announces, "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead." The two characters, standing behind the curtains, express their confusion on the events of the main play "Hamlet" enacted on the stage. Example #2: The British Museum Is Falling Down (By David Lodge) David Lodge's comic novel The British Museum Is Falling Down contains imitations of ten different novelists. He gives reference to each particular writer in the text before he starts imitating their style. For example, in Chapter 3, the character Adam Appleby, hero of the novel, is riding his scooter, and gets stuck in traffic on his way to the British Museum Library. He tells us about "Mrs. Dalloway's booming out the half hour" ( a reference to Virginia Woolf's novel "Mrs. Dalloway"). Then, we get to read a passage that comically imitates Woolf's style: "It partook, he thought, shifting his weight in the saddle, of metempsychosis, the way his humble life fell into moulds prepared by literature. Or was it, he wondered, picking his nose, the result of closely studying the sentence structure of the English novelists? One had resigned oneself to having no private language any more, but one had clung wistfully to the illusion of a personal property of events. A find and fruitless illusion, it seemed, for here, inevitably came the limousine, with its Very Important Personage, or Personages, dimly visible in the interior. The policeman saluted, and the crowd pressed forward, murmuring 'Philip', 'Tony', 'Margaret', 'Prince Andrew'." We see the merging of the outer and inner realities in the passage that is so typical of Virginia Woolf, especially the induction of the reporting clauses "he thought," and "he wondered," in the middle of the reported clauses. Example #3: The Traveler (By Dave McClure) Dave McClure's poem The Traveler is a comical imitation written after Edgar Alan Poe's poem The Raven. Look at McClure's opening stanza: "Long ago upon a hilltop (let me finish then I will stop) I espied a curious traveler where no traveler was before. As I raised an arm in greeting all at once he took to beating at the air like one entreating passing boats to come ashore like a castaway repeating empty movements from the shore or an over-eager *****." It keenly imitates the arrangement of words used by Poe in the original poem. Likewise, it echoes the same rhyming scheme. Read the opening lines from Poe's The Raven for a better comparison: "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. " 'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door - Only this, and nothing more." The only remarkable difference between the two poems that we can recognize is the serious tone of the original poem contrasts the humorous tone of the imitation. Function of Pastiche Pastiche may be comic in its content, but it does not mock the original works. In pastiche, the writers imitate the style and content of a literary piece to highlight their work, as the original piece is accepted by the vast majority of readers as landmarks of their age. So, imitation in such works celebrates the works of the great writers of the past.

Pathos

Pathos is a quality of an experience in life, or a work of art, that stirs up emotions of pity, sympathy, and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures, or even with gestures of the body. Pathos is an important tool of persuasion in arguments. Pathos is a method of convincing people with an argument drawn out through an emotional response. Analyzing examples of pathos, one would come to the conclusion that it differs from other "ingredients of persuasion," namely "ethos" and "logos." Ethos means convincing others through the credibility of a persuader, while logos is a method to convince others by employing logic and reason. Common Examples of Pathos For a better understanding of the subject, let us examine a few pathos examples from daily conversations: "If we don't leave this place soon, we'll be yelling for help. There's no one to help us here, let's get out of here and live." - This statement evokes emotions of fear. The "Made in America" label on various products sold in America tries to enhance sales by appealing to customers' sense of patriotism. Ads encouraging charitable donations show small children living in pathetic conditions, to evoke pity in people. Referring to a country as "the motherland" stirs up patriotic feelings in individuals living in that country or state. A soft, instrumental symphony may arouse people emotionally. Examples of Pathos in Literature Let us turn to literature to trace some examples of pathos: Example #1: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (By Mark Twain) Consider this excerpt from chapter 8 of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Tom Sawyer: He had meant the best in the world, and been treated like a dog—like a very dog. She would be sorry someday—maybe when it was too late. Ah, if he could only die TEMPORARILY! Here, Tom arouses feelings of pity in readers' minds by telling how the girl, whom he loved, had treated him like an animal, despite his honest feelings for her. He wishes he had died and then she would feel sorry for him. Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" is well known for its pathos. Mr. Collins' confession to Elizabeth that he wants her to be his future partner evokes feelings of sympathy in readers, as they feel an emotional intensity in his proposal. Believe me, my dear Miss Elizabeth, that your modesty adds to your other perfections. But you can hardly doubt the object of my discourse, however your feminine delicacy may lead you to dissemble. For, as almost as soon as I entered the house, I singled you out as the companion of my future life! Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Consider this excerpt from Act V of William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet: Then she is well, and nothing can be ill. Her body sleeps in Capels' monument, And her immortal part with angels lives. I saw her laid low in her kindred's vault. Romeo's servant Balthasar invokes pity among the audience, when he informs Romeo - who was waiting impatiently to hear about Juliet - that Juliet is dead and is buried in her family's vault. We feel sorry for the untimely death of Juliet and her heartbroken Romeo. Example #4: Ol' Man River (By Paul Robeson) These lines are taken from Ol' Man River, a lyric composed by Paul Robeson: Darkies work on de Mississippi Darkies work while de white folks play We feel overcome by pity for Black Americans ["Darkies"] who were enslaved to White Americans ["white folks"]. The contrast of the words "work" and "play" shows the social disparity between the two races. Example #5: I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou) In Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, pathos is created by presenting a contrast between "the free bird" and "a caged bird." The free bird thinks of another breeze and the trade winds soft through the sighing trees and the fat worms waiting on a dawn bright lawn and he names the sky his own But a caged bird stands on the grave of dreams his shadow shouts on a nightmare scream his wings are clipped and his feet are tied so he opens his throat to sing. In this excerpt, we see the words in bold above are associated with a bird in a cage, which makes us feel pity toward that miserable bird. Function of Pathos We humans are emotional beings, and writers know it very well. They introduce pathos in their works to touch upon our delicate senses of pity, sympathy, sorrow, trying to develop an emotional connection with readers. In addition, emotions are part of real life. Thus, by giving pathos expression in their works, writers bring their narratives, characters, and themes closer to real life. Furthermore, the use of pathos by a debater in an argument appeals to people emotionally, making it a tool to convince people and change their opinions.

Sibilance

Sibilance is a literary device where strongly stressed consonants are created deliberately by producing air from vocal tracts through the use of lips and tongue. Such consonants produce hissing sounds. However, in poetry, it is used as a stylistic device, and sibilants are used more than twice in quick succession. Most of the times, the "s" sound is the sibilant. Difference Between Alliteration and Sibilance Alliteration is produced by the repetition of first consonant sounds in the words, generally the first one or two letters, such as in "A big bully beats a baby boy." However, sibilance is also a specific type of alliteration that uses the soft consonants. In sibilance, hissing sounds are created. These soft consonants are s, with sh, ch, and th, including three others such as z, x, f and soft c. For instance, "Sing a Song of Sixpence" is the title of a famous nursery rhyme, which can be considered as a good example of sibilance. Examples of Sibilance in Literature Example #1: A Cradle Song (By William Blake) "Sweet dreams, form a shade O'er my lovely infants head. Sweet dreams of pleasant streams By happy silent moony beams Sweet sleep with soft down. Weave thy brows an infant crown. Sweet sleep Angel mild, Hover o'er my happy child. Sweet smiles in the night, Hover over my delight. Sweet smiles Mothers smiles... Sweet moans, dovelike sighs, Chase not slumber from thy eyes, Sweet moans, sweeter smiles." The poem has a simple aabb rhyme scheme. Blake makes heavy use of sibilance in this poem, especially the "s" sound, as in the bold words. In a similar way, the use of "sh" and "ch" sounds in the words "shade" and "chase" gives softer effects. Example #2: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats) "SEASON of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run; To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees, And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells With a sweet kernel; to set budding more, And still more, later flowers for the bees, For Summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells." This is the first stanza of the poem, which is filled with music and sibilance. The words noted in bold are all are sibilance examples. These are voiced with hissing sounds. Example #3: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "As whence the sun 'gins his reflection Shipwracking storms and direful thunders break, So from that spring whence comfort seemed to come Discomfort swells. Mark, King of Scotland, mark: No sooner justice had, with valor armed... But the Norweyan lord, surveying vantage, With furbished arms and new supplies of men... Till seven at night. To make society The sweeter welcome, we will keep ourselves Till suppertime alone. While then, God be with you!" Here we can clearly see the softer consonants of sibilance, such as "s" sounds in the words noted in bold. Example #4: Prelude 3 (By T. S. Eliot) "THE WINTER evening settles down With smell of steaks in passageways. Six o'clock. The burnt-out ends of smoky days. And now a gusty shower wraps The grimy scraps Of withered leaves about your feet... The showers beat On broken blinds and chimney-pots, And at the corner of the street A lonely cab-horse steams and stamps. And then the lighting of the lamps." In this excerpt, the repetition of the "s" sound (sibilance) is used throughout the poem. It emphasizes the atmosphere of dirty lives. In addition, the continuous use of the "s" sound gives an example of onomatopoeia, as the "scraping" sounds of leaves. Function of Sibilance An atmosphere can be created through sibilance, which helps in drawing the attention of readers, painting a more colorful picture of the idea or the event. With the help of sibilance, descriptive scenes can be explained more carefully by laying stress on the specific letters. In fact, the sense of repeated sounds, and then the making up of different literary devices through sibilance creates further musical effect for the readers.

Rebuttal

Strictly interpreted, "rebuttal" refers to an attempt to disapprove, contradict, or argue to overcome an opposing reasoning or evidence, by introducing another reasoning and evidence to destroy the effect of the previous one. Rebuttal is a literary technique in which a speaker or writer uses argument, and presents reasoning or evidence intended to undermine or weaken the claim of an opponent. Features of Rebuttal There are many features of an effective rebuttal. First, rebuttal states the opposing side's position without any distortion. Secondly, the writers use quotations with accuracy and fidelity. Thirdly, this technique makes use of professional tone with rationality and courtesy, as it does not allow ridiculing to make points. Finally, rebuttal is often constructively critical, as readers bristle if they encounter extreme negativity. Examples of Rebuttal in Literature Example #1: The Founding Foodies: How Washington, Jefferson, and Franklin Revolutionized American Cuisine (By Dave DeWitt) "A writer in your paper comforts himself, and the India Company, with the fancy that the Americans, should they resolve to drink no more tea, can by no means keep that resolution, their Indian corn not affording 'an agreeable, or easy digestible breakfast.' Pray let me, an American, inform the gentleman, who seems quite ignorant of the matter, that Indian corn, take it for all in all, is one of the most agreeable and wholesome grains in the world; that its green ears roasted are a delicacy beyond expression; that samp, hominy, succatash, and nokehock, made of it, are so many pleasing varieties; and that a johny, or hoe-cake, hot from the fire, is better than a Yorkshire muffin." Benjamin Franklin has written this succinct rebuttal in response to Vindex Patriae, who was a correspondent to Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser. This correspondent had ridiculed corn. Example #2: Fahrenheit 451 (By Ray Bradbury) There are many instances of rebuttal in Ray Bradbury's novel Fahrenheit 451. A very notable example is the argument between Beatty and Montag. Beatty uses quotes from prominent intellectuals and authors, including Alexander Pope and Sir Philip Sidney. Beatty, thereby, makes an argument that books are just a source of debate and controversy, because we often see whatever mentioned in one book is contradicted in another. This situation becomes ironic as Beatty's job is to burn the outlawed books, and he is skillful and well informed of literary works. With it, he is also capable of debating and arguing based on literary knowledge. Example #3: Editorial Rebuttal in The Washington Post (By Eugene Joseph Dionne) Eugene Joseph Dionne, an editorial writer, provides a good instance of rebuttal in The Washington Post. Before the 2003 Iraqi invasion, some people were of the opinion that those who opposed this invasion were unpatriotic, because in this way they would oppose the American president. Dionne had rejected this suggestion, arguing that, if this was the case, "then Abraham Lincoln was an unpatriotic appeaser for opposing the Mexican War as a young congressman in the 1840s." Dionne's counter-argument is a complete rebuttal intended to show a flaw in the original argument. Example #4: Speech on 50th Anniversary Commemoration of Bloody Sunday in Selma (By President Barack Obama) "For we were born of change. We broke the old aristocracies, declaring ourselves entitled not by bloodline, but endowed by our Creator with certain unalienable rights. We secure our rights and responsibilities through a system of self-government, of and by and for the people. That's why we argue and fight with so much passion and conviction, because we know our efforts matter. We know America is what we make of it." Many critics interpret this speech of President Obama as a finely veiled rebuttal or an argument for conservative critics such as Rudy Giuliani, ex New York City Mayor, who claimed President Obama "doesn't love America." While some others believe that Obama's verbal attack is on Congress, because it was not renewing the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Function of Rebuttal The purpose of using rebuttal is to prove another argument as erroneous and false. It is very common in literature, public affairs, law, and politics, where opponents put forward statements to negate or refute specific arguments against them. In law, rebuttal requires specific rules. The party using rebuttal evidence must confine it solely to the main subject of evidence being rebutted. Whereas, in literary works and politics, rebuttals help writers to defend their points of view, as well as make positive criticisms through argumentation.

Folklore

Folklore is a collection of fictional stories about animals and people, of cultural myths, jokes, songs, tales, and even quotes. It is a description of culture, which has been passed down verbally from generation to generation, though many are now in written form. Folklore is also known as "folk literature," or "oral traditions." Folklore depicts the way main characters manage their everyday life events, including conflicts or crises. Simply, folk literature is about individual experiences from a particular society. The study of folk tradition and knowledge is called folkloristics. Although some folklores depict universal truths, unfounded beliefs and superstitions are also basic elements of folklore tradition. Types of Folklore Following are the major forms of folklore: Folk song Folk tales Fairy tales Tall tales Ballads Folk dramas Proverbs, charms, and riddles Use of Folklore by Children Examples of Folklore in Literature Example #1: Rudyard Kipling Rudyard Kipling was keenly interested in folklore, as he has written many English works based on folklore such as, Rewards and Fairies and Puck of Pook's Hill. His experiences in Indian environment have led him to create several works about Indian themes and tradition. Since Kipling has lived a great deal of life in Indian regions, he was much familiar with the Indian languages. Kipling's popular work, The Jungle Book, consists of plenty of stories about traditional folktales. He also has Indian themes in his work, Just So Stories, in which he has given many characters recognizable names related to Indian languages. Helen Bannerman has also penned an Indian themed folktale, Little Black Sambo, during the same period. Example #2: Patrick Henry Patrick Henry was a politician, attorney and planter, who gained popularity as an orator when Americans were struggling for independence. He is well known for his speech in the House of Burgesses in 1775 in the church of Saint Joseph. The House was undecided about whether they need to mobilize and take military action against encroaching military forces of England. Henry gave his arguments in favor of American forces' mobilization. After forty-two years, William Wirt, Henry's first biographer, working from different oral histories and stories, reconstructed the sayings of Henry, outlining the folk traditions he inherited and passed on. Example #3: A. K. Ramanujan A. K. Ramanujan has written a lot about context sensitivity as a theme in many cultural essays, classical poetry, and Indian folklore. For example, in his works Three Hundred Ramayanas, and Where Mirrors are Windows, he talks about intertextual quality of written and oral Indian literature. His popular essay, Where Mirrors Are Windows: Toward an Anthology of Reflections, and commentaries done on Indian folktales, including Oral Tales from Twenty Indian Languages, and The Interior Landscape: Love Poems from a Classical Tamil Anthology, present perfect examples of Indian folk literature studies. Example #4: Alan Garner Alan Garner is a renowned English novelist popular for writing fantasy tales and retellings of traditional English folk tales. His works are mainly rooted in history, landscape, and folklore of his native country Cheshire. One of such children's novels is, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen: A Tale of Alderley, which took a local legend from The Wizard of the Edge, and described landscapes and folklore of neighboring Alderley Edge, where Alan had grown up. The novel is set in Alderley Edge in Cheshire and Macclesfield. This is a very good example of the use of folktales in literature. Function of Folklore The main purpose of folklore is to convey a moral lesson and present useful information and everyday life lessons in an easy way for the common people to understand. Folk tales sugarcoat the lessons of hard life in order to give the audience pointers about how they should behave. It is one of the best mediums to pass on living culture or traditions to future generations. Currently, many forms of folk literature have been transformed into books and manuscripts, which we see in the forms of novels, histories, dramas, stories, lyric poems, and sermons. Folk literature is, however, not merely a carrier of cultural values; rather, it is also an expression of self-reflection. It serves as a platform to hold high moral ground without any relevance to present day reality. Instead, writers use it as a commentary or satire on current political and social reality. In the modern academic world, folklores and folktales are studied to understand ancient literature and civilizations.

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is a literary device in which a writer gives an advance hint of what is to come later in the story. Foreshadowing often appears at the beginning of a story, or a chapter, and helps the reader develop expectations about the coming events in a story. There are various ways to create foreshadowing. A writer may use character dialogues to hint at what may occur in the future. In addition, any event or action in the story may throw a hint to the readers about future events or actions. Even a title of a work or a chapter title can act as a clue that suggests what is going to happen. Foreshadowing in fiction creates an atmosphere of suspense in a story, so that the readers are interested to know more. Short Examples of Foreshadowing The final graveyard flower is blooming, and its smell drifts through their house, speaking gently the names of their dead. (Foreshadows death) The evening was still. Suddenly, a cool breeze started blowing and made a windy night. (Foreshadows thunderstorm) The most awful thing happened on a stormy evening, The battle between good and evil started. (Foreshadows danger) Mary pulled back the curtains and saw some magpies sitting on the wall. (Foreshadows gossip) They thought there would not be more bodies; however, they could not believe the thought. (Foreshadows murder) An old man opens his drawer to find a magnifying glass, and sees a revolver. (Foreshadows warning) In the middle of the night, the father hears the back door opening. He rushes to check on his kids, but a masked intruder is blocking the way with a knife. (Foreshadows threat) Rainbow sparks, With shining lights. (Foreshadows optimism) Inhale fresh air, exhale bad breath. (Foreshadows new ideas) From the window, the gusts look so furious, the roofs of high buildings are stripped off, and the trees are torn up in the city. (Foreshadows someone's angst) Michael sees his own face under Donavan's mask. (Foreshadows Donavan is his father) They have made up their minds to remove an evil eye forever. (Foreshadows harm to an evil character) I observed devices, The symbols in the books To indicate the written future. (Foreshadows writer) As the twilight colors blush The eyes of the night arouse. (Foreshadows night) The same old thinking and the same old results. (Foreshadows change) Foreshadowing Examples in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By Robert Francis) Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet is rich with foreshadowing examples, one of which is the following lines from Act 2, Scene 2: "Life were better ended by their hate, Than death prorogued, wanting of thy love" In the balcony scene, Juliet is concerned about Romeo's safety as she fears her kinsmen may catch him. Romeo says, in the above lines, that he would rather have her love and die sooner, than not obtain her love and die later. Eventually, he gets her love and dies for her love, too. Example #2: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens in Great Expectations uses a description of weather in Chapter 39 to foreshadow the momentous changes in the life of a character named Pip: "Stormy and wet, stormy and wet; and mud, mud, mud, deep in all the streets. Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still, as if in the East there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn up, and sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the coast, of shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had accompanied these rages of wind, and the day just closed as I sat down to read had been the worst of all." The above lines are Pip's observation on the weather before Magwitch's arrival. It is a foreshadowing as well as a representation of Pip's inner chaos. Just as the angry winds leave a trail of destruction in London, Magwitch's disclosure opens a path of destruction in Pip's life. Example #3: Da Vinci Code (By Dan Brown) Examples of foreshadowing are also found in mystery and detective stories. The kind of foreshadowing usually found in mystery or detective novels is referred to as "Red-Herring" - this is a misleading clue that distracts readers by giving them wrong hints about future events. For example, the character of Bishop Aringarosa in Da Vinci Code, by Dan Brown, is shown to act in such a suspicious way that the readers are bound to suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the church. His mysterious actions seemingly foreshadow the exposure of his crime in a later part of the narrative, but it is later revealed that he was innocent and not involved in any secret action. Characters like Bishop Aringarosa contribute to the mystery and suspense of the novel. Example #4: Of Mice and Men (By John Steinbeck) In John Steinbeck's novel Of Mice and Men, George killing Candy's dog foreshadows George killing Lennie, because Lennie is identical to the dog. Even the nature of the death of the dog was the same as Lennie's, as both were shot in the back of the head. He chooses to kill Lennie himself in order to save him from being killed by a stranger. Example #5: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S. T. Coleridge) "Her lips were red, her looks were free ... Who thicks man's blood with cold." This part is the climax of ship's misfortune, depicted in a supernatural way. The arrival of a ghostly ship with ghosts as "Life-in-Death" turns the mariners lose hope and make them scared to death. This indirectly foreshadows the death of the entire crew and builds anticipation for the readers what is about to happen next. Example #6: The Highwayman (By Alfred Noyes) "The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees... Riding—riding— The highwayman came riding, up to the old inn-door." The above lines are entirely filled with melancholic tone and foreshadowing. The very first line calls wind "a torrent of darkness," where darkness is a foreshadowing danger. The depiction of night and weather as 'darkness' foretells the coming of a dark tale. Example #7: The Tide Rises, The Tide Falls (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) "The tide rises, the tide falls, The twilight darkens, the curlew call ... And the tide rises, the tide falls." The title of the poem foreshadows the entire poem, how nature and life start and end. It is about the tides, their motions, and the circle of life. The darkness and ups and downs of tides foretell that the travelers would never return. Example #8: David (By Earle Birney) "Away from the wind, and landed in gentian and saxifrage Spilled on the moss ... Cliff and splashed unseen into mist in the shadows." This excerpt gives descriptions of "darkening firs," "sudden whirring of water," and "splashed unseen," foretelling a pending danger and some disaster about to happen. Function of Foreshadowing Generally, the function of foreshadowing is to build anticipation in the minds of readers about what might happen next, thus adding dramatic tension to a story. It is deliberately employed to create suspense in mystery novels, usually by giving false clues - or red herrings - to distract readers. Moreover, foreshadowing can make extraordinary and bizarre events appear credible, as the events are predicted beforehand so that readers are mentally prepared for them.

Poem

A poem is a collection of spoken or written words that expresses ideas or emotions in a powerfully vivid and imaginative style. A poem is comprised of a particular rhythmic and metrical pattern. In fact, it is a literary technique that is different from prose or ordinary speech, as it is either in metrical pattern or in free verse. Writers or poets express their emotions through this medium more easily, as they face difficulty when expressing through some other medium. It serves the purpose of a light to take the readers towards the right path. Also, sometimes it teaches them a moral lesson through sugar-coated language. Types of Poem Haiku - A type of Japanese poem consisting of three unrhymed lines, with mostly five, seven, and five syllables in each line. Free Verse - Consists of non-rhyming lines, without any metrical pattern, but which follow a natural rhythm. Epic - A form of lengthy poem, often written in blank verse, in which poet shows a protagonist in action of historical significance, or a great mythic. Ballad - A type of narrative poem in which a story often talks about folk or legendary tales. It may take the form of a moral lesson or a song. Sonnet - It is a form of lyrical poem containing fourteen lines, with iambic pentameter and tone or mood changes after the eighth line. Elegy - A melancholic poem in which the poet laments the death of a subject, though he gives consolation towards the end. Epitaph - A small poem used as an inscription on a tombstone. Hymn - This type of a poem praises spirituality or God's splendor. Limerick - This is a type of humorous poem with five anapestic lines in which the first, second, and fifth lines have three feet, and the third and fourth lines have two feet, with a strict rhyme scheme of aabba. Villanelle - A French styled poem with nineteen lines, composed of three-line stanza, with five tercets and a final quatrain. It uses refrain at the first and third lines of each stanza. Examples of Poem in Literature Example #1: While you Decline to Cry (By Ō no Yasumaro) Haiku Poem "While you decline to cry, high on the mountainside a single stalk of plume grass wilts." (Loose translation by Michael R. Burch) This poem contains three lines, which is the typical structure of a haiku poem. It does not follow any formal rhyme scheme or proper rhythmical pattern. Example #2: The Song of Hiawatha (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) Epic Poem "By the shore of Gitchie Gumee, By the shining Big-Sea-Water, At the doorway of his wigwam, In the pleasant Summer morning, Hiawatha stood and waited..." These are a few lines from The Song of Hiawatha, a classic epic poem that presents an American Indian legend of a loving, brave, patriotic, and stoic hero, but which bears resemblance to Greek myths of Homer. Longfellow tells of the sorrows and triumphs of the Indian tribes in detail in this lengthy poem. Therefore, this is a fine example of a modern epic, though other epics include Paradise Lost by John Milton and Iliad by Homer. Example #3: After the Sea-Ship (By Walt Whitman) Free Verse Poem "After the Sea-Ship—after the whistling winds; After the white-gray sails, taut to their spars and ropes, Below, a myriad, myriad waves, hastening, lifting up their necks, Tending in ceaseless flow toward the track of the ship: Waves of the ocean, bubbling and gurgling, blithely prying..." This poem neither has rhyming lines, nor does it adhere to a particular metrical plan. Hence, it is free of artificial expression. It has rhythm and a variety of rhetorical devices used for sounds, such as assonance and consonance. Example #4: La Belle Dame sans Merci (By John Keats) Ballad "O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms, Alone and palely loitering? The sedge has wither'd from the lake, And no birds sing ... And this is why I sojourn here Alone and palely loitering, Though the sedge is wither'd from the lake, And no birds sing." This poem presents a perfect example of a ballad—a folk-style poem that typically narrates a love story. The language of this poem is simple. It contains twelve stanzas, with four quatrains and a rhyme scheme of abcb. Function of Poem The main function of a poem is to convey an idea or emotion in beautiful language. It paints a picture of what the poet feels about a thing, person, idea, concept, or even an object. Poets grab the attention of the audience through the use of vivid imagery, emotional shades, figurative language, and other rhetorical devices. However, the supreme function of a poem is to transform imagery and words into verse form, to touch the hearts and minds of the readers. They can easily arouse the sentiments of their readers through versification. In addition, poets evoke imaginative awareness about things by using a specific diction, sound, and rhythm.

Scansion

In literature, scansion means to divide the poetry or a poetic form into feet by pointing out different syllables based on their lengths. Scansion is also known as "scanning," which is, in fact, a description of rhythms of poetry through break up of its lines or verses into feet, pointing the locations of accented and unaccented syllables, working out on meter, as well as counting the syllables. Examples of Scansion in Literature Example #1: Hope is the Thing With Feathers (By Emily Dickinson) Hope is the thing with feathers That perches in the soul, And sings the tune without the words, And never stops at all ... In this example, strong or stressed syllables are underlined. The stressed and unstressed pattern of the syllables show that the poem has used iambic tetrameter with alternating iambic trimeter, while the rhyme scheme used is ABAB. Example #2: Twelfth Night (by William Shakespeare) If music be the food of love, play on ... That strain again! it had a dying fall: These lines contained unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables, which are underlined. This pattern repeats five times, which means it is iambic pentameter with un-rhyming lines known as blank verse. Example #3: Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town (by E.E Cumming) anyone lived in a pretty how town (with up so floating many bells down) spring summer autumn winter he sang his didn't he danced his did. Though first two lines rhyme in this example. However, there is no strict meter, as it is a free verse poem. You can see the first, second and fourth lines have used iambic tetrameter, while the third line has used tetrameter. Example #4: The Raven (by Edgar Allan Poe) Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. "tis some visiter," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door— Only this, and nothing more." The metrical pattern of this stanza is trochaic octameter in which eight stressed syllables are followed by eight unstressed syllables. Each line uses eight pairs of syllables. Total there are sixteen syllables. The rhyme scheme of this stanza is ABCBB. Example #5: The Charge of the Light Brigade (by Alfred Lord Tennyson) Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them Volley'd and thunder'd; This is a good example of dactylic dimeter with two feet in each line. Dactylic foot uses a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. This stressed syllable appears at the beginning and in the middle of the lines. The rhyme scheme of this poem is irregular and unpredictable, and in this stanza it is AAAB. Example #6: The Bounty (by Derek Walcott) if I confess it, and I confess it. The trickle of underground springs, the babble of swollen gulches under drenched ferns, loosening the grip of their roots, till their hairy clods... Walcott has used mixed metrical pattern in this poem. In this example, the first two lines are using trochaic heptameter, while the final line is using dactylic tetrameter. In the first line, you can notice the use of caesura in the middle; it breaks the monotony and creates a dramatic effect. Example #7: Paradise Lost (by John Milton) From what highth fal'n, so much the stronger provd He with his Thunder: and till then who knew The force of those dire Arms? yet not for those Nor what the Potent Victor in his rage... This is the famous example of a blank verse, using unrhyming lines with iambic pentameter (ten syllables in a line and five are stressed). Function of Scansion Scansion demonstrates variation and regularity in poetry. It also proves very helpful in determining the natural rhythm of a free and blank verse. Moreover, it makes a poem pleasurable as well as more meaningful by marking the stressed and unstressed syllables. In fact, scansion explains how rhythm contributes to beauty, significance and meaning of a poem.

Active Voice

In grammar, an active voice is a type of a clause or sentence in which a subject performs an action and expresses it through its representative verb. To simply put it, when a subject performs an action directly, it is in active voice. It then uses transitive verb to show the action. Style guides usually encourage the use of active voice, because it is clear and direct. For example, "Some customers prefer mulled ale. They keep their mugs on the hob until the ale gets as hot as coffee. A sluggish cat named Minnie sleeps in a scuttle beside the stove" (The Old House at Home, by Joseph Mitchell). All of these sentences are in active voice, as the verbs "refer," "keep," "get" and "sleep" are in active mode. Examples of Active Voice in Literature Example #1: Harold and Maud (by Colin Higgins) "You know, at one time, I used to break into pet shops to liberate the canaries. But I decided that was an idea way before its time. Zoos are full, prisons are overflowing. Oh my, how the world still dearly loves a cage." Active voice in these example sentences is underlined. The subject "I" is performing an action through the verbs "break" and "decided." The subject "world" is performing an action through the verb "loves." All the sentences are in active voice. Example #2: Hillary's Once in a Lifetime (by Kathleen Parker) "Finally, Hillary swept in and moved down a line of huggers toward a raised platform centered in the room...Her positioning meant that she had to keep turning in order to hug back. Around and around and around she turned, 360 degrees, over and over, her arms outstretched in perpetual greeting, like a jewel-box ballerina whose battery has run low." Here the subject "Hillary" is taking action through the verbs "swept in," "moved down," "had," "turned," and "has run." The verbs are in active mode, the reason that all sentences are in active voice. Example #3: Mr. Personality (by Mark Singer) "Seven days a week, Paul Schimmel ventures into the subway with his clarinet. In the IND station at Sixth Avenue and Forty-second Street one recent afternoon, he paid his fare with a free pass." The use of active voice has added directness to this passage. The subject is "Paul Schimmel," who is doing "ventures," and has "paid" fare. Example #4: Heart of Darkness (by Colin Higgins) "I looked at him, lost in astonishment...'Ah, he talked to you of love!' I said, much amused. 'It isn't what you think,' he cried, almost passionately. 'It was in general.' "He threw his arms up...He had his second illness then. Afterwards I had to keep out of the way; but I didn't mind. He was living for the most part in those villages on the lake. When he came down to the river, sometimes he would take to me, and sometimes it was better for me to be careful. This man suffered too much." In this passage, the author has written all of the sentences in active voice, which are direct and clear in meaning. The verbs of active voice include "looked," "talked," "think," "threw," "had," "living," "came down," and "suffered." Example #5: The Catcher in the Rye (by J.D. Salinger) "If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you'll probably want to know is where I was born, and what my lousy childhood was like... They're nice and all—I'm not saying that - but they're also touchy as hell. Besides, I'm not going to tell you my whole goddam autobiography or anything. I'll just tell you about this madman stuff that happened to me around last Christmas..." In this excerpt, the author has used the verbs "hear," "want," "saying," "going," and "tell" in active voice. Function of Active Voice Active voice plays an important role in creative writing and business reports because these types of writings need to be to the point, clear, and direct. It adds interest and helps grab attention of the readers. Not only does it maintain audience's interest, it also improves the quality of a written work. Active voice gives energy and life to a sentence, as it is less wordy and consequently less difficult. In addition, active voice maintains focus and attention of the readers on a single point.

Litotes

Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning "simple," is a figure of speech that employs an understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, a positive statement expressed by negating its opposite expressions. For example, using the expression "not too bad" for "very good" is an understatement, as well as a double negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite (meaning it's good, by saying it's not bad). Similarly, saying "She is not a beauty queen," means she is ugly, or saying "I am not as young as I used to be," in order to avoid saying I am old. Litotes, therefore, is an intentional use of understatement that renders an ironic effect. Common Litotes Examples In everyday life, it is common to experience litotes in conversations, though not many people are aware of this term and its usage. Below are a few examples of litotes from daily conversations: They do not seem the happiest couple around. The ice cream was not too bad. New York is not an ordinary city. Your comments on politics are not useless. You are not as young as you used to be. I cannot disagree with your point of view. William Shakespeare was not a bad playwright at all. He is not the cleverest person I have ever met. She is not unlike her mother. Ken Adams is not an ordinary man A million dollars is no small amount. You are not doing badly at all. Your apartment is not unclean. Interestingly, the use of understatement in the above litotes examples adds emphasis to the ideas, rather than decreasing their importance. This is due to the ironic effect produced by the understatement. Examples of Litotes in Literature In literature, writers and poets use this type of figure of speech in their texts in order to vividly communicate novel ideas to readers. Example #1: A Tale of a Tub (By Jonathan Swift) "I am not unaware how the productions of the Grub Street brotherhood have of late years fallen under many prejudices." Now just see how Swift has used double negatives to emphasize the point that he is totally aware of it. The irony is that he is aware, but he is saying it as if he is unaware that he is not. Example #2: Fire and Ice (By Robert Frost) "Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice. From what I've tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if I had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great And would suffice." If you read this short piece by Robert Frost very carefully, you'll see that calling the destruction caused by ice "great" is balanced by an opposing statement "would suffice," is an understatement. Example #3: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: an American Slave (By Frederick Douglass) "Indeed, it is not uncommon for slaves even to fall out and quarrel among themselves about the relative goodness of their masters, each contending for the superior goodness of his own over that of the others." Mr. Douglass was an African-American social reformer and a writer. He has effectively used litotes to stress his point that even slaves used to seek dominance over other slaves by holding out that their respective masters were much better than those of the other slaves. Function of Litotes Litotes uses ironic understatement in order to emphasize an idea or situation, rather than minimizing its importance. It rather discovers a unique way to attract people's attention to an idea, and that is by ignoring it. J.R. Bergmann, in his book Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional Settings, talks about litotes in the following words: "I want to claim that the rhetorical figure litotes is one of those methods which are used to talk about an object in a discreet way. It clearly locates an object for the recipient, but it avoids naming it directly." This is the best that has ever been said about litotes - that to ignore an object and still talk about it in a negative way is the best way to make it appear important and prominent.

Lyric

Lyric is a collection of verses and choruses, making up a complete song, or a short and non-narrative poem. A lyric uses a single speaker, who expresses personal emotions or thoughts. Lyrical poems, which are often popular for their musical quality and rhythm, are pleasing to the ear, and are easily put to music. The term lyric originates from the Greek word "lyre," which is an instrument used by the Grecians to play when reading a poem. Lyrical poets demonstrate specific moods and emotions through words. Such moods express a range of emotions, from extreme to nebulous, about life, love, death, or other experiences of life. Read on to learn more about lyric in literature. Types of Lyric There are several types of lyric used in poems such as given below: Elegy An elegy is a mournful, sad, or melancholic poem or a song that expresses sorrow for someone who has bee lost, or died. Originally, it followed a structure using a meter alternating six foot and five foot lines. However, modern elegies do not follow such a pattern, though the mood of the poem remains the same. Ode An ode is a lyric poem that expresses intense feelings, such as love, respect, or praise for someone or something. Like an elegy, an ode does not follow any strict format or structure, though it uses refrains or repeated lines. It is usually longer than other lyrical forms, and focuses on positive moods of life. Sonnet A sonnet uses fourteen lines, and follows iambic pentameter with five pairs of accented and unaccented syllables. The structure of a sonnet, with predetermined syllables and rhyme scheme, makes it flow off the tongues of readers in way similar way to a on song on the radio. Dramatic Monologue A dramatic monologue has theatrical quality, which means that the poem portrays a solitary speaker communing with the audience, without any dialogue coming from other characters. Usually, the speaker talks to a specific person in the poem. Occasional Poetry Poets write occasional poetry for specific occasions such as weddings, anniversaries, birthdays, victories, and dedications, such as John Dryden's "Annus Mirabilis," and Edmund Spencer's "Epithalamion." Examples of Lyric in Literature Example #1: Italian Sonnet (by James DeFord) "Turn back the heart you've turned away Give back your kissing breath Leave not my love as you have left The broken hearts of yesterday But wait, be still, don't lose this way... Accept my love, live for today." This is an example of a sonnet, using fourteen lines with a metrical pattern of iambic pentameter. The poem is about feelings of love for a beloved. It tells how it is worth staying with one another instead of leaving. Example #2: Ode to the West Wind (by Percy Bysshe Shelley) "Scatter, as from an unextinguish'd hearth Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind! Be through my lips to unawaken'd earth The trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?" This excerpt from an ode demonstrates lyric This poem has fourteen lines, and is written in iambic pentameter. Each stanza is divided into four tercets followed by a couplet. The rhyme scheme form is terza rima. The mood has a positive lyrical quality. Example #3: My Last Duchess (by Robert Browning) "That's my last Duchess painted on the wall, Looking as if she were alive. I call That piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf's hands Worked busily a day, and there she stands... "Fra Pandolf" by design, for never read Strangers like you that pictured countenance," This poem is a dramatic monologue in which the Duke shows a portrait of his former wife to the emissary through his point of view. In so doing, he reveals his position, his jealous temperament, and excessive pride. This monologue also has a lyrical quality found in its rhyme scheme. Example #4: O Captain! My Captain (by Walt Whitman) "'O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won, The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring; But O heart! heart! heart!" This is the first stanza of Whitman's famous elegy. Notice its mood, which is somber, and filled with intense sadness. Still, the words are giving melodic flow due to lyrical quality. Function A lyrical poet addresses his audience directly by portraying their state of mind or emotions. That is why a lyrical poem expresses personal emotions of the poet. The themes of lyrical poems are also emotional and lofty, enabling the readers to look into the life of things deeply. That is why such poems have universal appeal, because readers can relate their feelings with the poem.

Main Idea

Main Idea includes the overall message of the text that a writer intends to convey to the audience. Almost all genres of literature have one or two main ideas in them. However, the main idea in literature is not limited to one sentence or paragraph; instead, it develops and grows throughout the text. It works as the central, unifying element of the story which ties together all other elements. In this sense, it can be best defined as the dominant impression or the generic truth incorporated in the literary piece. Etymologically, the central idea is the phrase of two words 'main' and 'idea.' The meaning is clear that it is the most important thought of a text which enables the readers to understand the layered meanings of the concerned text. Examples Main Idea from Literature Example #1 "A Red, Red Rose" by Robert Burns "O my Luve is like a red, red rose That's newly sprung in June; O my Luve is like the melody That's sweetly played in tune. So fair art thou, my bonnie lass, So deep in luve am I; And I will luve thee still, my dear, Till a' the seas gang dry. Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear, And the rocks melt wi' the sun; I will love thee still, my dear, While the sands o' life shall run. And fare thee weel, my only luve! And fare thee weel awhile! And I will come again, my luve, Though it were ten thousand mile." This is one of the famous poems of Robert Burns, a renowned Scottish poet, and lyricist. The poem illustrates the intense love of the speaker for his beloved. The central idea of the poem is love, which the writer has declared in the opening lines. However, he further supports this idea by comparing his beloved with a red rose. He has also employed literary elements to make the readers understand his version of love. To him, beauty is transitory, but his love is holy and eternal. Thus, the central idea plays a great role in advancing the action of this poem. Example #2 Invictus by William Ernest Henley Out of the night that covers me, Black as the pit from pole to pole, I thank whatever gods may be For my unconquerable soul. In the fell clutch of circumstance I have not winced nor cried aloud. Under the bludgeonings of chance My head is bloody, but unbowed. Beyond this place of wrath and tears Looms but the Horror of the shade, And yet the menace of the years Finds and shall find me unafraid. It matters not how strait the gate, How charged with punishments the scroll, I am the master of my fate, I am the captain of my soul. The poem, having an artistic expression, was composed to illustrate the courageous stance of a person in unfortunate circumstances. The main idea of the poem is the resilience of human spirit in the face of miseries and challenges of life. Despite having troubles and adverse circumstances, the speaker holds his spirit high and face the difficult time of his life bravely. His optimism and ability to overcome the adversity makes him stronger as he calls himself the master of his fate. He is not afraid of the problems and, this belief enables him to overcome any obstacle that comes to his way. Therefore, courage makes up the main idea of the poem. Example #3 SCENE I. A desert place. (Macbeth by William Shakespeare, Act I, Scene I) Thunder and lightning. Enter three Witches First Witch When shall we three meet again In thunder, lightning, or in rain? Second Witch When the hurlyburly's done, When the battle's lost and won. Third Witch That will be ere the set of sun. First Witch Where the place? Second Witch Upon the heath. Third Witch There to meet with Macbeth. First Witch I come, Graymalkin! Second Witch Paddock calls. Third Witch Anon. ALL Fair is foul, and foul is fair: Hover through the fog and filthy air. This extract has been taken from one of the famous plays of Shakespeare, Macbeth. This is the opening scene of Macbeth in which three witches discuss their next meeting point, where they plan to see Macbeth. This opening scene not only sets the tone of the play but also highlights the recurring motif of the supernatural creatures. The audience immediately gets an idea that the text is about the evil and foul play. Main Idea Meaning and Function Main idea serves as the pause for the audience. It provides them an opportunity to understand the writer's intention or the reason for his writing. It also makes them recognize and appreciate the deeper meanings of the texts. The writers also use it as a tool that enables them to project their inner thoughts and persuade the readers. Moreover, some of the academic writings unconsciously instill main ideas into the subconscious of the readers with ulterior motives which can be good or bad.

Malapropism

Malapropism finds its origins in the French phrase mal a propos, which means "inappropriate." It is the use of an incorrect word in place of a similar-sounding word, which results in a nonsensical and humorous expression. The word malapropism comes from "Mrs. Malaprop," a character in Sheridan's comedy The Rivals, who has a habit of replacing words with incorrect and absurd utterances, producing a humorous effect. A miss-speech is considered malapropism when it sounds similar to the word it replaces, but has an entirely different meaning. For instance, replacing acute with obtuse is not a malapropism because the words have contrasting meanings, but do not sound similar. Using obtuse for abstruse, on the other hand, is a malapropism, as there is a difference in meanings, and both words sound similar. These characteristics makes malapropism different from other errors in speech, such as eggcorns and spoonerisms. Common Malapropism Examples Malapropism is a common phenomenon in our daily life. We find some hilarious Malapropism examples being quoted in the media. Example #1 The magazine New Scientist reports one of its employees calling his colleague "a suppository (i.e. repository) of knowledge." The magazine further reports the worker apologized for his "Miss Marple-ism (i.e. Malapropism)." Example #2 Richard J. Daley, the former mayor of Chicago, is said to have called a "tandem bicycle" a "tantrum bicycle," and to also have incorrectly used the phrase "Alcoholics Unanimous," rather than "Alcoholics Anonymous." Example #3 Bertie Ahern, the former Irish Taoiseach, is said to have given a warning to his country against "upsetting the apple tart (i.e., apple cart) of his country's economic success". More Common Malapropism Examples Cheer up. I predicate (predict) a final victory. His capacity for hard liquor is incredulous (incredible). This does not portend (pretend) to be a great work of art. Fortuitously (fortunately) for her, she won the sweepstakes. Examples of Malapropism in Literature In literature, malapropism is employed to create humorous effect. Example #1: The Rivals (By Richard Brinsley Sheridan) In his novel, The Rivals, Richard Sheridan introduces a character, Mrs. Malaprop, who habitually uses words that mean quite the opposite to the words she intends to use, but which have similar sounds to the words she replaces. It becomes a great source of humorous effect in the play. For example, in Act III, Scene 3, she tells Captain Absolute: "Sure, if I reprehend anything in this world it is the use of my oracular tongue, and a nice derangement of epitaphs!" In the above passage, she comically replaces apprehend with reprehend, vernacular with oracular, arrangement with derangement, and epithets with epitaph. Some other funny examples of malapropism in the same play include "... illiterate (obliterate) him quite from your memory," and "... she's as headstrong as an allegory (alligator)." Example #2: Much Ado About Nothing (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare uses malapropism in his plays as well. Look at the following example of malapropism uttered by Constable Dogberry in Act III, Scene 5 of Much Ado About Nothing: "Our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two auspicious persons." Notice the use of comprehended for apprehended, and auspicious for suspicious. Similarly, an instance of malapropism can be observed in Act I, Scene 3 of Twelfth Night. Sir Toby Belch says: "By this hand, they are scoundrels and subtractors that say so of him. Who are they?" The malapropism here is "subtractors," which should have been "detractors." Yet another example comes from the same character in Act I, Scene 5 of the same play: OLIVIA: "Cousin, cousin, how have you come so early by this lethargy?" SIR TOBY BELCH: "Lechery! I defy lechery." Here, the use of lechery" instead of lethargy is a malapropism. Example #3: Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) In Chapter 33 of Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn, Aunt Sally can be spotted using a malapropism. She says: "I was most putrified with astonishment," Here, the use of the word putrified is a malapropism, as it seems she was thinking of petrified. Function of Malapropism Although it is considered an error in speech, malapropism is a great source of humor in both everyday life and literature. In daily life, malapropisms are often unintentional, but writers introduce malapropism in their literary works intentionally to produce comic effect. It ensures the attention of the readers, as it inserts an extra element of interest in a literary piece. This is the reason why the characters using hilarious malapropisms are often well-known.

Melodrama

Melodrama is a subgenre of drama, which is an exaggerated form of this genre. Melodramas deal with sensational and romantic topics that appeal to the emotions of the common audience. Originally, it made use of melody and music, while modern melodramas may not contain any music at all. In fact, a melodrama gives preference to a detailed characterization where characters are simply drawn, one-dimensional, or stereotyped. Typically, melodrama uses stock characters including a heroes, heroines, and villains. Examples of Melodrama in Literature Example #1: Still Life, Brief Encounter (By Noel Coward) Noel Coward's heartbreaking drama Still Life, Brief Encounter, tells the story of two people who seemed destined to be unhappy. In the film, a leading role and married woman, Laura Jesson, encounters a doctor, Alec Harvey, in a train station. They decide to meet once in a week at the same station. Soon they begin to feel delighted in each other's company and share everything. Eventually they come to realize that they are in love with each other. Their realization, however, leads to a tragic notion that they cannot leave their families, which finally ends up in unrequited love, with their lives doomed into despondency. Example #2: Mildred Pierce (By James M. Cain) A blend of melodrama and film noir, Mildred Pierce, is based on James M. Cain's novel of the same title. The story is about a struggling waitress, Mildred, who wishes to provide a better life to her daughters than she had, after separating from her husband. For this, she takes the help of a real estate agent, after which she becomes the owner of a restaurant. Mildred tries to make her older daughter tie the knot with a formerly wealthy man, Monte Beragon, to improve her financial position and win back her alienated daughter Vera. Instead, Vera starts enjoying the playboy lifestyle of Monte, and drains her mother's finances. This leads to Mildred's financial ruin, and the murder of Monte. Consequently, Vera goes to jail. This shows the type of melodrama created to impact the audience. Example #3: Kitty Foyle (By Christopher Morley) Christopher Morley's novel, Kitty Foyle, has been adapted to film, in which the author narrates the story in the form of a melodrama. The film stars Kitty as a saleswoman who desires to make her living on her own. Nevertheless, she marries Wyn Strafford, then due to class differences, the couple separates very soon. Kitty then engages in a relationship with a doctor, Mark Eisen, but their relationship could not be successful. She again decides to marry Wyn when he comes back. Though the class difference remains, he wishes to live with Kitty. Kitty suffers a lot and returns to her sales job. Thus, the audience sees many ups and downs in Kitty's life through this classic melodrama. Example #4: Now Voyager (By Olive Higgins Prouty) Based on the novel Now Voyager, by Olive Higgins Prouty, this melodrama tells the story of a woman, Charlotte Vale, who suffers a lifetime repression due to her domineering mother, who finally breaks her free at the request of Charlotte's psychiatrist. Thus, she takes a voyage where she encounters Jerry Durrance, a loyal father and loveless husband, whose wife is manipulative and jealous. Charlotte pulls back Jerry's emotionally disturbed daughter from the brink. She then enters into another relationship, but could not push Jerry out of her mind. By the end, though Charlotte could not get her desired man, she becomes self-assured and more confident. Example #5: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) Film director William Wyler adapted Emily Bronte's classic and popular novel Wuthering Heights into a film. The novel is a sweeping romantic melodrama in which love and class division are destined to become a tragedy. The film stars Heathcliff as an orphan, who is taken into a wealthy family where he falls in love with Cathy, his foster sister. Though Cathy also feels the same for him, she nevertheless marries a wealthy neighbor, leaving Heathcliff with no choice. Returning as a wealthy man after some years, the sparks begin to fly again for Cathy, and a vengeful Heathcliff marries Geraldine Fitzgerald, sister of Cathy's husband, in order to arouse her jealousy. By the end, Catherine dies, and Heathcliff follows her as he could not brook this loss any more. Function of Melodrama Melodrama is an exaggerated form of drama, where authors enhance the storylines in order to tug the heartstrings of the audience. Typically, these types of dramas focus on sensational plots that revolve around tragedy, unrequited love, loss, or heightened emotion; featuring long-suffering protagonists, especially females, attempting in vain to overcome impossible odds. Its purpose is to play on the feelings and emotions of the audience. We see the use of melodramatic plots more often in films, theater, television, radio, cartoons, and comics.

Memoir

Memoir is a written factual account of somebody's life. It comes from the French word mémoire, which means "memory," or "reminiscence." This literary technique tells a story about the experiences of someone's life. A literary memoir is usually about a specific theme, or about a part of someone's life. It is a story with a proper narrative shape, focus, and subject matter, involving reflection on some particular event or place. Memoirs are often associated with popular personalities, such as celebrities, sportsmen, soldiers, singers, and writers. It allows making a connection with what the audience finds captivating, interesting, appealing, and engaging. Memoir and Autobiography Memoir falls under the category of autobiography, but is used as its sub-genre. The major difference between memoir and autobiography is that a memoir is a centralized and more specific storytelling, while an autobiography spans the entire life of a person with intricate details such as the childhood, family history, education, and profession. A memoir is specific and focused, telling the story of somebody's life, focusing on an important event that occurred at a specific time and place. Examples of Memoir in Literature Example #1: A Moveable Feast (By Ernest Hemingway) Ernest Hemingway was an acclaimed celebrity during the times when the public treated American writers like movie stars. His memoir A Moveable Feast was published after his death in 1964. This memoir is a collection of stories about his time spent in Paris as a writer in 1920s, before attaining popularity. During these days, he was acquainted with many other famous writers, including Ezra Pound, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Gertrude Stein. Example #2: Speak Memory (By Vladimir Nabokov) This memoir is about the description of Nabokov's childhood, and the years he spent before moving to America in 1940; however, it is not the exact reason of writing this memoir. More notably, this book is about a tale of his art, as it serves as a model of that art. In addition, it includes themes, imagery, and symbols that build up a structure in the minds of readers besides making up the book. Like always, Nabokov's prose writing is flawless, brilliant, and overwhelming, while his playful writing style makes his work seem fascinating. Example #3: Homage to Catalonia (By George Orwell) This is Orwell's gripping tale of his days during the Spanish Civil War. He has described it with his typical trademark of journalistic wink, which is one of his best works. Honest and unwavering, Orwell narrates his personal experience without inducing any agenda, recording different things from that era as he saw them. Philip Mairet said of this account that the work shows ]people a heart of innocence living in revolutionary days. Example #4: Maus (By Art Spiegelman) Although we can find many deeply affecting memoirs to make this list, Maus is one of the most well-liked memoirs, with its distressing story covered with perfect illustrations by Spiegelman. We might think that imagining different characters appearing with animal faces would make the story horrible and less intense and more irritating, it is rather the opposite. If we know the comic style, we learn that blank iconic faces and the outlook of the mice in this memoir allows the audience to put themselves in their shoes, to understand the story more easily. Function of Memoir Memoir has been around since ancient times. Perhaps Julius Caesar, who wrote and depicted his personal experiences about epic battles, was the first memoirist. Later, it became a popular and acclaimed literary genre. Memoir serves to preserve history through a person' eyes. Through memoir, celebrities also tell harsh sides of their careers. Rock stars tell their fans about tough days spent in distress, drug addicts reveal their struggle in seeking normal life, soldiers write war experiences, people who are mentally ill describe ups and downs to achieve clarity, and authors tell particular events that happened before their eyes. Hence, the function of memoir is to provide a window for the audience to have a look into the lives of other people.

Metalepsis

Metalepsis is derived from the Greek word metōnymia, which means "substitution" or "sharing." It is a figure of speech like metonymy or metaphor. However, it is an advanced form of figurative speech in which one thing refers to another thing that is only slightly related to it. There are two ways to make this association. One is through showing causal relationship to seemingly unrelated things. The other is through indirect intermediate replacement of terms. Features of Metalepsis Metalepsis is a reference in which a phrase or a word taken from figurative speech is employed in a new context. Metalepsis is also known as transumption. According to Werner Wolf, "It is a fictional representation that consists of different levels and worlds, among which unconventional transgression takes place." Metalepsis often conveys metaphorical expression by using a word associated with a thing that it is being referred to. In addition, this figure of speech could be a reference for a literary work, such as if somebody says, "Something smells in Denmark," it would be considered to be a reference to Shakespeare's famous play Hamlet. Examples of Metalepsis in Literature Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, To the last syllable of recorded time; And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death. . . . Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player...." There are many examples of metalepsis in Shakespeare's works, since he multiplies metaphors and duplicates figures of speech in various guises. He works on one figure, and then moves onto the next and continues from where he started off. There is a concatenation of different figures that quickly pile on one another as shown in bold. Example #2: Out, Out (By Robert Frost) "As he swung toward them holding up the hand Half in appeal, but half as if to keep The life from spilling..." In these lines, the poet makes reference to keeping the "life from spilling," meaning the spilling of blood. He makes a connection between blood and life, which means too much loss of blood shows loss of human life. Example #3: Lycidas (By John Milton) "But now my oat proceeds, And listens to the herald of the sea That came in Neptune's plea, He asked the waves, and asked the felon winds, What hard mishap hath doomed this gentle swain?" In the passage above, Milton uses "oat" as a musical instrument that is made from an oat stalk. Therefore, the word "oat" is employed as a reference to the song that the poet composes beside the ocean. Example #4: Gone with the Wind (By Margaret Mitchell) "I'm mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it secedes or it would have ruined the Christmas parties." Here, Georgia is used to develop a relationship between politicians, government, and citizens. It is now common to use the name of a country to refer to its government and its whole nation. Example #5: Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) "Was this the face that launched a thousand ships and burnt the topless towers of Ilium? " A reference is made here to a mythological figure called Helen of Troy, who was abducted by Paris, which led to the idea of using a thousand ships for starting the Trojan war. Here, the word "face" is used as metalepsis. Function of Metalepsis Generally, it is employed in a literary text to develop symbolism and metaphor, by giving profound meanings to ideas and objects. By using metalepsis, the text shows deeper and hidden meanings, and therefore draws the attention of readers. In addition, it adds more poetic effect to the piece of writing. The readers are provided with allusions using another figure of speech in order to make them understand the hidden meaning communicated through it. Also, it is used in literary comedies because the words in allusion could cause a comical exaggeration. However, in narratology, metalepsis plays with the structure of a fictional book, since the narrator may seem separated from the action, but he interacts in the middle of the story to create heightened effect and deeper meanings for the readers. A survey of metalepsis examples will help us understand the functions of this device.

Metaphysical

Metaphysical is a philosophical concept used in literature to describe the things that are beyond the description of physical existence. It is intended to elucidate the fundamental nature of being and the world and is often used in the form of argument to describe the intellectual or emotional state an individual goes through. It is deliberately inserted to make the audience think about the things they had never imagined. Although it is often considered a complex phenomenon, it, however, plays a pivotal role in advancing the idea of the text. In literature, metaphysical is often used with poetry. It is a type of poetry written during the seventeenth century. Etymologically, "metaphysical" is a combination of two words 'meta' and 'physical.' The meanings are clear that it deals with the things that are beyond this the existence of the physical world. Features of Metaphysical Poetry Metaphysical texts are based on wit and often deal with serious questions about the existence of God and the tendency of human beings to perceive this world. In metaphysical poetry, serious issues are discussed with a touch of humor. In this sense, it makes the seriousness a bit light in intensity. Metaphysical poetry elevates the readers of their normal existence to make them question the unquestionable. Metaphysical texts offer comparisons of unlikely things and are loaded with conceits, paradoxes, irony, and They are argumentative, intellectual, realistic and rational in their approach. Examples of Metaphysical elements in Literature Example #1 A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning by John Donne "If they be two, they are two so As stiff twin compasses are two; Thy soul, the fixed foot, makes no show To move, but doth, if the other do. And though it in the center sit, Yet when the other far doth roam, It leans and hearkens after it, And grows erect, as that comes home. Such wilt thou be to me, who must, Like th' other foot, obliquely run; Thy firmness makes my circle just, And makes me end where I begun. The poem appreciates the beauty of spiritual love. The poet has painted a vivid picture of his eternal bond that keeps him attached to his beloved even when they are apart. This is a very good example of metaphysical text in literature as Donne has used metaphysical conceits to show the comparison between the spiritual aspect of a person and a physical thing in the world. He has compared his spiritual and holy love with the feet of a geometrical compass. Example #2 To His Coy Mistress by Andrew Marvell Now therefore, while the youthful hue Sits on thy skin like morning dew, And while thy willing soul transpires At every pore with instant fires, Now let us sport us while we may, And now, like amorous birds of prey, Rather at once our time devour Than languish in his slow-chapped power. Let us roll all our strength and all Our sweetness up into one ball, And tear our pleasures with rough strife Through the iron gates of life: Thus, though we cannot make our sun Stand still, yet we will make him run. The poet, being an obsessive lover, has used strenuous argument throughout the poem to convince his shy mistress to be intimate with him. He provides different arguments to persuade her. He compares speedy time with "wingèd chariot hurrying near" and compares his slowly growing love with "vegetable love." These are all abstract ideas presented through a cascade of images. The examples of the metaphysical argument are shown through the use of puns, paradoxes, classical myth, historical and Biblical references. Example #3 The Retreat by Henry Vaughan O, how I long to travel back, And tread again that ancient track! That I might once more reach that plain Where first I left my glorious train, From whence th' enlightened spirit sees That shady city of palm trees. But, ah! my soul with too much stay Is drunk, and staggers in the way. Some men a forward motion love; But I by backward steps would move, And when this dust falls to the urn, In that state I came, return. The poem comprises the sentiments of the speaker who wants to retreat to his innocent childhood. The central metaphysical characteristic of the poem is the conceit he has used to compare life to a long journey. Through this conceit, the poet unfolds a philosophical thought that the soul relates to heaven before this earthly existence. The poem expresses his profound hope that he might venture back to the state he initially came from. Example #4 The Pulley by George Herbert "When God at first made man, Having a glass of blessings standing by, "Let us," said he, "pour on him all we can. Let the world's riches, which dispersèd lie, Contract into a span." So strength first made a way; Then beauty flowed, then wisdom, honour, pleasure. When almost all was out, God made a stay, Perceiving that, alone of all his treasure, Rest in the bottom lay." This poem is one of the famous metaphysical religious poems. The poet has used a mechanical device, pulley, as a metaphysical conceit to reveal the truth of why human beings are so restless in the world. He says that wisdom, strength, pleasure, honor and several other blessings are the greatest rewards God has bestowed upon man. But when humans are at rest, they gradually lose all these characteristics. To pull them back on track, God should deprive them of rest. However, this bizarre and mysterious philosophy is possible only in metaphysical poetry. Metaphysical Poetry Meaning and Function Metaphysical poetry serves as a pause for the audience. It provides them with an opportunity to ponder over the ideas that are not commonly seen and are unique. The challenging approach of metaphysical poetry allows the readers to concentrate on the things that exist beyond this world. It also allows the writers to express their inner thoughts in the verses though higher cognitive skills are required to understand the concepts and abstract ideas presented in metaphysical texts.

Meter

Meter is a stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern in a verse, or within the lines of a poem. Stressed syllables tend to be longer, and unstressed shorter. In simple language, meter is a poetic device that serves as a linguistic sound pattern for the verses, as it gives poetry a rhythmical and melodious sound. For instance, if you read a poem aloud, and it produces regular sound patterns, then this poem would be a metered or measured poem. The study of different types of versification and meters is known as "prosody." Meter and Foot A meter contains a sequence of several feet, where each foot has a number of syllables such as stressed/unstressed. Hence, a meter has an overall rhythmic pattern in a line of verse, which a foot cannot describe. Types of Meter English poetry employs five basic meters, including: Iambic meter (unstressed/stressed) Trochaic meter (stressed/unstressed) Spondaic meter, (stressed/stressed) Anapestic meter (unstressed/unstressed/ stressed) Dactylic meter (stressed/unstressed/unstressed) Meter has two subdivisions: qualitative meter, and quantitative meter. Qualitative Meter Qualitative meter contains stressed syllables with regular intervals, such as iambic pentameter containing even numbered syllables. Quantitative Meter Quantitative meter, however, is based on syllabic weight, and not stressed pattern,s such as dactylic hexameters of classical Greek and classical Latin. However, classical Arabic and Sanskrit also have used this meter. Poets like Virgil used quantitative meter in Aeneid, and Homer used it in Iliad. Short Examples of Meter People become what they believe. (Trochaic meter) Those who can dream it, they really can achieve it. (Dactylic/Spondaic) Don't search faults. Find remedies. (Iambic meter) When you give and accept gratefully, you feel blessed. (Anapestic meter) The safest place on planet earth. (Iambic meter) Be happy, be positive, be you. (Spondaic meter) Life is short to hold grudges. (Trochaic meter) If you know why to live, then you can tolerate anything. (Dactylic meter) All the news here is ready to print. (Trochaic meter) Because you're worth it. (Iambic meter) Bell lion not in doleful manner. (Trochaic meter) And they found some mice alive still. (Anapestic meter) Tough minds do shake the conscience of the week. (Iambic meter) The kids have gone, for they have left the nest. (Iambic tetrameter) He knows she will and you can tell. (Iambic tetrameter) Meter Examples in Literature Example #1: Twelfth Night (By William Shakespeare) "If music be the food of love, play on; Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting, The appetite may sicken, and so die. That strain again! it had a dying fall: O, it came o'er my ear like the sweet sound, That breathes upon a bank of violets ..." This is an example of iambic pentameter, which contains an unstressed syllable first, and a stressed syllable second. Shakespeare has played around with iambic pentameter a lot to create different effects. Here you can see each line consists of accented and unaccented syllables underlined. Example #2: The Explosion (By Philip Larkin) "Shadows pointed towards the pithead: In the sun the slagheap slept. Down the lane came men in pitboots Coughing oath-edged talk and pipe-smoke Shouldering off the freshened silence." This extract contains trochaic meter in which stressed syllables are pronounced loudly. Larkin has written frequently in trochaic (accented/unaccented) tetrameter with four trochees. Example #3: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!" he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred." This excerpt presents an example of dactylic meter that contains one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables. Example #4: The Hunting of the Snark (By Lewis Carroll) "Just the place for a Snark!" the Bellman cried, As he landed his crew with care; Supporting each man on the top of the tide By a finger entwined in his hair ... There was also a Beaver, that paced on the deck, Or would sit making lace in the bow: Here you can see Carroll has used different types of anapestic meter, dimeter, trimeter, and tetrameter. This type of meter has two unaccented syllables and a third accented syllable. Example #5: Troilus and Cressida (By William Shakespeare) Cry, cry! Troy burns, or else let Helen go. Spondaic meter has two accented syllables. You can easily identify this type of meter because it contains both stressed syllables: "Cry, cry! Troy burns." Example #6: An Autumn Visit (By Josie Whitehead) "Autumn is wearing her bright golden crown For this morning she's coming to visit our town And wind, her best friend, will be joining her too. Will they have a nice day and just what will they do?" This stanza has used a combination of iambic and anapestic meter. In anapest, two unstressed syllables are followed by one stressed syllable, which rhymes the lines and add music to them. Example #7: Evangeline (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) "Bent like a laboring oar, that toils in the surf of the ocean, Bent, but not broken, by age was the form of the notary public; Shocks of yellow hair, like the silken floss of the maize, hung Over his shoulders; his forehead was high; and glasses with horn bows Sat astride on his nose, with a look of wisdom supernal." This poem is written in dactylic hexameter, with six dactyls in each line. The poet has combined dactylic hexameter with spondaic meter to give more rhythmic and uplifting reading experience to readers. Example #8: Trees (By Joyce Kilmer) "I think that I shall never see A poem lovely as a tree. A tree whose hungry mouth is prest ... A tree that looks at God all day, And lifts her leafy arms to pray; A tree that may in summer wear A nest of robins in her hair ..." Each line in this example is following iambic tetrameterical pattern. Notice the very first line, in which the stress is placed on the second syllable "think," but not on "I." In this poem, the poet emphasizes the comparison between a tree and poem. Example #9: Song (By William Blake) "I love the jocund dance, The softly breathing song, Where innocent eyes do glance, And where lisps the maiden's tongue. I love the oaken seat, Beneath the oaken tree, Where all the old villagers meet, And laugh our sports to see." This is an example of iambic trimeter. There are three iambs and six syllables, alternating three groups of unaccented and accented in each line. Example #10: The Song of Hiawatha (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) "Should you ask me, whence these stories? Whence these legends and traditions, With the odors of the forest, With the dew and damp of meadows ... With their frequent repetitions, And their wild reverberations, As of thunder in the mountains?" This unique poem has used trochaic meter as its major metrical foot, which is clearly adding music to the verses. Function of Meter Though meter is a poetic device, playwrights as well as prose writers often use it to heighten the dramatic quality of the work, adding enchantment, mystery and emotion to their language. If you look carefully, you will notice metrical feet are not only suitable in poetry, but also in plays to achieve dramatic purposes. However, its basic function is to provide rhythm and uniformity, and to give a rounded and well-formed structure to the poetic work. Meter makes the tone of a language more lyrical. When a situation requires heightened language, the poets use meter for artistic effect. Besides, a meter has importance and value to the readers, which could, however, be lost if paraphrased or translated.

Metonymy

Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and in everyday life. Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Metaphor Metonymy is often confused with another figure of speech called "synecdoche." These devices resemble one another, but are not the same. Synecdoche refers to a thing by the name of one of its parts. For example, calling a car "a wheel" is a synecdoche, as a part of a car - the "wheel" - stands for the whole car. In a metonymy, on the other hand, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not a part of it. For example, the word "crown" is used to refer to power or authority is a metonymy. It is not a part of the thing it represents. Metonymy is also different from a metaphor, which draws resemblance between two different things. For instance, in the sentence, "You are sunlight and I moon," (Sun and Moon by Miss Saigon), sunlight and the moon, and humans are quite different things without any association. However, metaphor attempts to describe one thing in terms of another based on a supposed similarity. Metonymy, however, develops a relation on the grounds of close association, as in "The White House is concerned about terrorism." The White House here represents the people who work in it. Examples of Metonymy in Everyday Life For a better understanding, let us observe a few metonymy examples: "England decides to keep check on immigration." (England refers to the government.) "The pen is mightier than the sword." (Pen refers to written words, and sword to military force.) "The Oval Office was busy in work." (The Oval Office is a metonymy, as it stands for people who work in the office.) "Let me give you a hand." (Hand means help.) Examples of Metonymy in Literature Example #1: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) The given lines are from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Act I: "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears." Mark Anthony uses "ears" to say that he wants the people present to listen to him attentively. It is a metonymy because the word "ears" replaces the concept of paying attention. Example #2: Gone with the Wind (By Margaret Mitchell) This line is from Margaret Mitchell's novel Gone with the Wind: "I'm mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it secedes or it would have ruined the Christmas parties." Scarlett uses the word "Georgia" to point out everything that makes up the state: its citizens, politicians, and the government. It is a metonymy extremely common in the modern world, where the name of a country or state refers to a whole nation and its government. Thus, it renders brevity to the ideas. Example #3: Out, Out (By Robert Frost) These lines are taken from Out, Out, by Robert Frost: "As he swung toward them holding up the hand Half in appeal, but half as if to keep The life from spilling" In these lines, the expression "The life from spilling" refers to the spilling of blood. It develops a link between life and blood. The loss of too much blood means loss of life. Example #4: Yet Do I Marvel (By Countee Cullen) These lines are from Countee Cullen's poem Yet Do I Marvel: "The little buried mole continues blind, Why flesh that mirror Him must someday die..." Here, Cullen uses "flesh" to represent humans, and questions God about why we have to die when we are created in His likeness. Example #5: Lycidas (By John Milton) These lines are from Lycidas, written by John Milton: "But now my oat proceeds, And listens to the herald of the sea That came in Neptune's plea, He asked the waves, and asked the felon winds, What hard mishap hath doomed this gentle swain?" In the above-mentioned lines, John Milton uses "oat" for a musical instrument made out of an oat stalk. Thus, "oat" represents the song that the poet is composing next to the ocean. Function of Metonymy Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism, meaning it gives more profound meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. Texts exhibit deeper or hidden meanings, thus drawing readers' attention. In addition, the use of metonymy helps achieve conciseness. For instance, "Rifles were guarding the gate" is more concise than "The guards with rifles in their hands were guarding the gate." Furthermore, like other literary devices, metonymy is employed to add a poetic color to words to make them come to life. The simple ordinary things are described in a creative way to insert this "life" factor to literary works.

Monologue

Monologue comes from the Greek words monos, which means "alone," and logos, which means "speech." It is a literary device that is the speech or verbal presentation given by a single character in order to express his or her collection of thoughts and ideas aloud. Often such a character speaks directly to audience, or to another character. Monologues are found in dramatic medium like films and plays, and also in non-dramatic medium like poetry. Types of Monologue There are two types of monologue: Interior Monologue In interior monologue, a character externalizes his thoughts, so that the audience can experience his internal thoughts. Often found in plays, movies, and novels, this technique is also called a "stream of consciousness." Internal monologue can bebroken further into two categories: direct and indirect. In a direct interior monologue, an author does not show his presence, and directly reveals his character. In an indirect interior monologue, an author appears as a commentator, guide, presenter, and selector. Dramatic Monologue In this type of monologue, a character speaks to the silent listener. This type has theatrical qualities, hence, it is known as dramatic monologue, and is frequently used in poetry. Difference Between a Monologue and a Soliloquy Monologue and soliloquy are similar, as both are speeches presented by a single person. But a major difference between them is that, in monologue, the speaker reveals his thoughts to the audience, or to any other character; whereas in a soliloquy, the speaker expresses his thoughts to himself, and it does not involve any other characters. Examples of Monologue in Literature Example #1: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (By T. S. Eliot) "And indeed there will be time To wonder, 'Do I dare?' and, 'Do I dare?' Time to turn back and descend the stair, With a bald spot in the middle of my hair ... In a minute there is time For decisions and revisions which a minute will reverse.'" This entire poem is written in the form of a dramatic monologue, in which the poet is trying to explore the causes of pain and suffering of an insecure young man who is confused about whether or not he should attend a party. Eliot reveals his thoughts to the audience about how Prufrock feels that, if he goes to the party, it might disturb the entire universe. Example #2: My Last Duchess (By Robert Browning) "Even had you skill In speech—(which I have not)—to make your will Quite clear to such an one, and say, 'Just this Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss, Or there exceed the mark' — and if she let Herself be lessoned so, nor plainly set Her wits to yours, forsooth, and made excuse, —E'en then would be some stooping ..." This poem also presents an example of a dramatic monologue, as it has a theatrical quality in which the poet expresses his viewpoint through the speech of his character. The single speaker is addressing the servant of a count. Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "But soft, what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east and Juliet is the sun! Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief ... O that I were a glove upon that hand, That I might touch that cheek!" This is a famous balcony scene in which Romeo hides in the garden of the Capulet family, and waits for a glimpse of his beloved Juliet. When she comes out on the balcony, Romeo uses monologue, sharing his thoughts with the audience. Example #4: Mrs. Dalloway (By Virginia Woolf) In her novel, Mrs. Dalloway, Virginia Woolf has presented her characters by using the technique of stream of consciousness, or interior monologue. The consciousness of characters moves backward and forward. Woolf has molded and shaped their personalities at critical moments through interior monologue. Her particular deployment of this technique consists of authorial interjections to provide guidance to the readers and give shape to the narrative. Function of Monologue The purpose of writing in monologue is to convey an idea or viewpoint through words. However, sometimes we notice a tricky part of a writer's expression, as the opinions of speaker and writer do not match, because he tries to convince the audience, and may not tell the exact reality. It allows readers to move from one character to another, and to have insight into their imaginations. A monologue serves as a basic source through which writers express their emotions and thoughts.

Motif

Motif is an object or idea that repeats itself throughout a literary work. Motif and Theme In a literary work, a motif can be seen as an image, sound, action, or other figure that has a symbolic significance, and contributes toward the development of a theme. Motif and theme are linked in a literary work, but there is a difference between them. In a literary piece, a motif is a recurrent image, idea, or symbol that develops or explains a theme, while a theme is a central idea or message. Motif and Symbol Sometimes, examples of motif are mistakenly identified as examples of symbols. Symbols are images, ideas, sounds, or words that represent something else, and help to understand an idea or a thing. Motifs, on the other hand, are images, ideas, sounds, or words that help to explain the central idea of a literary work - the theme. Moreover, a symbol may appear once or twice in a literary work, whereas a motif is a recurring element. Themes, Motifs, and Symbols in Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities Let us try to understand the difference between theme, motif, and symbol by analyzing a literary work. In Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, the main plot revolves around two basic themes: the ever-present possibility of resurrection, and the necessity of sacrifice to bring about a revolution. One of the motif examples in the novel that develops these themes is the presence of Doubles: (1) the action takes place in two cities; (2) we find two opposed doubles in the form of the female characters Lucie and Madame Defarge. We also see recurrent images of darkness in the narrative, which add to the gloomy atmosphere. Another motif is that of imprisonment, as each and every character struggles against some kind of imprisonment. Finally, there are plenty of symbols in the narrative as well. The broken wine cask is a symbol of people's hunger; Madame Defarge knitting is a symbol of revenge, and Marquis is a character that stands for social disorder. Examples of Motif in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) In Shakespeare's Hamlet, we find a recurring motif of incest, accompanied by incestuous desires of some characters. Laertes speaks to his sister Ophelia in a way that is sexually explicit. Hamlet's obsession with Gertrude's sexual life with Claudius has an underlying tone of incestuous desire. There is also a motif of hatred for women that Hamlet experiences in his relationship with Gertrude and Ophelia. Hamlet expresses his disgust for women in Scene 2 of Act I, as he says: "Frailty, thy name is woman" Example #2: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) In Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, we see several motifs that support the central idea of the narrative. The motif of childhood gives the novel a lighter tone, and makes it enjoyable to read despite its grave central ideas of slavery and racism. Both Huck and Tom are young and flexible enough to undergo a moral education, and thus are more open-minded than adults. Another obvious motif in the narrative is superstition. Jim appears silly to believe in all sorts of signs and omens, but interestingly predicts the coming event. Example #3: Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness has a motif of observation and eavesdropping. Marlow, the protagonist, gets information about the world by either observing his surroundings or listening to the conversations of others. Similarly, there is another evident motif of comparison between the exterior and the interior. Initially, Marlow is a person who keenly observes things and people from the surface, but as he continues his journey into the heart of darkness, he gains an insight into his deeper nature, as well as that of others. Example #4: To Kill a Mocking Bird (By Harper Lee) The central idea of the co-existence of good and evil in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mocking Bird is supported by several motifs. Lee strengthens the atmosphere by a motif of Gothic details, in recurrent images of gloomy and haunted settings, supernatural events, and a full moon. Another motif in the narrative is the small town life of Maycomb, which depicts goodness and pleasantness in life. Function of Motif Along with presenting a prevailing theme, writers include several motifs in their literary works as reinforcements. Motifs contribute in developing the major theme of a literary work, and help readers to comprehend the underlying messages that writers intend to communicate to them.

Myth

Myth is a legendary or a traditional story that usually concerns an event or a hero, with or without using factual or real explanations. These particularly concern demigods or deities, and describes some rites, practices, and natural phenomenon. Typically, a myth involves historical events and supernatural beings. There are many types of myths, such as classic myths, religious myths, and modern myths. Characteristics of Myth Myth usually features ruling gods, goddesses, deities, and heroes having god-like-qualities, but status lower than gods. Often, the daughter or son of a god (such as Percy Jackson) is fully mortal, and these characters have supernatural abilities and powers that raise them above average human beings. Myths are mostly very old, and happen to have ruled the world when science, philosophy, and technology were not very precise, as they are today. Therefore, people were unaware of certain questions, like why the sky is blue, or why night is dark, or what are the causes of earthquakes. Thus, it was myths that explained natural phenomena, and described rituals and ceremonies to the people. Examples of Myth in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Roman and Greek myths, though originally not available in English, have deeply influenced English works. During the times of the ancient Greeks, they had a belief that some invisible gods, such as Zeus, had created this world. We read in such Greek stories that passions for humans controlled the gods, and hence gods fought for them. Likewise, Romans had beliefs in such deities. Due to mythological influences, many literary authors refer to the Greek and Roman myths in order to add meanings to their works. For instance, Shakespeare, in his play Romeo and Juliet, uses Greek mythology when Juliet cries out saying that, "Gallop apace, you fiery-footed steeds, Towards Phoebus' lodging." In Greek mythology, Phoebus was god of the sun, and here Juliet urges that god to bring him home quickly, so that night could come, and she may meet her lover Romeo. Example #2: No Second Troy (By William Butler Yeats) In another Greek myth, Greeks devastated the city of Troy in an outburst of the Trojan War, when Helen - the wife of king Menelaus - ran away with the prince of Troy. Apparently, Helen was a very beautiful woman from Greece, and was ultimately held responsible for the devastation of Troy. Yeats also tried to use this Greek mythology in his poem, No Second Troy, by creating a similarity between Helen and Maud Gonne. He also brought a similarity between the Trojan War and revolutionary and anti-British activities of the Irish. Just like Helen, Yeats blamed and held Maud responsible for creating hatred in the hearts of Irishmen, and consequently they caused destruction and bloodshed. Example #3: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) Biblical stories and myths have also played an important role in shaping English literary works. John Milton, in his poem Paradise Lost, plays out the Genesis story about the Fall of Man, and subsequent eviction, from the Garden of Eden. Both John Steinbeck and William Golding, in their respective novels, East of Eden, and Lord of the Flies, played on the same idea in which they have presented Eve as a seducer responsible for bringing sin into this world. We can clearly see this allusion in medieval literature. We also have seen that many feminist literary critics of the twentieth century have made use of this myth in their research. Example #4: The Waste Land (By T. S. Eliot) T. S. Eliot uses two underlying myths to develop the structure of his long poem The Waste Land. These myths are of the Grail Quest and the Fisher King, both of which originate from Gaelic traditions, and come to the Christian civilization. Though Eliot has not taken these myths from the Bible, both were significant for Europeans, as they incorporated them into European mythology, and these stories focused on the account of the death and resurrection of Christ. Function of Myth Myths exist in every society, as they are basic elements of human culture. The main function of myths is to teach moral lessons and explain historical events. Authors of great literary works have often taken their stories and themes from myths. Myths and their mythical symbols lead to creativity in literary works. We can understand a culture more deeply, and in a much better way, by knowing and appreciating its stories, dreams, and myths. Myths came before religions, and all religious stories are, in fact, retellings of global mythical themes. Besides literature, myths also play a great role in science, psychology, and philosophy.

Narrative

Narrative is a report of related events presented to listeners or readers, in words arranged in a logical sequence. A story is taken as a synonym of narrative. A narrative, or story, is told by a narrator who may be a direct part of that experience, and he or she often shares the experience as a first-person narrator. Sometimes he or she may only observe the events as a third-person narrator, and gives his or her summation. History of Narration or Storytelling Storytelling is an essential part of human nature. Man is the only creature that tells stories, and we have been telling stories and listening to them since the time we learned to speak. Storytelling began with oral traditions, and in such forms as myths, legends, fables, anecdotes, and ballads. These were told and retold, passed down from generation to generation, and they shared the knowledge and wisdom of early people. The basic theme of various forms of story-telling were fear of natural forces, deeds of heroes, gods and goddesses, and to teach life lessons from others' experiences. Biblical stories have the primary purpose of teaching spirituality. Most biblical stories were performed in churches to convey spiritual messages to the masses. Narrative Examples in Everyday Life Modern narratives have a broader function. After a close study of famous examples of modern narrative, we see that such narratives do not merely entertain, but serve as ways to communicate writers' moral, cultural, and political perspectives. Moreover, narratives have contributed to achieving educational objectives in our everyday life. Different forms of media enable people to express and record their real life stories, and to share their knowledge and their cultural values across the world. In addition, many documentaries on television adopt a narrative technique to communicate information in an interesting way. Examples of Narrative in Literature Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is a modern narrative example known as a "political satire," which aims at expressing a writer's political views. It uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWII. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. Example #2: Faerie Queen (By Edmund Spenser) Poetry written in the style of a narrative is known as "narrative verse." Faerie Queen, by Edmund Spenser, is an example of such poetry. It narrates the adventures of the Red-Cross Knight in helping Lady Una rescue her parents from the evil Dagon. On a symbolic level it describes the mission of the Holiness as helping the Truth, fight Evil, and thus regain its rightful place in human hearts. Example #3: The Withdrawing Room (By Charlotte Macleod) Charlotte Macleod's The Withdrawing Room is an example of a thriller or suspense narrative. Augustus Quiffen, a lodger at Sarah's Brownstone home, is killed by falling under the train. It seems to be an accident until Mary Smith tells Sarah that it is a murder, but she is not sure of the identity of the murderer. Sarah and Max Bittersohn investigate the matter, and find that the killer has planned the death beforehand. Example #4: Don Quixote (By Miguel de Cervantes) Don Quixote, by Miguel de Cervantes, is a parody of romance narratives, which dealt with the adventures of a valiant knight. Unlike serious romances, in Don Quixote, the narrative takes a comical turn. We laugh at how Quixote was bestowed a knighthood in his battle with the giants [windmills]. We enjoy how the knight helps the Christian king against the army of a Moorish monarch [herd of sheep]. These and the rest of the incidents of the novel are written in the style of Spanish romances of the 16th century, in order to mock the idealism of knights in the contemporary romances. Function of Narrative Storytelling and listening to stories are part of human instinct. Therefore, writers employ narrative techniques in their works to attract readership. The readers are not only entertained, but also learn some underlying message from the narratives. Moreover, a narrative is set in specific cultural contexts. Readers can get a deep insight of that culture, and develop an understanding toward it. Thus, narratives can act as a binding force in uniting humanity.

Prologue

Prologue comes from the Greek term prologos, which means "before word," is an opening of a story that establishes the setting, and gives background details. Generally speaking, the main function of a prologue tells some earlier story, and connects it to the main story. Similarly, it serves as a means to introduce characters of a story, and sheds light on their roles. In its modern sense, a prologue acts as a separate entity, and is not considered part of the current story that a writer ventures to tell. Examples of Prologue in Literature Example #1: Prologue on the Greek Stage The prologos in Greek dramas incorporated the above-mentioned features, but it had a wider importance than the modern interpretations of the prologue. Greek prologos was more like a preface - an introduction to a literary work provided by a dramatist, to tell how the idea of the story developed. Therefore, in Greek dramas, prologue was a complete episode, or the first act, which was succeeded by the remaining acts of a play. The invention of prologue is attributed to Euripides. He prefixed a prologue to his plays as an explanatory first act in order to make the upcoming events in a play comprehensible for his audience. Other dramatists followed in his footsteps, and prologue became a part of the traditional formula for writing plays. Almost all Greek prologues told about events that happened much earlier in time than the events depicted in the play. Example #2: Prologue on the Latin Stage Plautus, a Latin playwright, has written examples of prologues in his plays that were more elaborate than Greek prologues. His prologues were admired for their romantic quality, and were usually performed by characters that did not make an appearance in the play. A prologue to Plautus' play Rudens is a perfect manifestation of his genius in writing prologue. Later, French playwright Moliere revived prologue on the Latin stage by prefixing it to his play Amphitryon. Furthermore, we notice French playwright John Racine introducing his choral tragedy Esther, with a prologue with the character Piety as its speaker. Example #3: Prologue on the Elizabethan Stage The early English dramatists were influenced by the traditions of prologues in Greek and Latin plays. Even the early forms of drama, mystery, and morality plays always began with a homily, which was a religious commentary on the biblical story that was to be performed in those plays. Elizabethan dramatists took inspiration from the Greek and Latin tradition of prologue, holding it as a compulsory ingredient of their plays. In 1562, Thomas Norton, and Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset wrote Gorboduc, which is believed to be the first English play. He prepared a pantomime that acted as a prologue for his play. Later, he wrote Induction, which was a prologue to his Miscellany of short romantic epics. A prologue to Elizabethan plays usually served to quieten and settle down an audience before the commencement of a play. It then introduced the themes of the play and other particulars to the audience, making them mentally prepared for the events they were to witness in the performance. Also, it was considered necessary to beg their leniency for any error that might occur in the writing of the play, or in the performances of actors on stage. Usually, the character who uttered the prologue was dressed in black, in order to differentiate him from the rest of the actors who wore colorful costumes during their performances. For instance, read the following lines from the prologue in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet: "Two households, both alike in dignity (In fair Verona, where we lay our scene), From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. From forth the fatal loins of these two foes A pair of star-crossed lovers take their life, Whose misadventured piteous overthrows Doth with their death bury their parents' strife. The fearful passage of their death-marked love And the continuance of their parents' rage, Which, but their children's end, naught could remove, Is now the two hours' traffic of our stage— The which, if you with patient ears attend, What here shall miss, our toil shall strive to mend." The Chorus in the extract not only introduces the theme, but also asks the audience to be attentive "with patient ears attend." Example #4: Non-Dramatic Prologue In English literature, a prologue was employed in non-dramatic fiction as well as fiction. One of the earliest prologue examples is Geoffrey Chaucer's A Prologue to Canterbury Tales, which was built on the conventional pattern. He used it to introduce all of his characters, or "pilgrims," in dramatic details before each of them told their story on their way to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Beckett. Function of Prologue As previously mentioned, the primary function of a prologue is to let the readers or audience be aware of the earlier part of the story, and enable them to relate it to the main story. This literary device is also a means to present characters and establish their roles.

Prose

Prose is a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry. Normal everyday speech is spoken in prose, and most people think and write in prose form. Prose comprises of full grammatical sentences, which consist of paragraphs, and forgoes aesthetic appeal in favor of clear, straightforward language. It can be said to be the most reflective of conversational speech. Some works of prose do have versification, and a blend of the two formats that is called "prose poetry." Example of a Poetry Verse vs. the Prose Form Following is a poetry verse from a popular work of Robert Frost: "The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." (Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening, by Robert Frost) Prose Form Following is the same sentiment written in prose form: "The woods look lovely against the setting darkness and as I gaze into the mysterious depths of the forest, I feel like lingering here longer. However, I have pending appointments to keep, and much distance to cover before I settle in for the night, or else I will be late for all of them." The above paragraph is conveying a similar message, but it is conveyed in ordinary language, without a formal metrical structure to bind it. Some Common Types of Prose Nonfictional Prose: A literary work that is mainly based on fact, though it may contain fictional elements in certain cases. Examples include biographies and essays. Fictional Prose: A literary work that is wholly or partly imagined or theoretical. Examples are novels. Heroic Prose: A literary work that may be written down or recited, and which employs many of the formulaic expressions found in oral tradition. Examples are legends and tales. Prose Poetry: A literary work that exhibits poetic quality - using emotional effects and heightened imagery - but which are written in prose instead of verse. Examples of Prose in Literature Prose in Novels This is usually written in the form of a narrative, and may be entirely a figment of the author's imagination. Example #1: 1984 (By George Orwell) "It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen." Example #2: David Copperfield (By Charles Dickens) "Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show." Example #3: Anna Karenina (By Leo Tolstoy) "Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." These examples of prose have been taken from novels, where the writers have employed their imaginations. They are examples of fictional prose. Prose in Speeches Prose used in speeches often expresses thoughts and ideas of the speaker. Example #4: No Easy Walk to Freedom speech (By Nelson Mandela) "You can see that there is no easy walk to freedom anywhere, and many of us will have to pass through the valley of the shadow (of death) again and again before we reach the mountain tops of our desires." Example #5: Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech (By Mother Teresa) "The poor are very great people. They can teach us so many beautiful things." Example #6: Equal Rights for Women speech (By U.S. Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm) "As for the marriage laws, they are due for a sweeping reform, and an excellent beginning would be to wipe the existing ones off the books." These prose examples have been taken from speeches where the writing is often crisp and persuasive, and suits the occasion to convey a specific message. Prose in Plays Prose written in plays aims to be dramatic and eventful. Example #7: Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (By Tennessee Williams) "You can be young without money, but you can't be old without it." Example #8: As You Like It (By William Shakespeare) "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players. " Prose in plays is often in conversational mode and is delivered by a character. However, its style stays the same throughout the play according to the personality of the character. Function of Prose While there have been many critical debates over the correct and valid construction of prose, the reason for its adoption can be attributed to its loosely-defined structure, which most writers feel comfortable using when expressing or conveying their ideas and thoughts. It is the standard style of writing used for most spoken dialogues, fictional as well as topical and factual writing, and discourses. It is also the common language used in newspapers, magazines, literature, encyclopedias, broadcasting, philosophy, law, history, the sciences, and many other forms of communication.

Prosthesis

Prosthesis is a literary device that involves the addition of an extra sound or syllable to the beginning of a word, which helps in making it easier to pronounce. Since the meaning of this word is "to put before," an additional syllable or sound is placed at the beginning of a word, which helps in highlighting it. It can be understood from the following example: "Old fond eyes, beweep this cause again...." (King Lear, by William Shakespeare). Here, Shakespeare adds be- (an extra syllable) at the beginning of the word weep, making it beweep. Difference Between Aphaeresis, Apocope, and Prosthesis Aphaeresis and apocope are opposites of prosthesis. In aphaeresis, an unaccented or accented syllable is removed from the front of a word to create a new phrase or term. Like, "the king hath cause to plain." (King Lear, by William Shakespeare). Here, Shakespeare has deleted the initial syllable of the word "complain," which is changed into the word "plain"; whereas, apocope is the removal of a letter or syllable at the end of a word. An example is in the following line: "when I ope my lips let no dog bar" (The Merchant of Venice, by William Shakespeare). On the other hand, prosthesis is adding an additional letter or syllable to the front of a word. Like, "Touchstone: I remember, when I was in love I broke my sword upon a stone and bid him take that for coming a-night to Jane Smile." (As You Like It, by William Shakespeare). In these lines, an extra letter "a" is added to word "night." Examples of Prosthesis in Literature Example #1: Tempest (By William Shakespeare) Prospero: "I have bedimm'd the noontide sun ..." This extract is an example of prosthesis. Here, a word "bedimm'd" gives a poetic touch to a piece of prose by adding "be" at the front. This is among the prosthesis examples that turn an ordinary word into something unique, and give rhythmic effect to a text. Example #2: Sonnet 29 (By William Shakespeare) "I all alone beweep my outcast state ..." This is one of the more popular examples of prosthesis in literature, in which Shakespeare could have used the word "weep," rather than "beweep.' However, he uses prosthesis because this expression matches the meter, and creates a great poetic effect. Example #3: A Dream Within a Dream (By Edgar Allan Poe) "Thus much let me avow- You are not wrong, who deem That my days have been a dream; Yet if hope has flown away ..." In the excerpt, Poe adds a syllable at the beginning of the word "vow." He added the letter "a" to make the literary piece more rhythmic. Example #4: A Lover's Complaint (By William Shakespeare) "Tearing of papers, breaking rings a-twain, Storming her world with sorrow's wind and rain." Shakespeare widely used prosthesis in his works, such as in this extract, the letter "a" is included in the beginning of the word "twain" to put an emphasis on it. Example #5: On the Morning of Christ's Nativity (By John Milton) "Yet first to those ychain'd in sleep, The wakefull trump of doom must thunder through the deep ..." In this passage, Milton added an extra sound or letter to the word "chain'd," transforming it into "ychain'd." This gives the piece a heightened poetic and rhythmic effect. Example #6: A Dream (By Edgar Allan Poe) "What though that light, thro' storm and night, So trembled from afar- What could there be more purely bright In Truth's day-star?" This is another good example of prosthesis in which Poe adds a syllable "a" to the word "far." The purpose of this device is to give a perfect rhythmic effect to this extract, and highlight the importance of this particular word in a given context. Function of Prosthesis The main function of this device is to create a poetic effect in a piece of writing, and to lay emphasis on a particular word. It is a rhetorical strategy of highlighting a point or idea in a text or speech. Since the altered word is employed with additional sound at its beginning, it draws focus, and the attention of readers, by slowing the pace of the text a bit. Frequently, it is used in prose for poetic and humorous effects, in poetry for rhythmic effect, and in everyday conversations and political speeches for emphasis.

Rhyme Scheme

Rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyme that comes at the end of each verse or line in poetry. In other words, it is the structure of end words of a verse or line that a poet needs to create when writing a poem. Many poems are written in free verse style. Some other poems follow non-rhyming structures, paying attention only to the number of syllables. The Japanese genre of Haiku is a case in point. Thus, it shows that the poets write poems in a specific type of rhyme scheme or rhyming pattern. There are several types of rhyme schemes as given below. Types of Rhyme Scheme There are a number of rhyme schemes used in poetry; some of the most popular of which include: Alternate rhyme: It is also known as ABAB rhyme scheme, it rhymes as "ABAB CDCD EFEF GHGH." Ballade: It contains three stanzas with the rhyme scheme of "ABABBCBC" followed by "BCBC." Monorhyme: It is a poem in which every line uses the same rhyme scheme. Couplet: It contains two-line stanzas with the "AA" rhyme scheme, which often appears as "AA BB CC and DD..." Triplet: It often repeats like a couplet, uses rhyme scheme of "AAA." Enclosed rhyme: It uses rhyme scheme of "ABBA" Terza rima rhyme scheme: It uses tercets, three lines stanzas. Its interlocking pattern on end words follows: ABA BCB CDC DED and so on. Keats Odes rhyme scheme: In his famous odes, Keats has used a specific rhyme scheme, which is "ABABCDECDE." Limerick: A poem uses five lines with a rhyme scheme of "AABBA." Villanelle: A nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets and a final quatrain. It uses a rhyme scheme of "A1bA2, abA1, abA2, abA1, abA2, abA1A2." Short Examples of Rhyme Scheme The sun is shining bright This is a lovely sight. You are like a day of May And I as worthless as hay. This is poor Mr. Potter Walking a road with his daughter. Sometimes, your unspoken word Is more important than that heard. Little boy wants to eat cakes Whenever he from sleep awakes. I saw a tree that to God doth say I want the Lord to accept my pray. I think I can never see Something as free as a sea. After so many days of drought down poured the rain It took so long is if came from Spain. The green garden lets its shade fall Over the red old school hall. There flows the river That's amongst the greatest giver. Examples of Rhyme Scheme in Literature Let us take a few examples of most widely used rhyme schemes in literature: Example #1: Neither Out Far nor in Deep (By Robert Frost) The people along the sand (A) All turn and look one way. (B) They turn their back on the land. (A) They look at the sea all day. (B) As long as it takes to pass (C) A ship keeps raising its hull; (C) The wetter ground like glass (D) Reflects a standing gull. (D) This is an ABAB pattern of rhyme scheme, in which each stanza applies this format. For instance, in the first stanza, "sand" rhymes with the word "land," and "way" rhymes with the word "day." Example #2: Twinkle Twinkle Little Star (By Donald Barthelme) Twinkle, twinkle, little star, (A) How I wonder what you are. (A) Up above the world so high, (B) Like a diamond in the sky. (B) The following example uses an AABB rhyme scheme. Here, the first line ends in the word "star," which rhymes with the final word of the second line, "are." Since both words rhyme with each other, they are signified with letter "A." Example #3: Divine Comedy (By Dante Alighieri) As I drew nearer to the end of all desire, (A) I brought my longing's ardor to a final height, (B) Just as I ought. My vision, becoming pure, (A) Entered more and more the beam of that high light (B) That shines on its own truth. From then, my seeing (C) Became too large for speech, which fails at a sight... (B) Dante has used terza rima tercet rhyming patterns (ABA, BCB, CDC ...) in this poem, giving an impression of irresistible movement, as well as dynamism. Example #4: A Monorhyme for the Shower (By Dick Davis) Lifting her arms to soap her hair (A) Her pretty breasts respond - and there (A) The movement of that buoyant pair (A) Is like a spell to make me swear... (A) This poem presents a perfect example of monorhyme, in which you'll notice that every line ends in a similar rhyme, "AAAA" like these words, "hair, there, pair, and swear." Example #5: Nature's Way (By Heidi Campbell) Upon a nice mid-spring day, A Let's take a look at Nature's way. A Breathe the scent of nice fresh air, B Feel the breeze within your hair. B The grass will poke between your toes, C Smell the flowers with your nose. C Clouds form shapes within the skies, D And light will glisten from your eyes D This extract from a poem by Heidi Campbell has a beautiful rhyme scheme AA, BB, CC and DD. Example #6: A Poison Tree (By William Blake) I was angry with my friend: A I told my wrath, my wrath did end. A I was angry with my foe: B I told it not, my wrath did grow. B And I watered it in fears C Night and morning with my tears; C And I sunned it with smiles, D And with soft deceitful wiles. D This extract from William Blake's poem has an excellent rhyme scheme as AA, BB, CC, and DD. Example #7: The One (By Crystal R. Adame) The one who brought me down to earth, A And held me every day. B The one who gracefully gave me birth, A And said, I love you in every way. B The one who taught me everything, C Like how to crawl and walk. D The one who taught me how to sing C After learning how to talk. D Here, poet Crystal R. Adame makes dexterous use of rhyme scheme. The scheme runs like this: ABAB and CDCD. Example #8: To A Terrific Dad (By David L. Helm) To a dad who is terrific, A To a dad who's real neat. B To a dad who makes the best of things, C Even when they're not so sweet! B To a dad who's growing older, D To a dad who's going gray. E To a dad who just gets smarter, D It would seem from day to day! E These lines from the poem To a Terrific Dad have yet another kind of rhyme scheme, which is different from all of the preceding examples. The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABCBDEDE. Function of Rhyme Scheme Rhyme scheme is an integral part of the constitution of a poem, which includes meter, length of phrase, and rhythm. In fact, rhyme scheme, like other writing tools, is used to create balance and relieve tension, manage flow, create rhythm, and highlight important ideas. Its basic function is to form units of sound and suggest units of sense. It also communicates the idea in a more effective way.

Rising Action

Rising action in a plot is a series of relevant incidents that create suspense, interest, and tension in a narrative. In literary works, a rising action includes all decisions, characters' flaws, and background circumstances that together create turns and twists leading to a climax. We find it in novels, plays, and short stories. Rising action is one of the elements of plot, which begins immediately after its exposition. Examples of Rising Action in Literature Example #1: Revelation (By Flannery O'Connor) In her short story, Revelation, Flannery O'Connor has used a great deal of rising action. The moment when Mrs. Turpin comes into the waiting room, she becomes offended by the surroundings around her, considering herself higher than the homely and dirty-looking patients. We see a girl, Mary Grace, in a waiting room, in intense action showing her dislike towards Mrs. Turpin. She finally makes a physical attack on Mrs. Turpin by throwing a book at her. Mrs. Turpin consequently responds negatively, crying and showing anger. Example #2: The Hobbit (By J. R. R. Tolkien) The conflict begins in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit, as Gandalf meets Bilbo and asks him to play the role of a burglar in the dwarves' expedition to recover the treasure of Thorin from Smaug. Rising action occurs as he agrees to act as a burglar during this adventure. His heroism begins merely by shouting to wake up Gandalf, who rescues the company from goblins, and then the action slowly intensifies when he finds the magic ring. Gradually, Bilbo overcomes difficulties by killing a big spider, and establishes his potential as a hero and leader. Example #3: Anna Karenina (By Leo Tolstoy) Leo Tolstoy, in his novel Anna Karenina, draws two major stories. Rising action of the primary storyline begins when Vronsky starts having passionate feelings for Anna instead Kitty. Vronsky and Anna meet each other in the train station, and begin their secret relationship. The action further rises while their obsession turns into a love affair, and Anna decides to leave her son and husband, to live with Vronsky. The second storyline is about Kitty's refusal of the marriage proposal of Konstantin Levin. Further action rises as she moves back to the countryside in order to think about life, and faces inner conflict while considering her decision. Example #4: Twilight (By Stephenie Meyer) The rising action in Stephenie Meyer's novel Twilight occurs as the Cullen family plays a vampire baseball game where Bella is a spectator. During the play, some rogue vampires, including James, Laurent, and Victoria approach them. James smells Bella, and the action rises. James chases Bella while the Cullen family strives to defend her. This heightened action ultimately creates a huge climax that consequently brings many things to a head, leading to the end. Example #5: Evermore (By Alyson Noel) Alyson Noel has written a number of novel series, Evermore being the first among them. This novel follows the adventures of the leading character, Ever, as well as a man named Damen, who helped her become an immortal. Throughout the novel, readers learn that Damen - the first immortal - fell in love with Ever centuries ago. His ex-wife, however, continues trying to kill Ever's incarnations in order to keep Damen apart from Ever. Her attempts in doing this develop the novel's rising action, which in turn strengthens the love story of Damen and Ever, and creates suspense towards their final combat with Drina. Example #6: Snow White (By Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm) In Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm's novel, Snow White, the rising action occurs when the Queen's magic mirror warns her that she is no longer the fairest lady in the land; that, instead, it is now Snow White. Envious, the Queen orders her huntsman to take her stepdaughter Snow White away from the palace, into the forest, and secretly kill her. Fortunately, he cannot kill her, but leaves her in the forest, where seven tiny dwarfs find her. They bring her into their home, then another rising action occurs when the mirror tells the Queen that Snow White is still alive. Function of Rising Action The events of a rising action are generally very important, because the entire plot of a narrative depends upon these events for setting up the climax - a moment of ultimate excitement that eventually leads to a satisfactory resolution. For instance, an author writes a love story in which a moment comes when characters decide whether to stay together or break up - thus, rising action sets a stage for this moment by building up dramatic situations or conflicts. It further adds a layer of complexity to the plot for developing characters and climax.

Sarcasm

Sarcasm is derived from the French word sarcasmor, and also from the Greek word sarkazein, which means "tear flesh," or "grind the teeth." Somehow, in simple words it means to speak bitterly. Generally, the literal meaning is different than what the speaker intends to say through sarcasm. Sarcasm is a literary and rhetorical device that is meant to mock, often with satirical or ironic remarks, with a purpose to amuse and hurt someone, or some section of society, simultaneously. For instance: "I didn't attend the funeral, but I sent a nice letter saying I approved of it." (Mark Twain) Types of Sarcasm Sarcasm often depends upon the voice tone. There are seven types: Self-Deprecating Sarcasm - This category of sarcasm expresses an overstated sense of inferiority and worthlessness. Brooding Sarcasm - In this criticism, the speaker utters something polite. However, the tone of his speech has a marked bitterness to it. Deadpan Sarcasm - It is expressed without emotion or laughter, making it difficult for the listener to judge whether the speaker is joking or mocking. Polite Sarcasm - A speaker is said to have delivered a polite sarcasm when his listeners only get to realize that his kind remark was a sarcastic one after they had given it some thought. Obnoxious Sarcasm - This kind of sarcasm makes people feel like punching the speaker in the face. It is not very funny, and it gets under your skin. Manic Sarcasm - This type of sarcasm is delivered in an unnatural happy mood, which makes the speaker look like he has gone crazy. Raging Sarcasm - This kind of sarcasm relies mainly on exaggeration and violent threats. Examples of Sarcasm in Literature Example #1: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) "Friends, countrymen, lend me your ears." Mark Antony repeatedly uses the phrase "honorable man" in this speech several, though Brutus' actions in murdering Caesar were definitely not honorable. His repetition of this phrase completely reverses the literal meaning of the phrase. Example #2: Hamlet, Act 1 Scene 2 (By William Shakespeare) "Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral bak'd meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables." The most disturbing issue to Hamlet in this play is his mother's marriage to his uncle. While talking to Horatio in a sarcastic manner, Hamlet sums up the ridiculous affairs using this statement. Example #3: Mending Walls (By Robert Frost) "Good fences make good neighbors." This line points out, in a sarcastic way, two neighbors who have made a wall between them. However, this wall falls apart every winter, therefore the neighbors meet and mend it, hence spending more time together in this way. Example #4: Road not taken (By Robert Frost) "Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, and that has made all the difference." The poet is talking about two roads, one is not traveled often by people, and the other one is chosen by the majority of people. He had taken the less-traveled road. Frost uses a sarcastic remark, that he feels regret for having chosen this path or road which made a difference. Example #5: Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "A FRERE ther was, a wantown and a merye, A limitour, a ful solempne man, So muche of daliaunce and fair langage. He hadde maad ful many a mariage Of yonge wommen, at his owne cost. Ful wel biloved and famulier was he With frankeleyns over-al in his contree, He wiste that a man was repentaunt. For many a man so hard is of his herte..." Here, Chaucer describes the character of the friar in a sarcastic manner. He is a clergyman, who accepts bribes from wealthy people of the town. He uses money that he takes from confessions on merry-making and women; and doesn't care about the people. Example #6: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "Wherefore art thou, Romeo?" This is the central conflict in this play, when Juliet sarcastically asks Romeo that why his name is Romeo, since they could never be together as their families were enemies. Function of Sarcasm Sarcasm can be used for many purposes. However, in most of the cases, it is utilized as a mask or scathe. Others use it as a defensive mechanism. It is used when bitterness is hard to express in a pleasant way, or the objective is to say something without hurting somebody directly. The basic purpose of sarcasm in literary works is to bring a flavor in order to make the stories seem real to the readers.

Satire

Satire is a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an individual or a society, by using humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule. It intends to improve humanity by criticizing its follies and foibles. A writer in a satire uses fictional characters, which stand for real people, to expose and condemn their corruption. A writer may point a satire toward a person, a country, or even the entire world. Usually, a satire is a comical piece of writing which makes fun of an individual or a society, to expose its stupidity and shortcomings. In addition, he hopes that those he criticizes will improve their characters by overcoming their weaknesses. Satire and Irony Satire and irony are interlinked. Irony is the difference between what is said or done, and what is actually meant. Therefore, writers frequently employ satire to point at the dishonesty and silliness of individuals and society, and criticize them by ridiculing them. Examples of Satire in Everyday Life Most political cartoons we see every day in newspapers and magazines are examples of satire. These cartoons criticize some recent actions of political figures in a comical way. Some shows on television are satire examples, such as The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, and The Larry Sanders Show. These shows claim to target what they think are stupid political and social viewpoints. Let us see a sample of Stephen Colbert's social satire: "If this is going to be a Christian nation that doesn't help the poor, either we have to pretend that Jesus was just as selfish as we are, or we've got to acknowledge that He commanded us to love the poor and serve the needy without condition and then admit that we just don't want to do it." Examples of Satire in Literature Example #1: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) There are numerous examples of satire in Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. He uses satire as a tool to share his ideas and opinions on slavery, human nature, and many other issues that afflicted American society at that time. Below are a few citations from the novel that demonstrate satire: "What's the use you learning to do right, when it's troublesome to do right and isn't no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?" (Ch. 16) "There warn't anybody at the church, except maybe a hog or two, for there warn't any lock on the door, and hogs likes a puncheon floor in summer-time because it's cool. If you notice, most folks don't go to church only when they've got to; but a hog is different." (Ch. 18) "The pitifulest thing out is a mob; that's what an army is - a mob; they don't fight with courage that's born in them, but with courage that's borrowed from their mass, and from their officers. But a mob without any man at the head of it is beneath pitifulness." (Ch. 22) Example #2: The Rape of the Lock (By Alexander Pope) Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock is an example of poetic satire in which he has satirized the upper middle class of eighteenth century England. It exposes the vanity of young fashionable ladies and gentlemen, and the frivolity of their actions. For example, Pope says, about Belinda, after losing her lock of hair: "Whether the nymph shall break Diana's law, Or some frail china jar receive a flaw, Or stain her honor, or her new brocade..." The line mocks the values of the fashionable class of that age. The trivial things were thought of as equal to significant things. For Belinda, the loss of her virtue becomes equal to a China jar being cracked. Example #3: Gulliver Travels (By Jonathan Swift) Jonathan Swift's Gulliver Travels is one of the finest satirical works in English Literature. Swift relentlessly satirizes politics, religion, and Western culture. Criticizing party politics in England, Swift writes: "...that for above seventy Moons past there have been two struggling Parties in this Empire, under the Names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan from the high and low Heels on their shoes, by which they distinguish themselves." During Swift's times, two rival political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, dominated the English political scene. Similarly, "The Kingdom of Lilliput" is dominated by two parties distinguished by the size of the heels of their boots. By the trivial disputes between the two Lilliputian parties, Swift satirizes the minor disputes of the two English parties of his period. Function of Satire The role of satire is to ridicule or criticize those vices in society the writer considers to be a threat to civilization. The writer considers it his obligation to expose these vices for the betterment of humanity. Therefore, the function of satire is not to make others laugh at persons or ideas they make fun of. It intends to warn the public, and to change people's opinions about the prevailing corruption and conditions in society.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Self-fulfilling prophecy is defined as any expectation, positive or negative, about a situation or event that affects an individual behavior in such a manner that it causes that expectation to be fulfilled. Let us assume a teacher, who expects a student to be slothful, is likely to treat that student in such a way that it draws out the very same response he or she expects. Similarly, if we start a day and think "I'll have a bad day today," such thinking may alter our actions, and the prediction might be fulfilled by those actions. The term "self-fulfilling prophecy" was coined by Robert Merton in 1948. He described it as: "A false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the originally false conception come true" Individuals react to a situation the way they perceive it, and so their reaction is governed by their perception of that particular situation. No matter what the situation means in reality, their reaction toward the situation causes it to be fulfilled in accordance with their perception. Examples of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Literature Self-fulfilling prophecy is used as a plot device in literature. It is usually employed ironically, where the prophecies are realized due to the actions of a character who tries to prevent them. One can find examples of self-fulfilling prophecy in popular literary pieces, such as the following: Example #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) One of the best self-fulfilling prophecy examples is in the Greek drama Oedipus Rex. Laius, Oedipus' father, abandoned his son to die after learning the prophecy from the Oracle of Delphi, that he would kill him one day and marry his mother. He did not die as he was raised by the king and queen of Corinth. When he grew up, he came to know of the same prophecy from the same source. Not knowing that the king and the queen of Corinth were not his real parents, he traveled toward Thebes", the city of his biological parents, in order to avert the prophecy. Ironically, the prophecy fulfilled itself as he killed his father, defeated the Sphinx, became the king of Thebes, and married his mother. Example #2: The Ruined Man Who Became Rich Again Through a Dream, from Arabian Nights (By Muhsin Mahdi) Self-fulfilling prophecy may take the form of a self-fulfilling dream, as in the famous work of Arabic literature Arabian Nights. For example, in one of its stories, The Ruined Man Who Became Rich Again Through a Dream, a man is told in a dream to leave his native city Baghdad and travel to Cairo, where he will discover a hidden treasure in a certain place. The man does so, but soon after facing misfortune, he loses his belief in that dream and ends up in jail. He told the story of his dream to an officer, who told him that he was a fool, but took note of the dream himself. The man returned to Baghdad along with the officer. Finally, the officer discovers the treasure hidden in that man's home. The prophecy would have been fulfilled for that man, if he had had belief in the prophecy. Example #3: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) A classic example of self-fulfilling prophecy is found in William Shakespeare's play Macbeth. The three witches tell Macbeth that he will become a king, but after him the son of his best friend Banquo will ascend the throne. He became a king by killing Duncan, fulfilling the first half of the prophecy, and tried to keep his friend's son away from the throne. He killed his best friend and his son, Fleance. Eventually, the remaining half of the prophecy fulfilled itself. Macduff took revenge for his father's death, and killed Macbeth to ascend to the throne. The audience at the time of Shakespeare did understand the fulfillment of the prophecy, as later on Macduff was succeeded by James I of England, who was a descendant of Banquo. Thus, the prophecy was fulfilled. Function of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy More often than not, the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy device in literature gives the readers a clear insight to the actions and motivations of the characters. Generally, it is used in literature to represent ironical situations, and the readers read the actions of the characters with interest, as they allow them to predict and to understand the outcome, despite the characters' desperate efforts to avert it.

Tmesis

Tmesis is derived from the Greek word tmesis, which means "to cut." It is a rhetorical device that involves the breaking down of a phrase or a word into two parts. In simpler words, tmesis is an insertion of a word between the parts of a word, a compound word, or a phrase (phrasal verbs usually). It is a practice of dividing a phrase or word into its components by inserting another word in the middle of that phrase or word. Tmesis is commonly employed in words that have more than three syllables. Let us examine these two examples of tmesis to have a better understanding of this device: Eliza Dolitttle: "Fan-bloody-tastic" or "abso-blooming-lutely" (Pygmalion, by George Bernard Shaw). Here, the words "fantastic" and "absolutely" are separated by the words "bloody" and "blooming," respectively. "How-heinous-ever it be," (Richard II, by William Shakespeare). The word, however, is separated by the word "heinous." Classification of Tmesis Tmesis examples may be classified according to the device's two main groups. The first group of tmesis is formed from cutting phrasal verbs. For example, the phrasal verb "turn off" can be cut into two parts by inserting another word, such as "radio," to form the phrase "turn the radio off"). The meaning of the phrasal verb in this example is retained. In other instances, however, it may change. Another category of English tmesis is formed by adding an infix in modifiers. A good example for this is, "I got forty-bloody-seven /and that's good e-bloody-nough" (Tumba Bloody Rumba, by John O'Grady). Examples of Tmesis in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "This is not Romeo, he's some other where." In this excerpt, "somewhere" is split up by inserting the word "other." The purpose of splitting up the word is to highlight and draw the focus of readers to the fact that Romeo is not there, but somewhere else. Example #2: Hymn to Christ (By John Donne) "In whattorn shipsoever I embark, That ship shall be my emblem Whatseasoever swallow me, that flood Shall be to me an emblem of thy blood." This is a very good example of phrasal verb tmesis. "Whatsoever" is split into two parts by inserting the words, "torn ship." The same is done in the third line, where the word "sea" is inserted in the middle of the compound word "whatsoever." Example #3: Old Age Sticks (By E. E. Cummings) "old age sticks up Keep Off signs) & youth yanks them down(old age cries No Tres) & (pas) youth laughs (sing old age scolds Forbid den Stop Must n't Don't &) youth goes right on gr owing old" Cumming has used plenty of tmesis in his works. This poem is a good example. The phrasal verb "yanks down" is split apart by the word "them." This split up of words is used for artistic purpose. Example #4: Troilus & Cressida (By William Shakespeare) "That man-how dearly ever parted." Shakespeare uses tmesis in his literary pieces. Here, the insertion of the word "dearly" into "however" emphasizes the fond feeling that the speaker has towards the dead person. Example #5: Take a Girl Like You (By Kingsley Amis) "It's a sort of long cocktail—he got the formula off a barman in Marrakesh or some-bloody-where." The word "somewhere" is divided by the word "bloody." This inserted word makes the readers focus on the speaker's "I don't care" attitude toward the origin of the formula. Function of Tmesis Tmesis is mainly used to create humor, and lay emphasis on a particular word or phrase. The Romans and Greeks used tmesis for special effects in literature. In comedy, it works as over-done exaggeration. In poetry, its task is to stress a point, as it forces readers to give more attention to the cut phrase or line. It is regularly used in informal speech, as well. In Australian English, it is called "tumba rumba."

Comparison and Contrast Essay

A comparison and contrast essay compares two similar objects, or contrasts dissimilar objects, in a way that readers become informed about the advantages and disadvantages of both the objects. Readers are then able to weigh pros and cons of the objects compared and contrasted to select a better product. It, however, does not mean that it is only a comparison or contrast of products, it could be a situation after which readers are to make a decision, weighing pros and cons. Although a comparison and contrast essay is set to demonstrate both similarities as well as differences, sometimes it only shows similarities, and at other times, only differences. Difference Between a Division/Classification and Comparison/Contrast Essay A division and classification essay, like comparison and contrast essay, is also an analysis essay whose objective is to break a thing or idea, or an essay into bits for analysis. A comparison and contrast essay, however, intends to point out qualities and deficiencies in things, or explain bad and good aspects of an issue. This is mostly done for decision making purposes. Examples of Comparison and Contrast Essay in Literature Example #1: A Slow Walk of Trees (by Toni Morrison) "His name was John Solomon Willis, and when at age 5 he heard from the old folks that "the Emancipation Proclamation was coming," he crawled under the bed. It was his earliest recollection of what was to be his habitual response to the promise of white people: horror and an instinctive yearning for safety. He was my grandfather, a musician who managed to hold on to his violin but not his land. He lost all 88 acres of his Indian mother's inheritance to legal predators who built their fortunes on the likes of him. He was an unreconstructed black pessimist who, in spite of or because of emancipation, was convinced for 85 years that there was no hope whatever for black people in this country. His rancor was legitimate, for he, John Solomon, was not only an artist but a first-rate carpenter and farmer, reduced to sending home to his family money he had made playing the violin because he was not able to find work. And this during the years when almost half the black male population were skilled craftsmen who lost their jobs to white ex-convicts and immigrant farmers." This passage compares two types of attitudes about the author's grandfather; one of the black community and the other of the response of the white to this blackness. Example #2: Reality TV: Surprising Throwback to The Past? (by Patricia Cohen) "To many critics, Cupid and other matchmaking shows that mix money and real-life marital machinations represent a cynical and tasteless new genre that is yet another sign of America's moral decline. But there's something familiar about the fortune hunters, the status seekers, the thwarted loves, the meddling friends, the public displays, the comic manners, and the sharp competitiveness—all find their counterparts in Jane Austen and Edith Wharton. Only now, three-minute get-to-know-you tryouts in a TV studio substitute for three-minute waltzes at a ball. Traditional family values, it turns out, are back on television after all." In this passage, Patricia Cohen compares two attitudes: one of materialism, and the other of morality. She bemoans moral decline, but praises the literary taste. Example #3: Euromail and Amerimail (by Eric Weiner) "Euromail is stiff and cold, often beginning with a formal 'Dear Mr. X,' and ending with a brusque 'Sincerely.' You won't find any mention of kids or the weather or jellyfish in Euromail. It's all business. It's also slow. Your correspondent might take days, even weeks, to answer a message. Euromail is also less confrontational in tone, rarely filled with the overt nastiness that characterizes American e-mail disagreements. In other words, Euromail is exactly like the Europeans themselves. (I am, of course, generalizing. German e-mail style is not exactly the same as Italian or Greek, but they have more in common with each other than they do with American mail.)" In this passage, Eric Weiner compares euromail and Amerimail to point out the drawbacks of one, and highlight the qualities of the other. Functions of a Comparison and Contrast Essay A comparison and contrast essay helps readers reach a critical decision. It could be a comparison and contrast of two products, two objects, two things, or two issues. Readers read the essays, weigh all aspects, and then decide whether to make a purchase and decide in favor of one thing or not. This type of essay also makes readers more cognizant of the situations or issues discussed.

Couplet

A couplet is a literary device that can be defined as having two successive rhyming lines in a verse, and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme, and incorporation of specific utterances. It could be an independent poem, and might be a part of other poems, such as sonnets in Shakespearean poetry. If a couplet has the ability to stand apart from the rest of the poem, it is independent, and hence it is called a "closed couplet." A couplet that cannot render a proper meaning alone is called an "open couplet." One of the commonly used couplet examples are these two lines from William Shakespeare's Hamlet: "The time is out of joint, O cursed spite That ever I was born to set it right!" Types of Couplets Short Couplet Split Couplet Heroic Couplet (Closed and Open Couplets) Shakespearean Couplet Alexandrine Couplet Qasida Chinese Couplet Examples of Couplet in Literature Example #1: Sonnet III (By William Shakespeare) "Look in thy glass, and tell the face thou viewest Now is the time that face should form another; Whose fresh repair if now thou not renewest, Thou dost beguile the world, unbless some mother, For where is she so fair whose unear'd womb... But if thou live, remember'd not to be, Die single, and thine image dies with thee." This is one of the Shakespearean sonnets that contains 14 lines; a couplet at the end of the poem usually rhymes, and concludes the poem. These lines generally give commentary on the theme. Example #2: One Happy Moment (By John Dryden) "O, no, poor suff'ring Heart, no Change endeavour, Choose to sustain the smart, rather than leave her; My ravish'd eyes behold such charms about her, I can die with her, but not live without her: One tender Sigh of hers to see me languish, Will more than pay the price of my past anguish..." This excerpt is an example of closed heroic couplets. The lines are following an iamb pentameter pattern. All the couplets are forming complete separate thoughts and ideas, and the rhyme scheme is perfect. Example #3: Hero and Leander (By Christopher Marlowe) "At Sestos Hero dwelt; Hero the fair, Whom young Apollo courted for her hair, And offered as a dower his burning throne, Where she should sit for men to gaze upon. The outside of her garments were of lawn, The lining purple silk, with gilt stars drawn..." This is another very good example of open heroic couplets, where the end of each couplet is enjambed - its phrasal and syntactic sense is carried to the next lines. Or in poetic terms, it can be said that there is no caesura. Example #4: An Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope) "A little learning is a dangerous thing; Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring: There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain, And drinking largely sobers us again. Fired at first sight with what the Muse imparts, In fearless youth we tempt the heights of arts..." This excerpt is a good example of closed heroic couplets. Here, all the couplets make complete sense - meaning they do not carry their sense into the following lines. Moreover, these couplets also rhyme. Example #5: The Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "Whan that aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of march hath perced to the roote, And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour; Whan zephirus eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth Tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the ram his halve cours yronne..." This excerpt is an example of open heroic couplets that have iambic pentameter pattern. All the lines rhyme, they do not give independent meanings in a single line, and the sense is carried to subsequent lines. Function of Couplet The rhyming couplets are usually used in poetry in order to make a poem interesting and rhythmic. They help create a rhyming effect in a poem. In literature, Chaucer, Dryden, Pope and Shakespeare have been famous for using rhyming heroic couplets. In Arabic and Chinese literature, rhyming couplets have also been used extensively.

Assonance

Assonance takes place when two or more words, close to one another repeat the same vowel sound, but start with different consonant sounds. For instance, in the following sentence: "Men sell the wedding bells." The same vowel sound of the short vowel "-e-" repeats itself in almost all the words, excluding the definite article. The words do share the same vowel sounds, but start with different consonant sounds - unlike alliteration, which involves repetition of the same consonant sounds. Below are a few assonance examples that are common. Common Assonance Examples We light fire on the mountain. I feel depressed and restle Go and mow the lawn. Johnny went here and there and everywhe The engineer held the steering to steer the vehicle. Brief Examples of Assonance "If I bleat when I speak it's because I just got . . . flee" — Deadwood, by Al Swearengin "Those images that yet, Fresh images beget, That dolphin-torn, that gong-tormented sea." — Byzantium, by W. B. Yeats "Strips of tinfoil winking like people" — The Bee Meeting by Sylvia Plath "I must confess that in my quest I felt depressed and restless." — With Love, by Thin Lizzy Examples of Assonance in Literature Assonance is primarily used in poetry, in order to add rhythm and music, by adding an internal rhyme to a poem. Let us look at some examples of assonance from literature: Example #1: Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening (By Robert Frost) Try to recognize the use of assonance in Robert Frost's poem Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening: "He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake. The woods are lovely, dar and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." The underlined bold letters in the above extract are vowels that are repeated to create assonance. Example #2: Early Moon (By Carl Sandburg) Assonance sets the mood of a passage in Carl Sandburg's Early Moon: "Poetry is old, ancient, goes back far. It is among the oldest of living things. So old it is that no man knows how and why the first poems came." Notice how the long vowel, "o", in the above extract, helps emphasize the idea of something being old and mysterious. Example #3: Outer Dark (By Cormac McCarthy) The sound of long vowels slows down the pace of a passage, setting an atmosphere that is grave and serious. Look at the following example from Cormac McCarthy's Outer Dark: "And stepping softly with her air of blooded ruin about the glade in a frail agony of grace she trailed her rags through dust and ashes, circling the dead fire, the charred billets and chalk bones, the little calcined ribcage." The repetition of the long vowel sound in the above passage lays emphasis on the frightening atmosphere that the writer wants to depict. Example #4: Do Not Go Gentle into the Good Night (By Dylan Thomas) Similarly, we notice the use of long vowels in a passage from Dylan Thomas' famous poem, Do Not Go Gentle into the Good Night: "Do not go gentle into that good night, Old age should burn and rave at close of day; Rage, rage, against the dying of the light. Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight, Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light." The poet deliberately uses assonance in the above lines to slow down the pace of the poem, and to create a somber mood, as the subject of the poem is death. Example #5: Daffodils (By William Wordsworth) William Wordsworth employs assonance to create an internal rhyme in his poem Daffodils: "I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze..." Example #6: The Feast of Famine (By Robert Louis Stevenson) "From folk that sat on the terrace and drew out the even long Sudden crowings of laughter, monotonous drone of song; The quiet passage of souls over his head in the trees; And from all around the haven the crumbling thunder of seas." Farewell, my home," said Rua. "Farewell, O quiet seat! To-morrow in all your valleys the drum of death shall beat." This is a good example of assonance, in which almost all the lines contain one example of assonance. All the examples have been written in bold. In the first line, the /a/ sound has been repeated. In the second line, the /o/ sound, as in dog, has been repeated. In the third line, the /o/ sound as in go has been repeated. In fourth line, /ʌ/ as in must has been repeated. In the fifth line, the /a/ sound as in air, and the /e/ sound, as in ten have been repeated. In the sixth line, the long /e/ sound, as in sheep has been repeated. Example #7: When I have Hears (By John Keats) "When I have fears that I may cease to be Before my pen has gleaned my teeming brain, Before high-piled books, in charactery, Hold like rich garners the full ripened grain ..." This excerpt has been taken from John Keats' sonnet, When I Have Fears. The first line exhibits repetition of the long /i/ sound, as in tripe. The second line again contains the same long /i/ sound. The fourth line repeats /ai/ sound as in bye. Example #8: The Master (By Edgar Allan Poe) "And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain Thrilled me - filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before; So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating` 'Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door - Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door; " This it is, and nothing more." The Master, by Edgar Allan Poe, is teeming with the examples of assonance. The first line repeats the /ur/ sound, as in bird. The second line starts with the repetition of the short /i/ sound, and ends with the repetition of the short /e/ sound. The fourth line repeats the long /i/ sound twice. The third line has a short /i/ sound twice. The last line has again short /i/ sound repeated four times. Function of Assonance Similar to any other literary device, assonance has a very important role to play in both poetry and prose. Writers use it as a tool to enhance a musical effect in the text by using it for creating internal rhyme. This consequently enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. In addition, it helps writers to develop a particular mood in the text that corresponds with its subject matter.

Cadence

Cadence is derived from the Latin word cadentia, which means "a falling." It is the term used to signal the rising and falling of the voice when reading a literary piece. In poetry, it is the momentary changes in rhythm and pitch. Cadences help set the rhythmic pace of a literary piece. Types of Cadences Most of the cadence examples in literature Imperfect or half cadence - In poetry, a half cadence is a pause. Half cadence is represented with a comma, or a semi-colon, in poetry and prose. This rhythm does not sound final, and often the lines end with indecisive tension. Perfect or authentic cadence - Perfect cadence comes at the end of the phrase in a poem. Examples of Cadence in Literature Example #1: Painting of a Bedroom with Cats (By Elizabeth Bartlett) "The curved cane chair has dented cushions, the cats Catch spiders and craneflies on the wardrobe tops, The guitar lies in its funeral case, the road is quiet, The apple trees have dropped their fruit in the grass; Rain is coming in from the west; the garden is lush and damp, The draught is over, and the day is at the eleventh hour, Sleep is nearly here on fern-patterned pillowcases, Books slither to the floor, cats is stretched on the quit..." In this poem, cadence appears in the middle of the fourth line of each stanza, giving the speech a pause. This pause is shown by a semi-colon. It also gives a momentary variation to the rhythm of poem. Example #2: The Raven (By Edgar Allan Poe) "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore— While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, ' 'Tis some visiter,' I muttered, 'tapping at my chamber door— Only this and nothing more.' ... "And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting On the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door; And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming, And the lamp-light o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor; And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor." The Raven is a perfect example of cadence. Here we can see breaks and ends within a piece of poetry. These endings come in the middle of the poem, and are represented by dashes and semi-colons. Due to these pauses, it speeds up and slows down the tone of the whole poem. Example #3: London (By F. S. Flint) "It is not the sunset Nor the pale green sky Shimmering through the curtain Of the silver birch, Nor the quietness; It is not the hopping Of the little birds Upon the lawn, Nor the darkness Stealing over all things That moves me..." The style of this poem is a free verse, which does not have a distinct meter. Since most of the free verse poems have cadences, the same is the case here. In this poem, cadence is used in the middle as a little pause that changes the rise and fall of the tone when reading out loud. Function of Cadence Cadence is a musical movement, marked by melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic characteristics. It is used to establish sectional articulation and closure. However, the basic purpose of cadence is a communicative function that indicates to the listeners when a part ends, and therefore helps them elucidate the formal composition of the piece. Cadences are used in poetry and in music, where they sync with a variety of musical idioms. Poets use cadence to put rhythm in their poems. Cadence plays a significant role in making the sounds and the senses in a poem connect to each other.

Canto

Canto is a subdivision or part in a narrative or epic poem, consisting of five or more lines such, as a stanza, which could also be a canto. The word "canto" originates from the Latin word cantus, which means "a song." The Italian poets Dante, Matteo Boiardo, and Ludovico used cantos to divide their poems into shorter sections for thematic understanding. In English literature, Edmund Spenser is the first poet who used this division in his famous poem "The Faerie Queene." Lord Byron also used this division in his poem, "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage." Examples of Canto in Literature Example #1: The Faerie Queene (by Edmund Spenser) "The Patron of true Holinesse, FouleErrour doth defeate: Hypocrisie him to entrappe, Doth to his home entreate. Gentle Knight was pricking on the plaine, Y clad in mightiearmes and suluershielde, Wherein old dints of deepe wounds did remaine, The cruellmarkes of many' a bloudyfielde; Yet armes till that time did he neuer wield; His angry steede did chike his foming bitt, As much disdaining to the curbe to yield." This canto describes the character of the knight, who represents all the qualities of chivalry, such as bravery and fighting spirit. It comprises eleven lines, as compared to six or seven lines of Italian cantos. Example #2: Inferno (by Dante Alighieri) "One night, when half my life behind me lay, I wandered from the straight lost path afar. Through the great dark was no releasing way; Above that dark was no relieving star. If yet that terrored night I think or say, As death's cold hands its fears resuming are. Gladly the dreads I felt, too dire to tell, The hopeless, pathless, lightless hours forgot, I turn my tale to that which next befell, When the dawn opened, and the night was not." This is another good example of canto, a major section of Dante's "Divine Comedy." Here, Dante describes how he loses the right path when travelling through the forest. However, this canto comprises ten lines as opposed to eleven lines of the first example. Example #3: The Cantos (by Ezra Pound) "And then went down to the ship, Set keel to breakers, forth on the godly seas, and We set up mast and sail on that swart ship, Bore sheep aboard her, and our bodies also Heavy with weeping, and winds from sternward Bore us out onward with bellying canvas, Circe's this craft, the trim-coifed goddess ..." Ezra Pound has written this poem in 129 parts, and each part is a separate canto. This is the first part in which he describes a journey by ship, which is loaded with sheep, and is sailing away from some hidden place. The word 'Circe' is a reference to Homer's epic, "The Odyssey," which points to the eerie atmosphere created by Pound in this poem. Example #4: Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (by Lord Byron) "I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs; A Palace and a Prison on each hand I saw from out the wave her structures rise As from the stroke of the Enchanter's wand: A thousand Years their cloudy wings expand Around me, and a dying Glory smiles O'er the far times, when many a subject Land Looked to the winged Lion's marble piles, Where Venice sate in state, throned on her hundred isles!" This is the fourth canto of "Child Harold's Pilgrimage," in which he describes his journey to Italy. It also shows his lamentation on the decay of ancient civilization. Example #5: Don Juan (by Lord Byron) "I want a Hero: an uncommon Want, When every Year and Month sends forth a new one, Till, after cloying the Gazettes with Cant, The Age discovers he is not the true one; Of such as these I should not care to vaunt I'll therefore take our ancient friend Don Juan; We all have seen him in the Pantomime, Sent to the Devil, somewhat ere his time." This is the first canto, in which Lord Byron says that his own age is unable to provide a suitable hero for his poem - the reason that he is using an old friend, Don Juan, as a hero. Function Canto is used as an introduction to a poem, as well as serves as a unitary prologue to an entire epic. It also enables the reader to understand different turning points in the poem. The use of canto divides episodes in a poem to make it easier for the reader to understand.

Caricature

Caricature is a device used in descriptive writing and visual arts, in which particular aspects of a subject are exaggerated, to create a silly or comic effect. In other words, it can be defined as a plastic illustration, derisive drawing, or a portrayal based on exaggeration of the natural features, which gives a humorous touch to the subject. During the 16th century, numerous painters (Holbein, Bruegel, and Bosch, for example) used particular aspects of caricature in their work. However, it did not involve anything comic until the 17th century. Later, in the 18th century, Carracci introduced caricature in a witty way in his works. Caricatures started gaining popularity in England when artists like Hogarth, Rowlandson, and Gillray followed Carracci's footsteps. The genre slowly developed to accommodate social and political satire as well. Examples of Caricature in Literature Example #1: Ethnic Distinctions, No Longer So Distinctive (By Matt Bai, New York Times, June 29, 2010) Several authors have written about how President Obama is unpredictable. A piece of writing was published in The New York Times that shed light on this particular subject by highlighting how people have exaggerated certain aspects of the President's personality. Following is an excerpt from the same paper by Matt Bai: "Over the course of the last several weeks, commentators have taken to portraying Mr. Obama as clinical and insufficiently emotive, which is really just another way of saying the president is not really knowable. It is a caricature his opponents can exploit in part because a lot of voters remain murky on his cultural identity." Caricature arises from the forcing and the embellishment of the basic rule of good description, that is, the principle of the dominant impression. Example #2: Bleak House (By Charles Dickens) One of the great examples of caricature from Charles Dickens has been given below: "Mr. Chadband is a large yellow man, with a fat smile, and a general appearance of having a good deal of train oil in his system. Mrs. Chadband is a stern, severe-looking, silent woman. Mr. Chadband moves softly and cumbrously, not unlike a bear who has been taught to walk upright. He is very much embarrassed about the arms, as if they were inconvenient to him." It is beautiful example of caricaturing through words. The dominating impression is made by words like "oily" and "fat," which sound quite literal initially. However, you realize shortly that the literal oiliness is a representation of the character Chadband. Chadband has a 'fat' smile, and on the whole he appears to be slightly unctuous, like a phony preacher. Function of Caricature The caricature examples above have underscored the functions and role of caricature, and how it has evolved in modern day literature. Coming up with novel ideas to explain oneself, and the nature of the human race in general, is not something new to the world. This sort of representation has been witnessed since the time when men lived in caves. Caricature was introduced to the masses during the age of enlightenment, and it bestowed the age it belongs to, with its subtlety and critical attitude. As a branch of modernism, it played a great role in expressing facts that were suppressed because of the conformists in the society at that point in time. It was a reminder for those who believed that the sword was mightier than the pen, and it started being used as a visual expressioof conventional society. Nowadays, caricature is a highly dignified form of art that is approved of and used worldwide. Newspaper editors show great respect for the artists who create caricatures for their papers, which ofttimes publish caricatures that might even represent a conflicting ideology. Where this distinctive form of art can be used to portray important and transforming social and political ideas, it can also be provocative to certain groups. Underdeveloped countries have had a hard time warming up to this form of expression because they believe it is a creation of evil by governments.

Catachresis

Catachresis is a figure of speech in which writers use mixed metaphors in an inappropriate way, to create rhetorical effect. Often, it is used intentionally to create a unique expression. Catachresis is also known as an exaggerated comparison between two ideas or objects. Features of Catachresis Mixed metaphors are good examples of catachresis, and writers often use them to create rhetorical effect. They are used to express extreme alienation or heightened emotions. Catachresis is considered as a mistake in language, as it may change the meanings of words. It is a combination of different types of figures of speech. It is prominently used in post-structuralist literary works, since those writers were expert in using wordplay, and creating confusion in literary texts, which is an important part of catachresis. Some Forms of Catachresis Sometimes a word is used to indicate something completely different from the literal meaning of that word. Such as in this example, "Tis deepest winter in Lord Timon's purse; that is, one may reach deep enough, and find little" (Timon of Athens, by William Shakespeare). Sometimes a word is used to indicate something whose actual name is not used like, "A chair's arm." Sometimes a paradoxical statement is used to create illogical strained metaphors. Such as, "Take arms against a sea of troubles." Abusio is a subtype of catachresis, which results from the combination of two metaphors. Examples of Catachresis in Literature Example #1: On Revenge (By Francis Bacon) "A man that studies revenge keeps his own wounds green..." Bacon uses metaphorical language by comparing revenge with wounds. The writer has made a connection between seemingly unconnected topics. However, catachresis is creating a rhetorical effect in this serious text. Example #2: King John (By William Shakespeare) "I do not ask much: I beg cold comfort ..." We can find numerous catachresis examples in Shakespeare's works, as he regularly used mixed metaphors intentionally in his literary writings. Here, he has used catachresis, "cold comfort." Example #3: Poem 640 (By Emily Dickinson) "With just the Door ajar That oceans are — and Prayer— And that White Sustenance — Despair—" In the first and second lines, we can see the paradox in phrases that are shown in bold. These describe two differing distances that spread hopelessness. In the same way, "white sustenance" means colorless nourishment that actually does not nourish the body. Example #4: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Hamlet: "... Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And, by opposing, end them? To die, to sleep—" Here, Hamlet is just thinking futilely after facing a sea of problems. In this way, Shakespeare has used a straight metaphor, albeit taken as a catachresis here. Example #5: somewhere i have never travelled, gladly beyond (By E. E. Cummings) "The voice of your eyes is deeper than all roses - nobody, not even the rain, has such small hands ..." In this extract, the poet is making an illogical comparison between the voice of his beloved's eyes, and roses and rain with the hands. The poet is trying to express the power of his beloved over him, and her importance to him. Example #6: The Tempest (By William Shakespeare) "His complexion is perfect gallows ..." In the given line, the character Gonzalo is implying that Boatswain looks like a criminal, and must be hanged. Here, "perfect gallows" is used as a mixed metaphor. The two objects are compared, though there is no obvious similarity between them. Example #7: Peri Bathous (By Alexander Pope) "Mow the beard, Shave the grass, Pin the plank, Nail my sleeve ..." In the above example, the metaphoric words are shown in bold. The literal and metaphorical meanings can be understood in the context, which the poet is describing as: know-how, capacities, dispositions, and skills. Function of Catachresis Catachresis can be used both in poetry and prose. In poetry it is used by misusing a phrase or word to deliberately create a mixed metaphor. Poets use catachresis to achieve a stylistic effect, or to exert great compression in both comic as well as serious writing. Also, sometimes it is used to create a reference that did not exist, but the major reason of using this technique is to express the ideas in a unique and creative way.

Catalog

Catalog or Catalogue is a literary device used in poetry and prose to give a list of things and create a rhetorical effect. Writers use it to make a list of multiple thoughts in a unified form. However, the poet's do not add Catalogs randomly, and they are well thought. The list is deliberately inserted to make the audience enjoy the conventional style of poetry. Etymologically, Catalog refers to a list. Features of Catalog It often involves repetition Catalog verses can be a list of people, places or ideas. It can include rhyme or can be a free verse poem. Examples of Catalog from Literature Example #1 Pied Beauty by Gerard Manley Hopkins "Glory be to God for dappled things - For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow; For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim; Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings; Landscape plotted and pieced - fold, fallow, and plough; And áll trádes, their gear and tackle and trim." This extract has been taken from one of the famous poems of Hopkins, "Pied Beauty." The poet praises God for dappled and spotted things. The poet comments on the changeable nature of the world. As an act of prayer, he thanks God and provides a list of things God created for mankind. In this stanza, he Catalogs variety of creation by God and symbolically illustrates the existences of all species on the earth. He talks about the seas, the plants, the animals and the landscape that humans have altered in a Catalog. Example #2 Goblin Market by Christina Rossetti Morning and evening Maids heard the goblins cry: "Come buy our orchard fruits, Come buy, come buy: Apples and quinces, Lemons and oranges, Plump unpeck'd cherries, Melons and raspberries, Bloom-down-cheek'd peaches, Swart-headed mulberries, Wild free-born cranberries, Crab-apples, dewberries, Pine-apples, blackberries, Apricots, strawberries;— All ripe together In summer weather,— Morns that pass by, Fair eves that fly; Come buy, come buy: Our grapes fresh from the vine, Pomegranates full and fine, Dates and sharp bullaces, Rare pears and greengages, Damsons and bilberries, Taste them and try: Currants and gooseberries, Bright-fire-like barberries, It's a long narrative poem about two sisters, Lizzie and Laura, and how Laura tempts to taste the fruits sold by the goblin. The writer Catalogs the variety of fruits available in the Goblin's market and can be interpreted in various ways. However, the use of cataloging technique has made it a conventional poem. Example #3 Song of Myself by Walt Whitman Houses and rooms are full of perfumes, the shelves are crowded with perfumes, I breathe the fragrance myself and know it and like it, The distillation would intoxicate me also, but I shall not let it. The atmosphere is not a perfume, it has no taste of the distillation, it is odorless, It is for my mouth forever, I am in love with it, I will go to the bank by the wood and become undisguised and naked, I am mad for it to be in contact with me. This poem is about celebration and the poet wants the entire world to be part of this jubilation. He tries to contain the whole world within himself. Therefore, he provides the list of whole stuff belongs to him. In this part, he presents the Catalog of things he loves and wants to keep in life. He has presented a list of things through a chain of associated thought to make the meanings clear giving a unique quality to the poem. Example #4 Catalog by Naomi Replansky My blurring eyes, my deafened ears— O careless sadism of the years! Sun-loving and sun-ravaged skin— One-sided love has done you in. My teeth—less said, less missed!—my heart— My runaway, my telltale heart— Heart whose misfirings can defeat The pulse of this iambic beat! (While hypochondria detects Whatever ill it hears of next.) She has prepared a long list of her body parts one by one and stated how they are related to her emotions and poetic output. She has started this list from her eyes and goes on to list teeth and heart with each having its own features and contribution in her poetic output. Example #5 Fear by Raymond Carver "Fear of seeing a police car pull into the drive. Fear of falling asleep at night. Fear of not falling asleep. Fear of the past rising up. Fear of the present taking flight. Fear of the telephone that rings in the dead of night. Fear of electrical storms. Fear of the cleaning woman who has a spot on her cheek! Fear of dogs I've been told won't bite. Fear of anxiety! Fear of having to identify the body of a dead friend. Fear of running out of money. Fear of having too much, though people will not believe this. Fear of psychological profiles. Fear of being late and fear of arriving before anyone else. Fear of my children's handwriting on envelopes. Fear they'll die before I do, and I'll feel guilty. Fear of having to live with my mother in her old age, and mine. Fear of confusion. Fear this day will end on an unhappy note. Fear of waking up to find you gone. Fear of not loving and fear of not loving enough. Fear that what I love will prove lethal to those I love. Fear of death. Fear of living too long. Fear of death. I've said that." Raymond Carver, famous for writing short stories, has illustrated the example of Catalog poetry through this poem. He presents the list of the types of fear one by one until he has reached the end of what he has stated earlier. This is one of the best examples of Catalog poem in which an exhausted list has been presented for rhetorical impacts. Catalog Meaning and Function Catalog or Catalogue provides writers with a tool to portray their feelings, emotions, and ideas in a logical sequence. The writers use Catalog to assemble multiple things in a series. It gives them a chance to bring together many things, ideas, and images and present them for attention in a poem format. Also, the repetition of the words strengthens the importance of ideas discussed.

Catastrophe

Catastrophe is a final resolution that appears in a narrative plot or a long poem. It unravels the mystery or intrigue, and brings the story toward a logical end. In a tragedy, it could be the death of a protagonist or other character; and in a comedy, it could be the union of major characters. Catastrophe is a synonym of denouement. It is, in fact, the final part following protasis, epitasis, and catatasis. Catastrophe wraps up the messy and noisy beginning, such as in Arthur Miller's play, Death of a Salesman, in which catastrophe is brought on when the main character, Willy Loman, dies in a car wreck, ostensibly committing suicide, so that his family could collect his life insurance. His widow says at his funeral that "Willy, I can't cry ... I made the last payment on the house today..." Types of Catastrophe Simple Catastrophe In a simple catastrophe, the main characters do not undergo any change, nor does anything unravel; the plot merely serves as a passage. Simple catastrophe usually appears in epic poems, rather than in tragedies. Complex Catastrophe Complex catastrophe is a very common tool, in which the protagonist either undergoes a major change of fortune. This type of change is probable and necessary to resolving the plot. Complex catastrophe usually appears in novels, plays, movies, and theatrical performances. Examples of Catastrophe in Literature Example #1: Macbeth (by William Shakespeare) "Despair thy charm; And let the angel whom thou still hast serv'd Tell thee, Macduff was from his mother's womb Untimely ripp'd." The following lines present a perfect example of catastrophe, which involves the death of the primary character. Macbeth falls in a mortal fight with Macduff, a man whom Macbeth has nearly wronged. Here it seems that he himself has invited his end. Example #2: Mourning Becomes Electra (by Eugene O'Neil) Eugene O'Neil's play "Mourning Becomes Electra" contains a series of catastrophic events, beginning with the murder of Ezra. Christine manipulates her lover Brant into helping her kill her husband with poison. After his murder, Lavinia and Orin find Brant and shoot him with a pistol. This catastrophe leads to another catastrophe, in the form of Christine's suicide. Orin, consumed by a sense of guilt that he had driven their mother into killing herself, goes insane and commits suicide. Now Lavinia lives in a house of her dead relatives' ghosts, which is a punishment for what they have done. Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (by William Shakespeare) There are multiple characters who invited catastrophe in the play "Romeo and Juliet." However, Romeo himself has invited the worst type of catastrophe after he kills Tybalt. Everything in his and Juliet's life crumbles after that; as a result, Romeo faces a period of exile, leading to a number of other catastrophic events. Had Romeo not killed Tybalt, Friar would have provided a much better plan to hide Juliet, rather than using poison. The best scene of catastrophe happens in Act-V, Scene-III, in which the fall of Paris and two lovers occurs. After the tragic conclusion of the love scene, Friar tells about the marriage and intrigue. The story ends with the death of star-crossed lovers. Example #4: Oedipus Rex (by Sophocles) In Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex," peripeteia leads to anagnorisis, which in turns leads to catastrophe or a terrible suffering. Catastrophe reveals the truth about the origin of Oedipus, after which the Queen Jocasta hangs herself, and Oedipus stabs his eyes, pleading to be exiled. Together all these elements make up catastrophe that King Oedipus invites by exploring his birth. Had he not explored, he might have saved himself and his family from this catastrophe. Example #5: The Return of the Native (by Thomas Hardy) Catastrophe in Hardy's novel, The Return of the Native, comes at the point when Eustacia becomes closer to her old lover, Damon Wildeve; which leads to the death of Clym's mother. It happens when Clym goes blind, and the couple faces economic crisis. After this tense period, Clym has a serious fight with his wife and the two separate. Eustacia plans to run away with her lover in the night. However, there comes a heavy storm, which ends up drowning them. Function The function of a catastrophe is to unravel the plot in a story. It comes after the falling action. It, in fact, serves as a conclusion of the narrative, when the conflict in the story in question is resolved. Catastrophe returns the situation to normal, as the characters experience catharsis, and readers feel a sense of relief. Catastrophe is also a moment when the protagonist faces the world with a new outlook. It tests human qualities, and makes readers decide if the character is good or bad.

Characterization

Characterization is a literary device that is used step-by-step in literature to highlight and explain the details about a character in a story. It is in the initial stage in which the writer introduces the character with noticeable emergence. After introducing the character, the writer often talks about his behavior; then, as the story progresses, the thought-processes of the character. The next stage involves the character expressing his opinions and ideas, and getting into conversations with the rest of the characters. The final part shows how others in the story respond to the character's personality. Characterization as a literary tool was coined in the mid 15th century. Aristotle in his Poetics argued that "tragedy is a representation, not of men, but of action and life." Thus the assertion of the dominance of plot over characters, termed "plot-driven narrative," is unmistakable. This point of view was later abandoned by many because, in the 19th century, the dominance of character over plot became clear through petty bourgeois novels. Types of Characterization An author can use two approaches to deliver information about a character and build an image of it. These two types of characterization include: Direct or explicit characterization This kind of characterization takes a direct approach towards building the character. It uses another character, narrator, or the protagonist himself to tell the readers or audience about the subject. Indirect or implicit characterization This is a more subtle way of introducing the character to the audience. The audience has to deduce for themselves the characteristics of the character by observing his/her thought process, behavior, speech, way of talking, appearance, and manner of communication with other characters, as well as by discerning the response of other characters. Characterization in Drama On stage or in front of the camera, actors usually do not have much time to characterize. For this reason, the character faces the risk of coming across as underdeveloped. In dramaturgy, realists take a different approach, by relying on implied characterization. This is pivotal to the theme of their character-driven narrative. Examples of these playwrights are Anton Chekhov, Henrik Ibsen, and August Strindberg. Classic psychological characterization examples, such as The Seagull, usually build the main character in a more indirect manner. This approach is considered more effective because it slowly discloses the inner turmoil of the character, over the course of the show, and lets the audience connect better. The actors who act in such roles usually work on them profoundly to get an in-depth idea of the personalities of their respective characters. Often, during such shows, plays, or dramas, no direct statements about the character's nature are found. This kind of realism needs the actors to build the character from their own perspective initially. This is why realistic characterization is more of a subtle art, which cannot directly be recognized. Examples of Characterization in Literature Example #1: The Great Gatsby (By F. Scott Fitzgerald) There are many examples of characterization in literature. The Great Gatsby, is probably the best. In this particular book, the main idea revolves around the social status of each character. The major character of the book, Mr. Gatsby, is perceptibly rich, but he does not belong to the upper stratum of society. This means that he cannot have Daisy. Tom is essentially defined by his wealth and the abusive nature that he portrays every now and then, while Daisy is explained by Gatsby as having a voice "full of money." Another technique to highlight the qualities of a character is to put them in certain areas that are symbolic of a social status. In the novel, Gatsby resides in the West Egg, which is considered less trendy than East Egg, where Daisy lives. This difference points out the gap between Jay's and Daisy's social statuses. Moreover, you might also notice that Tom, Jordan, and Daisy live in East Egg while Gatsby and Nick reside in West Egg, which again highlights the difference in their financial background. This division is reinforced at the end of the novel when Nick supports Gatsby against the rest of the folk. Occupations have also been used very tactfully in the novel to highlight characteristics of certain protagonists. The prime example is Gatsby who, despite being so rich, is known by his profession: bootlegging. He had an illegal job that earned him a fortune, but failed to get him into the upper class of New York society. In contrast, Nick has a clean and fair job of a "bond man" that defines his character. The poor guy Wilson, who fixes rich people's cars, befriends his wife; and then there is Jordon, who is presented as a dishonest golf pro. Function of Characterization Characterization is an essential component in writing good literature. Modern fiction, in particular, has taken great advantage of this literary device. Understanding the role of characterization in storytelling is very important for any writer. To put it briefly, it helps us make sense of the behavior of any character in a story by helping us understand their thought processes. A good use of characterization always leads the readers or audience to relate better to the events taking place in the story. Dialogues play a very important role in developing a character, because they give us an opportunity to examine the motivations and actions of the characters more deeply.

Canon

Originated from the Greek term "kanon," canon means "a yard stick," or "a measuring rod." Generally, the term canon is used in three different meanings. First, it is defined as a traditional collection of writings, against which other writings are evaluated. In other words, it means "a long list of works taken as authentic." For example, the Bible - both written in Hebrew, and even translated versions. This sense of the term makes canon opposite to "apocrypha," which means "written works having anonymous authors." The Bible was considered a yardstick to evaluate other literary pieces, according to a certain criterion. Secondly, students of literature use it to refer to the writings included in anthologies, or textbooks under certain genres, and thus are evaluated according to the genre under which they are placed. This meaning covers the entire literature generally thought as suitable for aesthetic admiration and academic use. The third definition of the term indicates the literary writings of a particular author, which are considered by scholars and critics in general to be the genuine creations of that particular author. This is based on some already deduced rules intended to be applied on the future pieces in the same genre. The term "canon" is also confused with a homonym "cannon," which means "a military weapon." Difference Between Canon and Apocrypha Apocrypha is also a literary term, which means "hidden," or "anonymous literary pieces," which were considered not to have confirmed to the rules set by the written Bible, in Hebrew or in Latin. It describes those books, which have dubious authorship or the authority, or where the accuracy of the writers is questionable. However, canon is a literary rule that is used to evaluate books and writings against certain models, such as plays are evaluated against Oedipus the King by Sophocles, where Oedipus the King is a yardstick which has set canons for plays. Examples of Canon from Literature Example #1: The Plowman's Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "In a summer season when soft was the sun, I clothed myself in a cloak as I shepherd were, Habit like a hermit's unholy in works, And went wide in the world wonders to hear. But on a May morning on Malvern hills, A marvel befell me of fairy, me thought." Taken from The Plowman's Tale, these lines exemplify the third definition of canon. Chaucer's canon includes "The Canterbury Tales", for instance, but it does not include the apocryphal work, "The Plowman's Tale," which has been mistakenly attributed to him in the past. The canon is the use of archaic language that Chaucer used in his works but not used in this part. Example #2: Authors Who Made Extraordinary Contributions to Literature In the history of literature, a number of authors and poets have made such an extraordinary contributions that their literary works are considered yardsticks to have set canons to evaluate other works. Their literary works obtain in themselves the position of literary canon which the successive writers use as touchstone to compare their creations with. For example: Greek Poet Homer For a very long time the world considered the Greek epics of Homer, the Iliad, and Odyssey, as the most sublime examples of literature. However, we have no idea whether the popular and well-known author was a genuine person. Homer, and the other writers inspired by him, have made their way to the list of the greatest literary brains of the world since antiquity - only by following the literary canons of writing. English Writer William Shakespeare William Shakespeare wrote both tragedies and comedies for Elizabethan audiences, throughout the late 16th, and early 17th centuries. However, Shakespeare's earned appreciation for these works became yardstick by which other writers to judge their places in literature. For many decades, English writers compared themselves with Shakespeare. This approach of looking at, and following a writer's work for measuring literary excellence and success is, in fact, called a "Shakespearean canon." English Novelist Jane Austen Jane Austen is one of those female writers who came to the limelight by breaking all the traditional and conventional shackles. She wrote mild and smiling romantic novels, such as Pride and Prejudice and Emma, setting them in England, and making marriage her subject to be explored. As she used round characters in her novels, uniquely different from her counterparts, this became her style, and finally a canon against which other female writers would be evaluated. Function of a Canon The function of a canon has always raised confusion and complexity. The works, traditionally considered as following a certain canon, belong to the writers who have long been dead. Moreover, only the white and male writers of antiquity have been given membership to this exclusive club. Women, minorities, and non-Western writers were kept out of this kind of arbitrary practice for a long time - until they won recognition such as the writers of the Harlem Renaissance. Furthermore, philosophical and political biases also resulted in disputes over literary canons. Hence, a number of critical circles suggest that the idea of having specific canons for specific genres needs to be abandoned. On the contrary, some other critics advocate the expansion of canons by including the extended range of sampling to broaden the horizon literary canons.

Anadiplosis

The term anadiplosis is a Greek word, which means "to reduplicate." It refers to the repetition of a word or words in successive clauses in such a way that the second clause starts with the same word which marks the end of the previous clause. Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word. For example, the repetition of the word "give" in the sentence "When I give, I give myself" is termed anadiplosis, as it occurs at the end of the first clause and marks the beginning of the following clause. Similarly, notice how the use of anadiplosis repeats in its typical fashion the word "reliability" to highlight the main point of the sentence, "This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city." Anadiplosis and Chiasmus It is important to note that anadiplosis is part of another figure of speech, chiasmus. However, every anadiplosis does not necessarily reverse its structure like it is done in chiasmus. For instance, "Forget what you want to remember, and remember what you want to forget" is an example of chiasmus (as it involves a reversal of structure in the second clause) and anadiplosis, as the word "remember" marks the end of one clause and the start of the subsequent clause. Anadiplosis does not always employ a reversal of structure as in the sentence "The land of my fathers, and my fathers can have it." It is an example of anadiplosis involving a typical repetition of the word "my fathers" but, unlike chiasmus, the structure of the final clause is not reversed. Anadiplosis Examples in Literature Writers employ anadiplosis in their literary texts to produce special stylistic effects, such as decorating texts by means of its typical repetitive pattern, and laying emphasis on an important point. Let us have a look at a few examples of this stylistic device from literature. Example #1: The Holy Bible, II Peter, 1:5-7 (By the Apostle Peter) "... you must make every effort to support your faith with goodness, and goodness with knowledge, and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with endurance, and endurance with godliness, and godliness with mutual affection, and mutual affection with love." In this verse, one is able to see how all the mentioned qualities are connected to each other with the use of anadiplosis. Example #2: Lycidas (By John Milton) "For Lycidas is dead, dead ere his prime, Young Lycidas and hath not left his peer." Here the word "dead" has been repeated to put emphasis on the death of Lycidas. Milton often used anadiplosis in his works to convince or persuade his readers. The word "dead" serves the same purpose in these lines of Lycidas. Example #3: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov) "What I present here is what I remember of the letter, and what I remember of the letter I remember verbatim (including that awful French)." Just observe the beautiful use of the phrase, "what I remember of the letter," as an anadiplosis. The writer clearly wants his readers to focus on what he is saying and repeating in these lines. The message is further enhanced by the use of the word "verbatim." Example #4: Untitled (By Francis Bacon) "He retained his virtues amidst all his - misfortunes - misfortunes which no prudence could foresee or prevent." Here, Bacon has used the word "misfortunes" twice, to bring home to his readers the main idea he is discussing, which is that misfortune is always unpredictable. Example #5: The Isles of Greece (By Lord Byron) "The mountains look on Marathon - And Marathon looks on the sea ..." This is a good use of anadiplosis by Lord Byron. Here, he has stressed the word "Marathon," and repeated it to make it significant in the poem. Example #6: Gladiator movie (By David Franzoni) "The general who became a slave. The slave who became a gladiator. The gladiator who defied an emperor. Striking story!" This is an excerpt of dialogue from the famous movie Gladiator (2000), in which a general is sold as a slave, who then had to work as a gladiator to make himself known in the arena and then defy the emperor. Look at the effects produced by the anadiplosis. Function of Anadiplosis It repeats a word in quick succession, in successive clauses, in order to add emphasis to the main idea. This works because readers tend to focus on the repetition of words, and thereby on the idea emphasized by them. Anadiplosis also serves to decorate a piece of writing or a speech. Often, CEOs and modern executives are fond of using this device to make their suggestions and commands effective.Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word. For example, the repetition of the word "give" in the sentence "When I give, I give myself" is termed anadiplosis, as it occurs at the end of the first clause and marks the beginning of the following clause. Similarly, notice how the use of anadiplosis repeats in its typical fashion the word "reliability" to highlight the main point of the sentence, "This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city." Anadiplosis and Chiasmus It is important to note that anadiplosis is part of another figure of speech, chiasmus. However, every anadiplosis does not necessarily reverse its structure like it is done in chiasmus. For instance, "Forget what you want to remember, and remember what you want to forget" is an example of chiasmus (as it involves a reversal of structure in the second clause) and anadiplosis, as the word "remember" marks the end of one clause and the start of the subsequent clause. Anadiplosis does not always employ a reversal of structure as in the sentence "The land of my fathers, and my fathers can have it." It is an example of anadiplosis involving a typical repetition of the word "my fathers" but, unlike chiasmus, the structure of the final clause is not reversed. Anadiplosis Examples in Literature Writers employ anadiplosis in their literary texts to produce special stylistic effects, such as decorating texts by means of its typical repetitive pattern, and laying emphasis on an important point. Let us have a look at a few examples of this stylistic device from literature. Example #1: The Holy Bible, II Peter, 1:5-7 (By the Apostle Peter) "... you must make every effort to support your faith with goodness, and goodness with knowledge, and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with endurance, and endurance with godliness, and godliness with mutual affection, and mutual affection with love." In this verse, one is able to see how all the mentioned qualities are connected to each other with the use of anadiplosis. Example #2: Lycidas (By John Milton) "For Lycidas is dead, dead ere his prime, Young Lycidas and hath not left his peer." Here the word "dead" has been repeated to put emphasis on the death of Lycidas. Milton often used anadiplosis in his works to convince or persuade his readers. The word "dead" serves the same purpose in these lines of Lycidas. Example #3: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov) "What I present here is what I remember of the letter, and what I remember of the letter I remember verbatim (including that awful French)." Just observe the beautiful use of the phrase, "what I remember of the letter," as an anadiplosis. The writer clearly wants his readers to focus on what he is saying and repeating in these lines. The message is further enhanced by the use of the word "verbatim." Example #4: Untitled (By Francis Bacon) "He retained his virtues amidst all his - misfortunes - misfortunes which no prudence could foresee or prevent." Here, Bacon has used the word "misfortunes" twice, to bring home to his readers the main idea he is discussing, which is that misfortune is always unpredictable. Example #5: The Isles of Greece (By Lord Byron) "The mountains look on Marathon - And Marathon looks on the sea ..." This is a good use of anadiplosis by Lord Byron. Here, he has stressed the word "Marathon," and repeated it to make it significant in the poem. Example #6: Gladiator movie (By David Franzoni) "The general who became a slave. The slave who became a gladiator. The gladiator who defied an emperor. Striking story!" This is an excerpt of dialogue from the famous movie Gladiator (2000), in which a general is sold as a slave, who then had to work as a gladiator to make himself known in the arena and then defy the emperor. Look at the effects produced by the anadiplosis. Function of Anadiplosis It repeats a word in quick succession, in successive clauses, in order to add emphasis to the main idea. This works because readers tend to focus on the repetition of words, and thereby on the idea emphasized by them. Anadiplosis also serves to decorate a piece of writing or a speech. Often, CEOs and modern executives are fond of using this device to make their suggestions and commands effective.

Stream of Consciousness

In literature, stream of consciousness is a method of narration that describes happenings in the flow of thoughts in the minds of the characters. The term was initially coined by psychologist William James in his research, The Principles of Psychology. He writes: "... it is nothing joined; it flows. A 'river' or a 'stream' is the metaphors by which it is most naturally described. In talking of it hereafter, let's call it the stream of thought, consciousness, or subjective life." Another appropriate term for this device is "interior monologue," where the individual thought processes of a character, associated to his or her actions, are portrayed in the form of a monologue that addresses the character itself. Therefore, it is different from the "dramatic monologue" or "soliloquy," where the speaker addresses the audience or the third person. Examples of Stream of Consciousness in Literature The stream of consciousness style of writing is marked by the sudden rise of thoughts and lack of punctuation. The use of this narration style is generally associated with the modern novelist and short story writers of the 20th century. Let us analyze a few examples of the stream of consciousness narrative technique in literature: Example #1: Ulysses (By James Joyce) James Joyce successfully employs the narrative mode in his novel Ulysses, which describes a day in the life of a middle-aged Jew, Mr. Leopold Broom, living in Dublin, Ireland. Read the following excerpt: "He is young Leopold, as in a retrospective arrangement, a mirror within a mirror (hey, presto!), he beholdeth himself. That young figure of then is seen, precious manly, walking on a nipping morning from the old house in Clambrassil to the high school, his book satchel on him bandolier wise, and in it a goodly hunk of wheaten loaf, a mother's thought." These lines reveal the thoughts of Bloom, as he thinks of the younger Bloom. The self-reflection is achieved by the flow of thoughts that takes him back to his past. Example #2: Mrs. Dalloway (By Virginia Woolf) Another 20th-century writer that followed James Joyce's narrative method was Virginia Woolf. Let us read an excerpt from her novel Mrs. Dalloway: "What a lark! What a plunge! For so it always seemed to me when, with a little squeak of the hinges, which I can hear now, I burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning; like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as I then was) solemn, feeling as I did, standing there at the open window, that something awful was about to happen ..." By voicing her internal feelings, the Ms. Woolf gives freedom to the characters to travel back and forth in time. Mrs. Dalloway went out to buy flower for herself, and on the way her thoughts move through the past and present, giving us an insight into the complex nature of her character. Example #3: The British Museum Is Falling Down (By David Lodge) We notice the use of this technique in David Lodge's novel The British Museum Is Falling Down. It is a comic novel that imitates the stream of consciousness narrative techniques of writers like Henry James, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf. Below is an excerpt from Chapter 3 of the novel: "It partook, he thought, shifting his weight in the saddle, of metempsychosis, the way his humble life fell into moulds prepared by literature. Or was it, he wondered, picking his nose, the result of closely studying the sentence structure of the English novelists? One had resigned oneself to having no private language any more, but one had clung wistfully to the illusion of a personal property of events. A find and fruitless illusion, it seemed, for here, inevitably came the limousine, with its Very Important Personage, or Personages, dimly visible in the interior. The policeman saluted, and the crowd pressed forward, murmuring 'Philip', 'Tony', 'Margaret', 'Prince Andrew'." We see the imitation of the typical structure of the stream-of-conscious narrative technique of Virginia Woolf. We notice the integration of the outer and inner realities in the passage that is so typical of Virginia Woolf, especially the induction of the reporting clauses "he thought," and "he wondered," in the middle of the reported clauses. Function of Stream of Consciousness Stream of consciousness is a style of writing developed by a group of writers at the beginning of the 20th century. It aimed at expressing in words the flow of characters' thoughts and feelings in their minds. The technique aspires to give readers the impression of being inside the minds of the characters. Therefore, the internal view of the minds of the characters sheds light on plot and motivation in the novel.

Synesthesia

In literature, synesthesia refers to a technique adopted by writers to present ideas, characters, or places in such a manner that they appeal to more than one sense, like hearing, sight, smell, and touch at a given time. Generally, the term synesthesia refers to a certain medical condition in which one of the five senses simultaneously stimulates another sense. A person with such a condition may not only see letters of the alphabet, but also associate them with particular scents. This happens when the different parts of the brain that are responsible in identifying color, sound, taste, and smell somehow get interlinked, and thus one sense triggers another sense. Everyday Life Examples of Synesthesia In everyday language, we find many examples of synesthesia, such as the frequently used adjective "cool." This word is generally associated with temperature. However, in casual conversation, we hear phrases like "cool dress,", "cool color," or "you look cool," wherein the visual sensation is blended with the sense of touch. Moreover, we commonly hear phrases like "loud colors," "frozen silence," "warm colors," and "bitter cold." Examples of Synesthesia in Literature In literature, synesthesia is a figurative use of words that intends to draw out a response from readers by stimulating multiple senses. Example #1: The Divine Comedy (By Dante Alighieri) Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy contains a good synesthesia example in literature. In the first canto, the poet tells us about a place called "Inferno." He says, "Back to the region where the sun is silent." Here, Dante binds the sense of sight (sun) with the sense of hearing (silent). Example #2: Ode to a Nightingale (By John Keats) We notice synesthetic imageries in John Keats' Ode to a Nightingale: "Tasting of Flora and the country green, Dance, and Provencal song, and sun burnt mirth!" In the above example, Keats combines visual sensation with the sensations of taste and hearing. In the same poem, he further states: "In some melodious plot, Of beechen green, Singest of summer in full throated ease." Keats associates the act of melodious singing with a plot covered with green beechen trees, and thus connects visual sense with the sense of hearing. Example #3: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) We see Shakespeare employing the synesthetic device in his play King Lear, Act 2, Scene 2: "Thou art a lady: if only to go warm were gorgeous, Why nature needs not what thou gorgeous wear'st, Which scarcely keeps thee warm." In the above excerpt, King Lear makes fun of his daughter Goneril for wearing revealing attire. He associates the word "warm" with "gorgeous," which is an attempt to blend the sense of touch with the sense of sight. Example #4: A Tuft of Flowers (By Robert Frost) Robert Frost, in his poem A Tuft of Flowers, uses synesthesia: "The butterfly and I had lit upon, Nevertheless, a message from the dawn, That made me hear the wakening birds around, And hear his long scythe whispering to the ground..." In the above excerpt, the speaker reveals a blend of sensory experiences he is experiencing. The speaker's visual sense and his sense of hearing make him aware of his surroundings. Example #5: Dying (By Emily Dickinson) Emily Dickinson, in her poem Dying, uses synesthesia: "With blue, uncertain, stumbling buzz, Between the light and me; And then the windows failed, and then could not see to see." Here, the poetess added a visual element to the buzzing sound "buzz" by describing it as having a blue color. Example #6: The Whole World Over (By Julia Glass) The character Saga, in Julia Glass' novel The Whole World Over, has a condition of synesthesia, in which she seems to sense colors in the words she reads, as illustrated below: "The word would fill her mind for a few minutes with a single color: not an unpleasant sensation but still an intrusion... Patriarch: Brown, she thought, a temple of a word, a shiny red brown, like the surface of a chestnut." These lines are comments spoken by Duffy, who thinks that Saga's synesthesia is a distraction. Function of Synesthesia Writers employ this device to be creative in communicating their ideas to the readers. It makes their ideas more vivid, and adds more layers of meaning to a text for the readers' pleasure. By blending different senses, writers make their works more interesting and appealing.

Stanza

In poetry, a stanza is a division of four or more lines having a fixed length, meter, or rhyming scheme. Stanzas in poetry are similar to paragraphs in prose. Both stanzas and paragraphs include connected thoughts, and are set off by a space. The number of lines varies in different kinds of stanzas, but it is uncommon for a stanza to have more than twelve lines. The pattern of a stanza is determined by the number of feet in each line, and by its metrical or rhyming scheme. Stanza Examples in English Poetry On the basis of a fixed number of lines and rhyming scheme, traditional English language poems have the following kinds of stanzas: Couplet Tercet Quatrain Quintain Sestet Let us make ourselves familiar with the above mentioned kinds of stanzas: Couplet A couplet consists of two rhyming lines having the same meter. Consider the following couplet stanza examples: Example #1: Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope) "True wit is nature to advantage dress'd; What oft was thought, but ne'er so well express'd." Example #2: Sonnet II (By Edna St. Vincent Millay) "Whether or not we find what we are seeking is idle, biologically speaking." Example #4: To Science (By Edgar Allan Poe) A rhyming pair of lines in iambic pentameter is known as a "heroic couplet." Initiated by Chaucer, heroic couplets are commonly used in epics and narrative poetry. Among the well known examples of stanza, we find Edgar Allan Poe's sonnet To Science: "Do not all charms fly At the mere touch of cold philosophy? There was an awful rainbow once in heaven: We know her woof, her texture; she is given" Tercet A tercet comprises three lines following a same rhyming scheme a a a, or have a rhyming pattern a b a. Sir Thomas Wyatt introduced tercet in the 16th century. Example #1: Second Satire (By Thomas Wyatt) Read the following tercets from Wyatt's poem Second Satire with a rhyming scheme a b a: "My mother's maids, when they did sew and spin, They sang sometimes a song of the field mouse, That for because their livelihood was but so thin. Would needs go seek her townish sister's house. Would needs She thought herself endured to much pain: The stormy blasts her cave so sore did souse..." Example #2: The Eagle (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) The famous Romantic poet, Alfred Lord Tennyson employed tercets in his poem The Eagle with a rhyming scheme a a a: "He clasps the crag with crooked hands: Close to the sun it lonely lands, Ringed with the azure world, it stands. The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; He watches from his mountain walls, And like a thunderbolt he falls." Quatrain Quatrain is a form of stanza popularized by a Persian poet, Omar Khayyam, who called it a Rubai. It has common rhyming schemes a a a a, a a b b, a b a b. Example #1: The Eagle (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "Come, fill the Cup, and in the fire of Spring Your Winter garment of Repentance fling: The Bird of Time has but a little way To flutter-and the Bird is on the Wing." Example #2: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (By Thomas Gray) "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea, The plowman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me." Quitain A quintain, also referred to as "cinquain," is a stanza of five lines, which may be rhymed or unrhymed, and has a typical stress pattern. Its invention is attributed to Adelaide Crapsey. Example #1: November Night (By Adelaide Crapsey) "Listen... With faint dry sound, Like steps of passing ghosts, The leaves, frost-crisp'd, break from the trees And fall." Sestet Sestet is a kind of stanza that consists of six lines. It is the second division of Italian or sonnets of Petrarch, following an octave or the first division comprising eight lines. In a sonnet, a sestet marks a change of emotional state of a poet as they tend to be more subjective in the second part of the sonnet. Example #1: The Better Part (By Mathew Arnold) "So answerest thou; but why not rather say: 'Hath man no second life? - Pitch this one high! Sits there no judge in Heaven, our sin to see? - More strictly, then, the inward judge obey! Was Christ a man like us? Ah! Let us try If we then, too, can be such men as he!'" The poet answers the rude inquirer passionately as soon as the sestet commences. Short Examples of Stanza in Sentences As I behold the beautiful sunrise It is like seeing a lovely surprise. A fox and an ant and three dogs Sat on a gravestone shooting dice. The fox slipped and fell on ant "Oh no!" said the ant, "there's a fox on me!" Oh old man, play one, Play knick and knack with your thumb, With knack, knack, and paddy whack, Come and give the cat a bone. White birds on the shore: A broken hoarding banging On the door. Raindrops on my page Cold breeze blows my paper away Oops! I need it! I once met a fairy who lived on a star. From a stranger prospective I had to move far. I asked her once why she lived on a star She frowned and replied, how weird you are. Hope knows vision Where faith sheds light Dare find your way To move every day. Red petals Fluttering in the wind Cherry blossoms. Examples of Stanza in Literature Example #1: We Real Cool (By Gwendolyn Brooks) "We real cool. We Left school. We Lurk late. We Strike straight. We Sing sin. We Thin gin. We Jazz June. We Die soon." See every line in this excerpt ends with the word "we." Here, the poet has used a lot of enjambment. Beginning a sentence in one line, and keeping it moving to the next line, is known as "enjambment," and the poem is written in couplet form. Example #2: Acquainted with the Night (By Robert Frost) "I have been one acquainted with the night. I have walked out in rain — and back in rain. I have outwalked the furthest city light. I have looked down the saddest city lane. I have passed by the watchman on his beat And dropped my eyes, unwilling to explain." Here, Frost has used three-line stanzas, also known as "tercets." These stanzas have used a chain rhyme scheme as aba, bcb, cdc, and so on. In the first stanza, the speaker tells that he walks a lot at night, and in the second stanza he feels sad and passed by a watchman, whom he avoids. Example #3: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S. T. Coleridge) "The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, The furrow followed free; We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea." The poet has used quatrain (four-line stanza) in the given example. It is one of the most popular forms known as "ballad stanza," which uses a rhyme scheme of abxb, in which the third line does not rhyme. This is called "common meter." Example #4: Ozymandias (By Percy Bysshe Shelley) "And on the pedestal these words appear: 'My name is Ozymandias, king of kings: Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!' Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare The lone and level sands stretch far away." In this given example, Shelley has used iambic pentameter in the second part of his sonnet. This part brings a major shift in poem's direction by using "volta," in which the speaker reveals the inscription that reveals Ozymandias. The rhyme scheme of sestet is flexible. This rhymes as CDCDCD and CDECDE. Function of Stanza Stanza divides a poem in such a way that does not harm its balance, but rather adds to the beauty, and to the symmetry of a poem. Moreover, it allows poets to shift their moods, and present different subject matters in their poems.

Anaphora

In writing or speech, the deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve an artistic effect is known as Anaphora. Anaphora, possibly the oldest literary device, has its roots in Biblical Psalms used to emphasize certain words or phrases. Gradually, Elizabethan and Romantic writers brought this device into practice. Examine the following psalm: "O LORD, rebuke me not in thine anger, neither chasten me in thy hot displeasure. Have mercy upon me, O LORD; for I am weak: O LORD, heal me; for my bones are vexed. My soul is also sore vexed: but thou, O LORD, how long?" The repetition of the phrase "O Lord," attempts to create a spiritual sentiment. This is anaphora. Common Anaphora Examples It is common for us to use anaphora in our everyday speech, to lay emphasis on the idea we want to convey, or for self affirmation. The following are anaphora examples: "Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better." "My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my inspiration." "Buying diapers for the baby, feeding the baby, playing with the baby: This is what your life is when you have a baby." "I want my money right now, right here, all right?" "The wrong person was selected for the wrong job, at the wrong time, for the wrong purpose." "Their property was sold, their homestead was sold, and their everything was sold for want." "Who is to blame, who is to look to, who is to turn to, in a tough situation like this." "In adversity, his close friends left him, his close colleagues left him, and his best close relatives left him." "Everything looked dark and bleak, everything looked gloomy, and everything was under a blanket of mist." "All the people were moving in the same direction; all the people were thinking about the same thing; and all the people were discussing the same topic." "After a long term of studies, the students wanted to go home, they wanted to play, and they wanted to meet their parents and friends." "The players were much exited for the tour; the players wished to do a lot of shopping; the players planned to go sightseeing." "The young writer was given the award for his best seller. The young writer was exited to get the reward, and he decided to celebrate the occasion in a fitting manner." "Tell them to be good, tell them to follow their elders, and tell them to mind their manners." "The young athlete was in a decent uniform, and wanted to perform very well." "My mother liked the house very much, but she couldn't buy it." "An apple fell on the head of a peasant, but he couldn't grasp the laws of motion." "The search party barely got to the middle of the desert, when a storm overtook it." "The film was based on a true story, but it failed to get viewers' attention." Examples of Anaphora in Literature Example # 1: Richard II, Act 2, Scene 1 (By William Shakespeare) "This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings [. . .] This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land," Here, Shakespeare does not disappoint us in the use of anaphora. The repetition of the word "this" creates an emotional effect on the readers, particularly those who are English. Further, it highlights the significance of England. The repetition of the word "dear" shows the writer's emotional attachment to the land, and expects to elicit a similar response from the readers as well. Example # 2: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." The repetitive structure used in the above lines make it the most memorable and remarkable start of a narrative ever achieved by a writer. The word "it" - repeated all the way through the passage - makes the reader focus more on the traits of the "age" they are reading about. Example # 3: Tintern Abbey (By William Wordsworth) This technique is employed by William Wordsworth in "Tintern Abbey": "Five years have passed; Five summers, with the length of Five long winters! and again I hear these waters..." Wordsworth also employs the technique of anaphora in this piece. The repetition of the word "five" at the beginning of each line gives melody to the lines, which matches well with its nostalgic tone. Example # 4: The Tyger (By William Blake) "What the hammer? what the chain? In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil? what dread grasp Dare its deadly terrors clasp?" The repetition of a series of questions, which starts with the query, "what," creates a rhythm that elicits the effect of awe in readers. Example # 5: WWII Speech (By Winston Churchill) Politicians frequently use anaphora as a rhetorical device, in their addresses and political speeches, to evoke passion among the audience. Read an excerpt from Winston Churchill's speech during the Second World War: "We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender." This extract from Winston Churchill's speech is full of anaphoric examples in which the speaker has spoken the phrase "we shall" several times to refer to the plural form that he is using for the whole nation. The repetitive structures in the above passage suggest the importance of the war for England. Moreover, it inspires patriotic sentiments among the masses. Example # 6: I have a Dream (By Martin Luther King Jr.) "Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed." This extract from I have a Dream contains the repetition of the phrase "go back to" many time. The whole speech is full of the anaphoric example. Function of Anaphora Apart from the function of giving prominence to certain ideas, the use of anaphora in literature adds rhythm, thus making it more pleasurable to read, and easier to remember. As a literary device, anaphora serves the purpose of giving artistic effect to passages of prose and poetry. As a rhetorical device, anaphora is used to appeal to the emotions of the audience, in order to persuade, inspire, motivate, and encourage them.

Situational Irony

Situational irony is a literary device that you can easily identify in literary works. Simply, it occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what actually happens instead. Thus, something entirely different happens from what audience may be expecting, or the final outcome is opposite to what the audience is expecting. Situational irony generally includes sharp contrasts and contradictions. The purpose of ironic situations is to allow the readers to make a distinction between appearances and realities, and eventually associate them to the theme of a story. Examples of Situational Irony from Literature Example #1: Harry Potter (By J. K. Rowling) The Harry Potter series is one of the most popular novel series having employed situational irony. Through seven novels, the audience believes that Harry can kill Voldemort, the evil lord. However, the audience is thrown off guard near the end of this series when it becomes clear that Harry must allow the evil lord to kill him, so that Voldemort's soul could become mortal once again. Hence, Harry allows himself to be killed in order to defeat Voldemort, which is exactly the opposite of the audience's expectations. By using situational irony, Rowling has done a great job of adding a twist to the story to further a complex conflict. Example #2: The Story of an Hour (By Kate Chopin) A very famous example of this form of irony occurs toward the end of the short story, The story of an Hour, by Kate Chopin. In this story, the wife of Mr. Brently comes to know that he is no more alive and has died from an accident, so she feels contended to live a long life of freedom with no restrictions. However, at the end of the tale, her husband comes back unexpectedly and, upon seeing him, instantly she dies from shock. Example #3: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (By L. Frank Baum) The whole story of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz presents a case of situational irony. Dorothy goes to the wizard in order to find a way home, only to learn that she is capable of doing so herself. Scarecrow wished to become intelligent, but he discovers himself a perfect genius. Woodsman considers himself as not capable of love; nevertheless he learns that he has a good heart. Lion appears as a coward, and turns out to be extremely fearless and courageous. Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Romeo strives to bring out peace between Tybalt and Mercutio, and eventually between the Capulets and the Montagues. However, Mercutio's death, and subsequently Romeo's pledge to kill Tybalt, escalate a situation leading to his banishment, and finally to the death of both Romeo and Juliet. Example #5: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (By T. S. Eliot) Eliot makes comparison between an evening with "a patient etherized upon a table." By portraying a beautiful natural image, and comparing it with a painful and difficult medical procedure of the modern world, the poet makes use of situational irony for depicting a natural beauty's loss in the corrupted world. Example #6 The Necklace (By Guy de Maupassant) The plot of de Maupassant's entire short story The Necklace is an example of situational irony. For keeping up appearances, the leading character, Mathilda, borrows a necklace from a wealthy friend but loses it. In order to return her friend's necklace, Mathilda and her husband replace this jewel with another expensive one, however due to this replacement they went through a serious financial crisis. Years later, Mathilda meets this friend again, and learns that the jewelry she replaced with real and costly gemstones was merely a costume and artificial piece of jewelry. Function of Situational Irony The function of situational irony is to lay emphasis on important scenes and make strange and unusual images vivid. It creates an unexpected turn at the end of a story, and makes audience laugh or cry. Therefore, situational irony could be tragic or funny. Usually writers employ strong word connections with situational irony and add fresh thoughts, variations, and embellishments to their works. It may range from the most comic to the most tragic situations. Its comical use usually creates an unexpected turnaround in a plot for the betterment. Sometimes, these forms of irony occur because people identify certain events and situations as unfair or odd.

Semantic

Semantics is one of the important branches of linguistics, and deals with interpretation and meaning of the words, sentence structure, and symbols. It deals with the reading comprehension of the readers, in how they understand others and their interpretations. In addition, semantics constructs a relation between adjoining words and clarifies the sense of a sentence, whether the meanings of words are literal or figurative. Types of Semantics There are two types of Semantics: Connotative Semantic When a word suggests a set of associations, or is an imaginative or emotional suggestion connected with the words, while readers can relate to such associations. Simply, it represents figurative meaning. Usually poets use this type of meaning in their poetry. Denotative Semantic It suggests the literal, explicit, or dictionary meanings of the words, without using associated meanings. It also uses symbols in writing that suggest expressions of writers, such as an exclamation mark, quotation mark, apostrophe, colon, or quotation mark. Examples of Semantics in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Juliet: "O, be some other name! What's in a name? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet; So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call'd ..." The above-mentioned quote is, in fact, conveying figurative meaning. However, its surrounding text clarifies the meaning. Juliet is using metaphoric language, arguing with Romeo that his family name is not important to her, because she only wants Romeo. Example #2: A Portrait of An Artist As a Young Man (By James Joyce) The use of denotation or general meaning can be seen in the very first chapter of James Joyce's A Portrait of An Artist As a Young Man, when Stephen expresses his feelings for his mother and father saying: "His mother had a nicer smell than his father." This sentence is conveying a denotative or general meaning that he likes his mother more than his father. Thus the meaning is understandable and acceptable for all types of readers around the world. Hence, the general acceptability for all people is the major factor for communicating with people successfully. Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) In the famous soliloquy of Prince Hamlet, "To be or not to be," William Shakespeare has used a word that we use quite differently these days. Hamlet says: "When we have shuffled off this mortal coil ..." Here, "mortal coil" carries a connotative meaning that suggests life, as Hamlet compares death to sleep. However, we are using coils in different connection today, which means a series of spirals tightly joined together. Example #4: Hedda Gabler (By Henrik Ibsen) We can understand the use of semantics in the beginning of Hedda Gabler, in which Bertha mentions Hedda, saying: "She's real lady. Wants everything just so." This sentence lays emphasis on the implication that, unlike Hedda, other women are not real. That they neither have any discipline, nor structure in the schedules of their lives. In another dialogue, she says: "But, Lord! I never dreamed I'd live to see a match between her and master George." Here, an exclamation mark highlights Bertha's feelings of curiosity and astonishment. Her word choice, "never dreamed," shows her intensity of surprising emotions about class inequality. Example #5: Night (By William Blake) We can find use of semantic features in poetry more elaborately, as these features describe the meanings of sentences, phrases, and words, and make relations between them. These features include personification, simile, imagery, metaphor, and allusion. For example, in William Blake's poem Night, he uses all semantic features. The poet employs a simile to compare the beauty of the moon with a flower, "The moon like a flower ..." Then he uses a covert comparison between unlike things: "And there the lion's ruddy eyes Shall flow with tears of gold ..." Here, the phrase "tears of gold" illustrates the value of tears. Then, we see personification: "The feet of angels bright ..." and imagery: "The sun descending in the west, The evening star does shine..." This paints a picture in the minds of readers. Function of Semantics The purpose of semantics is to propose exact meanings of words and phrases, and remove confusion, which might lead the readers to believe a word has many possible meanings. It makes a relationship between a word and the sentence through their meanings. Besides, semantics enable the readers to explore a sense of the meaning because, if we remove or change the place of a single word from the sentence, it will change the entire meaning, or else the sentence will become anomalous. Hence, the sense relation inside a sentence is very important, as a single word does not carry any sense or meaning.

Sensory Language

Sensory Language is a word(s) used to invoke mental images and visualize the story or poem. While Imagery is a literary device that appeals to the reader's senses, Sensory Language is a writing style and how the writers use the words to create images for the readers. The writers present their emotions, thoughts, and ideas in a way that they tempt the reader's imagination. Although it is often inserted to uplift the reader's imagination, it and plays a vital role in advancing the story or enhancing a poem. Literally, sensory language is a phrase of two words; sensory and language. It means using language to create mental pictures that appeal to the sense of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Examples of Sensory Language from Literature Example #1 I Know Why the Caged Birds Sings by Maya Angelou "But a bird that stalks Down his narrow cage Can seldom see through His bars of rage His wings are clipped and His feet are tied So he opens his throat to sing. The caged bird sings With a fearful trill Of things unknown But longed for still And his tune is heard On the distant hill For the caged bird Sings of freedom." The poem is about the racial segregation and social discrimination prevalent in American society against black people. Using the metaphor of free birds, she has put forth the ideas of freedom, liberty, and justice. As sensory language pertains to the five senses, this poem is loaded with different images. The images for example, "free bird" and "back of wind" appeal to the sense of sight and feeling. Similarly, images such as, "orange sun rays" and "throat to sing" appeals to the sense of sight and hearing. Example #2 Kubla Khan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge "A damsel with a dulcimer In a vision once I saw: It was an Abyssinian maid And on her dulcimer she played, Singing of Mount Abora. Could I revive within me Her symphony and song, To such a deep delight 'twould win me, That with music loud and long, I would build that dome in air, That sunny dome! those caves of ice! And all who heard should see them there, And all should cry, Beware! Beware! His flashing eyes, his floating hair! Weave a circle round him thrice, And close your eyes with holy dread For he on honey-dew hath fed, And drunk the milk of Paradise." In Kubla Khan, the poet has artistically captured the alluring beauty of the extravagant palace about which he has read. He has skillfully painted a lively and complete picture of the palace, Xanadu. However, with the use of sensory language, Coleridge has added more to the beauty and grandeur of this majestic palace. This poem is rich with classical words and vivid images such as, "incense-bearing tree" appeals to the sense of smell. "The shadow of the doom of pleasure" that "floated midway on the waves" makes the reader visualize the enchanting scene. Also, the damsel with the dulcimer playing her song "loud and long" appeals to the sense of hearing. Example #3 Library of Babel by Jorge Luis Borges "The universe (which others call the Library) is composed of an indefinite, perhaps infinite number of hexagonal galleries. In the center of each gallery is a ventilation shaft, bounded by a low railing. From any hexagon one can see the floors above and below-one after another, endlessly. The arrangement of the galleries is always the same: Twenty bookshelves, five to each side, line four of the hexagon's six sides; the height of the bookshelves, floor to ceiling, is hardly greater than the height of a normal librarian. One of the hexagon's free sides opens onto a narrow sort of vestibule, which in turn opens onto another gallery, identical to the first-identical in fact to all." Luis Borges has beautifully presented a metaphorical replica of the universe in this excellent piece of literature. His library is different from the libraries people encounter in the world. A reader can find millions of books no matter they are completed or not. On the one hand, some extracts make sense while on the other hand, it comprises texts that are completely absurd. However, the use of sensory language has added more to the rich description of this endless library. For example, "floors above and below-one after another,", "Twenty bookshelves," and "in turn opens onto another gallery" are the powerful images pertain to the sense of sight. Example #4 Macbeth by William Shakespeare, Act-I, Scene-I, Lines 1- 13 First Witch: When shall we three meet again In thunder, lightning, or in rain? Second Witch: When the hurly-burly's done, When the battle's lost and won. Third Witch: That will be ere the set of sun. First Witch: Where the place? Second Witch: Upon the heath. Third Witch: There to meet with Macbeth. First Witch: I come, grimalkin! Second Witch: Paddock calls. Third Witch: Anon! ALL Fair is foul, and foul is fair: Hover through the fog and filthy air. This is the opening scene of the play, Macbeth, where three witches appear to discuss their next meeting point. They decide to meet Macbeth in an open place where several battles have taken place. Shakespeare has used a cascade of images to set this dramatic scene. For example, "thunder" is used to make the readers conjure up an auditory sense in their mind and words like, "lightening" and "ere the set of sun" appeal to the sense of sight. Sensory Language Meaning and Function Sensory language is used to present a graphic presentation of an idea or thought. It provides readers with an opportunity to get absorbed in the text and experience as a character or an action sequence is described using Sensory Language. Also, using sensory details help writers to sketch a vivid experience for the audience.

Adynaton

Adynaton is from the Greek word adunaton, which means "impractical," or "impossible." It is a rhetorical device that is a form of hyperbole in which exaggeration is taken to a great extreme where it seems impossible. In other words, when hyperbole is magnified to such an extent that it is completely unfeasible, it is called adynaton. Ideas in the use of adynaton are exaggerated in order to emphasize something. Adynaton and Hyperbole Adynaton is a kind of hyperbole, though it is an extreme form. When hyperbole goes to an extreme level, that is completely impossible in reality, it is called adynaton. It is presented as an exaggerated comparison or contrast. Examples of Adynaton in Literature Example #1: To His Coy Mistress (By Andrew Marvell) "Had we but world enough, and time This coyness, lady, were no crime. We would sit down, and think which way To walk, and pass our long love's day. Thou by the Indian Ganges' side Shouldst rubies find; I by the tide Of Humber would complain. I would Love you ten years before the flood And you should, if you please, refuse Till the conversion of the Jews." Saying that a lady's "coyness" is a crime, in the first bold phrase above, is clearly an adynaton since no lawmaker would be insane enough to pass a law criminalizing coyness. The bold phrase, "Till the conversion of the Jews" refers to predictions about the Jews converting to Christianity, which have been made by many for centuries. Yet, just like predicted dates of the end of the world have come and gone, a conversion of the Jews has not happened, and is showing no sign of happening. Example #2: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "Whence is that knocking? How is't with me when every noise appals me? What hands are here? ha! They pluck out mine eyes. Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No, this my hand will rather The multitudinous seas in incarnadine, Making the green one red..." In these lines, an effective use of adynaton is evident. The tragic hero "Macbeth" feels guilty after having murdered King Duncan. He feels so much regret that even the big oceans cannot wash the king's blood from his hands. Example #3: As I Walked Out One Evening (By W. H. Auden) "I'll love you, dear, I'll love you Till China and Africa meet, And the river jumps over the mountain And the salmon sing in the street, I'll love you till the ocean Is folded and hung up to dry And the seven stars go squawking Like geese about the sky ..." Adynaton is very clear in the highlighted lines, as the poet expresses his love by overstating that the continents of China and Africa will meet, a river will jump over a mountain, fish will sing in the street, and the ocean will be folded and hung up to dry. These are extreme exaggerations, which are impossible in real life. Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "Why then, O brawling love, O loving hate, anything, of nothing first create! heavy lightness, serious vanity, Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms ... Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health, Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is! This love feel I, that feel no love in this. Dost thou not laugh?" In this excerpt, Romeo compares his love to several things. He intermingles love with hatred, mixes up beautiful things with ugly, hot with cold, dark with bright, and so on. He also labels love as fighting love and loving hate. These too are great exaggerations of love. Function of Adynaton Adynaton is used to create exaggeration, in order to emphasize some point. The basic purpose of using adynaton is to draw the attention of the audience by overstating some thing or idea. Adynaton examples are found in literary pieces written as early as the Classical and Medieval periods. However, examples of adynaton are seen in folklore, drama, and fiction of the modern age. In everyday conversations, the function of adynaton is to create amusing effects by highlighting an idea. It is employed both for comic as well as serious purposes. By using extravagant statements, poets and writers make ordinary human feelings extraordinary.

Character

All stories need certain necessary elements. Without these elements, literary works often fail to make sense. For instance, one of the essential elements of every story is a plot with a series of events. Another important element is a character. A character can be any person, a figure, an inanimate object, or animal. There are different types of characters, and each serves its unique function in a story or a piece of literature. Types of Character There are many types of the characters which include: Confidante A confidante is someone in whom the main character confides. He reveals the central character's thoughts, intentions, and personality traits. However, a confidante need not necessarily be a person. An animal can also be a confidante. Dynamic Character A dynamic character changes during the course of a novel or a story. This change in character or his/her outlook is permanent. That is why sometimes a dynamic character is also called a "developing character." Static Character A static character remains the same throughout the whole story. Even the events in a story or novel do not change character's outlook, perceptions, habits, personality, or motivations. Antagonist An antagonist is a bad guy, or an opponent of the protagonist or the main character. The action in the story arises from a conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist. The antagonist can be a person, an inanimate object, an animal, or nature itself. Protagonist Every story has a protagonist, the main character, who creates the action of the plot and engages readers, arousing their empathy and interest. The protagonist is often a hero or heroine of the story, as the whole plot moves around him or her. Round Character The round characters are well-developed and complex figures in a story. They are more realistic, and demonstrate more depth in their personalities. They can make surprising or puzzling decisions, and attract readers' attention. There are many factors that may affect them, and round characters react to such factors realistically. Flat Character A flat character does not change during a story. Also, he or she usually only reveals one or two personality traits. Stock Character A stock character is a flat character that is instantly recognizable by readers. Like a flat character, the stock character does not undergo any development throughout the story. Examples of Character in Literature Example #1: The Lord of the Rings trilogy (By J. R. R.) In The Lord of the Rings Trilogy, Frodo and his friend Sam discover their unexpected personal commitment, emotional and physical strength, and dedication to the cause. Gandalf discovers that his trust was broken by his fellow wizards, thus he transforms into a magician with a stronger character. Aragorn, an heir to line of kings, gives up his title; however, over the period of time he discovers his leadership skills, and decides to regain his crown. All of these characters provide us with good examples of round characters, each having depth of personality, and abilities to surprise the readers. Example #2: A Christmas Carol (by Charles Dickens) In Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Scrooge is a tightfisted person. He forces his workers to work hard, but gives them peanuts in return. However, after undergoing some very strange and disturbing experiences with the ghosts, he changes his ways - paying his employees more than their fair wages, giving them days off work, and even gives gifts. This transformation makes him fit into the role of a dynamic character. Example #3: Hedda Gabler (by Henrik Ibsen) Hedda Gabler is manipulative, cold, and "demonic," even though she is the title character - the focus of the play. She is the most complex and psychologically compelling character, the reason that she is a dynamic character. Example #4: Othello (by William Shakespeare) At some points, it seems that Iago is the protagonist, since he dominates the entire play and delivers soliloquies. However, he does not change at all, and most of the protagonists undergo some sort of change during a play. Also, in the opening lines, Iago describes himself as someone who wishes to destroy Othello. Thus, his actions transform him into a tragic antagonistic type of character, though he is the central character of the play. Function of Character The main function of a character in a story is to extend or prolong the plot, make it readable and interesting. Many stories use multiple characters, and every story has a main character that affects the plot a great deal. The main character could be a protagonist, an antagonist, a dynamic, a static, a flat, or a round character. Readers feel that the characters given in the literary pieces exist, and they enjoy reading their real and lifelike figures and actions.

Allegory

Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles are described in terms of characters, figures, and events. It can be employed in prose and poetry to tell a story, with a purpose of teaching or explaining an idea or a principle. The objective of its use is to teach some kind of a moral lesson. Difference Between Allegory and Symbolism Although an allegory uses symbols, it is different from symbolism. An allegory is a complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand for an abstract idea or event. A symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands for another object, giving it a particular meaning. Unlike allegory, symbolism does not tell a story. For example, Plato, in his Allegory of Cave, tells a story of how some people are ignorant, while at the same time other people "see the light." Plato's allegory stands for an idea and does not tell an actual story. Examples of Allegory in Everyday Life Allegory is an archaic term, which is used specifically in literary works. It is difficult to spot its occurrence in everyday life, although recently we do find examples of allegory in political debates. The declaration of former U.S. President George W. Bush was allegorical when he used the term "Axis of Evil" in referring to three countries considered a danger to the world. He later used the term "allies" for those countries that would wage war against the "Axis." Examples of Allegory in Literature Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW I. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is this: "All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others." The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution. For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; "Mr. Jones," the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while "Boxer" the horse, represents the laborer class. The use of allegory in the novel allows Orwell to make his position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils. Example #2: Faerie Queen (By Edmund Spenser) Faerie Queen, a masterpiece of Edmund Spenser, is a moral and religious allegory. The good characters of book stand for the various virtues, while the bad characters represent vices. "The Red-Cross Knight" represents holiness, and "Lady Una" represents truth, wisdom, and goodness. Her parents symbolize the human race. The "Dragon," which has imprisoned them, stands for evil. The mission of holiness is to help the truth fight evil, and thus regain its rightful place in the hearts of human beings. "The Red-Cross Knight" in this poem also represents the reformed church of England, fighting against the "Dragon," which stands for the Papacy or the Catholic Church. Example #3: Pilgrim's Progress (By John Bunyan) John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is an example of spiritual allegory. The ordinary sinner, Christian, leaves the City of Destruction, and travels towards Celestial City, where God resides, for salvation. He finds Faithful, a companion who helps him on his way to the City. On many instances, many characters, including Hypocrisy, Apollyon, Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Obstinate, and Pliable try to discourage or stop him from achieving his aim. Finally, he reaches the Celestial City, carried by Hopeful's faith. The moral learned through this allegory is that the road to Heaven is not easy, and it is full of obstacles. A Christian has to be willing to pay any price to achieve salvation. A man is full of sins, but this does not stop him from achieving glory. Function of Allegory Writers use allegory to add different layers of meanings to their works. Allegory makes their stories and characters multidimensional, so that they stand for something larger in meaning than what they literally stand for. Allegory allows writers to put forward their moral and political points of view. A careful study of an allegorical piece of writing can give us an insight into its writer's mind, how he views the world, and how he wishes the world to be.

Alliteration

Alliteration is derived from Latin's "Latira". It means "letters of alphabet". It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series. Consider the following examples: But a better butter makes a batter better. A big bully beats a baby boy. Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B) occurs close together and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is that alliteration does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but cigarette chase is not. Common Examples of Alliteration In our daily life, we notice alliteration in the names of different companies. It makes the name of a company catchy and easy to memorize. Here are several common alliteration examples. Dunkin' Donuts PayPal Best Buy Coca-Cola Life Lock Park Place American Apparel American Airlines Chuckee Cheese's Bed Bath & Beyond Krispy Kreme The Scotch and Sirloin We also find alliterations in names of people, making such names prominent and easy to be remembered. For instance, both fictional characters and real people may stand out prominently in your mind due to the alliterative effects of their names. Examples are: Ronald Reagan Sammy Sosa Jesse Jackson Michael Moore William Wordsworth Mickey Mouse Porky Pig Lois Lane Marilyn Monroe Fred Flintstone Donald Duck Spongebob Squarepants Seattle Seahawks Alliteration Examples in Literature Example #1 From Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" "The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, The furrow followed free; We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea." In the above lines we see alliteration ("b", "f" and "s") in the phrases "breeze blew", "foam flew", "furrow followed", and "silent sea". Example #2 From James Joyce's "The Dead" "His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead." We notice several instances of alliteration in the above mentioned prose work of James Joyce. Alliterations are with "s" and "f" in the phrases "swooned slowly" and "falling faintly". Example #3 From Maya Angelou's "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" "Up the aisle, the moans and screams merged with the sickening smell of woolen black clothes worn in summer weather and green leaves wilting over yellow flowers." Maya gives us a striking example of alliteration in the above extract with the letters "s" and "w". We notice that alliterative words are interrupted by other non-alliterative words among them but the effect of alliteration remains the same. We immediately notice alliteration in the words "screams", "sickening smell", "summer", "weather" and "wilting". Example #4 From William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" (prologue to Act 1) "From forth the fatal loins of these two foes; A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life." This is an example of alliteration with the "f" and "l." in words "forth, fatal, foes" and "loins, lovers, and life". Example #5 Percy Bysshe Shelley's (English Romantic poet) "The Witch of Atlas" is a famous poem that is full of examples of alliterations. Just a few of them are "wings of winds" (line 175), "sick soul to happy sleep" (line 178), "cells of crystal silence" (line 156), "Wisdom's wizard. . . wind. . . will" (lines 195-197), "drained and dried" ( line 227), "lines of light" (line 245), "green and glowing" (line 356), and crudded. . . cape of cloud" (lines 482-3). Function of Alliteration Alliteration has a very vital role in poetry and prose. It creates a musical effect in the text that enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. It makes reading and recitation of the poems attractive and appealing; thus, making them easier to learn by heart. Furthermore, it renders flow and beauty to a piece of writing. In the marketing industry, as what we have already discussed, alliteration makes the brand names interesting and easier to remember. This literary device is helpful in attracting customers and enhancing sales.

Allusion

Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. For instance, you make a literary allusion the moment you say, "I do not approve of this quixotic idea," Quixotic means stupid and impractical derived from Cervantes's "Don Quixote", a story of a foolish knight and his misadventures. Allusion Examples in Everyday Speech The use allusions are not confined to literature alone. Their occurrence is fairly common in our daily speech. Look at some common allusion examples in everyday life: "Don't act like a Romeo in front of her." - "Romeo" is a reference to Shakespeare's Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in "Romeo and Juliet". The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora's box of crimes. - This is an allusion to one of Greek Mythology's origin myth, "Pandora's box". "This place is like a Garden of Eden." - This is a biblical allusion to the "garden of God" in the Book of Genesis. "Hey! Guess who the new Newton of our school is?" - "Newton", means a genius student, alludes to a famous scientist Isaac Newton. "Stop acting like my ex-husband please." - Apart from scholarly allusions we refer to common people and places in our speech. Examples of Allusion in Literature Let us analyze a few examples of the use of allusions in literature: Example #1 Milton's "Paradise Lost" gives allusions a fair share. Look at the example from Book 6 below: "All night the dread less Angel unpursu'd Through Heav'ns wide Champain held his way, till Morn, Wak't by the circling Hours, with rosie hand Unbarr'd the gates of Light. There is a Cave Within the Mount of God, fast by his Throne" In the above lines "dread less Angel" is a reference to "Abdiel", a fearless angel. "Circling Hours" alludes to a Greek Myth "The Horae", the daughters of "Zeus" and "Themis" namely "Thallo (Spring), Auxo (Summer) and Carpo (Fall). " With rosie hand" Milton refers to Homer's illustration of the "rosy fingered dawn" (Odyssey Book 2). Example #2 Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus" is replete with instances of allusions. Read the example from Act III below: "Learnèd Faustus, to find the secrets of astronomy Graven in the book of Jove's high firmament, Did mount him up to scale Olympus' top, Where, sitting in a chariot burning bright, Drawn by the strength of yokèd dragons' necks, He views the clouds, the planets, and the stars." Jove's high firmament refers to the outer stretches of the universe. "Olympus' top" is an allusion to Greek Mythology where Mount Olympus is home of gods. Similarly, "a chariot burning bright" refers to a Greek Myth of "god Apollo" who is said to drive the sun in his chariot. Example #3 In Conrad's "Heart of Darkness", "the two knitting women" whom Marlow sees alludes to "Moirae" or Fates as visualized in Greek Mythology: "The two knitting women increase his anxiety by gazing at him and all the other sailors with knowing unconcern. Their eerie looks suggest that they know what will happen (the men dying), yet don't care" The thread they knit represents human life. The two women knitting black wool foreshadows Marlow's horrific journey in the "Dark Continent". Example #4 We find a number of allusions in Keats's "Ode to the Grecian Urn". For example: "Sylvan historian, who canst thus express A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme: What leaf-fringed legend haunts about thy shape Of deities or mortals, or of both, In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?" "Sylvan" is a goat-like-man deity of Greek mythology. "Tempe" alludes to the "Vale of Tempe" in Greece, a place (from Greek mythology) frequently visited by Apollo and other gods. Likewise, "the dales of Arcady" refers to the home of "Pan", the god of rustic music. Function of Allusion By and large, the use of allusions enables writers or poets to simplify complex ideas and emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by comparing the emotions of the writer or poet to the references given by them. Furthermore, the references to Greek Mythology give a dreamlike and magical touch to the works of art. Similarly, biblical allusions appeal to the readers with religious backgrounds.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity, or fallacy of ambiguity, is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one meaning. Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the basis for instances of unintentional humor. For instance, it is ambiguous to say "I rode a black horse in red pajamas," because it may lead us to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is restructured as, "Wearing red pajamas, I rode a black horse." Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity, such as in, "John took off his trousers by the bank." It is funny if we confuse one meaning of "bank," which is a building, to another meaning, which is "an edge of a river." Context usually resolves any ambiguity in such cases. Common Ambiguity Examples Below are some common examples of ambiguity: A good life depends on a liver - Liver may be an organ or simply a living person. Foreigners are hunting dogs - It is unclear whether dogs were being hunted, or foreigners are being spoken of as dogs. Each of us saw her duck - It is not clear whether the word "duck" refers to an action of ducking, or a duck that is a bird. The passerby helped dog bite victim - Is the passerby helping a dog bite someone? Or is he helping a person who has been bitten by a dog? It's not clear. Examples of Ambiguity in Literature Although ambiguity is considered a flaw in writing, many writers use this technique to allow readers to understand their works in a variety of ways, giving them depth and complexity. Let us analyze some ambiguity examples in literature. Example #1: The Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger) Read the following excerpt from The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger: "I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to know the truth. I'm quite a heavy smoker, for one thing—that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That's also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I'm pretty healthy though." The words "they" and "here" used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to presume from the context that "they" might be the professionals helping out Holden, and "here" might be a rehabilitation center. Example #2: The Sick Rose (By William Blake) The Sick Rose, a short lyric written by William Blake, is full of ambiguities: "O Rose thou art sick. The invisible worm, That flies in the night In the howling storm: Has found out thy bed Of crimson joy; And his dark secret love Does thy life destroy" Many of the words in the above lines show ambiguity. We cannot say for sure what " bed of crimson joy" means; neither can we be exact about the interpretation of "dark secret love." The ambiguous nature of such phrases allows readers to explore for deeper meanings of the poem. Some of those who have analyzed this poem believe that "Has found out thy bed / Of crimson joy" refers to making love. Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) On a larger scale, ambiguity may develop in a character, or in an entire story. For instance, Hamlet is a morally ambiguous character. He kills to avenge his father's murder He is good because he wants to protect his mother He is bad because he is willing to kill whom he must to achieve this end The ambiguity in Hamlet's character is seen when he is hurt by the death of Ophelia, which is his personal loss, but he does not appreciate the effect that his actions are going to have on others. Example #4: Ode to a Grecian Urn (By John Keats) We find ambiguity in the first line of Keats' Ode to a Grecian Urn: "Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness..." The use of the word "still" is ambiguous in nature. Here, it may mean "an unmoving object," or it may be interpreted as "yet unchanged." Function of Ambiguity Ambiguity in literature serves the purpose of lending a deeper meaning to a literary work. By introducing ambiguity in their works, writers give liberty to readers to use their imagination to explore meanings. This active participation of the readers involves them in the prose or poetry they read.

Amplification

Amplification is a rhetorical device writers use to embellish a sentence or statement by adding further information. The objective is to increase readability and worth of the statement or sentence. They usually use it when a simple sentence is abrupt, and cannot convey the desired implications. Writers then use amplification to make structural additions, and give further meanings by describing and repeating a certain statement or idea. The purpose of this rhetorical device is to bring the readers' attention to an idea, which they may miss otherwise. Examples of Amplification in Literature Example #1: Our Mutual Friend (by Charles Dickens) "Mr. and Mrs. Veneering were bran-new people in a bran-new house in a bran-new quarter of London. Everything about the Veneerings was spick and span new. All their furniture was new, all their friends were new, all their servants were new, their place was new, ... their harness was new, their horses were new, their pictures were new, they themselves were new, they were as newly-married as was lawfully compatible with their having a bran-new baby ..." In this excerpt, Dickens amplifies the phrase "bran-new," and then describes it further by giving more details about everything, such as furniture, friends, servants, place, horses, pictures, etc. Example #2: Northern Exposure (by Chris Stevens) "Goethe's final words: 'More light.' Ever since we crawled out of that primordial slime, that's been our unifying cry: 'More light.' Sunlight. Torchlight. Candlelight. Neon. Incandescent ... Light is metaphor. Thy word is a lamp unto my feet. Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Lead, Kindly Light, amid the encircling gloom, Lead Thou me on! The night is dark, and I am far from home — Lead Thou me on! Arise, shine, for thy light has come. Light is knowledge. Light is life. Light is light." You can notice that emphasis is on the "light" in the excerpt given above. Moving on from literal meaning to the metaphorical meaning of the light, the speaker is describing the purpose of light in human lives. Example #3: The Twits (by Roald Dahl) "If a person has ugly thoughts, it begins to show on the face. And when that person has ugly thoughts every day, every week, every year, the face gets uglier and uglier until you can hardly bear to look at it. A person who has good thoughts cannot ever be ugly. You can have a wonky nose and a crooked mouth and a double chin and stick-out teeth, but if you have good thoughts it will shine out of your face like sunbeams and you will always look lovely." Here in this excerpt, Dahl elaborates to explain in depth the way an ugly person can turn out to be uglier, and how a beautiful person remains beautiful, despite having physical imperfections. Example #4: All Stories Are True (by John Edgar Wideman) "A massive tree centuries old holds out against the odds here across from my mother's house, one of the biggest trees in Pittsburgh, anchored in a green tangle of weeds and bushes, trunk thick as a Buick, black as night after rain soaks its striated hide... If it ever tore loose from its moorings, it would crush her house like a sledgehammer ... " In this example, John Edgar Wideman gives an expanded and enriched description of a huge old tree. He repeatedly describes how it has anchored itself along with weeds and bushes against his mother's house. Example #5: The Scarlet Letter (by Nathaniel Hawthorne) "It is a little remarkable, that—though disinclined to talk 0ver much of myself and my affairs at the fireside, and to my personal friends—an autobiographical impulse should twice in my life have taken possession of me, in addressing the public." This introduction by Nathaniel Hawthorne in his famous novel, The Scarlett Letter, uses amplification. The speaker explains that he is resolved to write his autobiography. Instead of telling it simply, he uses in-depth language to add the main idea into it. Function of Amplification By using amplification, writers repeat something they already have said with the purpose to add more information and details to the original description. In writing and speech, amplification tends to highlight the importance of an idea, to stimulate an emotional response among the audience. In fact, it adds an exaggeration, increases the rhetorical effect, and emphasizes to further elaborate definitions, descriptions, and arguments in a piece. Amplification also highlights the persuasive aspects of an idea by elaborating the reason why it needs to be considered. Besides, in creative writing, it draws readers' attention to the most vivid, thought provoking, and compelling parts of a narrative.

Audience

An Audience is the person for whom a writer writes, or composer composes. A writer uses a particular style of language, tone, and content according to what he knows about his audience. In simple words, audience refers to the spectators, listeners, and intended readers of a writing, performance, or speech. For instance, Stephenie Meyer's novel series, Twilight, has targeted primarily younger female audiences. Similarly, J. K Rowling's Harry Potter series became a blockbuster hit, with a target audience of youth, and adult fantasy fiction lovers. Examples of Audience in Literature Example #1: Fahrenheit 451 (by Ray Bradbury) Ray Bradbury, in his novel, Fahrenheit 451, has targeted both adults and young adult readers as his audience. This story is equally appealing to the people of all ages, because its themes concern nuclear destruction, and readers see a battle between nature and technology. It depicts how technology is replacing curiosity, intellectualism, and literature. Above all, it has become a replacement for friendship, family, and real conversation. In this story, the audience sees a future in which the world has evolved into technology, and how government in such a time treats its people differently. Example #2: To Kill a Mockingbird (by Harper Lee) Harper Lee tells the story, To Kill a Mockingbird, through the eyes of a character named Scout; reflecting upon the life of an adult. Throughout the narrative, readers observe her perspective from the lens of one person's recollection, which appears on the very first page of the story. It begins as, "When enough years had gone by to enable us to look back on them, we sometimes discussed the events leading to [Jem's] accident." After this, the author takes the readers back to the times of Scout's first grade, and then onward to her eighth birthday. She is not only a first-person narrator, but also a participant in the story. The story evolves uniquely, through both a child's eyes, and from a mature perspective. This benefit of hindsight is what makes this story so appealing for both children its adult audience. Example #3: Animal Farm (by George Orwell) The intended audience for George Orwell's, "Animal Farm," is the general public, particularly the people of the former Soviet Union. The author intends to inform his readers about dangers of Communism, and its logical outcomes during the Second World War. Furthermore, Orwell wants to inform the next generation about Communism, and its negative impacts on people's lives. By using different styles and writing techniques, Orwell has conveyed his message in such a way that it is easy for the common reader to understand hidden meanings. He has also used satire and allegory, which have made some seemingly worthless and useless characters, which were notable in Russian history, appear as important figures in history. This technique targets the Russian audience. Example #4: The Declaration of Independence (by Thomas Jefferson and Ben Franklin) "The Declaration of Independence" had three types of audiences: American colonists, the British government, and the general public. For American audiences, the purpose was to explain to them why they needed to create a new nation, and why their leaders needed their support. Immediately, they distributed the Declaration throughout the states and colonies to, pushing it out to reach as many people as possible. The second target audience was the British Parliament. By putting blame on the king, and delivering eloquent arguments on freedom and democracy, they were hopeful that the British would support the Americans. This won support of some of the British Parliamentarians, such as Edmund Burke. The third intended audience included the peoples of the world, particularly European nations that were at odds with the British, in an attempt to convince them to support the revolution. The Declaration of Independence did, in fact, affect the American allies: Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Function Since the term audience refers to the readers, many writers prefer to adopt different styles of voice - mixed, formal, or casual - depending upon their intended audience. Knowing his audience helps the writer to determine what level of details he should provide, and what type of word choices he may make, because the word choice and tone should match the expectations of the audience. The role of the audience in dramas and stage plays is unique, as the audience members transmit their energy and emotion to the players and actors through their responses during the performance. In this example, the function of the audience is to respond to the performance of the work.

Acrostic

An acrostic is a literary device in which the first letter of every verse consecutively forms a word or message. An acrostic is mostly applied in poetry, but can also be used in prose or word puzzle. This word or alphabet is often connected to the theme of the poem. It is deliberately inserted to make readers discover the layered message. It also acts as a mnemonic device that can quicken the pace of the memorization process. Acrostic poetry can be written in any meter, or free verse form, with or without a rhyme scheme. However, the most common types of acrostic poems are those in which the initial letter of each line forms a word, and is often capitalized. Types of Acrostic Poems Telestich: These are the poems in which the last letters of each line spell a word or message. Mesostich: The poems in which the middle of words or verses forms a word or a message. Double Acrostic: The poem in which words are spelled by both the first and last letters of each line in a way that one word is read vertically down the left side of the text, and another word is read vertically down the right side of the text. Abecedarian: Acrostic in which alphabets are spelled instead of words. Chaucer's poem "La Priere de Nostre Dame" is a good example of an abecedarian acrostic. Non- Standard: Non-standard acrostics do not use first or last letters to spell out a word. Instead, they emphasize letters in different places within the poem. Examples of Acrostic in Literature Example #1 Acrostic in Lewis Carroll's "Acrostic" Little maidens, when you look On this little story-book, Reading with attentive eye Its enticing history, Never think that hours of play Are your only HOLIDAY, And that in a HOUSE of joy Lessons serve but to annoy: If in any HOUSE you find Children of a gentle mind, Each the others pleasing ever— Each the others vexing never— Daily work and pastime daily In their order taking gaily— Then be very sure that they Have a life of HOLIDAY. This is a very famous acrostic by Lewis Carroll. Carroll wrote this poem for three children on Christmas. The poem illustrates the lovely sense of domestic life during the holidays. The poet seems to explain why we should take a break out of busy lives to enjoy these times of the holidays. However, it is the most common type of acrostic, as the initial letters of the poem spell out the names of three sisters: Lorina, Alice, and Edith. Example #2 Acrostic in Nabokov's "The Vane Sisters" "I could isolate, consciously, little. Everything seemed blurred, yellow-clouded, yielding nothing tangible. Her inept acrostics, maudlin evasions, theopathies—every recollection formed ripples of mysterious meaning. Everything seemed yellowly blurred, illusive, lost." This is the best example of acrostic formed in prose. It is a story about a professor who believes that codes and concealed meanings wrapped in acrostics evoke the thrill of discovery. Therefore, the first letters of each word in the final paragraph of the text spells out a phrase, "Icicles by Cynthia; Meter from me, Sybil." Although these words may sound like nonsense if someone has not come across the story, they are the keywords to interpret the story's mysterious plot. Example #3 An Acrostic by Edgar Allan Poe Elizabeth it is in vain you say "Love not" — thou sayest it in so sweet a way: In vain those words from thee or L.E.L. Zantippe's talents had enforced so well: Ah! if that language from thy heart arise, Breath it less gently forth — and veil thine eyes. Endymion, recollect, when Luna tried To cure his love — was cured of all beside — His follie — pride — and passion — for he died. This famous acrostic has been written by a renowned American poet, Edgar Alan Poe in which he talks about love by using the name, ELIZABETH as a word. The L. E. L in the third line may refer to an English poet, Letitia Elizabeth London, who is famous for signing her works with these initials. The poem speaks about the love and merry-making of a couple. Poe has used acrostic style to illustrate how most of the people find hope in love. Example #4 Acrostic in Cage's Overpopulation and Art This poem is a mesostic poem in which key letters are placed in the middle of each line. Cage, very skillfully, talks about the phenomenon of overpopulation in this long mesostic poem. He has used these formal strategies to show that in this overcrowding world the individual is no longer the center of social or aesthetic forms of organization in a digitalized world. Acrostics Meaning and Function It is used as a tool to add a new dimension to the texts. The writers, very artistically, transform a simple text into a word puzzle by allowing the audience to interpret the hidden message of the text. Also, it enables the writers to project information comically. However, it is not something comic. The writers purposefully choose this strategy to convey their thoughts, ideas, and messages. Also, the acrostic style makes poems easy to remember. This conventional style of poetry is widely exercised in children literature to make learning fun for them.

Adage

An adage is a short, pointed, and memorable saying that is based on facts, and which is considered a veritable truth by the majority of people. Famous adages become popular due to their usage over a long period of time. In fact, an adage expresses a general fact or truth about life, which becomes more and more popular before it is accepted as a universal truth. For instance, "God helps those who help themselves" is now considered a universal truth because of its usage throughout human history. Often repeated sayings and quotes become adages that pass on to many generations. However, some adages are metaphoric, having hidden meanings, and embody common observations. Sometimes proverbs are referred as adages, but there is a slight difference. Adage vs. Proverb Both of these terms represent sayings that convey a deeper meaning. However, there are some differences between them. A proverb has a practical aspect, but it is a common belief that an adage is true to have been tested in various ages. The adage is a more general term than a proverb; therefore, proverbs could be adages, in the manner that Merriam Webster defines proverbs as adages. Adages are general truths with universal applications, reflecting wisdom; whereas proverbs are more traditional and are often used in everyday speeches. Examples of Adage from Literature Many authors have employed adages in their works, such as C.S Lewis, Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare, Benjamin Franklin, J.K. Rowling, Aesop, George Bernard Shaw, Friedrich Nietzsche, and many others. Example #1: In Memoriam (by Alfred Lord Tennyson) Tis better to have loved and lost Than never to have loved at all. In these lines, Tennyson is giving advice about having love in one's life, which is a truth used in literary texts even today. Example #2: As You Like It (by William Shakespeare) All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. This is the most frequently quoted adage by Shakespeare. Here he has made a comparison between the world and the stage, as well as between life and play. He also refers to seven stages in the lives of humans as seven ages of humans. Example #3: The Tortoise and the Hare (by Aesop) "Things are not always what they seem." (From The Bee-Keeper and the Bees) "Appearances often are deceiving." (From The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing) "Slow and steady wins the race." (From The Tortoise and the Hare) The following lines are very popular in literature as well as in everyday use. People use these adages in their common speeches as witty sayings. Example #4: Adagia (by Desiderius Erasmus) "God helps those who help themselves." "Put the cart before the horse." "Call a spade a spade." Erasmus is famous for using adages in his works. The given lines are commonly used sayings in daily conversation. These are now accepted as a universal truths. Example #5: The Holy Bible (by Multiple Authors) "Don't cast your pearls before swine." - Matthew 7:6 "More blessed to give than to receive." - Acts 20:35 "Pride goes before a fall." - Proverbs 16:18 "To everything there is a season." - Ecclesiastes 3:1 The Bible has also employed adages with deeper, moral meanings. The purpose of these sayings is to educate, and increase the readers' awareness. Example #6: Poor Richard's Almanack (by Benjamin Franklin) "Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." "Eat to live, and not live to eat." "To err is human, to repent divine; to persist devilish." "Well done is better than well said." "A penny saved is a penny earned." Franklin published this book on a yearly basis from 1732-1758, which became popular due to extensive use of witty adages and wordplay. These are some popular adages used to this day. Function of Adage Adages are not only found in literature, but also in advertising and scripts of films. The first major function of adage is to give awareness to the readers about some facts of life. Secondly, adages are applicable in any circumstance or situation, as they convey deeper meanings of wisdom. Most of these sayings are witty and suggest a moral lesson, having long lasting impacts of universal application of the truths contained in them. They become imprinted on the minds of the users. Moreover, they sum up the moral lesson of a story such as in Aesop's Fables. The authors use this device to make their works effective, compact and rich.

Analogy

An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor. Here, an atomic structure is compared to a solar system by using the word "like." Therefore, it is a simile. Metaphor is used to relate the nucleus to the sun, and the electrons to the planets, without using the words "like" or "as." Hence, similes and metaphors are employed to develop an analogy. Examples of Analogy in Everyday Life We commonly use analogy in our everyday conversation. Some common analogy examples are given below: Life is like a race. The one who keeps running wins the race, and the one who stops to catch a breath loses. Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is the weapon of a writer. How a doctor diagnoses diseases is like how a detective investigates crimes. Just as a caterpillar comes out of its cocoon, so we must come out of our comfort zone. You are as annoying as nails on a chalkboard. Examples of Analogy in Literature Example #1: Night Clouds (By Amy Lowell) The white mares of the moon rush along the sky Beating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens. Here, the poet constructs an analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with that of the white mares on the ground. Example #2: A Hanging (By George Orwell) The lines below were taken from George Orwell's narrative essay A Hanging, which exhibits an analogy between a prisoner and a fish. They crowded very close about him, with their hands always on him in a careful, caressing grip, as though all the while feeling him to make sure he was there. It was like men handling a fish which is still alive and may jump back into the water. The people are taking a prisoner to the gallows to be hanged. They are holding him firmly, as if he were a fish which might slip away and escape. Example #3: The Day Is Done (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow uses analogy in the following lines taken from his poem The Day is Done: Read from some humbler poet, Whose songs gushed from his heart, As showers from the clouds of summer, Or tears from the eyelids start. He relates his poems to the summer showers and tears from the eyes. He develops the similarity to show spontaneity of art when it directly comes out from the heart of an artist. Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) These lines are taken from William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Act II, Scene 2: What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other word would smell as sweet. So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called... Juliet is indirectly saying that, just like a rose that will always smell sweet by whichever name it is called, she will love Romeo even if he changes his name. Example #5: The Flea (By John Donne) John Donne, in his poem The Flea, uses analogy of a flea to describe his love with his beloved: This flea is you and I, and this Our marriage bed, and marriage temple is... In the quoted lines, he tells his darling that, as a flea has sucked blood from both of them, and their blood has mingled in its gut, so the flea has become their "wedding bed." Function of Analogy Writers use analogy to link an unfamiliar or a new idea with common and familiar objects. This makes it is easier for readers to comprehend a new idea, which may have been difficult for them to understand otherwise. In addition, by employing this literary tool, writers catch the attention of their readers. Analogies help increase readers' interest as analogies help them relate what they read to their life.

Figure of Speech

A figure of speech is a phrase or word having different meanings than its literal meanings. It conveys meaning by identifying or comparing one thing to another, which has connotation or meaning familiar to the audience. That is why it is helpful in creating vivid rhetorical effect. Types of figures of Speech There are many types of figures of speech. Here are a few of them with detailed descriptions: Personification It occurs when a writer gives human traits to non-human or inanimate objects. It is similar to metaphors and similes that also use comparison between two objects. For instance, "Hadn't she felt it in every touch of the sunshine, as its golden finger-tips pressed her lids open and wound their way through her hair?" ("The Mother's Recompense" by Edith Wharton) In the above lines, the speaker is personifying sunshine as it has finger tips that wound their way into her hair. This is trait of using finger-tips in hair is a human one. Understatement and Hyperbole These two figures of speech are opposite to each other. Hyperbole uses extreme exaggeration. It exaggerates to lay emphasis on a certain quality or feature. It stirs up emotions among the readers, these emotions could be about happiness, romance, inspiration, laughter or sadness. I'll love you, dear, I'll love you Till China and Africa meet, And the river jumps over the mountain And the salmon sing in the street." ("As I Walked Out One Evening" by W.H. Auden) In this poem, Auden has used hyperbole to stress on how long his love his beloved would last. Just imagine when China and Africa would meet and can river jump up over the mountains? How salmon can be intelligent enough so that it could sing and evolve enough and walk the streets? Whereas understatement uses less than whatever is intended, such as, "You killed my family. And I don't like that kind of thing." ("The Chosen One" by Boon Collins and Rob Schneider) In this line, the speaker is using an understatement because someone has killed his family and he is just taking it very normal like nothing serious has happened. Simile It is a type of comparison between things or objects by using "as" or "like." See the following example: My heart is like a singing bird Whose nest is in a water'd shoot; My heart is like an apple-tree My heart is like a rainbow shell... ("A Birthday" by Christina Rossetti) Rossetti has used simile thrice in this part of the poem, comparing her heart to a "singing bird", "an apple-tree", and a rainbow shell." The poet makes comparison of heart to a happy bird in a nest, an apple tree full with fruits and a beautiful shell in the sea, full of peace and joy. Metaphor Metaphor is comparing two unlike objects or things, which may have some common qualities. Presentiment - is that long shadow - on the lawn - Indicative that Suns go down - The notice to the startled Grass That Darkness - is about to pass - ("Presentiment is that long shadow on the lawn" by Emily Dickinson) In this example, Dickinson presents presentiment as a shadow. Presentiment actually means anxiety or foreboding, which she calls a shadow. In fact, she makes compares it with shadow to provide a better description of anxiety that could creep up in a person's life and cause fear. Pun Pun is the manipulation of words that have more than one meanings. It brings humor in an expression. Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy Will, And Will to boot, and Will in overplus; ("Sonnet 135" by William Shakespeare) See the use of odd grammar rule, which is the capitalization of word "Will." Usually in the middle of a line or sentence, writers capitalize a name. Here it is the first name of Shakespeare. It means he has created pun of his own name. Function of Figure of Speech Figure of speech is not only used to embellish the language, but also cause a moment of excitement when reading. It is used equally in writing as well as in speech. It, in fact, provides emphasis, clarity or freshness to expression. Clarity, however, may sometimes suffer because a figure of speech introduces double meanings such as connotative and denotative meanings. It also strengthens the creative expression and description along with making the language more graphic, pointed and vivid.

Flat Character

A flat character is a type of character in fiction that does not change too much from the start of the narrative to its end. Flat characters are often said not to have any emotional depth. E. M. Foster has discussed some features of flat characters in his book, Aspects of the Novel. According to Foster, a flat character is a simple character, shown by the author as having just one or two qualities, which generally remain the same throughout the story, not undergoing significant growth or changes. The audience does not know much about these characters, because the writer does not provide detailed information about them. Characteristics of Flat Character The role of flat characters is to support the main character. They do not go through a substantial growth or transformation in the course of the narrative. They have recognizable characteristics that make them appear stereotypical. They are often referred to as one- or two-dimensional characters, usually having one perspective or point of view about life, things, or events. Examples of Flat Characters in Literature Example #1: Gertrude from Hamlet (William Shakespeare) Outwardly, Queen Gertrude seems to be a caring mother of Hamlet, but inwardly she is a weak-willed lady, who walks blindly through her life, is not aware that Claudius has trapped her by murdering her husband, or that he has seized her husband's throne. Gertrude has no idea why Hamlet is upset about her marriage. She behaves like a tool of fate in the whole tragedy, even when she stops Hamlet from going back to Wittenberg for studies. Gertrude is a weak character, whom Claudius and Polonius have used for their own interests. She arranges a meeting with Hamlet, so that Claudius could spy on him, and also lets Polonius remain behind the curtains to hear the conversation between them. Thus, throughout the narrative, she proves her flat character and does not transform. She remains passive, never acts on her own until she becomes a victim herself. Example #2: Miss Maudie from To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee) Miss Maudie is a flat character because she maintains the same characteristics and outlook throughout the narrative. She begins and ends the novel by acting as a voice of reason for kids, and supporting and explaining Atticus' motivations and actions. She is the one who does not openly give a warning to Atticus for taking the case of Tom Robinson. Her positive and optimistic attitude remains steady, even after losing her house to a fire. Also, she represents more open-minded woman in the novel, as she sees error in social structure of Maycomb. Example #3: Elizabeth Proctor from The Crucible (By Arthur Miller) Another example of flat character is The Crucible's Elizabeth Proctor, who is a self-righteous woman, who always believes in doing something right. Whatever happens in the story, she stays faithful to her husband, John Proctor. Though she feels dejected due to John's cheating, she does not turn against him despite his wrongdoing. Elizabeth Proctor is basically an honest person who, when John asks for her recommendation as to whether he should confess his sin, she leaves the decision to him. She does not judge her husband, and assures him that she would support him for any decision he makes. Thus, she does not transform throughout this play, proving her as a flat character from beginning to the end. Example #4: Benvolio from Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Benvolio is another flat character, who remains unchanged throughout the play. He is temperate, solid, and loyal, who always tries to maintain peace and harmony between the two families. Benvolio's purpose is to support Romeo to get married to Juliet. However, the irony is that others accuse him for his hot temperament and wild attitude. Function of Flat Character The role of a flat character is to help the main character in pursuing his ambitions and goals. Flat characters often play a supporting role in the story, play, or novel. Though they are not very prominent characters, nor are they unimportant, because they bring harmony, peace, and comedy to the story. Writers use these characters to create a specific atmosphere in the complex narrative structure.

Analytical Essay

Analytical implies the breaking down of something into parts, or the discussion of something in a way that it becomes a dissection of the whole. An analytical type of essay differs from other types of essays in that its primary goal is to explain something bit by bit to enhance understanding. Most of the times, an analytical essay is written about the analysis of a text, or a process, or an idea. In literature, however, it is a critical analysis of some literary text which is done to enhance its understanding. Difference Between an Analytical Essay and a Critical Essay An analytical essay is just an analysis of a literary text. By contrast, a critical essay involves, not only an analysis of the text in question, but also dissection of the literary terms and devices used by the author to make his meanings clear. The critical essay also explains the functions of the literary terms used, and evaluates their usage, and whether they have achieved the intended purposes or not. Types of Analytical Essay Cause and Effect: One way of analyzing something is to discuss the cause of something, and its effect on other things. Comparison and Contrast: Another way of analyzing something is to compare and contrast things among themselves. Classification: Classification is yet another method of analyzing things, to learn of their nature. Process: Process is also a type of analysis writing. Definition: Defining things is also a way of analyzing the nature of things. Examples of Analytical Essay in Literature Example #1: Liposuction: The Key to Energy Independence (by Barbara Ehrenreich) "I say to my fellow humans: It's time to stop feeding off the dead and grow up! I don't know about food, but I have a plan for achieving fuel self-sufficiency in less time than it takes to say 'Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.' The idea came to me from reports of the growing crime of French fry oil theft: Certain desperate individuals are stealing restaurants' discarded cooking oil, which can then be used to fuel cars. So the idea is: why not skip the French fry phase and harvest high-energy hydrocarbons right from ourselves?" This is an excerpt from the essay of Barbara Ehrenreich, in which she has made comparison and contrast between human beings and animals, regarding food choices. This is a good analysis of the food we use. Example #2: Freedom (by Joyce M. Jarett) "On the first day of school, I was escorted by hordes of national guardsmen. Like a funeral procession, the steady stream of official-looking cars followed me to the campus. Some patrolmen were parked near campus gates, while others, with guns strapped to their sides, stood near building entrances. Though many of my escorts had given me smiles of support, still I was not prepared for what I encountered upon entering my new school." This is a paragraph from a process analysis. The author, Joyce M. Jaret, has beautifully described her experience of the security in this paragraph, and how it is deployed when an important figure faces security issues in his life. This is an analysis of the process of security deployment. Example #3: The Ways of Meeting Oppression (by Martin Luther King, Jr.) "The third way open to oppressed people in their quest for freedom is the way of nonviolent resistance. Like the synthesis in Hegelian philosophy, the principle of nonviolent resistance seeks to reconcile the truths of two opposites—the acquiescence and violence—while avoiding the extremes and immoralities of both. The nonviolent resister agrees with the person who acquiesces that one should not be physically aggressive toward his opponent; but he balances the equation by agreeing with the person of violence that evil must be resisted. He avoids the nonresistance of the former and the violent resistance of the latter. With nonviolent resistance, no individual or group need submit to any wrong, nor need anyone resort to violence in order to right a wrong." This is the analysis by classification that Marth Luther King, a famous human rights activist, has done regarding oppression against African Americans. Function of Analytical Essay An analytical essay dissects something such as a concept, an idea, a thing, or even a character. Its major aim is to enhance the understanding of readers. An analysis could be done through a process, definition, classification and division, or comparison and contrast. The thing or idea is broken into several parts, through classification and division, and then analyzed. A process is broken into several steps for analysis. Not only do analytical essays enhance understanding, but they also make readers aware of minute details of things.

Bandwagon

Bandwagon is a persuasive technique and a type of propaganda through which a writer persuades his readers, so that the majority could agree with the argument of the writer. He does this by suggesting that, since the majority agrees, the reader should too. For instance, "Everyone is voting for David, so definitely he is the best presidential candidate," is intended to convince others. The term bandwagon means, to "jump on the bandwagon," to follow what others are doing, or to conform. While listening to a politician, or reading a book, it is often observed that the speaker or the writer tries to encourage the audience to think or act in a particular way because others are doing that, despite having ideas and beliefs of their own. Examples of Bandwagon in Literature Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) In the novel Animal Farm, George Orwell uses bandwagon technique effectively. At the very beginning, a song "Beasts of England" seems to be very appealing and catchy, because everyone picks it up so swiftly as if they like the idea. Again, we see this technique when Boxer, a powerful and loyal animal on the farm, promotes bandwagon propaganda inadvertently with his work ethics, as he always tries to work hard. He maintains the view that, "If Comrade Napoleon says it, it must be right." This shows he wishes to follow Comrade Napoleon and his ideas. Bandwagon technique continues to exist as the animals only accept the ideals and changing commandments because other animals are doing the same. Another bandwagon technique comes out when Mollie is curious to know whether she will be able to wear precious ribbons and have sugar after Rebellion. However, Snowball informs her that they symbolize slavery and Mollie accepts this without any resistance, although she never believes it. Example #2: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) In William Shakespeare's play, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony delivers his famous speech at the funeral of Caesar, which is a brilliant example of bandwagon. Mark Antony has delivered this magnificent speech to win over the favor of the audience. He negates excuses that Brutus had made, though he had calmed down the public and persuaded them that Caesar had to die for their good. Antony comes forward and tells them that he hopes the crowd would not riot, and convinces them that Cassius and Brutus were murderers and responsible for ripping apart the town. Speaking on a personal level, Antony grabs public attention as he leaves his position and, being a commoner saying, "Friends, Romans, Countrymen." Example #3: The Crucible (By Arthur Miller) Abigail: "I go back to Jesus; I kiss His hand. I saw Sarah Good with the Devil! I saw Goody Osburn with the Devil! I saw Bridget Bishop with the Devil!" Betty: "I saw George Jacobs with the Devil! I saw Goody Howe with the Devil!...I saw Martha Bellow with the Devil!" Abigail: "I saw Goody Sibber with the Devil!" Putnam: "The marshal, I'll call the marshal!" Betty: "I saw Alice Barrow with the Devil!" Hale: "Let the marshal bring irons!" In this excerpt, Abigail Williams claims that she has seen many women with the devil. While she proposes this idea, suddenly all of the girls jump on the bandwagon, and start following Abigail by accusing those women whom they dislike. Example #4: 1984 (By George Orwell) George Orwell uses bandwagon technique in his novel, 1984. In this novel, the leading party uses fear techniques to manipulate people to follow the majority. The bandwagon technique plays effectively on their feelings of isolation and loneliness. The party ensures that nobody is trustworthy. They even turn the children against their parents. No one can have relationships without their permission. Its best example is "Two Minute Hate" - a particular time in which everyone shouts at Goldstein, the enemy of the party. Everyone participates in this bandwagon and consequently intense hatred overwhelms Winston, who also takes part and produce feelings of achievement in his heart. Function of Bandwagon The purpose of this technique is to make the audience think and act in a way that the majority follows. This tendency of following the beliefs and actions of others occurs when an audience sees others are also conforming. We see its usage in literature, politics, and advertisements. Bandwagon is in fact a good approach for persuasive writing that successfully works on human minds and psychology. Conversely, writers often use it as a pressure tactic by creating a sense of fear among the readers if they do not agree with their beliefs.

Climax

Climax, a Greek term meaning "ladder," is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point. It is a structural part of a plot, and is at times referred to as a "crisis." It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, a climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak, then calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five-act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, five-act plays were replaced by three-act plays, and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play. Examples of Climax in Literature Let us analyze a few climax examples in literature: Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) In William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet, the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio: "And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now! Now, Tybalt, take the 'villain' back again That late thou gavest me; for Mercutio's soul Is but a little way above our heads ..." As soon as he killed Tybalt, Romeo says: "O! I am Fortune's Fool!" He realizes that he has killed his wife's cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax, as the audience wonders how Romeo would get out of this terrible situation. Similarly, it qualifies as a climax because, after this act, all the prior conflicts start to be resolved, and mysteries unfold themselves, thus moving the story toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes. Example #2: The Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) In Joseph Conrad's novel The Heart of Darkness, the narrative reaches its climax when Marlowe starts his journey in his steam boat, in the direction of the inner station, and his final discovery upon reaching the station and meeting "Kurtz." He was shocked to discover that Kurtz had abandoned all norms and morals of his civilization, after giving in to the savage customs of the wild Congo. Following this point in the novel, the mystery surrounding Kurtz is unfolded, and the questions in the mind of Marlow find their answers automatically when he sees the real situation. Climax as a Stylistic Device As a stylistic device, the term climax refers to a literary device in which words, phrases, and clauses are arranged in an order to increase their importance within the sentence. The following are examples of climax as a stylistic device: Example #3: The Passionate Pilgrim (By William Shakespeare) See how William Shakespeare achieves climax in the passage below, taken from his Sonnet The Passionate Pilgrim: "Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good; A shining gloss that vadeth suddenly; A flower that dies when first it gins to bud; A brittle glass that's broken presently: A doubtful good, a gloss, a glass, a flower, Lost, vaded, broken, dead within an hour." The phrase "dead within an hour" is placed at the very end, as it marks the climax of the fate of beauty, which he introduces as "a vain and doubtful good." Example #4: I Have a Dream speech (By Martin Luther King, Jr.) "This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable Rights of Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." This line from Martin Luther King's famous speech, I Have a Dream, qualifies as the climax of the speech. It criticizes and rejects racial discrimination suffered by black Americans at the hands of white Americans. Function of Climax A climax, when used as a plot device, helps readers understand the significance of the previously rising action to the point in the plot where the conflict reaches its peak. The climax of the story makes readers mentally prepared for the resolution of the conflict. Hence, it is important to the plot structure of a story. Moreover, climax is used as a stylistic device or a figure of speech to render balance and brevity to speech or writing. Being pre-employed, it qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly capture the undivided attention of listeners and readers alike. Hence, its importance cannot be underestimated.

Coherence

Coherence is a Latin word, meaning "to stick together." In a composition, coherence is a literary technique that refers to logical connections, which listeners or readers perceive in an oral or written text. In other words, it is a written or spoken piece that is not only consistent and logical, but also unified and meaningful. It makes sense when read or listened to as a whole. The structure of a coherent paragraph could be general to particular and particular to general or any other format. Types of Coherence Local Level Coherent Text In this type of text, coherence occurs within small portions of a passage or a text. Global level Coherent Text In this type of text, coherence takes place within the whole text of a story or essay, rather than in its few parts. Examples of Coherence in Literature Example #1: One Man's Meat (by E.B. White) "Scientific agriculture, however sound in principle, often seems strangely unrelated to, and unaware of, the vital, grueling job of making a living by farming. Farmers sense this quality in it as they study their bulletins, just as a poor man senses in a rich man an incomprehension of his own problems. The farmer of today knows, for example, that manure loses some of its value when exposed to the weather ... But he knows also that to make hay he needs settled weather - better weather than you usually get in June." This is a global level coherent text passage in which White has wonderfully unified the sentences to make it a whole. He has started the passage with a general topic, scientific agriculture, but moved it to a specific text about farmers and their roles. Example #2: A Tale of Two Cities (by Charles Dickens) "The wine was red wine, and had stained the ground of the narrow street in the suburb of Saint Antoine, in Paris, where it was spilled. It had stained many hands, too, and many faces, and many naked feet, and many wooden shoes. The hands of the man who sawed the wood, left red marks on the billets; and the forehead of the woman who nursed her baby, was stained with the stain of the old rag she wound about her head again. Those who had been greedy with the staves of the cask ... scrawled upon a wall with his finger dipped in muddy wine-lees—BLOOD." Taken from the novel, A Tale of Two Cities, this passage's emphasis is on the idea of staining, and scrawling the word "blood," which further brings coherence into the lines. The connection is thus made through the appearance of Wood-Sawyer, a man who scares Lucie later. This is how it achieves coherence. Example #3: Animal Farm (by George Orwell) "Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength ... "No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth." Through the speech of the Old Major, Orwell starts the passage about the miserable nature of the life of animals on the animal farm, and then he inspires them to think about how to safeguard their interests on the farm. The entire paragraph is an example of coherent speech. Example #4: Unpopular Essays (by Bertrand Russell) "The word "philosophy" is one of which the meaning is by no means fixed. Like the word "religion," it has one sense when used to describe certain features of historical cultures, and another when used to denote a study or an attitude of mind which is considered desirable in the present day. Philosophy, as pursued in the universities of the Western democratic world, is, at least in intention, part of the pursuit of knowledge, aiming at the same kind of detachment as is sought in science ..." See how brilliantly Russell has connected the ideas of philosophy and politics, by moving from a general to a specific topic, with sentences connecting one to another, creating coherence. Function Coherence links the sentences of a work with one another. This may be done with paragraphs, making sure that each statement logically connects with the one preceding it, making the text easier for the readers to understand and follow. Also, ordering thoughts in a sequence helps the reader to move from one point to the next smoothly. As all of the sentences relate back to the topic, the thoughts and ideas flow smoothly.

Comedy

Comedy is a literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is amusing and satirical in its tone, mostly having a cheerful ending. The motif of this dramatic work is triumph over unpleasant circumstance by creating comic effects, resulting in a happy or successful conclusion. Thus, the purpose of comedy is to amuse the audience. Comedy has multiple sub-genres depending upon the source of the humor, context in which an author delivers dialogues, and delivery methods, which include farce, satire, and burlesque. Tragedy is opposite to comedy, as tragedy deals with sorrowful and tragic events in a story. Types of Comedy There are five types of comedy in literature: Romantic Comedy Romantic comedy involves a theme of love leading to a happy conclusion. We find romantic comedy in Shakespearean plays and some Elizabethan contemporaries. These plays are concerned with idealized love affairs. It is a fact that true love never runs smoothly; however, love overcomes difficulties and ends in a happy union. Comedy of Humors Ben Johnson is the first dramatist who conceived and popularized this dramatic genre during the late sixteenth century. The term humor derives from the Latin word humor, which means "liquid." It comes from a theory that the human body has four liquids, or humors, which include phelgm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. It explains that, when human beings have a balance of these humors in their bodies, they remain healthy. Comedy of Manners This form of dramatic genre deals with intrigues and relations of ladies and gentlemen living in a sophisticated society. This form relies upon high comedy, derived from sparkle and wit of dialogues, violations of social traditions, and good manners, by nonsense characters like jealous husbands, wives, and foppish dandies. We find its use in Restoration dramatists, particularly in the works of Wycherley and Congreve. Sentimental Comedy Sentimental drama contains both comedy and sentimental tragedy. It appears in literary circles due to reaction of the middle class against obscenity and indecency of Restoration Comedy of Manners. This form, which incorporates scenes with extreme emotions evoking excessive pity, gained popularity among the middle class audiences in the eighteenth century. Tragicomedy This dramatic genre contains both tragic and comedic elements. It blends both elements to lighten the overall mood of the play. Often, tragicomedy is a serious play that ends happily. Comedy Examples from Literature Example #1: A Midsummer Night's Dream (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare's play, A Midsummer Night's Dream, is a good example of a romantic comedy, presenting young lovers falling comically in and out of love for a brief period. Their real world problems get resolved magically, enemies reconcile, and true lovers unite in the end. Example #2: Every Man in His Humor (By Ben Johnson) In his play Every Man in His Humor, Ben Johnson brings a comedy of humors. An overpowering suspicion of, and obsession with, his wife - that she might be unfaithful to him - controls Kitely. Then a country gull determines every decision of George Downright in order to understand the manners of the city gallant. Kno'well worried for moral development of his son, tries to spy on him. Example #3: The Conscious Lovers (By Sir Richard Steele) Sir Richard Steele's play, The Conscious Lovers, is a best-known and popular sentimental comedy, which is like a melodrama. It characterizes extreme exaggeration, dealing with trials of its penniless leading role Indiana. The play ends happily with the discovery of Indiana as heiress. Example #4: All's Well that Ends Well (By William Shakespeare) Shakespeare's play, All's Well that Ends Well, perfectly sums up tragic and comic elements. This tragicomedy play shows antics of low-born but devoted Helena, who attempts to win the love of her lover, Bertram. She finally succeeds in marrying him, though she decides not to accept him until she wears the family ring of her husband and bears him a child. She employs a great deal of trickery by disguising herself as Bertram's other, and fakes her death. Bertram discovers her treachery at the end but realizes Helena did all that for him and expresses his love for her. Function of Comedy Comedy tends to bring humor and induce laughter in plays, films, and theaters. The primary function of comedy is to amuse and entertain the audience, while it also portrays social institutions and persons as corrupt, and ridicules them through satirizing, parodying, and poking fun at their vices. By doing this, authors expose foibles and follies of individuals and society by using comic elements.

External Conflict

External conflict is a struggle that takes place between the main character and some outside force. Therefore, it is outside the body of the protagonist. Usually, it occurs when the protagonist struggles against the antagonist, a character that opposes the protagonist in the main body of the story. Other types of external conflict could also arise due to some other factors such as the forces of nature, and society in which the protagonist lives. Types of External Conflict There are different types of external conflict found in stories. The most common are: Character vs. Character This type of conflict occurs when a character struggles against other characters in the story, for instance in the Harry Potter series. Harry engages in a battle against Lord Voldemort. Character vs. Society This external conflict occurs when the main character stands up to support his beliefs and struggles against the social forces, for instance Sophocles' "Antigone." Character vs. Nature In this type of external conflict, the protagonist struggles against the forces of nature, or an external environment. For instance, in the short story To Build a Fire, Jack London tells a story of an anonymous narrator and his dog, traveling through the wilderness of Yukon Trail. Examples of External Conflict in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) One classic example of character vs. society external conflict occurs in Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. The two major characters fall in love, despite their belonging to the feuding families, which do not want them to be together. They constantly struggle and strive to get together throughout the play, as they are under the pressure of society, which wants them to hate each other. Thus, it is a struggle between individuals and society that eventually causes their tragic deaths. Example #2: The Old Man and The Sea (by Earnest Hemingway) A major external conflict is between the old man, Santiago, and the fish, a marlin. There is fighting back and forth, and a tug of war between them, that lasts for several days, with neither giving up. Santiago's struggle is also against nature - to catch a giant fish, and the sharks - which attack his precious marlin. The old man tries to catch the marlin, though it fights back pretty hard. The old man struggles against the views of his villagers too, as they think he has run out of his luck and wasted eighty four days without catching a fish. Nevertheless, he is still determined to not give up. We can clearly see his dilemma of catching the marlin, and his conflict with the fish, when he says, "Fish, I love you and respect you very much. But I will kill you dead before this day ends." Example #3: Heart of Darkness (by Joseph Conrad) Marlowe takes an adventure to the Congo Bay in Africa, and feels surrounded by imperialistic forces there. Conflicts of both character vs. nature, and character vs. society, exist here. In fact, Marlowe comes to a place where people are mentally crazy, and kill each other just to follow their nonsense rituals. In this place, even average people become savages. Marlowe also sees a civilized man, Kurtz, who due to his prolonged stay over there, starts behaving like the local savages. Though Marlowe could not stand a lie, and does not forgive others for this fault when he meets Kurtz's fiancée, he tells her a lie about her fiancé's last words. Being a protagonist, Marlowe faces numerous external conflicts. Example #4: Macbeth (by William Shakespeare) Macbeth faces character vs. society conflict. Initially, he struggles with his internal conflict, which allows his ambition to turn him into a violent person, pushing him to kill the king to dethrone him. However, during all these circumstances, he encounters several external conflicts. Following the murder of the king, the people stand up against him, and he has to engage himself in fight with them. These external conflicts occur between Macbeth and other characters. Function of External Conflict Stories told in novels, plays, short stories, and other similar formats, revolve around the conflict. External conflict gives a sense of excitement and immediacy to the story, making it worth reading. It defines uniqueness of a character and reveals his intentions, giving the audience an understanding of his motivation behind the dialogue and action. In addition, it tells the reason of a character's motivation in life that otherwise may appear foolish on the surface. It also makes possible for the readers to build up sympathy and profound connection with the character to eventually learn something and transform their lives through this learning.

Verisimilitude

In a literary work, verisimilitude is likeness to the truth, such as the resemblance of a fictitious work to a real event, even if it is a far-fetched one. Verisimilitude ensures that even a fantasy must be rooted in reality, which means that events should be plausible to the extent that readers consider them credible enough to be able to relate them somehow to their experiences of real life. Origin of Verisimilitude The theory of verisimilitude comes from a Platonic and Aristotelian dramatic theory called "mimesis." According to this theory, a work of art should convince the audience by imitating and representing nature, and having a basis in reality. The playwright, conforming to the above-mentioned theory, had to draw themes from sources well-known to the common people of his time, and maintain the unities of action, place, and time. Besides, he had to bring a realistic union between the style and the subject. Suspension of Disbelief The theory of verisimilitude leads to the idea of "suspension of disbelief," or "willing suspension of disbelief," a term coined in 1817 by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. He was of the opinion that, if a writer was able to fill his work with a "human interest and a semblance of truth," the readers would willingly suspend or delay their judgment in relation to the doubtfulness of a narrative. In his Biographia Literaria, Coleridge says: "... It was agreed, that my endeavours should be directed to persons and characters supernatural, or at least romantic, yet so as to transfer from our inward nature a human interest and a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for these shadows of imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith. Mr. Wordsworth on the other hand was to propose to himself as his object, to give the charm of novelty to things of every day, and to excite a feeling analogous to the supernatural, by awakening the mind's attention from the lethargy of custom, and directing it to the loveliness and the wonders of the world before us ..." Examples of Verisimilitude in Literature Example #1: Gulliver Travels (By Jonathan Swift) Jonathan Swift's Gulliver Travels is a brilliant work of fantasy that may be considered as one of the best examples of Verisimilitude. It achieves verisimilitude due to the fact that it is one of the finest examples of political satire in English Literature. Readers find in it a resemblance to a reality, as they are aware of the fact that Swift satirizes contemporary politics, religion, and English culture. For instance, criticizing party politics in England, Swift writes: "... that for above seventy Moons past there have been two struggling Parties in this Empire, under the Names of Tramecksan and Slamecksan from the high and low Heels on their shoes, by which they distinguish themselves." Two rival political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, dominated England's political scene during Swift's time. In his novel, the fictitious kingdom of Lilliput is dominated by two parties distinguished by the size of the heels of their boots. By relating the trivial disputes between the two Lilliputian parties, Swift relentlessly satirizes the insignificant disputes of the two English parties of his period. He achieves verisimilitude through this. Example #2: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) Mark Twain in his popular Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain used Black American vernacular to show realistically how the "negroes" [Black Americans] talked in real life: "I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections ... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I could't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome." Twain successfully achieves verisimilitude - or a resemblance to reality - by introducing colloquialism in his narrative. The use of double negatives is quite evident in the above passage. Example #3: Night Clouds (By Amy Lowell) Drawing analogies from real life gives a semblance of truth to even fantastic ideas. For instance: "The white mares of the moon rush along the sky Beating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens." In the above excerpt, the poet constructs an analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with the movement of white mares on the ground. Such comparisons give her far-fetched ideas an air of reality. Function of Verisimilitude A literary work throws a lasting impression on its readers if it presents the theme in such a way that readers can relate it to real life. Conformity to the theory of verisimilitude ensures the existence of reality in a literary work. Political satires are abundant with verisimilitude examples.

Snark

Snark is a combination of two words, "snide" and "remark," which means a sarcastic comment. It is a literary device that is meant to be sarcastic speech. Depending on the subject, the audience, and the speaker, snark can be taken as sophisticated, witty, or asinine. Snark is defined as making sharp and critical comments, and a wonderfully witty blending of cynicism and sarcasm. There are many examples of snark from Shakespeare's works such as, "Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral bak'd meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables..." (Hamlet). The major character, Hamlet, makes sarcastic remarks on the affair of his mother and uncle, and regarding their marriage ceremony. Characteristics of Snark Snark is a witty and sarcastic comment used in writing or speech. Hate speeches pointed towards large groups of people cannot be considered as snark examples. It is a rug-pulling and teasing type of insult that is used to steal somebody's charm, and annihilate his effectiveness. Snark can appeal to the shrewd audience at large who can understand the derision of the snarker and his references. Examples of Snark in Literature Example #1: Mending Walls (By Robert Frost) "Good fences make good neighbors. Spring is the mischief in me, and I wonder If I could put a notion in his head." Frost makes snarky remarks by pointing out that, although two neighbors have made a wall between their countries, every winter the wall falls apart, and the neighbors meet to mend the wall. Therefore, they spend a lot of time together while mending the wall. Example #2: Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost) "I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, and that has made all the difference." The poet talks about two roads, one of which most people choose, while the other is less traveled. The poet has chosen the less traveled one. Since he feels regret for his choice of path, he makes a snarky and sarcastic comment that it made a difference. Example #3: Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "A FRERE ther was, a wantown and a merye, A limitour, a ful solempne man, So muche of daliaunce and fair langage. He hadde maad ful many a mariage Of yonge wommen, at his owne cost. Ful wel biloved and famulier was he With frankeleyns over-al in his contree, He wiste that a man was repentaunt. For many a man so hard is of his herte." Chaucer depicts the character Friar in a bitter speech, because the said character is a priest who accepts bribes from rich people. He does not take interest in his duties, and he spends money from confessions of sinners on women and merry-making. Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou, Romeo? Deny thy father and refuse thy name. Or, if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love, And I'll no longer be a Capulet..." Here, Juliet makes a sarcastic comment, and asks Romeo his name, asking why his name is Romeo. It is because their families are enemies, and they could never be united. She tells him to change his name or she will change hers. Example #5: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) "Friends, countrymen, lend me your ears. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest— For Brutus is an honorable man. So are they all, all honorable men." Here, Mark Antony recurrently uses a specific phrase, "an honorable man." He calls Brutus an honorable man who has killed Caesar. His persistent use of this phrase reverses the real meaning, hence it is a sarcastic use of this phrase. Function of Snark Snark can be used for different purposes. However, mostly it is utilized as a mask. Others might use it as a defensive device. When bitterness is not easy to express in an agreeable way, snark is used without hurting anyone directly. The major purpose of snark in literary works is to create a special flavor, just to make the piece of work real. However, the essence of snark in literary works is to hurt someone through bitter words.

Sound Devices

Sound devices are literary elements used in prose and poetry to stress certain sounds and create musical effects. The writers make their texts vibrant, emotive and pleasing with the use of these devices. Also, they create pointed and special effects in their writings that help the readers in understanding the literary piece at a deeper level. However, the writers intentionally stress some syllables to emphasize sound that appeals to the readers in a certain way. Types of Sound Devices There are many types of sound devices. For example, Assonance: Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in the same line. Consonance: Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds in the same line. Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds in the same line. Meter: It is a unit of rhythm in poetry, the pattern of the beats. Onomatopoeia: It refers to the word which imitates the natural sounds of the things. Examples of Sound Devices from Literature Example #1 I heard a Fly Buzz - When I died by Emily Dickinson I heard a Fly buzz - when I died - The Stillness in the Room Was like the Stillness in the Air - Between the Heaves of Storm - The Eyes around - had wrung them dry - And Breaths were gathering firm For that last Onset - when the King Be witnessed - in the Room - I willed my Keepsakes - Signed away What portion of me be Assignable - and then it was There interposed a Fly - 'I Heard a Fly Buzz When I died' is a simple and lucid poem, reflects the morbidity of death. The dead speaker is transcribing the events that led to her death. Also, she explains what she felt while dying. She says that she heard a fly buzz when taking her last breath, then details the moments that led up to this event. Emily has used sound devices to make it a pleasant literary piece. There is an assonance in the first line where /i/ sound is repeated in the same line. For example, "I heard a Fly buzz - when I died." Consonance is used in the sixth line where /r/ sound is repeated to create a special effect such as, "The Eyes around - had wrung them dry." Emily has also used Onomatopoeia "buzz" which is repeated in the first and last stanza of the poem Example #2 A Visit from St. Nicholas by Clement Clarke Moore 'Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse; The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there; The children were nestled all snug in their beds; While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads; And mamma in her 'kerchief, and I in my cap, Had just settled our brains for a long winter's nap, When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter, I sprang from my bed to see what the matter was. Away to the window I flew like a flash, Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash. The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow, Gave a lustre of midday to objects below, When what to my wondering eyes did appear, But a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer, With a little old driver so lively and quick, I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick. The poem talks about a very well-known tradition of Christmas and illustrates the merriment and excitement of a family at the arrival of St. Nicholas. He comes every year with a lot of gifts and sweets. Clement has made this poem unique with appropriate use of sound devices. He has used onomatopoeias like "prancing", "clatter" and "pawing" to create sound in the poem. Similarly, alliteration is used in the opening lines. For example, "When what to my wondering eyes did appear," the poet has repeated the consonants /w/ to create a pointed effect in the poem. Example #3 Little Bo-Peep by Mother Goose Little Bo-Peep has lost her sheep, And can't tell where to find them; Leave them alone, and they'll come home, Bringing their tails behind them. Little Bo-Peep fell fast asleep, And dreamt she heard them bleating; But when she awoke, she found it a joke, For they were still all fleeting. The poem presents the agony and loss of a young girl who loses her flock of sheep and never unites with it again. She tries to look for them. Instead, she finds their tails. This gruesome incident makes her heart bleed. The poet has used sound devices such as alliteration, consonance, onomatopoeia and assonance with a perfect blend of visual images to make it a superb literary piece. 'Bleep' is used as an Onomatopoeia in the sixth line and alliteration is used in the first line of the 2nd stanza and 3rd line of the last stanza. For example, /f/ sound in "Little Bo-Peep fell fast asleep" and /sh/ sound in "And tried what she could, as a shepherdess should." Sound Devices Meaning and Function Sound devices are resources the poets use in their texts with a unique blend of sounds, rhythm, and imagery. Their skillful use pertains to the senses and allows the readers to feel the effects of the text. They are used in a variety of ways to enhance the meanings of the text. As music and musical notes comprise low and high-pitched tunes and meters, poets use sound devices to create musical effects through these literary and poetic pieces.

Riddle

A riddle is a question, a puzzle, a phrase, or a statement devised to get unexpected or clever answers. It is a folklore genre as well as rhetorical device, often having veiled or double meanings. When someone uses it as a puzzle or a question, it could be a thought-provoking challenge for the audience to figure it out themselves, or it could be a funny comment intended to make the audience laugh. Some riddles show the wit of protagonists in a narrative, allowing them to escape a terrible situation by using their wit rather than their strength. Often times, puzzling riddles tell us that we cannot answer some questions, leading to hours of perturbed head scratching. However, they open our minds to a number of possibilities. Common and Popular Examples of Riddle It is so fragile that if you say its name you break it, what is it? Answer: It is silence. I have a head, I have a tail, but I do not have a body. I am neither a lizard nor a snake. Then, guess what am I? Answer: I am a coin. It can run and does not walk, has a mouth and does not talk, has a head and does not weep, has a bed and does not sleep? Answer: It is a river. Something that falls and never breaks, and something breaks but never falls? Answer: Day breaks and night falls. My father is white but I am black, I am a bird without wings, flying to the clouds. I cause tears of mourning in those who encounter me, but there is no reason for mourning because, once I am born, I am dissolved into air. Can you guess who am I? Answer: I am smoke. Types of Riddle There are two main types of riddle: Enigma - Enigmas are problems expressed in an allegorical or metaphorical language, requiring careful thinking and ingenuity to solve them. Conundrum - Conundrums are questions that rely on punning for creating effects in a question. Examples of Riddle in Literature Example #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) One of the most popular riddles in literature is the riddle of Sphinx, who asks questions of Oedipus. Riddle: "What goes on four legs in the morning, on two legs at noon, and on three legs in the evening?" Answer: Oedipus solves this riddle, giving right answer: it is man, who can crawl on his four legs as an infant, and as an adult he walks on two legs, while he walks with a stick when he becomes old. Example #2: The Hobbit (By J. R. R. Tolkien) Bilbo and Gollum play a riddling game, as Bilbo's life would be in danger if he cannot solve the riddle. Luckily, he answers the riddle posed by Gollum, earning an award of safe passage out of the tunnel. Riddle: "This thing all things devours; Birds, beasts, trees, flowers; Gnaws iron, bites steel; Grinds hard stones to meal; Slays king, ruins town, And beats mountain down." Answer: Time Example #3: The Merchant of Venice (By William Shakespeare) The father of Portia plans a riddle for the men who wish to marry his daughter, and whoever would solve it, would marry her. For doing this, he places three caskets of gold, silver, and lead, and asks would-be suitors to pick the one. Riddle: The golden casket was inscribed: "Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire." The words engraved on the silver casket: "Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves." The leaden casket: "Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath." Answer: The golden casket encloses a skull with a warning note that appearances are usually deceiving, human wishes can be dangerous, the silver casket symbolizes chasing intangible goals, and holds a portrait of an idiot. However, the leaden casket symbolizes modesty and inner beauty, and contains a portrait of Portia with a note saying, "You that choose not by the view, chance as fair and choose as true." Example #4: Emma (By Jane Austen) Emma displays her wit while correctly answering Mr. Elton's riddle. Riddle: "My first displays the wealth and pomp of kings, Lords of the earth! their luxury and ease. Another view of man, my second brings, Behold him there, the monarch of the seas!" Answer: Courtship Example #5: Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (By J. K. Rowling) During his competition in the Tri-Wizard Tournament, Harry had to answer a riddle posed by a Sphinx: Riddle: "First think of the person who lives in disguise, Who deals in secrets and tells naught but lies, Next tell me what's always the last thing to mend, The middle of middle and end of the end?... Which creature would you be unwilling to kiss?" Answer: A spider. Function of Riddle In written literature, riddles deceive the audience with their meanings. As far as a riddle's purpose is concerned, it explores questions with enough thoroughness to provide readers a clear view of major issues. Riddles can generally be conversation-starters, or brain busters to get readers thinking, while in oral literature, riddles serve as the competition of wits and skills and guessing games. However, if the audience knows the answers they take pleasure in hearing them repeatedly. Gaming riddles reveal the playful side of language in a manageable form. Besides, it is usually possible to draw appropriate metaphors from good riddles.

Round Character

A round character in a novel, play, or story is a complex personality. Like real people, they have depth in feelings and passions. For instance, in the movie "Shrek," the main character says "'Ogres are like onions," which means that, what appears to them is not the only truth. Rather, there is something more inside them. Similarly, a round character has many layers of personality. Writers define a round character fully, both physically and mentally. It is the character with whom the audience can sympathize, associate with, or relate to, as he seems a character they might have seen in their real lives. Characteristics of a Round Character Round characters are major characters in a story, who encounter contradictory situations, and undergo transformation during this phase. Therefore, these characters do not remain the same throughout the narrative, making their traits difficult to identify from beginning until the end. These characters are more realistic, their personalities somewhat inconsistent. They are fully developed and show complex traits, like real people. Round characters are also known as "main characters," or "major characters," because they are suitable to surprise the readers in a very convincing manner. Major characters must be round characters to be believable. Examples of Round Characters in Literature Example #1: Winston Smith, 1984 (By George Orwell) George Orwell named his novel's hero Winston Smith, after a great English leader, Winston Churchill. Smith is thirty-nine years old, serves his whole life for the Ministry of Truth, and rewrites history. Then he goes against the rules of the Party and falls in love with Julia, which is a rebellious act written in his diary. There is no past and no future for Smith. He is a round character whose mind is inconstant, while he undergoes his character development during the course of the story. Smith is the main character who knows the danger he will encounter. For instance, he knows from the very beginning that the members of Party will find his diary. They will use the things he has written in it against him. He also knows that the Police will reveal his illegal affair with Julia. Therefore, he does not stay consistent and is a round character. Example #2: Elizabeth Bennet, Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen) Elizabeth Bennet is another good example of a round character. She is the main character of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, who does not remain the same innocent girl whom readers meet in the first part of the story. Elizabeth develops into a new woman, with different choices and behaviors that have an impact on the people around her. In the beginning, Elizabeth is prejudiced, which is her major flaw, though later she transforms and changes her opinions. In fact, slowly and gradually Elizabeth evolves to understand her true feelings - showing a great example of a round character. Example #3: Hamlet, Hamlet (by William Shakespeare) Yet another great example of a round character is Hamlet. He is a complex, enigmatic, and mysterious character that is knowledgeable, philosophical, intelligent, and thoughtful by nature. Hamlet makes hasty decisions, yet he delays his revenge. His contemplative nature also becomes his tragic flaw, and his lack of timely action becomes the cause of his tragedy. Hamlet's personality is contradictory, while he also encounters many contradictory situations. Example #4: Gatsby, The Great Gatsby (by Scott Fitzgerald) In his novel, The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald has introduced a complex and round character in Gatsby. Gatsby is a tragic hero with a fatal flaw - that of obsession over his beloved Daisy. He is a man of great mystery, because no one knows his whereabouts, or how he becomes rich. Readers learn about his different sides and different traits. He appears to them as scared, mysterious, friendly, angry, happy, disappointed, and frustrated man throughout the novel. Through Nick's narration, readers get an insight into his human mind, and all his emotions and whims. Function of Round Character In play writing and fiction writing, authors develop round characters to make their stories more believable and effective. These characters bring surprise to the readers' expectations by undergoing a significant metamorphosis at the end of a narrative - as compared to what they were in the initial phases. Hence, due to this development, the audience can relate their own lives to this transformed character. By the end, after developing new traits, a round character also demonstrates new facets of human behavior.

Free Verse

Free verse is a literary device that can be defined as poetry that is free from limitations of regular meter or rhythm, and does not rhyme with fixed forms. Such poems are without rhythm and rhyme schemes, do not follow regular rhyme scheme rules, yet still provide artistic expression. In this way, the poet can give his own shape to a poem however he or she desires. However, it still allows poets to use alliteration, rhyme, cadences, and rhythms to get the effects that they consider are suitable for the piece. Features of Free Verse Free verse poems have no regular meter or rhythm. They do not follow a proper rhyme scheme; these poems do not have any set rules. This type of poem is based on normal pauses and natural rhythmical phrases, as compared to the artificial constraints of normal poetry. It is also called vers libre, which is a French word meaning "free verse." Examples of Free Verse in Literature Example #1: A Noiseless Patient Spider (By Walt Whitman) "A noiseless patient spider, I mark'd where on a little promontory it stood isolated, Mark'd how to explore the vacant vast surrounding, It launch'd forth filament, filament, filament, out of itself, Ever unreeling them, ever tirelessly speeding them. And you O my soul where you stand, Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space... Till the bridge you will need be form'd, till the ductile anchor hold, Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul." If you are looking for free verse examples, then Walt Whitman is your guy. He is known as the father of free verse English poetry. In this poem, only a simple metaphor is used to mesmerize readers without employing regular rhyme scheme or rhythm. We can see normal pauses in the poem unlike the typical limitations of metrical feet. Example #2: Soonest Mended (By John Ashbury) "Barely tolerated, living on the margin In our technological society, we were always having to be rescued On the brink of destruction, like heroines in Orlando Furioso Before it was time to start all over again. There would be thunder in the bushes, a rustling of coils... The whole thing might not, in the end, be the only solution... Came plowing down the course, just to make sure everything was O.K. ... About how to receive this latest piece of information." This is one of the best examples of free verse poetry. In this poem, there is no regular rhyme scheme or rhythm. It is without poetic constraints, but has a flow that gives it a natural touch. Example #3: Come Slowly, Eden (By Emily Dickinson) "Come slowly, Eden Lips unused to thee. Bashful, sip thy jasmines, As the fainting bee, Reaching late his flower, Round her chamber hums, Counts his nectars—alights, And is lost in balms!" Emily Dickinson is famous as the mother of American English free verse. This poem does not have consistent metrical patterns, musical patterns, or rhyme. Rather, following the rhythm of natural speech, it gives an artistic expression to the ideas it contains. Example #4: The Garden (By Ezra Pound) "Like a skein of loose silk blown against a wall She walks by the railing of a path in Kensington Gardens, And she is dying piece-meal of a sort of emotional anemia. And round about there is a rabble Of the filthy, sturdy, unkillable infants of the very poor. They shall inherit the earth. In her is the end of breeding. Her boredom is exquisite and excessive... will commit that indiscretion." Ezra Pound is also renowned for writing free verse poetry. He has created this modern free verse poem with musical quality. There are stressed and unstressed patterns, but they are created in a very clever way. It is not following a regular rhyme scheme, but we can see alliteration in words such as "like," "loose," "round rabble," "exquisite," and "excessive." Function of Free Verse Free verse is commonly used in contemporary poetry. Some poets have taken this technique as a freedom from rhythm and rhyme, because it changes people's minds whimsically. Therefore, free verse is also called vers libre. The best thing about free verse is that poets can imagine the forms of any sound through intonations instead of meters. Free verse gives a greater freedom for choosing words, and conveying their meanings to the audience. Since it depends upon patterned elements like sounds, phrases, sentences, and words, it is free of artificiality of a typical poetic expression.

Genre

Genre means a type of art, literature, or music characterized by a specific form, content, and style. For example, literature has four main genres: poetry, drama, fiction, and non-fiction. All of these genres have particular features and functions that distinguish them from one another. Hence, it is necessary on the part of readers to know which category of genre they are reading in order to understand the message it conveys, as they may have certain expectations prior to the reading concerned. Types of Genre There are five types of genres in literature, which include: Poetry Poetry is the first major literary genre. All types of poetry share specific characteristics. In fact, poetry is a form of text that follows a meter and rhythm, with each line and syllable. It is further subdivided into different genres, such an epic poem, narrative, romantic, dramatic, and lyric. Dramatic poetry includes melodrama, tragedy, and comedy, while other poems includes ode, sonnet, elegy, ballad, song, and epic. Popular examples of epic poems include Paradise Lost, by John Milton, The Iliad and The Odyssey, by Homer. Examples of romantic poems include Red Red Rose, by Robert Burns. All these poetic forms share specific features, such as they do not follow paragraphs or sentences; they use stanzas and lines instead. Some forms follow very strict rules of length, and number of stanzas and lines, such as villanelle, sonnet, and haiku. Others may be free-form, like Feelings, Now, by Katherine Foreman, which is devoid of any regular meter and rhyme scheme. Besides that, often poetry uses figurative language, such as metaphor, simile, onomatopoeia, hyperbole, and alliteration to create heightened effect. Drama Drama is a form of text that is performed in front of an audience. It is also called a play. Its written text contains dialogues, and stage directions. This genre has further categories such as comedy, tragedy, and tragicomedy. William Shakespeare is known as the father of English drama. His well-known plays include Taming of the Shrew, Romeo & Juliet, and Hamlet. Greek playwrights were the pioneers in this field, such as Sophocles' masterpiece Oedipus Rex, and Antigone, while modern dramas include Death of a Salesman, by Arthur Miller. Prose This type of written text is different from poetry in that it has complete sentences organized into paragraphs. Unlike poetry, prose focuses on characters and plot, rather than focusing on sounds. It includes short stories and novels, while fiction and non-fiction are its sub genres. Prose is further categorized into essays, speeches, sermons, and interpretations. Fiction Fiction has three categories that are, realistic, non-realistic, and semi-fiction. Usually, fiction work is not real and therefore, authors can use complex figurative language to touch readers' imaginations. Unlike poetry, it is more structured, follows proper grammatical pattern, and correct mechanics. A fictional work may incorporate fantastical and imaginary ideas from everyday life. It comprises some important elements such as plot, exposition, foreshadowing, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Popular examples of literary fiction include, James Joyce's novel A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man, Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, and Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird. Non-Fiction Non-fiction is a vast category that also has sub-genres; it could be creative like a personal essay, or factual, like a scientific paper. It may also use figurative language, however, not unlike poetry, or fiction has. Sometimes, non-fiction may tell a story, like an autobiography, or sometimes it may convey information to readers. Other examples of non-fiction include biographies, diaries, memoirs, journals, fantasies, mysteries, and romances. A popular example of non-fiction genre is Michael Pollan's highly celebrated book, The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals, which is an account of the eating habits of Americans. Function of Genre Different genres have different roles. For example, fiction and dramatic genres help students and writers learn and improve their communication skills. A poetic genre, on the other hand, enhances imaginative and emotional power of the readers. Non-fictional texts and essays help readers develop analytical and persuasive capabilities. However, the major function of genre is to establish a code of behavior between the writers and audience, and keep the readers informed about the topics discussed or the themes presented.

Half Rhyme

Half rhyme is one of the major poetic devices. It is also called an "imperfect rhyme," "slant rhyme," "near rhyme," or "oblique rhyme." It can be defined as a rhyme in which the stressed syllables of ending consonants match, however the preceding vowel sounds do not match. For instance, in words such as "shape" and "keep" the consonance is very strong. The final consonant sounds remain similar, but the ending vowel sounds are different in half rhyme. Similar to these two words "moon" and "run," and in the words "hold" and "bald," the ending consonant sounds are similar, whereas vowel sounds are different. It is generally used to give an inharmonious feeling in a rhyme scheme. Poets can bring variations in their choice of words by using half rhymes. It is also known as an imperfect, near, off, or sprung rhyme. Half rhyme is exclusively used as a poetic device. Difference with Para Rhyme and Assonance Half rhyme is not a perfect rhyme. And it must not be confused with para-rhyme or assonance. Although these two literary devices are, to some extent, similar to half rhyme, there is a slight difference between them. In para-rhyme, the ending and beginning consonant sounds are similar, such as in the words "rod" and "red." In assonance, the vowel sounds are similar also, such as in "shot" and "lot." Examples of Half Rhyme in Literature Henry Vaughan was the first English poet who used half rhyme in his poetry. However, half rhyme was not commonly used in literary works before Gerard Manley Hopkins and W. B. Yeats, who introduced this device in their works. Slant/half rhyme became very popular among the literary writers and English poets since then. They started using this poetic device extensively in their works specifically in the 20th century. Let us have a look at some examples of half rhyme: Example #1: To My Wife (By George Wolff) "If love is like a bridge or maybe like a grudge, and time is like a river that kills us with a shiver, then what have all these mornings meant but aging into love? What now is straight must have been bent; what now is whole must have been rent. My hand is now your glove." The poet here throws a subtle curve ball in the first two lines of this stanza, in which the closing consonant sounds of "bridge" and "grudge" are similar. These two do not rhyme completely, however, making them perfect examples of half rhyme. Example #2: Lines written in Dejection (By W. B. Yeats) "When have I last looked on The round green eyes and the long wavering bodies Of the dark leopards of the moon? All the wild witches, those most noble ladies..." Here, in the first and third lines, the half rhyme is used in words on and moon. Example #3: Sailing to Byzantium (By W. B. Yeats) "That is no country for old men. The young In one another's arms, birds in the trees - Those dying generations - at their song, The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas, Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long Whatever is begotten, born, and dies. Caught in that sensual music all neglect Monuments of unageing intellect." The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABABABCC, there is an altered irregular rhyme following a couplet. If Yeats had not used the altered half rhyme style in this poem, it would have become the Italian form, which is used specifically for heroic epics. Example #4: Emily Dickinson (By Not any Higher Stands the Grave) "Not any higher stands the Grave For Heroes than for men— Not any nearer for the Child Than numb Three Score and Ten—" The words "men" and "ten" rhyme and show us an example of a perfect rhyme in this first stanza. But, we can compare this stanza to the next, in order to understand imperfect or half rhyme then, as the poet goes on: "This latest leisure equal lulls The beggar and his queen; Propitiate this democrat By summer's gracious mien." Function of Half Rhyme Half rhymes help a poet create an unusual range of words to give a variety of rhyming effects, particularly when they are used with other poetic devices and rhyming schemes. They help poets avoid using the typical sing-song chiming effects of full rhymes, and give them creative freedom. Furthermore, half rhymes have provided a subtle discordant note, which does not give absolute harmony, but which offers variation in tone, and creates a good impact on the readers. When half rhymes are used with other poetic devices, they give shocking effects to the reader about the actual rhyme scheme.

Hamartia

Hamartia is a personal error in a protagonist's personality, which brings about his tragic downfall in a tragedy. This defect in a hero's personality is also known as a "tragic flaw." Aristotle used the word in his Poetics, where it is taken as a mistake or error in judgment. The term envelops wrongdoings, which may be accidental or deliberate. One of the classic hamartia examples is where a hero wants to achieve something but, while doing so, he commits an intentional or accidental error, and he ends up achieving exactly the opposite with disastrous results. Such a downfall is often marked by a reversal of fortune. Hamartia and Hubris A typical example of hamartia in tragedies is hubris, which is excessive pride and ego in a hero's character. This often ultimately brings about his tragic downfall. In Greek tragedies, the hubristic actions of a hero in a powerful position causes his shame and humiliation. Examples of Hamartia in Literature Example #1: Oedipus (By Sophocles) Oedipus, a famous Greek tragedy, is a perfect example of hamartia, in which the primary character's downfall is caused by unintentional wrongdoings. His hubris leads him to defy the prophecy of gods, but he ends up doing what he feared the most. In the story, the Oracle of Delphi told Oedipus that he would kill his father and marry his mother. To avoid this, he leaves the city of Corinth, and heads towards Thebes. On his way, he killed an old man in a feud. Later, he married the queen of Thebes when he was made king of the city, after he saved the city from a deadly Sphinx. He committed all these sins in complete ignorance, but he deserved punishment because of his attempting to rebel against his fate. His reversal of fortune is caused by his actions, which are in a sense blasphemous. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Prince Hamlet's tragic flaw, in Shakespeare's play Hamlet, determines his tragic downfall. Hamlet's hamartia is his indecisiveness. He cannot make up his mind about the dilemmas he confronts. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play: "To be, or not to be — that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..." Hamlet wants to kill his father's murderer, Claudius, but instead ruins his life by delaying action, as he looks for proof to justify the act. In the process, he spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia into such a state of depression that she commits suicide. This indecision got almost everyone killed at the end of the play. He killed Claudius by assuming fake madness because of his indecisiveness in action so that he will not be asked for any justification. Example #3: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) Among the hamartia examples in literature, one of the best can be found in Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus. The tragic flaw of Faustus was his ambitious nature. Despite being a respected scholar, he sold his soul to Lucifer by signing a contract, with his blood, for achieving ultimate power and limitless pleasure in this world. He learns the art of black magic and defies Christianity. We see a tragic conflict where Faustus thinks about repenting, but it is all too late. Finally, the devils takes his soul away to Hell and he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-ambition. Example #4: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelley) Victor, in Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein, is another character whose downfall is caused by a tragic error. His hubris, or extreme pride and arrogance, decides his fate in the narrative. He strives to become an unparalleled scientist, and creates a monster that ultimately becomes the cause of his disaster. Function of Hamartia Hamartia imparts a sense of pity and fear in the audience, or the readers. The audience identifies with the tragic hero as, like them, his character is a mixture of good and bad qualities. They feel pity for the reversal of fortune that he undergoes. Similarly, by witnessing a tragic hero suffer due to his own flaw, the audience or the readers may fear the same fate could befall them if they indulge in similar kinds of action. Therefore, hamartia may be employed for a moral purpose, to encourage people to improve their characters by removing the flaws that can cause a tragedy in their lives.

Hook

Have you ever read a book that could not grab your attention after reading a couple of sentences? On the contrary, you would have definitely read a book that has immediately captured your attention, after which you were unable to put it down. Some books are magnetic, while others are really boring. One of the reasons could be the narrative hook. Knowing this, authors share an important literary technique to keep their readers engaged in their stories, which is hook, or narrative hook, which keep readers' interest alive in the book. It appears at the beginning of the story, and may contain several pages of a novel, several paragraphs of a short story, or it might be only an opening sentence, or a single line. Types of Hook There are several types of hook: dramatic action, mysterious setting, engaging characters; and thematic statements. Examples of Hook in Literature Example #1: Ragweed (By Avi) We come to know, from the very first line of Avi's novel Ragweed, that this story will be a comical reading experience, as it reads: "Ma, a mouse has to do what a mouse has to do." A young countryside mouse named Ragweed leaves his big family behind and sets out to live an adventurous life in the big city. There he encounters some cool dudes and dudettes from the mouse family. Ragweed also faces extreme danger from cats, especially the founding member of F.E.A.R., Willy Silversides. Willy, along with the vice president, decides to go to any length in order to defeat their arch-nemeses to the point of devastating the Cheese Squeeze Club. Now it is the time for Ragweed to come up with a cunning strategy and muster the courage to defeat the Felines First Brigade. However, this hook has played an important role in making the story attractive. Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) The first sentence of Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice, is one of the most famous first lines in literature, saying: "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife." This line sets the plot's mood, and captures the attention of readers due to its contrariness and notoriety. It also tells about the marriage theme of this novel, and introduces ironic tone, which Austen uses structurally and verbally throughout the novel. The Author presents a thematic statement about the value of love and marriage in a society where women have difficulty finding husbands amid class prejudice and financial snobbery. Example #3: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) One of the most famous and brilliant opening lines in all of literature occurs in Charles Dickens' novel, A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness ..." This line hints at the central tension that occurs between family and love, and between oppression and hatred. These opposing ideals show prominent structural figures, like Paris and London, Charles Darnay and Sydney Carton, and Madame Defarge and Miss Pross. The tone of the entire novel is set by this famous sentence. Example #4: Feed (By M. T. Anderson) Readers cannot resist an alarmingly satirical line of M. T. Anderson's novel Feed, which reads: "We went to the moon to have fun, but the moon turned out to completely suck." This line helps to set the stage for the novel's plot about a futuristic world, which is overrun by uncontrolled consumerism, and where humans implant computer chips in most of the infants at birth. Children do not need to go to schools, since they can Google to get information that they might need, and people need not converse with anyone, as they can IM instantly. Hence, the first catchy line gives an indication about the theme of this narrative, and hooks the readers' attention. Function of Hook Authors use hook as a critical component of their writing, as it allows them to demonstrate to readers how their literary works are worth reading within the first minute. This literary technique hooks the attention of readers and appeals to their minds. Readers also get a great sense of entertainment through strong and meaningful opening lines that might stick in their heads forever. We frequently find the use of narrative hook in mystery fiction and suspense thrillers. Besides, authors use it in a number of ways, such as by employing thematic statements and mysterious settings, or using characters.

Homily

Homily is a sermon or speech that a religious person or priest delivers before a group of people to offer them moral correction. The primary purpose of this speech is not doctrinal instruction, but spiritual edification. Simply, homily is a public discourse on a moral or religious subject. Priests read it from the Bible, or other religious text, to give an insight into the exact meanings of the scriptures. Afterward, they relate it to the lives of followers. Examples of Homily in Literature Example #1: Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (By Jonathan Edwards) "He is not only able to cast wicked men into hell, but he can most easily do it. Sometimes an earthly prince meets with a great deal of difficulty to subdue a rebel that has found means to fortify himself ... So 'tis easy for us to cut or singe a slender thread that anything hangs by; thus easy is it for God, when he pleases, to cast his enemies down to hell. What are we, that we should think to stand before him, at whose rebuke the earth trembles, and before whom the rocks are thrown down." This is a popular American sermon in which Edwards has emphasized the idea of a Great Awakening. The underlying idea is that God has given a chance to humanity to rectify their sins, as the will of God has kept them away from the depths of hell. Example #2: Al-Bukhari, Hadith 1623, 1626, 6361 (By Muhammad) "O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether after this year, I shall ever be amongst you again. Therefore listen to what I am saying to you very carefully and TAKE THESE WORDS TO THOSE WHO COULD NOT BE PRESENT HERE TODAY. Beware of Satan, for the safety of your religion...All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over black nor a black has any superiority over white except by piety (taqwa) and good action ..." This is the most famous and last sermon or Khutba of the prophet (P.B.U.H), which he delivered on Friday, ninth Dhul Hijjah (12th month of Islamic year), in mount Arafat's Uranah Valley. He directed this message to all of humanity, that they are accountable to God for their deeds. Example #3: Message to California's Proposition 41 in Los Angeles in 1984 (By Father Bill Messenger) "Perhaps many of you grew up during the depression. If so, you know what it means to be poor. I did not grow up during the depression, but I grew up in a poor family. I can remember one Christmas when both of my parents were out of work, and we had no money. Concerned parishioners brought Christmas baskets to our house. It was a humbling and difficult experience for my parents. The year before, my father had helped to distribute baskets to other poor people. Now it was our turn." In this homily, the priest is sharing his personal experience, to allow the readers understand the meanings of his homily and scripture. Example #4: Holy Bible, Matthew 24:42-51 (By Deacon Winton DeRosia) "There is a fable that tells of three apprentice devils who were coming to earth to finish their apprenticeship. They were talking with Satan, the chief of the devils, about their plans to tempt and to ruin humanity. The first said, "I will tell them there is no God." But Satan said, "That will not delude many, for they know there is a God ... The most dangerous of all delusions is that there is plenty of time." Deacon Winton DeRosia delivers this homily on a website "First Sunday in Advent." This sermon is about the temptations of Satan, and how he uses human beings for his purpose. Function of Homily Usually, religious figures deliver homilies in churches, mosques, temples, at mass gatherings, at funerals, and at baptisms and wedding ceremonies. Its main purpose is to convey a moral lesson to the people. Besides teaching moral education, it awakens people's conscience, calls them to repentance, and nourishes their faith. Another purpose is to interpret the lives of the people in such a way that they could reconcile with God Almighty and with one another. Besides this, priests use different persuasive techniques to appeal to the listening congregation.

Hubris

Hubris is extreme pride and arrogance shown by a character, which ultimately brings about his downfall. Hubris is a typical flaw in the personality of a character who enjoys a powerful position; as a result of which, he overestimates his capabilities to such an extent that he loses contact with reality. A character suffering from hubris tries to cross normal human limits, and violates moral codes. Examples of hubris are found in major characters of tragic plays. Definition of Hubris by Aristotle Aristotle mentions hubris in his book Rhetoric: "Hubris consists in doing and saying things that cause shame to the victim ... simply for the pleasure of it. Retaliation is not hubris, but revenge. ... Young men and the rich are hubristic because they think they are better than other people." Aristotle believed that people indulge in crimes. like sexual misconduct and maltreating others. only to fulfill their basic desire to make themselves feel superior to others. The Concept of Hubris in Greek Mythology Similarly, Greek mythology depicts hubris as a great crime that demands a severe punishment. Generally, the Greek idea of hubris is that a character in an authoritative position becomes so proud of his exceptional qualities that he forms a delusion that he is equal to gods, and eventually he tries to defy the gods and his fate. Examples of Hubris in Literature Hubris examples are also examples of "hamartia," a tragic flaw in a character that brings about his tragic downfall. Example #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) In the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles, the character of King Oedipus provides a classic example of a character who suffers from hubris, or excessive pride. Due to his hubris, he attempts to defy prophecies of gods, but ended up doing what he feared the most, and what he was warned against. The Oracle of Delphi told him that he would kill his father and marry his mother. Overcome by hubris, Oedipus tries to avoid this by leaving Corinth, traveling toward Thebes. On his way to the neighboring city, he kills an old man in a feud, and later marries the queen of Thebes, as he was made king of the city after he saved the city from a deadly sphinx. One can say that he commits all these sins in complete ignorance, but nevertheless he deserves punishment because he became so proud that he does not shy from attempting to rebel against his fate. His reversal of fortune is caused by his hubris. Example #2: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) In his famous epic Paradise Lost, John Milton portrays Satan as a character that suffers from hubris. His loses his glorious position through giving in to his excessive pride. It was his hubris that made him try to take control over Heaven. Although he failed miserably, his pride lasts: "Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heav'n." The reason of his desire to rebel against his creator originates from his reluctance to accept the authority of God and His Son because he believed that angels are "self-begot, self-raised" and hence bringing his downfall in being thrown out of Paradise. Example #3: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) An instance of hubris can be spotted in Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus". Faustus's arrogance and extreme pride in his scholarship and his irresistible desire to become superior to all other men of his age forces him to sell his soul to "Lucifer" by signing a contract with his blood. He learns the art of black magic and defies Christianity. Finally, he has to pay for his arrogance and pride. The devils take away his soul to Hell and he suffers eternal damnation. Example #4: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelley) Likewise, "Victor" the protagonist of Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" exhibits hubris in his endeavor to become an unmatched scientist. He creates a "monster" named "Frankenstein" which ultimately becomes the cause of his disaster. Function of Hubris In literature, portrayal of hubristic characters serves to achieve a moralistic end. Such characters are eventually punished thus giving a moral lesson to the audience and the readers so that they are motivated to improve their characters by removing the flaws that can cause a tragedy in their lives. Witnessing a tragic hero suffering due to his hubristic actions, the audience or the readers may fear that the same fate may befall them if they indulge in similar kinds of actions.

Humor

Humor is a literary tool that makes audiences laugh, or that intends to induce amusement or laughter. Its purpose is to break the monotony, boredom, and tedium, and make the audience's nerves relax. The writer uses different techniques, tools, words, and even full sentences in order to bring to light new and funny sides of life. Humor is often found in literature, theater, movies, and advertising, where the major purpose is to make the audience happy. Types of Humor There are several types of devices that create humor. Humor is, in fact, the end product and not the device itself. These devices are: Hyperbole/Exaggeration Incongruity Slapstick Surprise Sarcasm Irony Pun Examples of Humor in Literature Example #1: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice is one of her most popular works. Throughout the entire novel, Jane Austen uses humor. She presents a very hilarious scene between Mr. and Mrs. Bennet. Mrs. Bennet endlessly breaks down and makes complaints for her husband's lack of understanding her nerves, and then he responds by saying: "You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They are my old friends. I have heard you mention them with consideration these twenty years at least." He constantly pokes fun at her. Likewise, Austen bursts with humor in the case of Elizabeth and Darcy as, upon their first meeting, both feel a sense of disgust for one another. However, later they enjoy teasing each other. Example #2: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) "No, don't you worry; these country jakes won't ever think of that. Besides, you know, you'll be in costume, and that makes all the difference in the world; Juliet's in a balcony, enjoying the moonlight before she goes to bed, and she's got on her night- gown and her ruffled nightcap. Here are the costumes for the parts." In this example, the duke is unable to notice the silliness of his own actions, instead he makes comments on the low level of understanding of the country jakes. Example #3: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee) Harper Lee has inserted humor by creating funny situations with a serious tone in her novel, To Kill a Mockingbird. Many descriptions about Dill are funny and humorous, as he is presented as a larger-than-life person. When we first meet him, the kids take him a puppy. Then he says his name is Charles Baker Harris, saying that he can read, in spite of his age. We also see a lot of humor in Scout's actions, coming from her efforts to comprehend adult ideas, which are very complex for a child like her. Author is showing her to be a very smart kid. A humorous event occurs during Scout's first day at school. Miss Caroline, the teacher, is naive, and "looked, and smelled like a peppermint drop." We meet her when Scout tells her she had already been punished before lunch on her very first day at school, making children mildly suspicious. Example #4: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens derives humor through characterization in his novel Great Expectations. The tone is serious, but there are humorous touches that punctuate the main action. We see a humorous scene in the dinner party when Joe Gargery tells his life story to Pip, and subtly measures gravy on Pip's plate, while Mrs. Gargery gets onto him. Another funny situation happens when Magwitch wants to sleep and asks Pip: "Where will you put me?" [Magwitch] asked, presently. "I must be put somewheres, dear boy." Function of Humor Humor is one of the most effective literary weapons to please the audience, as it develops characters and makes plots useful and memorable. Humor plays many functions in a literary work. It arouses interest among readers, sustains their attention, helps them connect with the characters, emphasizes and relates ideas, and helps the readers picture the situation. Through this tool, writers can also improve the quality of their works by pleasing the audience. Apart from that, the most dominant function of humor is to provide surprise, which not only improves quality, but improves memorable style of a literary piece. The writers learn how to use words for different objectives.

Hyperbaton

Hyperbaton has been derived from a Greek word that means "transposition," and refers to an inversion in the arrangement of common words. It can be defined as a rhetorical device in which the writers play with the normal positions of words, phrases, and clauses in order to create differently arranged sentences, which still suggest a similar meaning. Hyperbaton is also known as a broader version of hypallage. Similarity with Anastrophe Hyperbaton is similar to anastrophe, which is the inversion of the natural word order, or reversal of the word arrangement, in a sentence with the aim to create rhetorical effect. Anastrophe is also regarded as a simile of hyperbaton. Features of Hyperbaton Words are not arranged in their normal order. It is classified as the figure of disorder. It is employed for emphasis and rhetorical effect. It interrupts the natural flow of sentences. It is greatly used as inflected language. Examples of Hyperbaton in Literature Example #1: Wasteland (By T. S. Eliot) "Winter kept us warm, covering Earth in forgetful snow, feeding A little life with dried tubers.... You cannot say, or guess, for you know only A heap of broken images, where the sun beats, And the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no relief, And the dry stone no sound of water. Only There is shadow under this red rock, (Come in under the shadow of this red rock) ..." The preceding excerpt is one of those which are considered as perfect examples of hyperbaton. Here, the natural order has been changed throughout the text. This inflected language interrupts the flow of sentences. Example #2: Measure for Measure (By William Shakespeare) "Some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall ..." This is only one of the many hyperbaton examples found in Shakespeare's works. Here, he uses the unexpected word order, which is "some by virtue fall," instead of "some fall by virtue." This disordering of words helps in emphasizing the phrase "virtue fall." Example #3: Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town (By E. E. Cummings) "anyone lived in a pretty how town (with up so floating many bells down) spring summer autumn winter he sang his didn't he danced his did. Women and men (both little and small) Cared for anyone not at all they sowed their isn't they reaped their same sun moon stars rain children guessed (but only a few and down they forgot as up they grew ...) when by now and tree by leaf she laughed his joy she cried his grief bird by snow and stir by still anyone's any was all to her someones married their everyones laughed their cryings and did their dance (sleep wake hope and then) they said their nevers they slept their dream ..." This is a very good example of hyperbaton. The words, phrases, and clauses are stressed in an unexpected way. Also, it is creating complex structures of sentences, and aesthetics of ambiguity. Example #4: A Midsummer Night's Dream (By William Shakespeare) "The eye of man hath not heard, the ear of man hath not seen, man's hand is not able to taste, his tongue to conceive, nor his heart to report, what my dream was..." Here, Shakespeare has employed an unusual and complex word structure. He has transposed the normal word order, such as "his tongue to conceive," and "what my dream was." Example #5: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) "His coward lips did from their color fly And that same eye whose bend doth awe the world Did lose his luster. I did hear him groan, Ay, and that tongue of his that bade the Romans Mark him and write his speeches in their books." Here, Shakespeare plays with the natural position of words, giving depth to the sentence structure. The purpose is to emphasize the phrase, as it gives a sudden turn in the sentence. Function of Hyperbaton Hyperbaton is employed in literary writing, poetry, film, and all other mediums of visual or textual form. It creates startling and sometimes confusing effects, despite being used as inflected language. In rhyming and metered poems, hyperbaton is employed to fit a sentence into the structure of a poem properly. Besides, when hyperbaton is used properly in sentences, it can result in emphasis at the desired place. Also, the unconventional placement of words and phrases results in intriguing and complex sentence structures.

Hyperbole

Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning "over-casting," is a figure of speech that involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis. It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, "It's been ages since I last saw you." You may not have met him for three or four hours, or a day, but the use of the word "ages" exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation. Some other common Hyperbole examples are given below. Common Examples of Hyperbole My grandmother is as old as the hills. Your suitcase weighs a ton! She is as heavy as an elephant! I am dying of shame. I am trying to solve a million issues these days. It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does make a comparison, like simile and metaphor. Rather, hyperbole has a humorous effect created by an overstatement. Let us see some examples from Classical English literature in which hyperbole was used successfully. Short Examples of Hyperbole A ton of worry was lifted from the beggar's back when he received the alms. He saw a man as tall a power poll. He saw his childhood friend after ages. The weather was so hot that literally everything was on fire. The boy was dying to get a new school bag. The teacher told his students not to repeat that mistake for the umpteenth time, but to no avail. He was in such a hurry that he drove his car at a bazillion miles per hour. The minister told the guests that the couple's friendship was deeper than the sea, and sweeter than honey. The blacksmith's hand was harder than the rock. Their headmaster was omnipresent, as he seemed to be all around the school all the time. The businessman was so busy that he was attending to a million calls simultaneously. The old man was older than the Himalayas. The mule is able to lift tons of weight uphill. His classmates laughed at him, saying he had a pea-sized brain. John was called the elephant of the class for his clumsiness. Hyperbole Examples in Literature Example #1: Babe the Blue Ox (American Folklore) In American folk lore, Paul Bunyan's stories are full of hyperboles. In one instance, he exaggerates winter by saying: "Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved south and even the snow turned blue. Late at night, it got so frigid that all spoken words froze solid afore they could be heard. People had to wait until sunup to find out what folks were talking about the night before." Freezing of the spoken words at night in winter, and then warming them up in the warmth of the sun during the day are examples of hyperbole, which has been effectively used in this short excerpt from an American folktale. Example #2: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) From William Shakespeare's Macbeth, Act II, Scene II: "Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No. This my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red." Macbeth, the tragic hero, feels the unbearable prick of his conscience after killing the king. He regrets his sin, and believes that even the oceans of the greatest magnitude cannot wash the blood of the king off his hands. We can see the effective use of hyperboles in the given lines. Example #3: As I Walked One Evening (By W. H. Auden) "I'll love you, dear, I'll love you Till China and Africa meet, And the river jumps over the mountain And the salmon sing in the street, I'll love you till the ocean Is folded and hung up to dry." The use of hyperbole can be seen in the above lines in the meeting of China and Africa, the jumping of the river over the mountain, the singing of salmon in the street, and the ocean being folded and hung up to dry are exaggerations, not possible in real life. Example #4: The Adventures of Pinocchio (By C. Colloid) "He cried all night, and dawn found him still there, though his tears had dried and only hard, dry sobs shook his wooden frame. But these were so loud that they could be heard by the faraway hills ..." The crying of Pinocchio all night until his tears became dry is an example of Hyperbole. Example #5: The Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) "I had to wait in the station for ten days - an eternity." The act of waiting ten days seemed to last forever and never end. Example #6: Two Sunflowers Move in the Yellow Room (By William Blake) "Ah, William, we're weary of weather," Said the sunflowers, shining with dew. "Our traveling habits have tired us. Can you give us a room with a view?" They arranged themselves at the window And counted the steps of the sun, And they both took root in the carpet Where the topaz tortoises run. This is a poem by William Blake in which he uses exaggerated personification of sunflowers, which is akin to hyperbole. Example #7: A Red, Red Rose (By Robert Burns) "As fair art thou, my bonnie lass, So deep in luve am I; And I will love thee still, my dear, Till a' the seas gang dry. Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear, And the rocks melt wi' the sun: O I will love thee still, my dear, While the sands o' life shall run." The poet Robert Burns gives many examples of hyperbole in this piece. The poet says that he would love his beloved until the seas are dried up, and the rocks are melted. Function of Hyperbole The above arguments make clear the use of hyperbole. In our daily conversation, we use hyperbole to create an amusing effect, or to emphasize our meaning. However, in literature it has very serious implications. By using hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes common human feelings remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. In literature, usage of hyperbole develops contrasts. When one thing is described with an over-statement, and the other thing is presented normally, a striking contrast is developed. This technique is employed to catch the reader's attention.

Hypophora

Hypophora is a figure of speech in which a writer raises a question, and then immediately provides an answer to that question. Commonly, a question is asked in the first paragraph, and then the paragraph is used to answer the question. It is also known as "antipophora," or "anthypophora." At first look, examples of hypophora may seem similar to rhetorical question examples, but there is a slight difference as explained below. Difference Between Hypophora and Rhetorical Question The basic difference between hypophora and a rhetorical question is that, in a rhetorical question, the answer is not provided by the writer, since it does not require an answer. Such as, "... for if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living on?" (Marcus Aurelius). However, in hypophora, the writer first poses a question, and then answers that question immediately; such as in this example: "What should young people do with their lives today? Many things, obviously. But the most daring thing is to create stable communities in which the terrible disease of loneliness can be cured." (Palm Sunday: An Autobiographical Collage, by Kurt Vonnegut) Examples of Hypophora in Literature Example #1: A Christmas Memory (By Truman Capote) "Thirty-one cakes, dampened with whiskey, bask on window sills and shelves. Who are they for? Friends. Not necessarily neighbor friends: indeed, the larger share is intended for persons we've met maybe once, perhaps not at all. People who've struck our fancy. Like President Roosevelt." In this example, the speaker raises a question in the beginning, and then answers it in the course of the passage. The question is shown in bold, that is "Who are they for?" The author wants to heighten the effect of important topics by asking a question. Example #2: Henderson the Rain King (By Saul Bellow) "What made me take this trip to Africa? There is no quick explanation. Things got worse and worse and worse and pretty soon they were too complicated." In this passage, the writer asks the question and immediately explains. This creates a rhetorical effect, which lies in providing the answer that readers might expect to be given by a writer. Example #3: Cherry Orchard (By Anton Chekov) TROFIMOV: "Who knows? And what does it mean-you'll die? Perhaps a man has a hundred senses, and when he dies only the five known to us are destroyed and the remaining ninety-five are left alive ..." LUBOV: "You want giants, do you? ... They're only good in stories, and even there they frighten one ..." TROFIMOV: "Isn't it all the same whether the estate is sold to-day or isn't? It's been all up with it for a long time; there's no turning back, the path's grown over. Be calm, dear ..." There are three hypophora examples in this excerpt, shown in bold. Initially, the characters pose questions, and then answers in order to draw the attention of readers. Example #4: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) ESTRAGON: (gesture toward the universe). "This one is enough for you? (Silence.) It's not nice of you, Didi. Who am I to tell my private nightmares to if I can't tell them to you ..." ESTRAGON: "That would be too bad, really too bad. (Pause.) Wouldn't it, Didi, be really too bad? (Pause.) When you think of the beauty of the way. (Pause.) And the goodness of the wayfarers. (Pause. Wheedling.) Wouldn't it, Didi?" Waiting for Godot is filled with this rhetorical device. Such as here, Estragon asks questions and then provides explanations to answer his own questions. The questions create curiosity, and also bring a new topic of discussion. Function of Hypophora The major purpose of using hypophora is to create curiosity among the readers, while a well-timed silence produces heightened effect, and creates interest. It helps to capture the attention of the audience. However, hypophora can also be employed to introduce new discussions or topics of importance about which the readers might not have information. Also, it can be used as a directional device to change the topic. It can raise the types of question readers might already have on their minds and would like to get answers to. In addition, it is frequently used in political speeches as well as literary works.

Hypotaxis

Hypotaxis is subordination of one clause to another, or when the clauses are coordinated or subordinated to one another within sentences. Hypotaxis is defined as a grammatical arrangement of constructs that work in the same way, but which play unequal roles in a sentence. It helps in defining the exact meaning of a clause. The example is given in these lines, where the second line modifies the phrase "clod of clay." "So sang a little Clod of Clay, Trodden with the cattle's feet" (The Clod and the Pebble, by William Blake) Difference Between Hypotaxis and Parataxis Parataxis is opposite of hypotaxis. In parataxis, the sentences, clauses, and phrases are not coordinated or subordinated. Such as, "Veni, vidi, vici" or, "I came, I saw, I conquered." (Life of Caesar, by Plutarch). However, in hypotaxis, the phrases, clauses, or sentences are coordinated or subordinated. Examples of Hypotaxis in Literature Example #1: Mrs. Bridge (By Evan S. Connell) "One December morning near the end of the year when snow was falling moist and heavy for miles all around, so that the earth and the sky were indivisible, Mrs. Bridge emerged from her home and spread her umbrella." The remaining clauses explain the first/main clause. These subordinated clauses help in recounting the individual thought expressed in the beginning. Example #2: Democracy (By Joan Didion) "Let the reader be introduced to Joan Didion, upon whose character and doings much will depend of whatever interest these pages may have, as she sits at her writing table in her own room in her own house on Welbeck Street." In the above excerpt, the main clause talks about a character named Joan Didion. The remaining clauses subordinate the main description and amplify the central idea. Example #3: Notes of a Native Son (By James Baldwin) "When I was around nine or ten I wrote a play which was directed by a young, white schoolteacher, a woman, who then took an interest in me, and gave me books to read, and, in order to corroborate my theatrical bent, decided to take me to see what she somewhat tactlessly referred to as 'real' plays..." The writer puts emphasis on a specific play, which he wrote in his childhood, and he further explains it in the coordinated clauses. All other descriptions highlight the main idea. Hypotaxis also helps here in making clear what the readers should be focusing on. Example #4: The Ring of Time (By E. B. White) "After the lions had returned to their cages, creeping angrily through the chutes, a little bunch of us drifted away and into an open doorway nearby, where we stood for a while in semi-darkness watching a big brown circus horse go harumphing around the practice ring..." This excerpt is about animals, specifically lion and horse. Here, the entire passage is based on the description and surrounding of the said animals. Hypotaxis helps in giving this piece of writing special focus and an emotional touch. Example #5: Ode To A Nightingale (By John Keats) "O, for a draught of vintage! that hath been Cool'd a long age in the deep-delved earth, Tasting of Flora and the country green, Dance, and Provencal song, and sunburnt mirth! O for a beaker full of the warm South, Full of the true, the blushful Hippocrene, With beaded bubbles winking at the brim, And purple-stained mouth; That I might drink, and leave the world unseen, And with thee fade away into the forest dim..." The speaker longs for a drink of vintage wine in this extract. The first line expresses this longing. All the remaining lines are subordinated to this central idea, to give more information and discuss in further detail. Function of Hypotaxis Writers use hypotaxis when they want to convey logical, causal, or temporal relationships within the clauses in a sentence. Hypotactic writing is used effectively as a device for argument and persuasion. Also, it is used to express individual and related thoughts by using subordinate clauses. The subordinate clauses help in amplifying a central idea. This writing style helps in providing a great deal of information and background about the topic at hand. Hypotactic writing style heavily depends upon complex and complicated sentences to explain ideas and thoughts in detail.

Iambic Pentameter

Iambic Pentameter is made up of two words, where pentameter is a combination of 'pent,' which means five, and 'meter,' which means to measure. Iambic, on the other hand, is a metrical foot in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable. It means iambic pentameter is a beat or foot that uses 10 syllables in each line. Simply, it is a rhythmic pattern comprising five iambs in each line, like five heartbeats. Iambic pentameter is one of the most commonly used meters in English poetry. For instance, in the excerpt, "When I see birches bend to left and right/Across the line of straighter darker trees..." (Birches, by Robert Frost), each line contains five feet, and each foot uses one iamb. Examples of Iambic Pentameter in Literature Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "Henceforth be earls, the first that ever Scotland In such an honour named. What's more to do, Which would be planted newly with the time, As calling home our exiled friends abroad That fled the snares of watchful tyranny; Of this dead butcher and his fiend-like queen... So, thanks to all at once and to each one, Whom we invite to see us crown'd at Scone." Notice the pattern of underlined accented, and unaccented syllables, which are iambic pentameter in these lines of "Macbeth," a play by Shakespeare. Example #2: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats) "Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run... And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells With a sweet kernel; to set budding more, And still more, later flowers for the bees, Until they think warm days will never cease, For summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells." In this ode, the rhyme scheme is ABAB CDEDCCE. The meter is iambic pentameter, having five iambs comprising a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable in each line as underlined. Example #3: Holy Sonnet XIV (By John Donne) Batter my heart three-personed God, for you as yet but knock, breathe, shine and seek to mend. That I may rise and stand o'erthrow me and bend Your force to break, blow, burn and make me new. Donne has also used five groups of accented and unaccented syllables in each line. Though the first line does not follow the rule, the purpose is to start the poem with a bang, with the combination of iambic pentameter. Example #4: Twelfth Night (By William Shakespeare) "If music be the food of love, play on; Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting, The appetite may sicken, and so die. That strain again! it had a dying fall... Stealing and giving odour! Enough; no more: 'Tis not so sweet now as it was before. O spirit of love! how quick and fresh art thou, That, notwithstanding thy capacity... But falls into abatement and low price, Even in a minute: so full of shapes is fancy That it alone is high fantastical." This is another great example of iambic pentameter. In this example, there are five iambs stressed / unstressed) in each line giving a smooth flow in reading. Example #5: My Last Duchess (By Robert Browning) THAT'S my last Duchess painted on the wall, Looking as if she were alive. I call That piece a wonder, now: Frà Pandolf's hands Worked busily a day, and there she stands... And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst, How such a glance came there; so, not the first Are you to turn and ask thus. Sir, 'twas not Her husband's presence only, called that spot... Browning has written this poem as a dramatic lyric in which lines rhymed in iambic pentameter. These are heroic couplets that keep speaker's speech into tidy packages, though his thoughts are somewhat unruly. Function of Iambic Pentameter Iambic pentameter is commonly used in poetry and verse forms. Many Elizabethan dramatists, such as John Donne and William Shakespeare, used this form in their poems and poetic plays to keep up decorum and grandeur of the language. Modern authors, too, use it for writing serious poems. Its major function, therefore, is to give less rigid, but natural flow to the text. Also, this form accommodates intonation and pace of language, allowing an underlying meter to make impacts on readers.

End Rhyme

If you have ever sung a song or read a poem aloud, you must have encountered end rhymes, because these are a common type of rhyming pattern used in a poetic structure. End rhyme occurs when the last syllables or words in two or more lines rhyme with each other. It is also known as "tail rhyme," and occurs at the ends of the lines. The lines ending in similar sounds are pleasant to hear, and give musical effect to the poem or song. This is called the end rhyme. Types of Rhyme There are several types of rhyme besides end rhyme, of which end rhyme is one of the most commonly used types of poetic rhymes. Other types of rhyme include: End rhyme - It comes at the end of two successive lines. Internal rhyme - It occurs within a single line or a verse. Slant rhyme - The rhyming words sound similar; however, they are often not very close to make a complete rhyme. Eye rhyme - It comprises of similar spellings, though not pronunciation, such as in "rough" and "through." Identical rhyme - It uses the same word having identical sense and sound. Masculine rhyme - It ends on stressed syllables like in "bells" and "hells." Feminine rhyme - It rhymes on one or two unstressed syllables, like "enticing," and "endicing." Monorhyme - It uses just a single rhyme in a stanza such as in Black's poem "silent, silent night." Pararhyme - It uses vowels in identical consonant pairs, such as in the words "groined, and groaned." End Rhyme and Internal Rhyme Internal rhyme uses two rhyming words within a single line of poetry, such as: Example #1: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe) "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary." However, end rhyme comprises of the final words or syllables of the lines such as: Example #2: The Tyger (By William Blake) "Tyger Tyger, burning bright, In the forests of the night;" Examples of End Rhyme in Literature Mostly, Aesop's fables are considered to have strong moral conclusions. However, almost all literary writings have some morals to be conveyed to readers. Literary works aimed at children are replete with moral lessons. They provide children with positive lessons and guidelines for the future. Maxims like "Be friends with whom you don't like," "Don't judge people by the way they look," and "Slow and steady wins the race" are normally the lessons found behind many stories. Example #1: A Word is Dead (By Emily Dickinson) "A word is dead When it is said, Some say. I say it just Begins to live That day." As can be seen, the first and the second lines use end rhyme with the words "dead" and "said." The other example of this rhyming pattern is in the third line with the sixth line on the words "say" and "day." Thus, it is the choice of the poet whether to use end rhyme throughout the entire poem for creating strong rhythm, or use some other rhyming pattern. Example #2: In Flanders Fields (By Colonel John McCrae) "In Flanders fields the poppies blow Between the crosses, row on row, That mark our place; and in the sky The larks, still bravely singing, fly. Scarce heard amid the guns below." In these lines, the words "blow" and "row" rhyme in the first and second lines, and word "below" in final line also rhyme with them. Similarly, words "sky" and "fly" rhyme in the third and fourth lines. The poet uses end rhyme to create rhythmic flow, as he describes his sorrow for fallen soldiers died in the World War I. Example #3: Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening (By Robert Frost) "Whose woods these are I think I know, His house is in the village, though; He will not see me stopping here To watch his woods fill up with snow." In this example, Frost has used end rhyme at the end of the first, second, and fourth lines with the words "know" "though," and "snow." These rhyming lines add flow to the piece, and a pleasant effect to the poem. Example #4: Midstairs (By Virginia Hamilton Adair) "And here on this turning of the stair Between passion and doubt, I pause and say a double prayer, One for you, and one for you; And so they cancel out." See end rhyme occurring on the final syllables "stair" and "prayer" of the first and third lines; and "doubt" and "out" in the second and fifth lines. Function of End Rhyme The poets often use end rhyme to create rhythm in their works. If they use it throughout the entire poem, then it creates a beautiful rhyming pattern, giving musical quality to the poem, because it adds flow in a perfect rhythmic way. It serves as a strong mnemonic device that facilitates memorization. In addition, its regular use marks off the ending of the lines, thus elucidating metrical structure for the audience. Songwriters also make use of it frequently to make their lyrics sound appealing, and often it becomes easier for the audience to remember.

Imagery

Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses. Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that create visual representation of ideas in our minds. The word "imagery" is associated with mental pictures. However, this idea is but partially correct. Imagery, to be realistic, turns out to be more complex than just a picture. Read the following examples of imagery carefully: It was dark and dim in the forest. The words "dark" and "dim" are visual images. The children were screaming and shouting in the fields. "Screaming" and "shouting" appeal to our sense of hearing, or auditory sense. He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee. "Whiff" and "aroma" evoke our sense of smell, or olfactory sense. The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric. The idea of "soft" in this example appeals to our sense of touch, or tactile sense. The fresh and juicy orange is very cold and sweet. "Juicy" and "sweet" - when associated with oranges - have an effect on our sense of taste, or gustatory sense. Imagery needs the aid of figures of speech like simile, metaphor, personification, and onomatopoeia, in order to appeal to the bodily senses. Let us analyze how famous poets and writers use imagery in literature. Short Examples of Imagery The old man took the handful of dust, and sifted it through his fingers. The starry night sky looked so beautiful that it begged him to linger, but he reluctantly left for home. The fragrance of spring flowers made her joyful. The sound of a drum in the distance attracted him. The people traveled long distances to watch the sunset in the north. The stone fell with a splash in the lake. The sound of bat hitting the ball was pleasing to his ear. The chirping of birds heralded spring. There lay refuse heaps on their path that were so smelly that it maddened them. The silence in the room was unnerving. The blind man touched the tree to learn if its skin was smooth or rough. When he was on the way to work, he heard the muffled cry of a woman. The beacons of moonlight bathed the room in ethereal light. The wild gusts of cold wind pierced her body. The burger, aromatic with spices, made his mouth water in anticipation of the first bite. Imagery Examples in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Imagery of light and darkness is repeated many times in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Consider an example from Act I, Scene V: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear ..." Romeo praises Juliet by saying that she appears more radiant than the brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that at night her face glows like a bright jewel shining against the dark skin of an African. Through the contrasting images of light and dark, Romeo portrays Juliet's beauty. Example #2: To Autumn (By John Keats) John Keats' To Autumn is an ode rich with auditory imagery examples. In the last five lines of his ode he says: "Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies; And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn; Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft, And gathering swallows twitter in the skies." The animal sounds in the above excerpt keep appealing to our sense of hearing. We hear the lamb bleating and the crickets chirping. We hear the whistles of the redbreast robin and the twitters of swallows in the skies. Keats call these sounds the song of autumn. Example #3: Once More to the Lake (By E. B. White) In prose, imagery aids writers to accomplish a vivid description of events. Below is an example of an effective use of imagery from E. B. White's Once More to the Lake: "When the others went swimming my son said he was going in, too. He pulled his dripping trunks from the line where they had hung all through the shower and wrung them out. Languidly, and with no thought of going in, I watched him, his hard little body, skinny and bare, saw him wince slightly as he pulled up around his vitals the small, soggy, icy garment. As he buckled the swollen belt, suddenly my groin felt the chill of death." The images depicting the dampness of clothes, in the above lines, convey a sense of the chilly sensation that we get from wet clothes. Example #4: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens) In Great Expectations, written by Charles Dickens, Pip (the hero of the novel) uses many images to describe a damp morning in a marsh: "It was a rimy morning, and very damp. I had seen the damp lying on the outside of my little window... Now, I saw the damp lying on the bare hedges and spare grass, ... On every rail and gate, wet lay clammy; and the marsh-mist was so thick, that the wooden finger on the post directing people to our village—a direction which they never accepted, for they never came there—was invisible to me until I was quite close under it." The repeated use of the words "damp" and "wet" makes us feel how miserable it was for him that damp and cold morning. The thick "marsh-mist" aids our imagination to visualize the scene of morning in a marshland. Example #5: Goodbye Mr. Chips (By James Hilton) "Brookfield he had liked, almost from the beginning. He remembered that day of his preliminary interview—sunny June, with the air full of flower scents and the plick-plock of cricket on the pitch. Brookfield was playing Barnhurst, and one of the Barnhurst boys, a chubby little fellow, made a brilliant century. Queer that a thing like that should stay in the memory so clearly." This is an excellent example of the use of imagery in Goodbye Mr. Chips by James Hilton. First the word sunny refers to the visual imagery. The flower scent refers to the sense of smell, and then the plick-plock refers to the sense of hearing. Example #6: Daffodils (By William Wordsworth) "I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze." This is a very good example of imagery in Wordsworth's Daffodils. The poet uses the sense of sight to create a host of golden daffodils beside the lake. Their fluttering and dancing also refers to the sight. Example #7: Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening (By Robert Frost) "The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep ... " Robert Frost uses visual imagery in these lines of his famous poem as, "the woods are lovely, dark and deep." Example #8: My November Guest (By Robert Frost) "My Sorrow, when she's here with me, Thinks these dark days of autumn rain Are beautiful as days can be; She loves the bare, the withered tree; She walked the sodden pasture lane." This poem by Robert Frost is yet another good example of imagery. In the second line, the poet uses dark days, which is an instance of the use of visual imagery. In the fourth line, the bare, withered tree uses the imagery of sight. In the fifth line, the sodden pasture is also an instance of tactile imagery. Function of Imagery The function of imagery in literature is to generate a vibrant and graphic presentation of a scene that appeals to as many of the reader's senses as possible. It aids the reader's imagination to envision the characters and scenes in the literary piece clearly. Apart from the above-mentioned function, images drawn by using figures of speech like metaphor, simile, personification, and onomatopoeia, serve the function of beautifying a piece of literature.

Attitude

Generally, attitude is a behavior a person adopts toward other people, things, incidents, or happenings. In literature, the term "attitude" can be referred as perspective or tone of the writer he adopts in a certain work. It is the way a writer develops his characters, describes his stories and designs his narratives. His attitude explains the real nature of the characters and the story. He makes use of an appropriate attitude to provide an in-depth insight into a character's personality. The attitude of a writer can be serious as well as humorous. In certain cases, the attitude can be critical or witty. It is through the attitude readers come to know the feelings of a writer regarding his topic, subject or belief. As written works have a central idea or theme for the audiences, different writers approach themes with different attitudes and tone, which are developed by the choice of words and style. The two examples given below discuss the same subject matter; however, the first demonstrates an informal and casual attitude, while the second example discusses the same theme in a highly formal attitude. "I want to ask the authorities what is the big deal? Why do they not control the epidemic? It is eating up lives like a monster." "I want to draw the attention of the concerned authorities toward damage caused by the epidemic. If steps are not taken to curb it, it will further injure our community" Examples of Attitude in Literature Attitude plays a significant role in literature, because it bridges the gap between the reader and the writer. Example #1: The Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger) "All morons hate it when you call them a moron." "If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she's late? Nobody." "******* money. It always ends up making you blue as hell." "Catholics are always trying to find out if you're Catholic." This is a selection of dialogues from J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, all of which are uttered by Holden Caulfield. It is easy to understand the nature and real personality of the character through these statements. Most of the remarks are quite sarcastic, as Holden talks about real things in criticizing manner. It is not only a way to know the personality of the character, but it opens a window to the writer's viewpoint of real life objects. In fact, the characters are the mouthpieces of the writer's attitude and thinking. That is why this shows the attitude of D. J. Salinger too. Example #2: The School (By Donald Barthelme) "And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing." A fine example of attitude is presented in this passage. This passage is from Donald Barthelme's short story The School. The author uses certain adjectives like "dead" and "depressing," which develop a gloomy attitude toward the story. Trees symbolize life in these lines, and their death, which has been unexpected, colors the passage with gloomy and negative shades. This is the attitude of the writer as well. Example #3: The Road Not Taken (By Arthur Miller) "I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference." The influence of attitude can easily be perceived in the last stanza of The Road Not Taken, a poem composed by Robert Frost. When the poet, Robert Frost, talks about his past, he mentions it with a "sigh." The use of the sigh draws a picture of nostalgia for the past. The poet's attitude reveals that the speaker was compelled to make a choice that was very difficult for him, but now he is nostalgic about it. Function of Attitude The function of attitude is to give a certain shape and form to a piece of writing. While reading it, the attitude helps the reader to treat it in a specific way. The attitude makes the readers feel in a particular way about the topic the author wants him to feel. It is attitude, which stimulates the feelings of seriousness, comedy or distress while going through a piece of literature. Not only does it give tongue to characters to speak, but also highlights the personality and nature of the characters for readers' full understanding of the given perspective.

Cause and Effect Essay

Human beings often try to find root causes of things, happenings and phenomena. This research leads to the discovery of effects, too. It is because human beings always desire to understand reasons for things, and why they happen. A composition written to find out reasons and results is called a cause and effect essay. It makes discovery of the causes of something and resultantly finds out effects. Signal Words for Cause and Effect Essays Cause and effect uses special words for causes, effects, and predictions, such as led to, because, cause, reason, explanation, so etc. However, for effects, the words most commonly used are therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, then, and thanks to. For predictions, the most commonly used words are if, when, after, as soon as, may, might, or possible. Examples of Cause and Effect Essay in Literature Example #1: Why We Crave Horror Movies (by Stephen King) "I think that we're all mentally ill: those of us outside the asylums only hide it a little better—and maybe not all that much better, after all. We've all known people who talk to themselves, people who sometimes squinch their faces into horrible grimaces when they believe no one is watching, people who have some hysterical fear—of snakes, the dark, the tight place, the long drop ... and, of course, those final worms and grubs that are waiting so patiently underground. When we pay our four or five bucks and seat ourselves at tenth-row center in a theater showing a horror movie, we are daring the nightmare. Why? Some of the reasons are simple and obvious. To show that we can, that we are not afraid, that we can ride this roller coaster. Which is not to say that a really good horror movie may not surprise a scream out of us at some point, the way we may scream when the roller coaster twists through a complete 360 or plows through a lake at the bottom of the drop. And horror movies, like roller coasters, have always been the special province of the young; by the time one turns 40 or 50, one's appetite for double twists or 360-degree loops may be considerably depleted." Stephen King tells the reasons people like to watch something horrible or terrible. This passage sheds light on those reasons. Example #2: Innocents Afield (by Buzz Bissinger) "We are clinging to the supposed virtues of high school athletics with particular zeal. Everybody knows that pro sports is too far gone (take your pick of recent scandals). Everybody knows that college sports is too far gone (take your pick of recent scandals). But still there's high school sports, still the classic battle of one rival against the other in shaggy glory, what James Jones described in From Here to Eternity as "the magnificent foolishness of youth as if the whole of life depended on this game." A half-century later, the depiction of noble sacrifice at the high school level still forms our baseline, gives us hope that something in sports is still unsullied, restores our faith in the family values fad that has overtaken the low-carb diet." This passage sheds light on the reasons that school sports are necessary. The whole essay revolves around the games, reasons for the games, and their effects. Example #3: Black Men and Public Space (by Brent Staples) "My first victim was a woman—white, well dressed, probably in her early twenties. I came upon her late one evening on a deserted street in Hyde Park, a relatively affluent neighborhood in an otherwise mean, impoverished section of Chicago. As I swung onto the avenue behind her, there seemed to be a discreet, uninflammatory distance between us. Not so. She cast back a worried glance. To her, the youngish black man—a broad six feet two inches with a beard and billowing hair, both hands shoved into the pockets of a bulky military jacket—seemed menacingly close. After a few more quick glimpses, she picked up her pace and was soon running in earnest. Within seconds she disappeared into a cross street." This passage describes the cause of a woman's fear in a narrative, as well as the effect of her fear. As it is part of a long essay, the next passage sheds light on the effects on women. Function of Cause and Effect Essay A cause and effect essay explains the real situation to readers. Readers understand what lies behind a happening, and how it effects, or how it will impact, human beings. Mostly, such essays are used for scientific topics. It is because these essays explore the nature of things, and their likely effects on us, or the things around us.

Cacophony

If we speak literally, cacophony points to a situation in which there is a mixture of harsh and inharmonious sounds. In literature, however, the term refers to the use of words with sharp, harsh, hissing, and unmelodious sounds - primarily those of consonants - to achieve desired results. Common Cacophony Examples In everyday life, an example of cacophony would be the amalgamation of different sounds you hear in a busy city street or market. You hear sounds of vehicles, announcements on loudspeakers, music, and chatter of people, or even a dog barking at the same time and without any harmony. You can rightly point to the situation as being the cacophony of a busy street or market. We can notice the manifestation of cacophony in language as well. For instance, in the sentence, "I detest war because cause of war is always trivial." The phrase "because cause" is cacophonic as because is followed by the word cause, which has a similar sound, but different meaning. Generally, it sounds unpleasant as the same sound is repeated in two different words. Similarly, a discordant sound of a musical band, tuning up their musical instruments, is an example of cacophony. Cacophony and Euphony Cacophony is opposite to euphony, which is the use of words having pleasant and harmonious effects. Generally, the vowels, the semi-vowels, and the nasal consonants (e.g. l, m, n, r, y) are considered to be euphonious. Cacophony, on the other hand, uses consonants in combinations that require explosive delivery (e.g., p, b, d, g, k, ch-, sh- etc.). Examples of Cacophony in Literature In literature, the unpleasantness of cacophony is utilized by writers to present dreadful or distasteful situations. Let us look at a few Cacophony examples in literature: Example #1: Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There (By Lewis Carroll) Abundant use of cacophonic words can be found in Lewis Carroll's nonsense poem Jabberwocky, in his novel Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There. " 'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves,an And the mome raths outgrabe. "Beware the Jabberwock, my son! The jaws that bite, the claws that catch! Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun The frumious Bandersnatch!" In the excerpt, we see a collection of nonsense words, which are at the same time unmelodious. After reading the poem, Alice, the main character of the novel, gives her impression, which clearly reflects the purpose of the poem. She says: "Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don't exactly know what they are! However, somebody killed something: that's clear, at any rate." Example #2: The Bridge (By Hart Crane) Another example of cacophony is found in Hart Crane's poem The Bridge: "The nasal whine of power whips a new universe... Where spouting pillars spoor the evening sky, Under the looming stacks of the gigantic power house Stars prick the eyes with sharp ammoniac proverbs, New verities, new inklings in the velvet hummed Of dynamos, where hearing's leash is strummed... Power's script, - wound, bobbin-bound, refined - Is stopped to the slap of belts on booming spools, spurred Into the bulging bouillon, harnessed jelly of the stars." The disorder and confusion of the industrial world has been expressed here by the writer, through deliberate selection of cacophonic words and phrases. Example #3: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) Look at the following excerpt from Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels: "And being no stranger to the art of war, I have him a description of cannons, culverins, muskets, carabines, pistols, bullets, powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks, undermines, countermines, bombardments, sea-fights..." In order to describe the destructive consequences of war, the writer chooses words and arranges them in an order that produces an effect that is unmelodious, harsh, and jarring, which corresponds with the subject matter. Example #4: Rime to the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge) Read the following lines from Coleridge's Rime to the Ancient Mariner: "With throats unslaked, with black lips baked, Agape they heard me call." These lines illustrate cacophony by using the words black, baked and agape, which corresponds with the severity of the situation faced by the Mariner and other people on board. Function of Cacophony Writers use cacophony as a tool to describe a discordant situation using discordant words. The use of such words allows readers to picture and feel the unpleasantness of the situation the writer has described through words.

Novella

In literature, a novella is a type of prose fiction, which is shorter than full length novels and longer than short stories. It originates from an Italian word "novella", which means "new." It is a well-structured yet short narrative; often satiric or realistic in tone. It usually focuses on one incident, or issue with one or two main characters and takes place at a single location. Difference between Novella and Novel Novellas have less pages and words than that of novels. The more obvious difference is that novellas have fewer subplots and conflicts than full length novels. The main narrative of a novella resembles with a straight line and does not use complicated and indirect plot lines, back stories, and multiple points of views. Unlike novels, novellas usually do not have chapters. It is mostly concerned with emotional and personal development of the character rather than dealing with a larger social sphere and events that usually takes place in one place or location. Examples of Novella in Literature Example # 1 Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad Heart of Darkness is a strictly controlled novella, with a classic status, describing a story of late nineteenth century about imperialistic and colonialist process. This novella focuses on the search of the central character, Kurtz, who goes too far for exploitation of the natives for the sake of an ivory trade. Conrad's readers plunge deeper into the horror of darkness to see what happened after the invasion of the Europeans. Example # 2 The Turn of the Screw by Henry James The Turn of the Screw is a good example of a classic novella. It is, in fact, a ghost story that challenges an easy interpretation. The story is about a governess living in a remote house, taking care of two kids, who are horrified by former dead employees. However, no one knows the truth. The story is filled with complexities such as its central issue is the reliability of the narrator, who tells this story. This story can be said a self-conscious and subtle exploration of a traditional horrible domestic theme about Victorian culture, drenched in social and sexual unease. Example # 3 Billy Budd by Herman Melville Billy Bud is a novella that tells the story of a tragic incident happens at sea. This is an adaptation from a true occurrence. The story is a parable relating good and evil, nautical recasting of Fall, a reflection on political governance and justice, and finding reality of three persons trapped in a dangerous triangle. Billy is an innocent and handsome, Claggart a cruel tormentor, and third one is Captain Vere, who needs to judge the conflict going on between them. The author has interpreted this narrative in Biblical terms, used Christian allegory, and represented male homosexual desires and what mechanisms are to be chosen to prohibit this desire. Example # 4 Death in Venice by Thomas Mann Death in Venice is a wonderful classic novella. It is an amazingly condensed story about the relationship between life and art and life and death. Venice sets background of this story. It is based on a renowned German writer, who is following unusual routines, falling for a young lad, and getting trapped in a slight downward twist of indulgence. The construction of this novella follows the framework of Greek tragedy in which author has used unity of form, motives and themes superbly. Example # 5 Seize the Day by Saul Bellow This narrative concentrates on one man, Tommy Wilhelm, and just one day of his life. He is a fading charmer, separated from his family, who starts reckoning and feels scared. Although he is in his forties, he retains boyish impetuousness, which brings him to the brink of havoc. During the course of a climatic day, Tommy reviews all his past mistakes. Some people consider it a short story. However, if looked in depth, it shows a strong sense of unity. Function of Novella Novellas are the richest and most rewarding forms of literary genres, because this genre allows an extended development of characters and themes than a short story does, without making detailed structural demands of a complete book. Thus, a novella provides a detailed and intense exploration of the topic, providing both the complete focus of a short story and a broad scope of a novel. Since novellas have ideal short length, they are considered a perfect source for silver screen and film adaptations.

Naturalism

Naturalism is a literary genre that started as a movement in late nineteenth century in literature, film, theater, and art. It is a type of extreme realism. This movement suggested the roles of family, social conditions, and environment in shaping human character. Thus, naturalistic writers write stories based on the idea that environment determines and governs human character. We also see use of some of the scientific principles in naturalistic works, and humans struggling for survival in hostile and alien society. In fact, naturalism took its cue from Darwin's theory of evolution, which holds that life is like a struggle and only the fittest survive. Naturalism vs. Realism Both naturalism and realism are literary genres and interlinked. However, there are some differences between them: Naturalism suggests a philosophical pessimism in which writers use scientific techniques to depict human beings as objective and impartial characters; whereas realism focuses on literary technique. Realism depicts things as they appear, while naturalism portrays a deterministic view of a character's actions and life. Naturalism concludes that natural forces predetermine a character's decisions, making him/her act in a particular way. Realism poses that a decision of a character comes from his response to a certain situation. Examples of Naturalism in Literature Example #1: The Grapes of Wrath (By John Steinbeck) John Steinbeck is one the most popular writers coming from the school of American naturalism. Steinbeck, in his novel The Grapes of Wrath, portrays the Joad family and its changing environment from the naturalistic point of view, during the t Great Depression in the United States. He depicts the Joad family as insignificant, instinct-bound, and small creatures bound to seek a paradise they might never find. Initially, when the Joads leave home, they are very simple and animal-like people, who could barely understand their plight. They face constant opposition from two powerful predators - society and nature. However, as the narrative progresses, they begin to adapt to new circumstances. Example #2: The Open Boat (By Stephen Crane) Stephen Crane, in his short story The Open Boat, portrays men on a boat, representing human endurance against indifferent nature, where they feel themselves helpless. Thus, it contains a theme of naturalism. Whenever a huge wave of water arrives, it shuts everything from the men's view, and they imagine this particular wave would be the final outbreak of the ocean, like in the following lines: "If I am going to be drowned-if I am going to be drowned, why, in the name of the seven gods, who rule the seven seas,?" This lays emphasis on their struggle for survival and lack of choice. Besides, The Open Boat symbolically represents human place in the huge universe where man struggles against nature. Then we see a definite determination, as men cannot play any part in their outcome, which results in unexpected death of Oiler, despite being an expert sailor. Example #3: The Awakening (By Kate Chopin) Kate Chopin's novel, The Awakening, gives an example of a perfect naturalistic novel, as its leading character, Edna Pontellier, lives in a world where no one understands her. Neither does she fit in the Creole society. This often causes misunderstandings in her life, as she can't understand its people: "Edna wondered if they had all gone mad." Then, she realizes that she has chosen the wrong man as her husband: "...taking off her wedding ring, flung it upon the carpet. She stamped her heel upon it, striving to crush it ..." In addition, we see the determination by individual traits and by societal forces inside the family. Consequently, Edna becomes a victim of her sociological pressures. Example #4: To Build A Fire (By Jack London) The theme in Jack London's novel, To Build A Fire, is man versus nature; thus it is another good example of naturalism. Naturalism in this novel shows how human beings need to be careful at every corner, as death could reach them anywhere, waiting for them to commit a mistake and take their lives. We see the story is about a man with his dog trying to survive harsh, cold weather by building a fire. In fact, the author uses the Darwinian Theory of "survival of the fittest" in his work. Function of Naturalism The impact that naturalism has left on literary writers is colossal, leading to the evolution of the modern movement. Generally, naturalistic works expose dark sides of life such as prejudice, racism, poverty, prostitution, filth, and disease. Since these works are often pessimistic and blunt, they receive heavy criticism. Despite the echoing pessimism in this literary output, naturalists are generally concerned with improving the human condition around the world.

Nemesis

Nemesis is a literary device that refers to a situation of poetic justice, where the good characters are rewarded for their virtues, and the evil characters are punished for their vices. The term nemesis comes from Nemesis - the goddess of revenge in Greek mythology - and divine retribution sought against the people guilty of hubris. In a general sense, nemesis refers to an indomitable rival, or an inescapable situation that causes misery and death. For instance, you may have encountered your nemesis at school - a boy who is no more capable than you are, but who somehow always finishes ahead of you in school examinations, making you feel frustrated. Examples of Nemesis in Literature We find a number of examples of nemesis in both ancient and modern literature. Let us analyze a few: Example #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) In a famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles, the nemesis of King Oedipus is his hubris or excessive pride. He is so proud that he does not even shrink from defying prophecies of the gods. We see that the king ends up doing what he fears and tries to avoid. The Oracle of Delphi tells him that he will kill his father and marry his mother. In his attempt to defy the gods' prophecy, he leaves Corinth, and travels towards Thebes. On his way, he kills an old man in a quarrel. He later marries the queen of Thebes as he ascends the throne, after delivering the city from a deadly sphinx. One can argue that Oedipus commits all of these sins in complete ignorance, yet he deserves retribution because he becomes so swollen with pride that he does not even shy from attempting to revolt against his fate. Thus, his nemesis is his arrogance. Example #2: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) In Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus, Faustus' nemesis was his pride in his scholarship, and his overambitious nature. Overcome by his irresistible desire, he sells his soul to Lucifer, by signing a contract with his blood. He defies Christianity by learning the art of black magic, consequently paying for his arrogance and his pride. As the time mentioned in the contract with the devil exhausts, the devil takes his soul to Hell, where he suffers eternal damnation. Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) We find two nemesis examples in Shakespeare's Hamlet: Hamlet, and Hamlet's indecisiveness. Hamlet acts as a nemesis for Claudius, who kills Hamlet's father and marries his mother. Claudius' devilishness calls for immediate retribution. The ghost of Hamlet's dead father appears to him, and convinces him to exact revenge. He finds Claudius as the real murderer, and after much indecisive thinking kills him. In the same play, Hamlet's nemesis is his indecisiveness. He is unable to make up his mind about the dilemma he confronts. He discloses his state of mind in the following lines in Act 3, Scene 1 of the play: "To be, or not to be - that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..." He wants to take vengeance on his father's murderer, Claudius. but destroys his own life by postponing the act as he looks for evidence to validate his action. In the process, however, he spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia into such a state of depression that she commits suicide. Example #4: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelley) In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, the protagonist Victor exhibits hubris in his venture to become an unrivaled scientist. After years of experiments, he triumphs in creating a "monster," which he calls "Frankenstein." Ironically, the thing which he considers his supreme invention proves his nemesis. Frankenstein ultimately becomes the source of Victor's disaster, punishing him justly for his over-ambition. Function of Nemesis The main function of nemesis in a literary work is to establish grounds for poetic justice. Nemesis acts as a source of punishment for hubristic and wicked characters on universal moral grounds. Wicked and evil individuals should be penalized for their evilness. Besides, it imparts a moral lesson to the readers to develop and refine the characters, in order to ensure they remove certain flaws which can prove to be their nemesis in time to come.

Paraprosdokian

Paraprosdokian is a derivative of a Greek word that means "beyond expectation." It is a wordplay type of literary device in which the final part of a phrase or sentence is unexpected. Its unexpected or surprised shift in meaning appears at the end of a stanza, series, sentence, or paragraph. Paraprosdokian is a linguistic U-turn that results in humor or surprise. This unexpected ending to a phrase or sentence causes readers to reinterpret the opening phrase or sentence of a text. Often, it is used to create comic effect. Some paraprosdokians change the meaning of an initial phrase, and play on double meanings of the words; hence, it creates syllepsis. Examples of Paraprosdokian from Famous People There are many one-liner paraprosdokian examples from famous people. Such as: Dorothy Parker: "If all the girls who attended the Yale prom were laid end to end, I wouldn't be a bit surprised." Winston Churchill: "You can always count on the Americans to do the right thing—after they have tried everything else" Albert Einstein: "The difference between stupidity and genius is that genius has its limits. Mario Andretti: "If everything seems under control, you're just not going fast enough." Zsa zsa Gabore: "He taught me housekeeping; when I divorce I keep the house." Examples of Paraprosdokian in Literature Example #1: My Speech to the Graduates (By Woody Allen) "Contemporary man, of course, has no such peace of mind. He finds himself in the midst of a crisis of faith. He is what we fashionably call 'alienated.' He has seen the ravages of war, he has known natural catastrophes, he has been to singles bars." Here, Allen discusses the serious topic of the meaning of human life. The "singles bars" topic is not as significant as the preceding topics, making it an unexpected ending. Example #2: The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (By Douglas Adams) "Trin Tragula - for that was his name - was a dreamer, a thinker, a speculative philosopher or, as his wife would have it, an idiot..." In these lines, the author enumerates the great traits ("a dreamer, a thinker, a speculative philosopher") of a character named Trin Tragula. However, he ends his litany of the character's good traits by mentioning how Trin Tragula's wife perceives him ("as his wife would have it, an idiot"). This ending is a surprise to the readers, and creates comic effect. Example #3: The Cottage Maid (By Patrick Branwell Bronte) "Religion makes beauty enchanting, And even where beauty is wanting, The temper and mind, Religion-refined, Will shine through the veil with sweet lustre..." In this excerpt, the poet is talking about religion throughout the first four lines. However, in the last line there is a sudden shift of sense. "Will shine through the veil with sweet lustre" gives a completely different meaning from the rest of text. Example #4: Shelter (By Charles Stuart Calverley) "By the wide lake's margin I mark'd her lie - The wide, weird lake where the alders sigh - A young fair thing, with a shy, soft eye; And I deem'd that her thoughts had flown ... All motionless, all alone. Then I heard a noise, as of men and boys, And a boisterous troop drew nigh. Whither now will retreat those fairy feet? Where hide till the storm pass by? On the lake where the alders sigh ... For she was a water-rat." Shelter is one of the examples of paraprosdokian in poetry form. In the first two stanzas, readers are led to believe that the subject is a beautiful woman ("A young fair thing, with a shy, soft eye;.../ Whither now will retreat those fairy feet?"). However, with the revelation in the last line - that the subject is a "water-rat" - the poet makes them stop and want to reread the poem. Function of Paraprosdokian The unexpected ending is used to create humorous and comic effects. It causes the readers to reinterpret or rethink the opening part of a phrase, sentence, stanza, or paragraph. Sometimes it is used to provide dramatic effect, while at other times, it produces an anti-climax, which it is a very popular use among satirists and comedians. Paraprosdokian is employed in poetry, prose, and films, as well as in music.

Parataxis

Parataxis is derived from a Greek word that means "to place side by side." It can be defined as a rhetorical term in which phrases and clauses are placed one after another independently, without coordinating or subordinating them through the use of conjunctions. It is also called "additive style." Parataxis is sometimes used as asyndeton, in which the phrases and clauses are coordinated without conjunctions. The Difference Between Parataxis and Hypotaxis Hypotaxis is the opposite of parataxis. In hypotaxis, the sentences, clauses, and phrases are subordinated and linked. However, in parataxis the phrases, clauses, and sentences are not subordinated or coordinated. Examples of Parataxis in Literature Example #1: Life of Caesar (By Plutarch) "Veni, vidi, vici" ("I came, I saw, I conquered") This is among the most famous examples of parataxis. There are no conjunctions or joining words used. The phrases are used equally, which means the phrases are placed with equal status. Example #2: Bleak House (By Charles Dickens) "Dogs, undistinguishable in mire. Horses, scarcely better-splashed to their very blinkers. Foot passengers, jostling one another's umbrellas, in a general infection of ill-temper, and losing their foothold at street corners..." This is also among the famous parataxis examples in literature. Here, the clauses are connected loosely, and create a lopping discourse. For example, at some places conjunctions are used lightly, such as "to" and "and." Example #3: Sula (By Toni Morrison) "Twenty-two years old, weak, hot, frightened, not daring to acknowledge the fact that he didn't know who or what he was ... with no past, no language, no tribe, no source, no address book, no comb, no pencil, no clock, no pocket handkerchief, no rug, no bed, no can opener, no faded postcard, no soap, no key, no tobacco pouch, no soiled underwear and nothing nothing nothing to do ... he was sure of one thing only: the unchecked monstrosity of his hands..." In this extract, a grammatically-equal relationship is created between the phrases and clauses. Also, there are no coordinating or subordinating conjunctions between the clauses and phrases. Example #4: Continuities (By Walt Whitman) "Nothing is ever really lost, or can be lost, No birth, identity, form—no object of the world. Nor life, nor force, nor any visible thing; Appearance must not foil, nor shifted sphere confuse thy brain. Ample are time and space - ample the fields of Nature..." In this excerpt, all the phrases and clauses carry equal weight. This creates the effect of piling up and compression. Example #5: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) "out ... 'into this world ... 'this world ... 'tiny little thing ... 'before its time ... 'in a god for- ... 'what? ... 'girl? ... 'yes ... 'tiny little girl ... 'into this ... 'out into this ... 'before her time ... 'godforsaken hole called ... 'called ... 'no matter ... 'parents unknown ... 'unheard of ... 'he having vanished ... 'thin air ... 'no sooner buttoned up his breeches ... 'she similarly ... 'eight months later ... 'almost to the tick ... 'so no love ... 'spared that ... 'no love such as normally vented on the ... 'speechless infant ... 'in the home ... 'no ... 'nor indeed for that matter any of any kind ... 'no love of any kind ... 'at any subsequent stage ... " Beckett has not used formal constraints (conjunctions). The clauses are juxtaposed without any clear connection, explaining one another like a single idea, in spite of mixing longer and shorter sentences. Function of Parataxis Paratactic sentences, clauses, and phrases are useful in explaining a rapid sequence of thoughts in poetry and prose. They could evoke feelings in a similar way as though they happened at once. It is a helpful device when describing a setting. In simple words, parataxis helps the readers to focus on a particular idea, thought, setting, or emotion. Also, cultural theorists use it in cultural texts where a series of events is shown side by side.

Play

Play is a literary form of writing for theatre, which narrates a story with elements of conflicts, tensions, and actions through dialogues of characters. For dramatic significance, it is divided into acts and scenes. The writers present their feelings, emotions, and ideas through their characters and make them speak. The playwright uses various dramatic elements to create more profound meanings and enhance understanding of the audience. Also, they insert text, apart from the actual dialogues of the characters, to unfold the description of characters on stage, their natural action, and psychological intentions. In this way, the writers make their texts emotive, lifelike and thought-provoking. Etymologically, 'play' is derived from the Greek word 'paizo' which means "to act" or "to perform." Elements of Play A play has certain elements such as, Plot: It refers to the order of the events that occur in the play. Characters: The characters form a crucial part of the story and are interwoven with the plot of the play. Dialogue: It refers to the conversation or interactions between the characters in the play. Setting: It refers to the time and place where a story is set. It is one of the important parts of the play. Conflict: It refers to the challenge main characters need to solve to achieve their goals. Resolution: It is the unfolding or the solution to a complex issue in a story. Types of Plays There are many types of plays such as, Tragedy: These types of plays end on a tragic note and most likely a character's death. Comedy: These types of plays are meant to amuse the audience, and they end on a happy note. Domestic Play: These types of plays are based on the normal life of family and friends. Tragicomedy: It is a fictional work comprises of both tragedy as well as comedy. Melodrama: This type of has often exaggerated characters and episodes with songs and music for an emotive appeal to the audiences. Examples of Play from Literature Example #1 Macbeth by William Shakespeare Macbeth is a famous tragic play first published in 1623. The play centers around the character of Macbeth, whose desire to become the king of Scotland at any cost and it becomes the reason for his tragic downfall. At the outset, he is seen as a brave and loyal Thane to King Duncan. However, after hearing the prophecies of the witches, he becomes paranoid and greedy. Tempted by prophecies of the witches and with his wife's motivation, he brutally kills King Duncan and becomes the king himself. Supernatural creatures also play a vital role in the play. They attack his weakness and tempt him to kill everyone who comes on his way to possess the crown. Out of greed, he also kills his friend, Banquo, Lady Macduff and her children and many other innocent souls to reach his goal. However, his evil deeds and greed pay him off in the form of his tragic demise. Hence, the play is the best example of tragedy because of the tragic flaw and moral weakness of the main character become the cause of his eventual downfall. Example #2 Oedipus Rex by Sophocles Sophocles, a famous Greek tragedian, wrote Oedipus Rex which is one of the famous Greek tragedies till date. The tragic play recounts the story of Oedipus, who becomes the king of Thebes, and unknowingly fulfills the prophecy by murdering his father, Laius, and marry his mother, Jocasta. The play opens when the King of Thebes, Oedipus addressing his people who are confused by an infliction, which is swiping them off. Therefore, they gather at the king's court to ask him to rescue them from this plague. According to the oracle, this plague is caused because the people of Thebes have not arrested and punished the murderer of their late king. Believing in the oracle, Oedipus promises to find and punish the culprit. He tries to investigate and soon finds out the bitter truth from the Oracle Tiresias. Overcome with guilt and grief over his ill fate, Oedipus blinds himself. Thus, this tragic play highlights the role of fate and chance which brings a disastrous end for their victims. Example #3 The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare A famous tragicomedy by William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice was first published between 1596 and 1599. It was first performed in 1605. Shakespeare successfully blends the aspects of tragedy and comedy in this fictional work. The play centers on the character of Antonio, a Venetian merchant. He takes a loan from a Jew, Shylock, to help his friend, Bassanio to marry Portia, a wealthy lady who lives in Belmont. He gives them three thousand ducats with no interest. Shylock puts a condition that if Antonio fails to return the amount he has to give a pound of his flesh and Antonio agrees, believing that his ships will return on time. Then they leave for Belmont where Bassanio wins Portia's hand. Antonio fails to return the loan and Shylock almost prepares to cut out Antonio's heart. But, Portia, a lawyer stands with Antonio and saves him from Shylock. This play is a perfect tragicomedy. The writer has presented unremitting tragedy in the first three acts. However, the last two acts comprise the restorative comedy. Functions of the Play A play functions as a tool to give reveal to one's thoughts through performance in front of the live audience. Writers skillfully feature certain situations to make the audience laugh at funny incidents as well as feel pity and fear for unfortunate circumstances or incidents. It enables the audience to understand and feel a lot out of less description. Also, it is a convenient way to present different characters and their inner thoughts in dramas. Moreover, it enables the writers to dramatize the story in a way that events and characters are easily brought to life through a theatrical performance.

Pleonasm

Pleonasm is derived from a Greek word that means "excess." It is a rhetorical device that can be defined as the use of two or more words (a phrase) to express an idea. These words are redundant, such as in these examples of pleonasm" "burning fire," and "black darkness." Sometimes, pleonasm is called "tautology," which is the repetition of words. Difference Between Oxymoron and Pleonasm Oxymoron is a combination of two contradictory terms. It is the opposite of pleonasm. This can appear in different types of texts due to an error, or used advertently to give paradoxical meanings. For example, "I like a smuggler. He is the only honest thief." However, pleonasm is a combination of two or more words which are more than those required for clear expression. For example, "I saw it with my own eyes." Types of Pleonasm There are two types of pleonasm as given below: Syntactic Pleonasm This occurs when the grammatical language makes specific functional words optional such as: "I know you will come." "I know that you will come." In the given pleonasm examples, the conjunction "that" is optional while joining a verb phrase with a sentence. Although both sentences are correct grammatically, the conjunction "that" is pleonastic. Semantic Pleonasm Semantic pleonasm is related more to the style of the language than the grammar, such as given below: "I am eating a tuna fish" Here tuna is itself the name of a fish, and there is no need to add the word "fish." Therefore, the word fish is pleonastic in the sentence. Examples of Pleonasm in Literature Example #1: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) "This was the most unkindest cut of all..." In this excerpt, Shakespeare has deliberately used the term "most unkindest" as pleonastic. He could have used unkindest only; however, most is added in order to emphasize and give an even clearer meaning. Example #2: Molloy (By Samuel Beckett) "Let me tell you this, when social workers offer you, free, gratis and for nothing, something to hinder you from swooning, which with them is an obsession, it is useless to recoil ..." In this example, the terms "free," "gratis," and "for nothing" have very similar meanings. The words are repeated to create linguistic and literary effects. In this way, the words free and nothing are highlighted. This is a semantic pleonasm. Example #3: Eaters of the Dead (By Michael Crichton) "All this I saw with my own eyes, and it was the most fearsome sight I ever witnessed..." The term "my own" is pleonastic, since the word "my" would have been enough to show possession. However, "own" is added to emphasize and clarify the meaning of the phrase. Example #4: City of the Beasts (By Isabel Allende) "These terrible things I have seen with my own eyes, and I have heard with my own ears, and touched with my own hands..." Here again, the sense of possession is expressed with the use of pleonasm. The word "own" is redundant in each bold phrase. This is a syntactic pleonasm. Example #5: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) "From that day mortal, and this happie State Shalt loose, expell'd from hence into a World Of woe and sorrow..." Milton is famous for using pleonastic language. Here, the word "hence" is employed in a redundant manner. In this context, the meaning of hence could be "because of the previous premise." It also means "henceforth." This is an example of semantic pleonasm. Example #6: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) "He was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again..." The dictum of Hamlet for his father, here the word "man," adds semantic meanings to the male personality. This is also a semantic pleonasm that is related to the style of language, enhancing the meaning of the word "man." Function of Pleonasm Pleonastic words are employed to achieve linguistic, poetic, and literary effects. Since they are used as a rhetorical repetition, they are helpful for reinforcing a contention, an idea, or a question rendering an expression easier and clearer to understand. Also, they serve as a part of idiomatic language in professional and scholarly writing.

Plot

Plot is a literary term used to describe the events that make up a story, or the main part of a story. These events relate to each other in a pattern or a sequence. The structure of a novel depends on the organization of events in the plot of the story. Plot is known as the foundation of a novel or story, around which the characters and settings are built. It is meant to organize information and events in a logical manner. When writing the plot of a piece of literature, the author has to be careful that it does not dominate the other parts of the story. Primary Elements of a Plot There are five main elements in a plot. Exposition or Introduction This is the beginning of the story, where characters and setting are established. The conflict or main problem is introduced as well. Rising Action Rising action which occurs when a series of events build up to the conflict. The main characters are established by the time the rising action of a plot occurs, and at the same time, events begin to get complicated. It is during this part of a story that excitement, tension, or crisis is encountered. Climax In the climax, or the main point of the plot, there is a turning point of the story. This is meant to be the moment of highest interest and emotion, leaving the reader wondering what is going to happen next. Falling Action Falling action, or the winding up of the story, occurs when events and complications begin to resolve. The result of the actions of the main characters are put forward. Resolution Resolution, or the conclusion, is the end of a story, which may occur with either a happy or a tragic ending. Examples of Plot in Literature Example #1: Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone (By J. K. Rowling) Among the examples of plot in modern literature, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone is probably the most familiar to both readers and moviegoers. The plot of the story begins when Harry learns that Professor Snape is after the Sorcerer's Stone. The Professor lets loose a troll, who nearly kills Harry and his friends. In addition, Harry finds out that Hagrid let out the secret of the giant dog to a stranger in return for a dragon, which means that Snape can now reach the Sorcerer's Stone. Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) A very good plot example in romantic fiction appears in the book Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. The plot of the story begins when Lizzie's sister, Jane, falls in love with Darcy's friend named Mr. Bingley. Lizzie develops and interest in Mr. Wickham, who accuses Darcy of destroying him financially. When Lizzie goes to meet her friend, she runs into Mr. Darcy, who proposes, and Lizzie rejects. She then writes him a letter telling him why she dislikes him. He writes back, clearing up all misunderstandings and accusations. Jane runs away with Mr. Wickham, and Lizzie realizes that Mr. Darcy is not as bad a man as she had thought him to be. Function of Plot A plot is one of the most important parts of a story, and has many different purposes. Firstly, the plot focuses attention on the important characters and their roles in the story. It motivates the characters to affect the story, and connects the events in an orderly manner. The plot creates a desire for the reader to go on reading by absorbing them in the middle of the story, ensuring they want to know what happens next. The plot leads to the climax, but by gradually releasing the story in order to maintain readers' interest. During the plot of a book, a reader gets emotionally involved, connecting with the book, not allowing himself to put the book down. Eventually, the plot reveals the entire story, giving the reader a sense of completion that he has finished the story and reached a conclusion. The plot is what forms a memory in readers' minds, allowing them to think about the book and even making them want to read it again. By identifying and understanding the plot, the reader is able to understand the message being conveyed by the author, and the explicit or implicit moral of the story.

Point of View

Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion or feelings of the individuals involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the mode of narration that an author employs to let the readers "hear" and "see" what takes place in a story, poem, or essay. Point of view is a reflection of the opinion an individual from real life or fiction has. Examples of point of view belong to one of these three major kinds: First person point of view involves the use of either of the two pronouns "I" or "we." "I felt like I was getting drowned with shame and disgrace." Second person point of view employs the pronoun "you." "Sometimes you cannot clearly discern between anger and frustration." Third person point of view uses pronouns like "he," "she," "it," "they," or a name. " Stewart is a principled man. He acts by the book and never lets you deceive him easily." Examples of Point of View in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Hamlet, the protagonist, explains the feeling of melancholy that afflicts him after his father's death: "I have of late, — but wherefore I know not, — lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises; and indeed, it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory." This is one of the best first-person point of view examples in literature. The use of first-person point of view gives us a glimpse into the real inner feelings of frustration of the character. The writer has utilized the first-person point of view to expose Hamlet's feelings in a detailed way. Example #2: Daffodils (By William Wordsworth) "I gazed - and gazed - but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought." Notice how William Wordsworth uses the first-person point of view to express his subjective feelings about the scene of daffodils in his famous poem. The use of the pronoun "I" gives a special quality to the feelings expressed in these lines. The reader can see that the poet has employed first-person point of view to share with us his own personal emotions. Example #3: The Sun also Rises (By Ernest Hemingway) Ernest Hemingway, in The Sun also Rises, employs the first-person point of view which is peculiar to his style. "I could picture it. I have a habit of imagining the conversations between my friends. We went out to the Cafe Napolitain to have an aperitif and watch the evening crowd on the Boulevard." The use of two first person pronouns, "I" and "we," gives these lines the quality of having a first person point of view. The reader can feel like he or she is hearing the dialogue directly from the characters. Example #4: Bright Lights, Big City (By Jay Mclnemey) "You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this time of the morning. But here you are, and you cannot say that the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although the details are fuzzy." Here, the writer illustrates the use of second-person point of view with the use of the pronoun "you." This technique may be less common, but it has its own strength of hooking the reader right from the start. Example #5: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) "When Jane and Elizabeth were alone, the former, who had been cautious in her praise of Mr. Bingley before, expressed to her sister how very much she admired him." "He is just what a young man ought to be," said she, "sensible, good humoured, lively; and I never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect good breeding!" These lines demonstrate a fine use of the third-person point of view. The excerpt shows the reader two different ways of using third person point of view. Jane Austen first presents two leading characters -Jane and Elizabeth - from the third-person point of view, and then shows us that the two characters are talking about Bingley from their own third-person point of view. This can be a good example of the use of dual third person point of view - first by the author, and then by the characters. Function of Point of View Point of view is an integral tool of description in the author's hands to portray personal emotions or characters' feelings about an experience or situation. Writers use a point of view to express effectively what they want to convey to their readers.

Polyptoton

Polyptoton is a stylistic device that is a rhetorical repetition of the same root word. However, each time the word is repeated in a different way, such as the words luppiter, lovi, lovis, and lovem are derived from the root word "love." Features of Polyptoton Polyptoton is the use of excessive words instead of shorter expressions. It involves an indirect way of expressing things. These words can help embellish sentences to create striking effects. In fact, it happens when the grammatical meaning can be expressed by using syntactical construction instead of morphological marking. The words in polyptoton share the same etymologies. It is sometimes used as superlative and comparative adjectives formed by adding words like "more" or "most" instead of suffixes. Similarity with Antanaclasis Antanaclasis is another linguistic device that is similar to polyptoton, wherein the similar words are repeated several times, but each time with different meanings, in the same phrase or sentence. For instance: "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself." (Franklin D. Roosevelt) Examples of Polyptoton in Literature Example #1: The Dry Salvages (By T. S. Eliot) "There is no end of it, the voiceless wailing, No end to the withering of withered flowers, To the movement of pain that is painless and motionless, To the drift of the sea and the drifting wreckage, The bone's prayer to Death its God. Only the hardly, barely prayable Prayer of the one Annunciation..." There are three Polyptoton examples in the above excerpt. In the second line, the word "wither" is used in two ways (verb and adjective). Also, in the fourth line the word "drift" (noun and adjective), and the word "pray" have been used to give different senses (adjectives and nouns) each time. Example #2: Trolius and Cressida (By William Shakespeare) "The Greeks are strong, and skillful to their strength, fierce to their skill, and to their fierceness valiant ..." In this excerpt, Shakespeare has repeated three words in different ways. Each use of these words creates a different sense. The word, "strong" is repeated as "strength." In the same way, the root words "fierce" and "skill" are also used twice. Example #3: Maud A Monodrama (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "My own heart's heart, and ownest own, farewell... My dream? do I dream of bliss? I have walk'd awake with Truth ... For my dark-dawning youth, Darken'd watching a mother decline And that dead man at her heart and mine... Yet so did I let my freshness die... Seal'd her mine from her first sweet breath. Mine, mine by a right, from birth till death. Mine, mine—our fathers have sworn." This is one of the perfect examples of polyptoton in which Tennyson has used the same word in various forms. Here, it is creating poetic effect by contrasting different forms. Example #4: Richard II (By William Shakespeare) "With eager feeding food doth choke the feeder ..." Here, Shakespeare provides an interesting contrast of different forms of the same root word, "feed." This repetition also draws attention towards the paradoxical meaning of the word. Example #5: Barchester Towers (By Anthony Trollope) "The signora at every grimace and at every bow smiled a little smile and bowed a little bow..." This is another very good example of polyptoton. Here, the words bow and smile are used in multiple forms. "Bow" is used as a noun and then as a verb. Similarly, "smile" is used twice in two ways with different meanings. Example #6: Sonnet 116 (By William Shakespeare) "Love is not love Which alters when it alteration finds, Or bends with the remover to remove ..." Again Shakespeare has employed polyptoton as a stylistic device. The word "alter" is used as a verb, and in the same line also as a noun. In the third line, "remove" is repeated in a different sense but the root words are same. Function of Polyptoton Polyptoton enhances the meaning of a word persuasively and dramatically, in writing or speech, by employing a cognate of the words. It is also used to create rhetorical effect by the articulation of a speech or statement. Although it helps provide an exciting contrast of different words in a text, it is also in didactic sense to create dramatic and poetic effects. Besides, it brings a paradox or an irony in a text to the surface. It is widely used in popular dramas and poems, while several political leaders have also used this device in their speeches to emphasize specific points.

Polysyndeton

Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found in literature and in day-to-day conversations. The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning "bound together." It makes use of coordinating conjunctions like and, or, but, and nor (mostly and and or) which are used to join successive words, phrases, or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are even used where they might have been omitted. For example, in the sentence, "We have ships and men and money and stores," the coordinating conjunction "and" is used in quick succession to join words occurring together. In a normal situation, the coordinating conjunction "and" is used to join the last two words of the list, and the rest of the words in the list are separated or joined by a comma. Polysyndeton vs. Asyndeton Polysyndeton is opposite to another stylistic device known as "asyndeton." In an asyndeton, the words in a list are separated by commas, and no conjunctions are used to join the words in a list. Thomas S. Kane describes the difference between the two devices, saying that they are nothing more than the techniques of handling a long series of words or lists. Polysyndeton uses conjunctions after every word or term, while asyndeton uses no conjunctions but only commas. For example: "Jane's days became a blur of meaningless events - wake up, brush teeth, make the coffee, get the mail, fix dinner, watch TV. It was hard to keep depression at bay." Examples of Polysyndeton in Literature Example #1: The Holy Bible, Joshua 7:24 (By the Prophet Joshua) "And Joshua, and all of Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, and the silver, and the garment, and the wedge of gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his asses, and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had." This is among the best examples of polysyndeton found in classical or religious text. See how the conjunction "and" has been used in quick succession to join all the items given in this text. Example #2: After the Storm (By Ernest Hemingway) "I said, 'Who killed him?' and he said 'I don't know who killed him, but he's dead all right,' and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights or windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was right only she was full of water." Hemingway has used "and" as a polysyndeton in this passage taken from "After the Storm." Using this literary device, Hemmingway is able to make his readers feel the anxiety that his character is feeling. Example #3: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou) Maya Angelou, a popular female poet, is well known for her use of polysyndeton, which can seem excessive at times. This is what she has written in her story I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. "Let the whitefolks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big houses and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly-mostly-let them have their whiteness." The continuity in the entire sentence is remarkable, and the rhythm is exhilarating. Example #4: Dombey and Son (By Charles Dickens) "There were frowzy fields, and cow-houses, and dunghills, and dustheaps, and ditches, and gardens, and summer-houses, and carpet-beating grounds, at the very door of the Railway. Little tumuli of oyster shells in the oyster season, and of lobster shells in the lobster season, and of broken crockery and faded cabbage leaves in all seasons, encroached upon its high places." Charles Dickens is also well-known for his use of polysyndeton, as well as commas - often using both of these devices. You can see the effects in this passage taken from Dombey and Son. Function of Polysyndeton Polysyndeton performs several functions. Not only does it join words, phrases, and clauses, bringing continuity to a sentence, but it acts also as a stylistic device that brings rhythm to the text with the repetition of conjunctions in quick succession. It is also employed as a tool to lay emphasis to the ideas the conjunctions connect.

Portmanteau

Portmanteau is a literary device in which two or more words are joined together to coin a new word, which refers to a singe concept. The coinage of portmanteau involves the linking and blending of two or more words, and the new word formed in the process shares the same meanings as the original words. It is different from a compound word, which could have a completely different meaning from the words that it was coined from. Portmanteau, on the other hand, shares the same semantic features. For example, the word "brunch" is formed by splicing two words "breakfast" and "lunch." The spliced parts "br-" and "-unch" are blended to form a portmanteau word, "brunch," which is the meal taken between breakfast and lunch. Interestingly, the word portmanteau is formed by blending two French words, porter ("to carry") and Manteau ("cloak"). Common Portmanteau Examples In modern times, portmanteau words have entered the English language regularly. We see their widespread coinage in different fields of life. No doubt, they are both useful and interesting. Below is a list of examples of portmanteau words in modern language. education + entertainment = edutainment fan + magazine = fanzine cyberspace + magazine = cyberzine Oxford + Cambridge = Oxbridge telephone + marathon = telethon medical + care = Medicare parachute + troops = paratroops motor + hotel = motel camera + recorder = camcorder web + log = blog iPod + broadcasting = podcasting Examples of Portmanteau in Art and Entertainment The world of art and entertainment is replete with portmanteau examples, such as: britcom, from British and comedy (see also: sitcom) californication, from California and fornication cassingle, from cassette and single cosplay, from costume and play dramedy, from drama and comedy religulous, from religion and ridiculous sacrilicious, from sacrilege and delicious (Homer Simpson) scanlation, from scan and translation sitcom, from situational and comedy slurve, form slider and curve (baseball pitches) spife, spoon and knife spork, spoon and fork streetball, from street and basketball Examples of Portmanteau in Literature Example #1: Through the Looking Glass, and What Alice Found There (Lewis Carroll) In literature, Lewis Carroll introduces the term portmanteau in his novel "Through the Looking Glass, and What Alice Found There." In chapter 6, Humpty Dumpty explains the meaning of "slithy" and "mimsy," in the nonsense poem Jabberwocky. He says that "slithy" is a combination of "slimy" and "lithe," and "mimsy" is a combination of "flimsy," and "miserable." He tells Alice: "You see it's like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word." Example #2: Finnegans Wake (By James Joyce) James Joyce extensively uses portmanteau words in his novel Finnegans Wake. For instance: Ethiquetical is formed from ethicsand etiquette. Blinkhards is coined from the Dutch "blinken" ("to shine") and the English to blink. "Stop his laysense. Ink him!" Laysense comes from the words "layman" and "sense." Sinduced is from "sin" and "seduced." Comeday is from "someday" and "comedy." Fadograph is formed from "fading" and "photograph." Example #3: Bleak House (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens is famous for giving his characters portmanteau names. Such names correspond with the each character's disposition as well. For instance, there is a character named Mr. Tulkinghorn, a stout lawyer, in Bleakhouse. Tulking is a modification of bulking and horn suggests an injurious nature. Similarly, Mr. Boythorn in Bleakhouse is a compounding of boyhood, referring to his goodness of heart; and thorn, pointing to his loud and harsh nature. Moreover, Mr. Murdstone seems to come from the words "murderer" and "stone," and refers to coldness. In The Mystery of Edwin Drood, the name Crisparkle is a blending of the words "Christian," which manifests his goodness, and "sparkle," which reflects his boy-like temperament. Function of Portmanteau One of the many factors that distinguish the English language from other languages of the world is the scope it offers for creativity, through literary devices such as portmanteau. The existence of portmanteau words rightly testifies to this creative factor in the English language, where entirely new words with a unique meaning of their own are formed by blending parts of two or more totally different words. Writers are interested in such coinages because they allow them to add creativity to their works, which consequently adds the element of interest in their literary texts. Moreover, it attracts readers' attention, as they enjoy and appreciates this subtle demonstration of word play.

Metaphor

A Metaphor is a figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated, but which share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics. In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else, even though it is not actually that "something else," you are speaking metaphorically. The following phrase is an example of metaphor, "My brother is the black sheep of the family," because he is neither a sheep nor is he black. However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black sheep is an unusual animal, which typically stays away from the herd, and the person being described shares similar characteristics. However, the metaphor figure of speech is different from a simile, because we do not use "like" or "as" to develop a comparison in metaphor poems and metaphor sentences. It makes an implicit or hidden comparison and not an explicit one. Let's now take a look at some common examples of meptahors. Common Speech Examples of Metaphor So, what is a Metaphor? Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in songs or poems only, and that it has nothing to do with our everyday life. In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write, and think in metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our common language, and they are called "conventional metaphors." Let's explore a few metaphor meaning and examples such as calling a person a "night owl," or an "early bird," or saying "life is a journey," are common metaphor examples which are heard and understood by most of us. Below are some more conventional metaphors we often hear in our daily lives: My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.) The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.) It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is going to be without hardships) The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that the coming times are going to be hard for him.) Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy) He saw the soul of dust when passing through the dust storm. Chaos is the breeding ground of order. War is the mother of all battles. Her dance is a great poem. A new road to freedom passes through this valley of death. My conscience is my barometer. His white face shows his concern. His kisses are like roses. He married her to have a trophy wife. Laughter is the best medicine. Words are daggers when spoken in anger. His words are pearls of wisdom. Metaphor Examples in Literature Metaphors are used in all types of literature, but not often to the degree they are used in poetry. This is because metaphor poem is meant to communicate complex images and feelings to readers, and metaphors often state the comparisons most emotively. Now that we know the definition of metaphor, let's take a look at some examples. Example #1: The Sun Rising (By John Donne) "She's all states, and all princes, I ..." John Donne, a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphors throughout his poetical works. In his well-known work, The Sun Rising, the speaker scolds the sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he explains "She is all states, and all princes, I." This line demonstrates the speaker's belief that he and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of the love that they share. Example #2: Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day (By William Shakespeare) "But thy eternal summer shall not fade ..." William Shakespeare was the best exponent of metaphors, having made wide-ranging use of them throughout his works. Sonnet 18, also known as Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day, is an extended metaphor between the love of the speaker and the fairness of the summer season. He writes that "thy eternal summer," here taken to mean the love of the subject, "shall not fade." Example #3: When I Have Fears (By John Keats) "Before high-pil'd books, in charact'ry Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain;" The great Romantic poet John Keats suffered great losses in his life — the death of his father in an accident and the deaths of his mother and brother through tuberculosis. When Keats himself began displaying signs of tuberculosis at the age of 22, he wrote When I Have Fears, a poem rich with metaphors concerning life and death. In the lines above, he employs a double metaphor. Writing poetry is implicitly compared with reaping and sowing, and both these acts represent the emptiness of a life unfulfilled creatively. Example #4: Vestiges (By Van Jordan) "... and jump in the sea and say, follow me, and know you would. The sea is cold and it's deep, too, I'd joke, standing at the edge of the boat's bow. A wind breathes across the sea, joining gently the edges of time." Just spot different metaphors in these six lines by Van Jordan. This is the "sea" of time. This is an extended metaphor that is further expanded to its feature of coldness, depth, and then edges and voyage through it. Example #5: The Sun Rising (By John Donne) "Busy old fool, unruly sun, Why dost thou thus, Through windows, and through curtains call on us?" This is another example of a good metaphor where the sun is being called a fool by John Done, who is famous for his use of weird metaphors. Example #6: Paradise Lost, Book 1 (By John Milton) "Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song, That with no middle flight intends to soar Above th' Aonian Mount" This is a good metaphor by Milton, from his epic Paradise Lost. Here, Milton has compared his poetry to a dove. Example #7: i carry your heart with me (By E. E. Cummings) "...and it's you are whatever a moon has always meant and whatever a sun will always sing is you ..." Here E. E. Cummings has compared his beloved to the moon, as well as to the sun. This is another good metaphor by a modern poet. Example #8: The Storm (By Kate Chopin) "Her mouth was a fountain of delight. And when he possessed her, they seemed to swoon together at the very borderland of life's mystery." Just check the excellence of using a metaphor in just one sentence. The second one is its extension. Example #9: The Call of Cthulhu (By H.P. Lovecraft) "We live on a placid island of ignorance in the midst of black seas of infinity, and it was not meant that we should voyage far. The sciences, each straining in its own direction, have hitherto harmed us little; but some day the piecing together of dissociated knowledge will open up such terrifying vistas of reality, and of our frightful position therein, that we shall either go mad from the revelation or flee from the light into the peace and safety of a new dark age."" Lovecraft has beautifully used metaphors to describe the situation in this paragraph. Just read the underlined phrases to see this metaphorical beauty. Metaphor Meaning and Function From the above arguments, explanations, and examples, we can easily infer the function of metaphors; both in our daily lives and in a piece of literature. Using appropriate metaphors appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, sharpening their imaginations to comprehend what is being communicated to them. Moreover, it gives a life-like quality to our conversations and the characters of fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of examining ideas and viewing the world.

Novel

A Novel is a long narrative work of fiction with some realism. It is often in prose form and is published as a single book. The word 'novel' has been derived from the Italian word 'novella' which means "new". Similar to a short story, a novel has some features like a representation of characters, dialogues, setting, plot, climax, conflict, and resolution. However, it does not require all the elements to be a good novel. Types of Novel There are many types of novels. They include mysteries, thrillers, suspense, detective, science fiction, romantic, historical, realist or even postmodern. Examples of Novels from Literature Example #1 Animal Farm by George Orwell Animal Farm by George Orwell was written in 1945 and published in England. It allegorizes the story of the Communist Revolution in Russia through the characters of pigs and satirizes its degradation into the same totalitarian regime. The story revolves around animals where pigs are the cleverer than others. They bring a revolution, expelling their old master, Mr. Jones. However, after a couple of years, the pig leaders Snowball and Napoleon develop friction. Snowball flees to save his life, and the situation turns a full circle where Napoleon and his cohorts again take a dictatorial turn to run the administration of the farm through propaganda and other strategies. This is a short form of a novel with animals as its characters. Example #2 The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway The Old Man and the Sea is a tour de force of Hemingway which won Noble Prize for Literature for him. A model of the realistic novel, the Old Man and the Sea presents the story of an old man who is too fragile to fish alone in the Gulf Stream near the Cuban capital of Havana. However, he hooks a truly huge marlin which tests his mettle for almost three days. Although he kills the marlin by the end, he loses it to sharks. His extreme fight and endurance win him accolades from the readers. Example #3 Great Expectations by Charles Dickens This is one of the best comings of the age novels, which takes the reader on a journey to see the life of a poor young boy, Pip. In the novel, Pip's transformation from a poor orphan into a gentleman living in London goes through various challenges. His mistakes teach him valuable lessons as he realizes what his benefactors and Joe did for him. Parallelly, he falls in love with prideful Estelle and does his best to win her affection. By the end of the novel, Estelle is a widow and humbled, and Pip asks her to marry him, which she accepts. Without a doubt, "The Great Expectations" is one of the best English novels which tells the main characters personal growth and development. Example #4 Frankenstein by Mary Shelley Although written in the 19th century, Frankenstein by Mary Shelley is one of the best science fictions. The story of a young scientist, Victor Frankenstein obsessed with the idea of creating life. He creates 'the Creature' and is repulsed by his own experiment. The Creature brings havoc in Victor Frankenstein's life after he fails to give him a partner. Both Victor and the creature meet with a tragic end. The story teaches a lesson that we must never intervene with nature. Example #5 Tess of the d'Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy Tess of the d'Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy is one of the best novels of the last century, which explores the role of fate and chance in an individual's life. Tess belongs to a poor family, but her father discovers that their family perhaps descendants of D'Urbervilles, a noble family, after meeting Parson Tringham. Taking pride in his ancient lineage, he spends whatever they have and forces his young daughter to work on a farm where she is raped. Later, another young man, Angel Clare, marries her but after this disclosure, he leaves her. By the end of the novel, Angel returns and accepts her, but Tess is hanged for murdering her former rapist, Alec. Novel Meaning and Function A novel presents a whole picture as compared to a short story which displays only one aspect of life, or one side of the story. It also shows a vast panorama to its readers to see the story through an age in which it is presented such as The Tale of Two Cities has been written during the times when France and England were going through a lot of changes. Similarly, a novel also presents a conflict and its resolution. For every writer, a novel is a strong tool to present the philosophical, historical, social, cultural and moral perspectives.

Dialect

A dialect is the language used by the people of a specific area, class, district, or any other group of people. The term dialect involves the spelling, sounds, grammar and pronunciation used by a particular group of people and it distinguishes them from other people around them. Dialect is a very powerful and common way of characterization, which elaborates the geographic and social background of any character. Examples of Dialect in Literature Example #1: Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) Jim: "We's safe, Huck, we's safe! Jump up and crack yo' heels. Dat's de good ole Cairo at las', I jis knows it." Huck: "I'll take the canoe and go see, Jim. It mightn't be, you know." One of the best dialect examples in literature, in which it is used as a literary device, occurs in this piece by Mark Twain. Here, Twain uses exaggerated dialect to distinguish between the characters. Example #2: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee) Characters that are less educated and less sophisticated are usually shown to be speaking with a much stronger dialect. At certain points you might even need translations. Such as: Walter: "Reckon I have. Almost died first year I come to school and et them pecans — folks say he pizened 'em and put 'em over on the school side of the fence." Translation: I suppose I have. The first year I came to school and ate those pecans, I almost died. Some people accuse him [Mr. Radley] of poisoning them, and keeping them over on the school side of the fence. Examples of Dialect in Poetry Example #4: Poor Bit of a Wench (By D. H. Lawrence) "Will no one say hush! to thee, poor lass, poor bit of a wench? Will never a man say: Come, my pigeon, come an' be still wi' me, my own bit of a wench!" Example #5: Gipsy (By D. H. Lawrence) "I, the man with the red scarf, Will give thee what I have, this last week's earnings. Take them and buy thee a silver ring And wed me, to ease my yearnings. For the rest when thou art wedded I'll wet my brow for thee With sweat, I'll enter a house for thy sake, Thou shalt shut doors on me." You can also find great examples of dialect usage in two of George Eliot's novels, Silas Mariner and Middlemarch. Another method of using dialect is to knowingly misspell a word to build an artistic aura around a character, which is termed "metaplasmus." Dialects in American and British English There have been several very unique dialects in literature in the past, out of which some have grown to be more dominant. Old and middle English had distinctive regional dialects. The major dialects in old English involved Kentish, Northumbrian, Mercian, and West Saxon dialects. As the years passed, the West Saxon dialect became the standard. Moreover, middle English included Southern, West Midlands, Northern, East Midlands, and Kentish dialects. In the British Isles, modern English give out hints of class as well as regional dialects. Almost every British country has its own variation to a certain extent. A. C. Baugh pointed out that in one place, at times, you can mark three dialectal regions in a single shire. Modern American English consists of dialects such as Eastern New England, Mid-southern, Inland Northern, Southern, General American North, Midland, New York, and Black English Vernacular. Function of Dialect The narrative voice in literature usually aspires to speak in concert with the reality it illustrates. African American authors often criticize this condition, while discussing the significance of speaking in so-called "standard" American English in comparison with African American English. Toni Cade Bambara has made a remarkable contribution to this aspect by choosing the language of her culture and community. She used her language as a very productive critical tool, and her dialect illustration in The Lesson functioned as an examination of how the people who listen to it ultimately hear the disparaged speech. By reviving the language, which had long been marginalized, she contributes towards the effort to salvage the cultural identity of African Americans. This integration of non-standard linguistic features into the literature in "the lesson" works as an insightful response to marginalization. It also proves the strength and power of language in portraying the diverse realities of people from different places.

Dialogue

A dialogue is a literary technique in which writers employ two or more characters to be engaged in conversation with one another. In literature, it is a conversational passage, or a spoken or written exchange of conversation in a group, or between two persons directed towards a particular subject. The use of dialogues can be seen back in classical literature, especially in Plato's Republic. Several other philosophers also used this technique for rhetorical and argumentative purposes. Generally, it makes a literary work enjoyable and lively. Types of Dialogue There are two types of dialogue in literature: Inner Dialogue - In inner dialogue, the characters speak to themselves and reveal their personalities. To use inner dialogue, writers employ literary techniques like stream of consciousness or dramatic monologue. We often find such dialogues in the works of James Joyce, Virginia Wolf, and William Faulkner. Outer Dialogue - Outer dialogue is a simple conversation between two characters, used in almost all types of fictional works. Examples of Dialogue in Literature Let us see how famous writers have used dialogues for resonance and meaning in their works: Example #1: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) "Now he is here," I exclaimed. "For Heaven's sake, hurry down! Do be quick; and stay among the trees till he is fairly in." "I must go, Cathy," said Heathcliff, seeking to extricate himself from his companion's arms. "I won't stray five yards from your window..." "For one hour," he pleaded earnestly. "Not for one minute," she replied. "I must-Linton will be up immediately," persisted the intruder. Miss Bronte has employed surprises, opposition, and reversals in this dialogue like will-it-happen, when he says, "But, if I live, I'll see you ..." She has inserted these expressions in order to develop conflict in the plot. Example #2: Crime and Punishment (By Fyodor Dostoevsky) "But who did he tell it to? You and me?" "And Porfiry." "What does it matter?" "And, by the way, do you have any influence over them, his mother and sister? Tell them to be more careful with him today ..." "They'll get on all right!" Razumikhin answered reluctantly. "Why is he so set against this Luzhin? A man with money and she doesn't dislike him ... "But what business is it of yours?" Razumikhin cried with annoyance. In this excerpt, notice the use of conflict, emotions, information, conflict, reversal, and opposition flowing by. The ideas and information are expressed with perfect timing, but here an important point is that the characters are not responding with a definite answer. This is a beautiful piece of dialogue. Example #3: A Dialogue Between Caliban and Ariel (By John Fuller) Cal. "Have you no visions that you cannot name?" Ar. "A picture should extend beyond its frame, There being no limitation To bright reality: For all their declaration And complexity, Words cannot see." Fuller has written this poem in the dialogue form. Two characters, Caliban and Ariel, are conversing, revealing the conflict, as Caliban asks questions, and Ariel gives answers that make the poem alive and interesting. Example #4: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) "Oh! Single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune; four or five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls!" "How so? How can it affect them?" "My dear Mr. Bennet, "replied his wife, "how can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them... My dear, you flatter me. I certainly have had my share of beauty, but I do not pretend to be anything extraordinary now...she ought to give over thinking of her own beauty." Austen explores the characters in her novels through dialogue. Likewise, in this conversation, the author unfolds Mrs. Bennet's character as being stupid and worthless. Mr. Bennet makes fun of her wife, and this dialogue sums up their relationship and gives hints about their personalities. Function of Dialogue The use of dialogue is prevalent in fiction, but this technique can also be found in poetry, non-fiction, films, and drama. The dialogue has several purposes, such as advancing the plot of a narrative, and revealing the characters that cannot be understood otherwise. Further, it presents an exposition of the background or past events, and creates the tone of a narrative. Its usage can also be seen in modern literary works, where it colors the personalities of the characters, creates a conflict, highlights the vernacular, and moves the storyline forward. Moreover, dialogue makes a literary piece interesting and alive, and gives enjoyable experience to the readers.

Double Entendre

A double entendre is a literary device that can be defined as a phrase or a figure of speech that might have multiple senses, interpretations, or two different meanings, or which might be understood in two different ways. Oxford Dictionary says that it "conveys an indelicate meaning." The first meaning in double entendre is usually straightforward, while the second meaning is ironic, risqué, or inappropriate. Examples of Double Entendre in Literature Double entendre is used in literature, everyday life, films, magazines, and newspapers to criticize and provide entertainment, and sometimes to make people laugh. It is widely used for insinuation and irony. William Shakespeare and Geoffrey Chaucer have made use of double entendre in their works. Example #1: The 2,548 Best things Anybody Ever Said (By Robert Byrne ) "Marriage is a fine institution, but I'm not ready for an institution." (Mae West) The word "institution" in connection with marriage has two meanings in here. One, it refers to marriage as an important custom of a society. Two, marriage is something that will cause an individual to go to a mental institution. Example #2: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Nurse: "God ye good morrow, gentlemen." Mercutio: "God ye good den, fair gentlewoman." Nurse: "Is it good den?" Mercutio: " 'Tis no less, I tell you; for the bawdy hand of the dial is now upon the prick of noon." Nurse: "Out upon you! What a man are you!" The audience may wonder why the nurse reacted negatively when Mercutio was plainly stating the time. This is because he was saying something quite different ... something that is sexual in meaning: bawdy, meaning "lustful," and prick, meaning "penis." Example #3: Are You Being Served (By Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft) Mrs. Slocombe: "Before we go any further, Mr. Rumbold, Miss Brahms and I would like to complain about the state of our drawers. They're a positive disgrace." Mr. Rumbold: "Your what, Mrs. Slocombe?" Mrs. Slocombe: "Our drawers. They're sticking. And it's always the same in damp weather." Mr. Rumbold: "Really..." Mrs. Slocombe: "They sent a man who put beeswax on them, but that made them worse." Mr. Rumbold: "I'm not surprised." Miss Brahms: "I think they need sandpapering." Underwear and the sliding part of a cabinet (where items are placed) are both called "drawers." One can't help but laugh when one thinks of drawers as underwear, and hears the characters say their drawers are "sticking," and are thus "a positive disgrace," and when a man "...put beeswax on them," which "... made them worse." Example #4: The Odyssey (By Homer) It happens that Odysseus lands on the island of one-eyed giant Polyphemus and enters his caves with his twelve valiant soldiers. However, he is caught and imprisoned when the Cyclops closed its door with a huge stone wheel. When the Cyclops asks his name, he tells him that his name is "Nobody" and then plans with his surviving soldiers to blind him with a log made hot and sharpened with knives. When they succeed, the Cyclops cries out at the top of his voice saying, "Nobody has hurt me. Nobody is going to kill me." Here, "Nobody" has been used as a double entendre as it has double meanings. On the one hand, it means that "Nobody" that is Odysseus has blinded him while on the other hand it means that nobody has done this to the Cyclops. Function of Double Entendre As double entendre is a phrase that expresses double meanings, the purpose of using double entendre is usually to articulate one thing perfectly and indirectly. This is generally an insult, or an insinuation. Shakespeare made use of this device to add humor to his work. If the audience is able to understand the different meanings that the actors or characters are trying to convey, double entendres will surely create laughter, or put forward a certain suggestion.

Fairy Tale

A fairy tale is a children's story in a magical setting about imaginary characters that include fairies, dwarfs, witches, angels, trolls, and talking animals. It is also known as a folklore genre written in the form of short stories. Writers skillfully blend elements of magic and reality in these stories to incite a feeling of surprise and wonder among the audiences. They are always different from traditional stories. Although these types of stories are written mostly from a child's perspective, they unfold universal ideas. In this sense, it makes seriousness a bit light in intensity. Also, the use of powerful imagery grabs readers' attention and connects them with the story. Etymologically, a phrase of two words 'fairy and tale' means it is a type of story which intends to excite the readers' interest by presenting impossibilities as possibilities. Examples from Literature Example #1 The Elves and the Shoemaker by Brothers Grimm Written by Brothers Grimm, "The Elves and the Shoemaker" is a good example of a fairy tale. It was first published in 1806. The story is about two magical elves and a poor shoemaker who lived in a small house with his wife. The shoemaker hardly manages to make both ends meet. One day, he went to his shop and was surprised to see a pair of readymade shoes on the table. He sells that pair and earns a handsome amount. Then every morning, he finds pairs of readymade shoes in his shop. The family soon becomes rich. One day, the shoemaker and his wife hide in the shop to find out who was making shoes for them. Finally, they see the elves and decide to make clothes for them to return their kindness. The shoemaker's wife made hats, coats, trousers, and shirts for them. The elves are very happy to find new clothes for them. They put them on, dance, and leave the place. The characters of elves and their act of kindness make it an excellent example of a fairy tale. Example #2 Cinderella by Brothers Grimm Brothers Grimm's 'Cinderella' is another example of a good fairy tale. It was first published in 1697. Cinderella was living a prosperous life until her mother died, and her father remarried a cruel lady. Her stepmother makes her servant in her own house and forces her to do chores. One day, a special invitation arrived from the king's castle, and every eligible maiden is invited to a fancy dress ball. Cinderella also desires to attend the ball, but her stepmother and stepsisters stop her. At that moment, a fairy appears and grants Cinderella's wish to attend the ball. Dressed in a beautiful gown, she arrives at the ball and becomes the center of attraction. The prince dances with her, but at the stroke of midnight, Cinderella rushes back and in haste, leaving her magical glass slippers. The king searches the entire kingdom and finally reached Cinderella. She marries the prince, and they lived happily ever after. The characters and setting of the story make it a good fairy tale which highlights the role of fate and chance. Also, the arrival of the fairy makes readers believe that miracles can happen anywhere or anytime in life. Example #3 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by Brothers Grim Another classic fairy tale, 'Snow White' by Brothers Grim. Snow White becomes the victim of the hatred of her stepmother. She was famous as "the fairest women in the town." However, Snow White was becoming prettier, and the queen could not tolerate. She orders a huntsman to kill Snow White and bring her heart as proof of her death. Instead, he kills a wild animal and presents its heart as proof. To verify, the queen asks the magical talking mirror, who informs her that Snow White is alive. The queen decided to kill her and disguises herself as an old lady. She gives her a poisonous apple, and after that, Snow White goes into the death-like state. When the dwarfs find her dead, they decided to put her in a glass coffin in the woods so that everyone can see her sparkling beauty. On a hunting mission, a prince happened to pass by her glass coffin and see her. He lifts the curse with true loves kiss and asks her to marry him to which she agreed. The evil queen dies when she sees her marrying the prince. The happy ending, the appearance of the dwarfs, and the magical atmosphere make it one of the best fairy tales. Example #4 Beauty and the Beast by Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve "Beauty and the Beast" is another beautiful fairy tale written by a French novelist, Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve and was later rewritten by Jeanne-Marie Le Prince de Beaumont. The story is about a merchant and his three daughters. It happens that the merchant goes on a journey and ask his daughters what he should bring for them. The elder two daughters ask for jewelry, but the youngest daughter, Belle, wishes to have a rose. On his way back home, he picks a rose from a beautiful garden, but a Beast appears and stops him. The Beast informs the merchant about death as the penalty for stealing the flower. However, Belle finds the merchant and agrees to be imprisoned to set her father free. Belle later falls in love with the Beast and breaks his curse. He transforms into a handsome prince, and they live happily ever after. The setting, characters, and situation make this story a classic example of a fairy tale. Functions of Fairy Tale A fairy tale functions as a tool for the writers to express their thoughts freely through animal and other imaginary characters. Its major purpose is to entertain, pass on culture, thoughts, and convey different moral ideas to the young generation. It provides the audience with an opportunity to become light-hearted and enjoy something different. Also, fairy tales stories help children learn moral values, as they are a convenient device to boost a child's imagination and cultural literacy. Writers skillfully feature certain situations to make their audiences feel happy and light-hearted over happy endings of such stories.

Fallacy

A fallacy is an erroneous argument dependent upon an unsound or illogical contention. There are many fallacy examples that we can find in everyday conversations. Types of Fallacy Here are a few well-known types of fallacy you might experience when making an argument: Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to ignorance happens when one individual utilizes another individual's lack of information on a specific subject as proof that his or her own particular argument is right. Appeal to Authority This sort of error is also known as "Argumentum Verecundia" (argument from modesty). Instead of concentrating on the benefits of an argument, the arguer will attempt to append their argument to an individual of power or authority, in an effort to give trustworthiness to their argument. Appeal to Popular Opinion This sort of appeal is when somebody asserts that a thought or conviction is correct, since it is the thing that the general population accepts. Association Fallacy Sometimes called "guilt by affiliation," this happens when somebody connects a particular thought or issue to something or somebody negative, so as to infer blame on another individual. Attacking the Person Also regarded as "argumentum ad hominem" (argument against the man), this is a common fallacy used during debates, where an individual substitutes a rebuttal with a personal insult. Begging the Question The conclusion of a contention is accepted as a statement of the inquiry itself. Circular Argument This fallacy is also known as "circulus in probando." This error is committed when an argument takes its evidence from an element inside the argument itself, instead of from an outside source. Relationship Implies Causation Also called "cum hoc ergo propter hoc," this fallacy is a deception in which the individual making the contention joins two occasions that happen consecutively, and accepts that one created or caused the other. False Dilemma/Dichotomy Sometimes called "bifurcation," this sort of error happens when somebody presents their argument in such a way that there are just two conceivable alternatives left. Illogical Conclusion This is a fallacy wherein somebody attests a conclusion that does not follow from the suggestions or facts. Slippery Slope This error happens when one contends that an exceptionally minor movement will unavoidably prompt great and frequently ludicrous conclusions. Syllogism Fallacy This fallacy may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd. Syllogism fallacy is a false argument, as it implies an incorrect conclusion. Examples of Fallacy in Literature To understand the different types of fallacy better, let's review the following examples of fallacy: Example #1: Appeal to Ignorance "You can't demonstrate that there aren't Martians living in caves on the surface of Mars, so it is sensible for me to accept there are." Example #2: Appeal to Authority "Well, Isaac Newton trusted in Alchemy, do you suppose you know more than Isaac Newton?" Example #3: Appeal Popular Opinion "Lots of people purchased this collection, so it must be great." Example #4: Association Fallacy "Hitler was a veggie lover, so I don't trust vegans." Example #5: Attacking the Person "Don't listen to Eddie's contentions on teaching, he's a simpleton." Example #6: Begging the Question "If the neighbor didn't take my daily paper, who did?" (This accepts that the daily paper was really stolen). Example #7: Circular Argument "I accept that Frosted Flakes are incredible, since it says so on the box." Example #8: Relationship Implies Causation "I saw a jaybird, and ten minutes later I crashed my car. Jaybirds are really bad luck." Example #9: False Dilemma/Dichotomy "If you don't vote for this applicant, you must be a Communist." Example #10: Illogical Conclusion "All Dubliners are from Ireland. Ronan is not a Dubliner, so clearly he is not Irish." Example #11: Slippery Slope "If we permit gay individuals to get married, what's next? Permitting people to marry their dogs?" Example #12: Syllogism Fallacy "All crows are black, and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow." Function of Fallacy Literary critics find the weaknesses of literary pieces by searching for fallacies within them. Because of this, there is a tendency for critics to distort the intentions of the writer.

Farce

A farce is a literary genre and type of comedy that makes use of highly exaggerated and funny situations aimed at entertaining the audience. Farce is also a subcategory of dramatic comedy, which is different from other forms of comedy as it only aims at making the audience laugh. It uses elements like physical humor, deliberate absurdity, bawdy jokes, and drunkenness just to make people laugh. We often see one‑dimensional characters in ludicrous situations in farces. Examples of Farce in Literature Example #1: The Importance of Being Earnest (By Oscar Wilde) Oscar Wilde's novel, The Importance of Being Earnest, is one of the best verbal farces. Just like a typical farce that contains basic elements, such as mockery of the upper class, disgraceful physical humor, absurdity, and mistaken identities, this novel also demonstrates these features of a farce. The most absurd thing in tale is the fact that Miss Prism commits a blunder by leaving her manuscript in the pram, and puts her child into her handbag. Example #2: The Taming of the Shrew (By William Shakespeare) In Shakespeare's play, The Taming of the Shrew, the farcical elements are manifested in terms of characters, plot, and particularly the writing style. The play contains stereotype characters that are typically farcical in nature, such as Katherine is an excellent instance of the farcical character. Although Katherina (Kate) is a stereotype and a boisterous shrew, Shakespeare portrays her as an individual needing sympathy, because Bianca is the favorite child of her father, Baptista. Realizing that Baptista prefers her sister, Bianca, Kate says: "What, will you not suffer me? Nay, now I see She is your treasure, she must have a husband, I must dance barefoot on her wedding day ..." As far as the plot is concerned, Shakespeare develops the plot to look like a situational comedy. Though the subplot is romantic, both the main plot and the subplot move around an idea of the favoring father, whom his daughter and her lover outwit. In terms of the writing style, Shakespeare has used three basic comical techniques to produce humorous effects, such as Kate's statements, and her husband's replies, which demonstrate verbal humor. All these three elements demonstrate this play as a farce. Example #3: She Stoops to Conquer (Oliver Goldsmith) Oliver Goldsmith's play, She Stoops to Conquer, is another good example of farce or comedy of errors, as it contains multiple misunderstandings. It uses comedy of manners, in which the author ridicules the manners of a particular society - specifically the upper class. She Stoops to Conquer includes several farcical elements, including themes, human manners, and even the plot itself. In the play, two Londoners search for Mr. Hardcastle's home. When they find, they are deceived to believe that they have reached in an inn, not home; thus they conduct themselves according to the situation. One of the gentlemen, Marlow, pursues Kate Hardcastle. However, she pretends to be a maid until he reveals his passionate feelings for her, and that he plans to elope with Kate. She, on the other hand, looks bawdy in her manners. As the gentlemen do not know the reality of the situation, they behave rudely with other household members. All such misunderstandings create humor and give farcical touches to this play. Example #4: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) We find several farcical situations in Samuel Beckett's play Waiting for Godot. However, most of these situations have deeper meanings than just their apparent meanings. For instance, we have a funny situation in which Vladimir and Estragon put on and take off their hats. Though it is a farcical situation, the aim is to tell the audience that the world of tramps has no significant actions and place, except to do trivial things. Perhaps the most hilarious farcical situation occurs when the tramps test the strength of a string in order to hang themselves. The Estragon's trousers fall down to his ankles while pulling the cord, and due to strain, the cord breaks. Function of Farce The basic purpose of a farcical comedy is to evoke laughter. We usually find farces in theater and films, and sometimes in other literary works too. In fact, all of these forms combine stereotyped characters and exaggeration to create humor. Although a farce may appear only to be funny, they often contain deeper implications on account of the use of satirical elements. In terms of plots, farces are often incomprehensible; hence, the audiences are not encouraged to follow the plot in order to avoid becoming overwhelmed and confused. Moreover, farces also contain improbable coincidences, and generally mock weaknesses of humans and human society.

Accumulation

Accumulation is derived from a Latin word which means "pile up." It is a stylistic device that is defined as a list of words which embody similar abstract or physical qualities or meanings, with the intention to emphasize the common qualities that words hold. It is also an act of accumulating the scattered points. Accumulation examples are found in literary pieces and in daily conversations. xamples of Accumulation in Literature Example #1: Henry V (by William Shakespeare) "Then shall our names, Familiar in his mouth as household words, Harry the King, Bedford and Exeter, Warwick and Talbot, Salisbury and Gloucester, Be in their flowing cups freshly remembered." In this excerpt, Shakespeare has gathered similar words to describe King Harry. Henry memorizes the name and nobility of the king by mentioning: "Bedford, Exeter, Warwick, Talbot, Salisbury, and Gloucester." Example #2: Ulysses (by James Joyce) "What syllabus of intellectual pursuits was simultaneously possible? Snapshot photography, comparative study of religions, folklore relative to various amatory and superstitious practices, contemplation of celestial constellations...." If you are searching for examples of accumulation in literature, James Joyce is the author to check out as he is famous for using this literary device. Here, Joyce has accumulated similar and related words in the form of a list. There are options given between different intellectual careers. These include "snapshot photography, comparative study of religions, superstitious practices." Example #3: The Little Virtues (by Natalia Ginzburg) "I don't know how to manage my time; he does. I don't know how to dance and he does. I don't know how to type and he does. I don't know how to drive ... " The writer has used negation in the given sentences. All four lines are written in accumulated form, and the scattered points are listed together, hence contributing to the vocabulary of the readers. Example #4: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift) "... having no other motive than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade, providing for infants, relieving the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich ... " This is a very good example of accumulation wherein Swift gives suggestions on how to get rid of poverty. He has listed various motives and ways to resolve the problems, adding and contributing to the meaning of the sentences. Example #5: When Will Jesus Bring the Pork Chops (by George Carlin) I'm a modern man, digital and smoke-free; a man for the millennium. A diversified, multi-cultural, post-modern deconstructionist; politically, anatomically and ecologically incorrect. I've been uplinked and downloaded, I've been inputted and outsourced. I know the upside of downsizing, I know the downside of upgrading." Here, George Carlin has used three categories of accumulation. In the first two lines, "a modern man" is described as "digital and smoke-free," and as "a man for the millennium." In the following two lines, he added, "a diversified, multi-cultural ... politically ... incorrect." Example #6: Holy Thursday (by William Blake) "Is this a holy thing to see In a rich and fruitful land, Babes reduced to misery, Fed with cold and usurous hand? Is that trembling cry a song? Can it be a song of joy? And so many children poor? And their fields are bleak and bare, And their ways are filled with thorns." Here is the accumulation of three questions that induce a resentful response. Similarly, three assertions come in the third stanza in a similar grammatical pattern. These are: "And their son does never shine," "And their fields are bleak and bare," and "And their ways are filled ..." Example #7: Ulysses (by James Joyce) "Rangoon beans, strikes of tomatoes, drums of figs, drills of Swedes, spherical potatoes and tallies of iridescent kale, York and Savoy, and trays of onions, pearls of the earth, and punnets of mushrooms and custard marrows......and rape and red green yellow brown russet sweet big bitter ripe pomellated apples and chips of strawberries and sieves of gooseberries, pulpy and pelurious, and strawberries fit for princes and raspberries from their canes... " This excerpt is a perfect example of accumulation. In the beginning, there is a listing of flowers and vegetables. These include "Rangoon beans, strikes of tomatoes, drums of figs," and again an accumulation of different colors, such as "red green yellow brown russet." Function of Accumulation Accumulation is used in literature, poetry and all types of rhetorical writing. The basic function is to make language livelier and contribute to the meanings of the words. Also, it describes the qualities of an object through different explanations, if otherwise it would be left vague or ambiguous.

Enthymeme

An argumentative statement in which the writer or the speaker omits one of the major or minor premises, does not clearly pronounce it, or keeps this premise implied, is called an "enthymeme." However, the omitted premise in an enthymeme remains understandable even if is not clearly expressed. For instance, in the sentence, "Where there is smoke, there is fire," the hidden premise is: fire causes smoke. Enthymeme is a rhetorical device like syllogism, and is known as truncated or rhetoric syllogism. Its purpose is to influence the audience, and allow them to make inferences. Such inferences can be easily recognized, as these statements comes after "because." Enthymeme vs. Syllogism Enthymeme is like syllogism, and yet different. The difference is that a syllogism is a deductive logic that contains three parts, and in which both premises have valid conclusion such as: All reptiles are cold-blooded animals. (Major premise) A lizard is a cold-blooded animal. (Minor premise) Therefore, a lizard is a reptile. (Conclusion) Whereas in enthymeme, writers keep one premise implied, which means both premises do not have valid conclusions. It is an incomplete argument such as: He could not have committed this heinous crime. (Major premise) I have known him since he was a child. (Minor premise) The hidden premise: He is innocent by nature and, therefore, could never be a criminal. Popular Examples of Enthymeme "Senator, I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy. Jack Kennedy was a friend of mine. Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy." - Lloyd Bentsen to Dan Quayle in U.S. Vice-Presidential debate in 1988. (The hidden premise: Jack Kennedy was a great man, but you are not.) He is a U.S. citizen, so he is entitled to due process. (The hidden premise: All citizens of the U.S. are entitled to due process.) With a name like Bonanza, it has to be good. (The hidden premise: Bonanza is a prestigious company, therefore it is good.) Examples of Enthymeme in Literature Example #1: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) Plebian: "Mark'd ye his words? He would not take the crown. Therefore 'tis certain he was not ambitious." From the above line from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, it is clear that Brutus is an ambitious and honorable man. Thus, a major hidden premise is that all honorable and respectable men are ambitious. Example #2: New York Times Interview, May 2, 2003 (By George Bush) "The battle of Iraq is one victory in a war on terror that began on September the 11th, 2001, and still goes on ... With those attacks, the terrorists and their supporters declared war on the United States. And war is what they got." This is an example of classic enthymematic argumentative speech by U.S. President Bush. He stated that the reason the U.S. declared war against Iraq was because the U.S. was attacked on Sept 11, 2001. However, the missing piece in this argument is — Saddam Hussein was the culprit, and involved in the 9/11 attacks. Example #3: Beauty: When the Other Dancer Is the Self (By Alice Walker) "[M]y parents decide to buy my brothers guns. These are not 'real' guns. They shoot 'BBs,' copper pellets my brothers say will kill birds. Because I am a girl, I do not get a gun." In this example, the speaker omits the major premise that her parents have not given her a gun. However, she directly lets the readers know the reason why she does not have the gun. Example #4: Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student (By Edward P. J. Corbett and Robert J. Connors) "The gun has the defendant's fingerprints on the trigger. He is clearly guilty!" In this example, the hidden premise is that fingerprints on an object show who has used it, therefore the defendant's fingerprints on the gun proves he is guilty. Function of Enthymeme The usage of enthymeme is very common in advertisements, political speeches, and literature. It makes the audience work out their own conclusions, and nudges them to read further to get a clearer picture of the premise or an idea. By forcing the audience to take a final step, it strengthens the argument of the writer. Often enthymemes help to hide the underlying idea upon which a major argument relies. In addition, the purpose of using an enthymeme is to persuade the audience by using implied arguments.

Elision

An elision is the removal of an unstressed syllable, consonants, or letters from a word or phrase, for the purpose of decreasing the number of letters or syllables when mixing words together. The missing letter is replaced by an apostrophe. Generally, the middle or end letter or syllable is eliminated, or two words are blended together, and an apostrophe is inserted. Difference Between Contraction and Elision By merely looking at contraction and elision examples, one would think the two are the same. However, there is a slight difference between them. Contraction is a more general term referring to the combination of two words to form a shorter word. For instance, can't is a contraction of "can" + "not," which is a combination of two words. On the other hand, elision is a specific term. It is the omission of sounds, syllables, or phrases, and replacing them with an apostrophe. For instance, ne'er is an elided form of "never." Similarly, gonna is an elision of the phrase "going to." Examples of Elision in Literature Example #1: Rape of Lock (By Alexander Pope) "What dire offence from am'rous causes springs, What mighty contests rise from trivial things, I sing—This verse to Caryl, Muse! is due: This, ev'n Belinda may vouchsafe to view... Say what strange motive, Goddess! could compel A well-bred lord t'assault a gentle belle? O say what stranger cause, yet unexplor'd, Could make a gentle belle reject a lord... Sol thro' white curtains shot a tim'rous ray, And op'd those eyes that must eclipse the day; Now lap-dogs give themselves the rousing shake..." In this excerpt, Pope has elided several words, such as amorous, which is elided into "am'rous," even into "ev'n," unexplored into "unexplor'd," and similarly, through and opened are shortened to maintain regular pentameter. Example #2: Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) "Settle thy studies, Faustus, and begin To sound the depth of that thou wilt profess: Having commenc'd, be a divine in show, Sweet Analytics, 'tis thou hast ravish'd me! Is, to dispute well, logic's chiefest end? Then read no more; thou hast attain'd that end: Be a physician, Faustus; heap up gold, Why, Faustus, hast thou not attain'd that end? Whereby whole cities have escap'd the plague, And thousand desperate maladies been cur'd? The god thou serv'st is thine own appetite, Wherein is fix'd the love of Belzebub: To him I'll build an altar and a church..." Elision is employed perfectly in Dr.Faustus. In this excerpt, the author has eliminated unstressed syllables in order to give a smooth flow to the speech. The elided words are marked in bold. Example #3: Tam O'Shanter (By Robert Burns) "Whiles holding fast his guid blue bonnet, Whiles crooning o'er an auld Scots sonnet, Whiles glow'ring round wi prudent cares, Lest bogles catch him unawares: Kirk-Alloway was drawing nigh, Where ghaists and houlets nightly cry." In this excerpt, the elided words include "o'er" and "glow'ring". The vowel "e" is eliminated and replaced with an apostrophe. Through elision the rhythm and meter of the poem is maintained. Example #4: A Midsummer Night's Dream (By William Shakespeare) "But with thy brawls thou hast disturb'd our sport The ox hath therefore stretch'd his yoke in vain, The ploughman lost his sweat, and the green corn Hath rotted ere his youth attain'd a beard; And crows are fatted with the murrion flock; The nine men's morris is fill'd up with mud..." Here the word disturbed is elided into "disturb'd." In a similar way, stretched, attained, and filled are elided. Function of Elision Usually used deliberately, elisions are often found in prose and poetry with the objective to continue a regular meter, or to create flow in iambic pentameter. Since a specific meter is required, elision is employed to achieve the set number of syllables necessary to create flow in a piece. Several other languages use elision to cut down the number of words or to improve the flow of speech.

End-Stopped Line

An end-stopped line is a poetic device in which a pause comes at the end of a syntactic unit (sentence, clause, or phrase). This pause can be expressed in writing as a punctuation mark, such as a colon, semi-colon, period, or full stop. According to A. C. Bradley, a line would be an end-stopped line, when the meter and sense both make a natural pause at its end such as in this line: "Yet to be known shortens my made intent ..." (King Lear, by William Shakespeare) Opposite of Enjambment Enjambment is the opposite of end-stopped line. Thus, examples of end-stopped line should never be confused with enjambment examples. When a break or pause comes at the end of a line or sentence, it is called an end-stopped line. However, when a break comes in the middle of a phrase or line and the idea moves on to the next line, it is called "enjambment." Like in these lines: "... I am not prone to weeping, as our sex Commonly are, the want of which vain dew..." (A Winter's Tale by William Shakespeare) Examples of End-Stopped Line in Literature Example #1: Bright Star (By John Keats) "Bright Star, would I were as stedfast as thou art — Not in lone splendor hung aloft the night, And watching, with eternal lids apart, Like nature's patient, sleepless Eremite ..." These lines are very good example of end-stopped line. Each line ends with a punctuation mark, followed by a pause, which gives a sense of a separate unit. These pauses give rhythm and tempo to the poem. Example #2: An Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope) "A little learning is a dangerous thing; Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring. There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain, And drinking largely sobers us again." These lines all end with grammatical breaks. Also, these end-stopped lines contain complete phrases and make sense. Here, each sentence corresponds to the length of a line, and that pause slows down the pace of poem. Example #3: Sonnet 18 (By William Shakespeare) "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date ..." This excerpt is a perfect example of end-stopped line. All of these lines carry a pause at the end. There is a pause in both meter and sense; therefore, this device gives a complete poetic effect. Example #4: Alley Cat Love Song (By Dana Gioia) "Come into the garden, Fred, For the neighborhood tabby is gone. Come into the garden, Fred. I have nothing by my flea collar on, And the scent of catnip has gone to my head. I'll wait by the screen door till dawn. The fireflies court in the sweetgum tree. The nightjar calls from the pine, And she seems to say in her rhapsody, "Oh, mustard-bown Fred, be mine!" The full moon lights my whiskers afire, And the fur goes erect on my spine ..." End-stopped line is used in this entire poem where each line ends with a pause marked by a punctuation sign. This gives rhythmic and poetic effect. Apart from that, it provides greater flexibility to the poet. Example #5: The Burning Babe (By Robert Southwell) "As I in hoary winter's night stood shivering in the snow, Surprised I was with sudden heat, which made my heart to glow; And lifting up a fearful eye to view what fire was near, A pretty babe all burning bright did in the air appear ..." In the above lines, the ends of the lines correspond to the ending of the clause. Also, there are strong breaks at the closing of each line, which helps making the meaning explicit. Function of End-Stopped Line The purpose of using end-stopped lines is to give poetic and rhythmic effect to the literary text. They tend to slow down the speed and give a clear idea of each line by creating a break at the end. Besides, it provides regularity to the meter of a poetic text. End-stopped lines make poetry more coherent and accessible, and helps the readers ponder on the sentences. Hence, the reader is able to explore deeper meanings and sense in lines where end-stop is given.

Epigraph

An epigraph is a literary device in the form of a poem, quotation, or sentence - usually placed at the beginning of a document or a simple piece - having a few sentences, but which belongs to another writer. An epigraph can serve different purposes, such as it can be used as a summary, introduction, example, or an association with some famous literary work, so as to draw a comparison, or to generate a specific context for the piece. Epigraph is a very sophisticated form of literary device that can really brush up a story very well. Nevertheless, a question that usually comes to mind about this device is why an epigraph is always used in the beginning. Sometimes, when you are done reading a book, you are so swamped by the story that it makes you want to hold the book close to your chest and transfer everything in it to your soul directly. It is because the book is so amazing that it makes us want to remember everything in it. Now, imagine how moving it would be to turn the very last page thinking you have finished the book, and right there you find an epigraph that reflects on everything you just read. Examples of Epigraph in Literature Example #1: Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) Many famous poems provide good examples of epigraph. For instance, "Mistah Kurtz, he dead," is a line from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, which was used in the famous poem The Hollow Men by T. S. Eliot to describe how modern people have dead souls, like the character Kurtz of Heart of Darkness. It is because they have taken materialism as their demigod, and accepted its domination, submitting their spirits to it like Kurtz did. Example #2: Life: A User's Manual (By Georges Perec) The epigraphs used in the preface of Georges Perec's Life: A User's Manual (La Vie mode d'emploi) notify the reader in advance that everything is not what it seems, and that tricks are going to be played. Example #3: The Brothers Karamazov (By Fyodor Dostoevsky) Epigraph examples are also found in philosophical novels. The epigraph used by Dostoevsky in The Brothers Karamazov is from the Holy Bible, specifically John 12:24. It says: "Verily, verily, I say unto you, except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone: but if it dies, it bringeth forth much fruit." Example #4: The Sun Also Rises (By Ernest Hemingway) Ernest Hemingway used Gertrude Stein's famous quotation, "You are all a lost generation," in the beginning of his book The Sun Also Rises. Through this epigraph, Hemingway shows us the entire period in which they were forced to live. The lost generation phrase as coined by Steinbeck was truly reflected by Hemingway in his other pieces as well, but this novel proved to be a mouthpiece for the lost generation. Example #5: The Godfather (By Mario Puzo) "Behind every great fortune there is a crime." This is a translated quotation from Honoré de Balzac given in The Godfather, a famous novel by Mario Puzo. The epigraph given in this novel presents the true picture of a gangster who earns a lot of wealth, and wields much control over the lives of others. The Godfather is a true reflection of what its epigraph suggests. Function of Epigraph The use of epigraph in an original work can create something very intriguing. It can be used as a thematic gatekeeper, by taking excerpts from influential authors to introduce people to your own ideas. It can be used in the form of quotations, proverbs, lyrics, lines, or verses, or even parts of a conversation. It can also be used to set the mood of the readers in the very beginning, for the prose they are to read next. A writer can also give readers a preview of his notions and inspirations through an epigraph. Although the role of an epigraph in a work may seem very insignificant, it can be very instructive, if used cleverly. An epigraph deepens the readers' interest in the narrative just like an appetizer increases your appetite for a meal. It can also be used in places where the writer wants to highlight a particular point with the help of an already existing concept.

Epilogue

An epilogue, or "epilog," is a chapter at the end of a work of literature, which concludes the work. Epilogue, Prologue, and Afterword Epilogue is the opposite of prologue, which is a piece of writing at the beginning of a literary work. An epilogue is different from an afterword, in that it is part of the main story, occurring after the climax, and revealing the fates of the characters. An afterword is typically written by someone other than the author, and describes how the book came into being. Usually, an epilogue is set a few hours after the main body of the story, or far into the future, where the writer speaks to the readers indirectly, through the point of view of a different character. In an afterword, on the other hand, an author speaks to the readers directly. In it, a writer may provide a reason for writing the book, and detail the research that has gone into writing the book. Sometimes, a writer may employ an epilogue to cover loose ends of his story, resolving those issues that were brought up by the writer in the story, but were not resolved in the climax. Epilogue in Greek and Elizabethan Stage Plays Epilogue examples are abundant in Greek and Elizabethan stage plays, since including epilogues at the end of the plays was a common practice among their playwrights. After the end of the play, an actor would step forward, speaking directly to the audience, offering his gratitude to them for watching the play patiently. In comedies, epilogues uttered by those actors were often used to show the main characters of the plays enjoying a happy and contented life after experiencing the disorder during the play. Similarly, in tragedies the actors narrating the epilogue told the audience about the tragic hero's final suffering, caused by his poor moral choices. Moreover, the speaker of an epilogue would directly describe the lesson or moral the audience should have learned from the story. Epilogue in Horror and Suspense Novels In modern horror and suspense novels and stories, the epilogue is purposefully used to hint at a threat that still looms large on the horizon. The monster or villain is believed to have been done with, but the epilogue suggests that the danger is not over and still looms over them. Therefore, it adds to the horror and mystery of the work of literature, as the readers get the idea that the characters are not safe, though they might believe so. In some cases, epilogue can also be used to confirm that a narrative is not over, and there is still more to the story. It gives the readers an idea that there will be a sequel. Examples of Epilogue in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Consider the following epilogue that is spoken in William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet: "A glooming peace this morning with it brings; The sun for sorrow will not show his head. Go hence to have more talk of these sad things, Some shall be pardoned, and some punished, For never was a story of more woe Than this of Juliet and her Romeo." A post-play description of the play is given in a most poignant fashion, describing the gloomy atmosphere after the tragedy befell the two ardent lovers, Romeo and Juliet. Example #2: As You Like It (By William Shakespeare) Notice a carefree sort of epilogue that marks the end of yet another of Shakespeare's plays, As You Like It, spoken by Rosalind: "... and I charge you, O men, for the love you bear to women — as I perceive by your simpering, none of you hates them — that between you and the women the play may please. If I were a woman, I would kiss as many of you as had beards that pleased me, complexions that liked me, and breaths that I defied not. And I am sure as many as have good beards, or good faces, or sweet breaths will, for my kind offer, when I make curtsy, bid me farewell." It clearly shows how happy and contented Rosalind is. Example #3: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) We notice George Orwell appending an epilogue to his novel Animal Farm, as Chapter 10. He, in his epilogue, presents the situation of the Manor Farm after many years have passed, describing the fate of the characters who participated in the revolution. He says: "YEARS passed. The seasons came and went, the short animal lives fled by. A time came when there was no one who remembered the old days before the Rebellion, except Clover, Benjamin, Moses the raven, and a number of the pigs." Similarly, Orwell tells us about the evolution that has taken place in the dominating pigs that are still at the helms of power. He says: "Twelve voices were shouting in anger, and they were all alike. No question, now, what had happened to the faces of the pigs. The creatures outside looked from pig to man, and from man to pig, and from pig to man again; but already it was impossible to say which was which." Function of Epilogue Writers of great examples of epilogue show how useful this device is to achieve the following ends: To satisfy the readers' curiosity, by telling them about the fate of the characters after the climax To cover loose ends of the story To hint at a sequel or next installment of the story

Epistle

An epistle is a letter in the form of prose or poetry to a particular person or group. It can also be a story or a religious sermon similar to the New Testament letters written by Paul, Peter, and John to their church congregation or a small group of believers. Traditionally, an epistle was written to express love, philosophy, religion, and morality. However, the roots of epistle composition date back to ancient Roman poetic form and The Bible. Most of the epistles are written in free verse without following any strict meter or rhyme. In this sense, the writers are free to write in whatever narration, or character they select to write. Etymologically, epistle refers to a letter or written communication. Types of Epistle In literature, there are two basic traditions of verse epistles. Horace's Epistles: The tradition of Horace's epistle deals with moral and philosophical themes and has been the most popular form since the Renaissance. Ovid's Epistle: The tradition based on Ovid's epistle includes romanticism and other sentimental subjects. These epistles gained popularity in Europe during the Middle Ages. The best example of Ovid's epistle is the letter of Paul the Apostle that illustrates the spread of Christianity in the world. Examples of Epistles from Literature Example #1 Letter to N.Y. by Elizabeth Bishop "In your next letter I wish you'd say where you are going and what you are doing; how are the plays, and after the plays what other pleasures you're pursuing: taking cabs in the middle of the night, driving as if to save your soul where the road goes round and round the park and the meter glares like a moral owl?" The writer has used rhyming couplets to express her isolation. The poet directly addresses the person whom she knows and asks about his routine. The first line of the poetry illustrates the use of epistolary mode, as it states a direct note to the person. This extract falls under the category of Ovid's epistle, as it deals with the subject of love. Example #2 Epistle To A Young Friend by Robert Burns "I Lang hae thought, my youthfu' friend, A something to have sent you, Tho' it should serve nae ither end Than just a kind memento: But how the subject-theme may gang, Let time and chance determine; Perhaps it may turn out a sang: Perhaps turn out a sermon." Robert has used rhyming couplets to express his affiliation with his friend. The poet addresses his friend at the beginning of the poem and expresses his wish that he wants to give something to his friend. However, the direct address of the person and the informal style of writing makes this poem an epistolary text. This is also an example of Ovid's epistle, as it deals with the subject of love. Example #3 Epistle to a Lady by Alexander Pope NOTHING so true as what you once let fall, "Most Women have no Characters at all. " Matter too soft a lasting mark to bear, and best distinguished by black, brown, or fair. How many pictures of one Nymph we view, all how unlike each other, all how true! Arcadia's Countess, here, in ermin'd pride, is, there, Pastora by a fountain side. This extract is written in the form of Horatian epistle, a verse letter, which is a satire on women. The poet starts his argument with a claim that most of the women have no character and argues that the supposed character of women is always changeable. To him, they are best to be distinguished by their physical appearance, especially, by the color of their hair. Example #4 The Bishop Orders His Tomb at Saint Praxed's Church by Robert Browning "Vanity, saith the preacher, vanity! Draw round my bed: is Anselm keeping back? Nephews — sons mine — ah God, I know not! Well — She, men would have to be your mother once, Old Gandolf envied me, so fair she was! What's done is done, and she is dead beside, Dead long ago, and I am Bishop since, And as she died so must we die ourselves, And thence ye may perceive the world's a dream." In this extract, the dying priest is addressing to his sons and nephews gathered around his death bed. He starts his speech with negative comments and gives them direction about his death and burial. He also refers to a mistress that has long been dead and starts questioning life. This is ironic for as a religious leader. It is because he should have been content and satisfied. However, his words speak of his fear and weaknesses. It is a type of Horatian epistle that exposes the mind of the religious leader. Moreover, it also shows how an epistolary mode is adapted to the poetic mode to give room to the poet's ideas. Epistle Meaning and Function Epistle functions as a tool to enable the writers to express their feelings and emotions in the form of conversation. It liberates them from the clutches of rules of formality. It is also that this colloquial or conversational style suits the addressees in a way that they understand the precise meanings. The epistolary mode has also been adopted for some novels to give a clear picture of both sides to the readers. The readers get a peep into the characters' thinking about different characters as well as about the character himself. In poetic form, it gives more room to the poets to express their hidden feelings in the poetic language embellishing it with literary devices to convey their messages effectively.

Iamb

An iamb is a literary device that can be defined as a foot containing unaccented and short syllables, followed by a long and accented syllable in a single line of a poem (unstressed/stressed syllables). Two of Robert Frost's poems, Dust of Snow, and The Road not Taken are considered two of the most popular examples of iamb. Types of Iambic Meter Iamb examples may be classified according to the following five types: Iambic dimeter (two iambs per line) Iambic trimester (three iambs per line) Iambic tetrameter (four iambs per line) Iambic pentameter (five iambs per line) Iambic hexameter (alexandrine; six iambs per line) Examples of Iamb in Literature Poets have written a number of poems in regular meters, and iambic meter is widely used in several of them. Example #1: Dust of Snow (By Robert Frost) "The way a crow Shook down on me The dust of snow From a hemlock tree Has given my heart A change of mood And saved some part Of a day I had rued." This is an example of iambic dimeter, which has two metrical feet, shown in bold, in each line. The rhyme scheme of each stanza is called interlocking rhyme. Also, there are some anapestic feet, but most feet are in iambic dimeter. Example #2: The Only News I Know (By Emily Dickinson) "The only news I know Is bulletins all day From Immortality. The only shows I see, Tomorrow and Today, Perchance Eternity." This excerpt is an example of iambic trimeter, where lines have three metrical feet or three iambs. Generally, there are six syllables in the lines with three iambs. Example #3: I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (By William Wordsworth) "I wandered, lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er dales and hills When, all at once, I saw a crowd A host of golden daffodils. Beside the lake, beneath the trees ... For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye ... And dances with the daffodils." This is an example of iambic tetrameter, which consists of four iambic feet, or iambic beats, in each line. These metrical feet give a regular rhythm to the poem due to consistent patterns of accented and unaccented beats. Example #4: The Road not Taken (By Robert Frost) "Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not travel both And be one traveler, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could. Then took the other, as just as fair, And having perhaps the better claim Because it was grassy and wanted wear, Though as for that the passing there. Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by." This poem is also a very good example of iambic tetrameter. Each line contains four iambic beats. Since iamb refers to an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable, iambic tetrameter comprises of four such feet in a line. Example #5: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief ..." This excerpt is an example of iambic pentameter, which is the most commonly used meter in poetry and verse. It consists of five iambic feet in a line, as shown in bold here. Shakespeare is very famous for using this type of meter in his plays and poems. Example #6: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "Henceforth be earls, the first that ever Scotland In such an honour named. What's more to do ... As calling home our exiled friends abroad ... Of this dead butcher and his fiend-like queen, Who, as 'tis thought, by self and violent hands ... That calls up on us, by the grace of Grace ... So, thanks to all at once and to each one, Whom we in vite to see us crown'd at Scone." Here, we have another perfect example of iambic pentameter. There are five iambic feet in each line. It is giving the poem a sense of rhythm, and it also has a perfect rhyme scheme due to its regular beats. Function of Iamb The basic function of iambic meter is to create a speech that should have a regular pattern. It functions to make a normal speech fit into heightened formality and dramatic form. Since it gives a rhythmic sense, it lends the text high drama and formality. Hence, the main purpose of iambic meter is to give highly emotional experience, and makes a piece of work beautifully poetic.

Illusion

An illusion is a false illustration of something, a deceptive impression, or a false belief. Literally speaking, an illusion is something that is false and not factual. It tricks the human brain into thinking an unreal into a real. In other words, it is meant to mislead the perception of readers, and deceive their senses. Writers deceive readers' sense of sight, touch, taste, and sounds, making them imagine what is happening, by illustrating certain details. Read on to learn more about illusion in literature. Examples of Illusion in Literature Example #1: The Great Gatsby (by F. Scott Fitzgerald) One example of illusion appearing as reality in the novel, The Great Gatsby, involves the protagonist, Jay Gatsby, and his meager family background. The reality is that he has lived a poor life to such an extent that he decides to drop out of college after just a couple of weeks. He hates the janitorial job he has taken to pay his tuition and fees for school. Then, in chapter four, Gatsby describes to Nick, "I'll tell you God's truth. ... I am the son of some wealthy people in the middle-west [San Francisco] - all dead now." Here Gatsby portrays a false reality of his family background, which is an illusion. Example #2: A Midsummer Night's Dream (by William Shakespeare) "If we shadows have offended Think but this, and all is mended - That you have but slumbered here ... No more yielding than a dream." (Act-IV, Scene-II, Lines 55-59) In these lines from his monologue, Puck alludes to a contrast between reality (the real world) and illusion (theater). He offers commentary on the theater as a fantasy and dream, where sometimes real life events become dreams and fantasy. Example #3: A Streetcar Named Desire (by Tennessee William) In the play A Streetcar Named Desire, by Tennessee Williams, Blanche dwells upon illusion for her self-defense, against both outside threats and her own evil spirit. Her deceits, however, do not carry any trace of wickedness; rather, they appear from her lack of ability, and her weakness to face the truth. Blanche is an idealist figure, who does not see the world as it is, instead seeing it as it should be. Dream and fantasy cast a liberating effect that protects Blanche from upcoming tragedies. Throughout this play, the writer contrasts Blanche's illusion with Stanley's unwavering realism. By the end, Stanley wins due to his real worldview. Similarly, Stella, another character, must bear a kind of illusion, pushing herself to believe that accusations leveled against Stanley are untrue - which would allow her to continue living with Blanche's husband. Example #4: La Belle Dame Sans Merci (by John Keats) In his poem, La Belle Dame Sans Merci, Keats focuses on the concept of illusion. A dying knight meets a beautiful woman, and ultimately becomes victim to the illusion of her beauty and love. Keats has used men like kings, warriors, and princes to show how powerful illusions affect them, and how they become victims of their own misperceptions. He shows that, though they are powerful in their careers, they are also weak, due to their inability to see truths, and judge the fatal spells beautiful woman cast upon them. Example #5: The Tempest (by William Shakespeare) Perception of illusion and reality plays a major role in Shakespeare's play The Tempest. Magic dominates an island, diminishing the ability of the new arrivals to differentiate between illusion and reality. The outlook of each individual also tempers reality. For instance, Gonzalo is positive, and sees the island as a beautiful one; while Antonio and Sebastian see it as an unwelcoming place, due to their negative outlooks. Magic obscures reality, and illusion becomes stronger, on account of individual perspectives. Function Illusion is a delusion of real sensation. Writers use it to present something they have perceived in their minds differently from the reality. Its function is to surprise, and to provide something interesting to entertain their audiences. It also helps the audience develop emotions within a contextual framework, encouraging exploration of something different from reality. In addition, it serves as a clue, and helps the audience figure out where the scene or plot is going. The use of illusion is very common in literature, advertising, and architecture.

Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence is a type of sentence that gives instructions or advice, and expresses a command, an order, a direction, or a request. It is also known as a jussive or a directive. Depending upon its delivery, an imperative sentence may end with an exclamation mark or a period. It is usually simple and short, but could be long and complex, depending upon its context. For instance, John F. Kennedy shares a wish with his people, when he stated, "And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." (President John Kennedy in his Inaugural Address, 1961). Note that this imperative sentence is not only long, but simply and ends with a period. Types of Imperative Sentence Share a Wish or Request - This type of imperative sentence shares polite wishes and requests with someone, such as, "Have a good day!" Offer an Invitation - This type of imperative sentence extends an invitation, such as, "Please join me for dinner tonight." Share a Command/Request - This type of imperative sentence gives a command or shares a request, such as, "Stop beating the dog!" Give Instructions - This type of imperative sentence gives instructions, such as, "Let him cool down, and then ask about the incident." Everyday Use of Imperative Sentence Consider vegetables over meat. (Advice) Leave this luggage at the gate. (Direction) Come here, check these documents, and give me your opinion. (Order) Put it down now! (Command) Please clean your room. (Request) Examples of Imperative Sentences in Literature Example #1: I have a Dream (by Martin Luther King, Jr.) "You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed." All the sentences shown in italics are imperative sentences. The tone of the speaker is to convey a sense of command, as well as advice. Example #2: At the Bottom of the River (by Jamaica Kincaid) "Wash the white clothes on Monday and put them on the stone heap; wash the color clothes on Tuesday and put them on the clothesline to dry; don't walk barehead in the hot sun ... when buying cotton to make yourself a nice blouse, be sure that it doesn't have gum on it, because that way it won't hold up well after a wash; soak salt fish overnight before you cook it ..." This entire passage is in imperative sentences. All of them have commanding tones. The speaker is giving instructions, requests, and commands to someone about what to do or what not to do. Example #3: Fergus and the Druid (by William Butler Yeats) "Take, if you must, this little bag of dreams; Unloose the cord, and they will wrap you round." In this example, Druid offers a bag to Fergus, which is filled with dreams. This bag helps him to know all in the end. These imperative sentences have used the tone of advice. Example #4: Self Reliance (by Ralph Waldo Emerson) "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself with his shadow on the wall. Speak what you think now in hard words, and tomorrow speak what tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though it contradict every thing you said today." In this passage, the speaker is giving direction and advice to the audience regarding the importance of speaking during hard times. Example #5: The Princess Bride (by William Gold) Westley: Give us the gate key. Yellin: I have no gate key. Inigo Montoya: Fezzik, tear his arms off. Yellin: Oh, you mean this gate key. In the first line, the character "Westley" has requested but without using appeals. In the third line, the character has given an order to break "Yellin's" arms. Function of Imperative Sentence An imperative sentence plays an important role in writing as well as in speaking. It is not very common in literary writing, but very important in everyday conversational language. Besides this, it is commonly used in advertisements, manuals, instructions and road signs. It is more intentional as compared to an exclamatory sentence, as it requires a specific audience to be addressed. Writers mostly use imperatives to give clear and straightforward instructions, commands, or to express displeasure, likeness, fondness, and love through their writings.

Ode

An ode is a form of poetry such as sonnet or elegy. Ode is a literary technique that is lyrical in nature, but not very lengthy. You have often read odes in which poets praise people, natural scenes, and abstract ideas. Ode is derived from a Greek word aeidein, which means to chant or sing. It is highly solemn and serious in its tone and subject matter, and usually is used with elaborate patterns of stanzas. However, the tone is often formal. A salient feature of ode is its uniform metrical feet, but poets generally do not strictly follow this rule though use highly elevated theme. Types of Ode Odes are of three types, including (1) Pindar ode, (2) Horatian ode, and (3) irregular ode. Pindar Ode This ode was named after an ancient Greek poet, Pindar, who began writing choral poems that were meant to be sung at public events. It contains three triads; strophe, antistrophe, and final stanza as epode, with irregular rhyme patterns and lengths of lines. Horatian Ode The name of this ode was taken from the Latin poet, Horace. Unlike heroic odes of Pindar, Horatian ode is informal, meditative and intimate. These odes dwelled upon interesting subject matters that were simple and were pleasing to the senses. Since Horatian odes are informal in tone, they are devoid of any strict rules. Irregular Ode This type of ode is without any formal rhyme scheme, and structure such as the Pindaric ode. Hence, the poet has great freedom and flexibility to try any types of concepts and moods. William Wordsworth and John Keats were such poets who extensively wrote irregular odes, taking advantage of this form. Short Examples of Odes in Writing Fragmented drops of rainbow Retract, reflect light through clear prisms Bend spectrum delights. Silver shot moon Hangs high in the sky Radiating light to be reflected. Rain drops drop down as I reach home, Cozy with warm clothes and hot tea, No need to move around. Some days may go desperately But every day is there to overcome, Struggle to get through them, Just to live each day with positivity. The mist spins through a deep valley Moving slowly and giving sights Of flowers, slowly it disperses in Morning sunlight. Nature is fantastic as it Brings gems that delight every soul. The sorrow, the pain I'll overcome tomorrow Ah! What a joy life brings. And here beneath the moon, And upon eveningward height of earth To feel always the arrival of Rising of the morning. It is the morning without Damp and dark, without stillness Waiting for the day, not for any sounds But feeling breeze. Whatever the new day brings, it brings something new Spins rounds, round, and round; and something new. The Junes are full and free, driving through the roads Valleys, and under boldly standing Mays. I see a new day upon the dew drops laden ground, I have awaken to start new a day as I found it Beyond the city roads. Crispy, crispy nights Soft, soft ice flakes, Stream, cold stream, Chimneys breathing Rising with a sigh, Winter cold winter! A thought, a wondrous positive thought Sparkles in the morning, Scattering fragrance everywhere. Walking down the streets, Walking down in the evening, Here starts falling down the snow. Examples of Odes in Literature Example #1: Ode on Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood (By William Wordsworth) "There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream, The earth, and every common sight To me did seem Apparelled in celestial light, The glory and the freshness of a dream. It is not now as it hath been of yore; —" This is a perfect example of an English Pindaric ode. Just observe the use of different types of meters in each stanza, which have made it easier to read, and made flexible with simple rhyme scheme of ababac. Example #2: Ode to the Confederate Dead (By Allen Tate) "Row after row with strict impunity The headstones yield their names to the element, The wind whirrs without recollection; In the riven troughs the splayed leaves Pile up, of nature the casual sacramen To the seasonal eternity of death ..." This is an example of Horatian ode, which presents a consistent rhyme scheme. It has no division into triads like Pindar ode, but is less ceremonious, less formal, more tranquil, and better suited for reading. The purpose of using this type of ode is to give vent to pent-up feelings. Example #3: Ode to the West Wind (By Percy Bysshe Shelley) "Scatter, as from an unextinguish'd hearth Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind! Be through my lips to unawaken'd earth The trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?" This presents an example of irregular ode, which employs neither three parts, nor four line stanzas like a Horatian ode. Nevertheless, each stanza of ode is distinct from the other stanzas in rhyme scheme, pattern and length. Example #4: The Progress of Poesy: A Pindaric Ode (By Thomas Gray) "A thousand rills their mazy progress take: Now the rich stream of music winds along Deep, majestic, smooth, and strong ... Now rolling down the steep amain, Headlong, impetuous, see it pour: The rocks and nodding groves rebellow to the roar." In the above mentioned ode, the speaker is addressing to poetry that is coming out among from different places to find its echoes in the nature. This is a good example of a true ode. Example #5: Ode on a Grecian Urn (By John Keats) "Sylvan historian, who canst thus express A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme ... Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter ... Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear'd, Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone." This ode has a regular and tight structure. Except the final stanza, the first four lines in each stanza follow rhyme scheme of ABAB and the next lines follow CDE or CED. This is one of the most celebrated odes in English literature. Example #6: Ode to Spring (By Thomas Gray) "The untaught harmony of spring ... Still is the toiling hand of Care: The panting herds repose: Yet hark, how thro' the peopled air The busy murmur glows! Some lightly o'er the current skim, Some show their gaily-gilded trim Quick-glancing to the sun." This is another good example of an ode. The speaker is talking about the spring season, and praises its beauty, expressing lofty and noble sentiments about it. Function of Ode Ode is a form of lyrical poetry, in which poets use a certain metrical pattern and rhyme scheme to express their noble and lofty sentiments in serious and sometimes satirical tone. Since the themes of odes are inspiring and lofty, they have universal appeal. Also, by using sublime and exceptional style, poets endeavor to compose grand and elevated types of odes. Sometimes odes may be humorous, but they are always thoughtful, intended to explore important themes and observations related to human relations, emotions and senses.

Ordinal Number

An ordinal number refers to a number that indicates the position or order of things or objects, such as first, second, third, fourth, and so on. Ordinal numbers do not indicate quantity as cardinal numbers do. Ordinal numbers attribute to a position or place of an object's standing. They are written as first, second, third, or in numerals, as 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, etc. Normally, they are indicated by "th," or sometimes by "nd" or "st." For instance, many writers title their books in ordinal numbers, such as Henry the Fourth, by Stuart J. Murphy, and Second Watch, by J.A. Jance. Common Use of Ordinal Numbers He got third prize, sixth in line on his twentieth She was hired on January 8, and on the 25th she got appointment letter from board of directors. The first three series were wonderful to watch, but the second two were quite boring. Can't you wait till March twenty-fourth? A boy of 20-years old, sitting with his twin brother remembering their eleventh birthday, which was celebrated with their family at an amusement park. Examples of Ordinal Numbers in Literature Example #1: Twelfth Night (By William Shakespeare) A critic, Leslie Hotson asserts that Twelfth Night was specifically performed in the honor of Queen Elizabeth and some of her guests on January 6, 1601. However, many scholars disagree and claim that Shakespeare wrote his play Twelfth Night later. Despite disagreement, many agree with Hotson's argument that the play celebrates Twelfth Night festivities. Twelfth Night is, in fact, a religious holiday that marks the end of an event of major revelry and celebration. During Twelfth Night season people drank, ate, and danced themselves. This paragraph illustrates the use of ordinal numbers. It has been used in different shades of meanings five times. Example #2: The Master of the Game (By Sidney Sheldon) "Jamie was mesmerized by the men, women and children who thronged the streets. He saw a kaffir clad in an old pair of 78th Highland trews and wearing as a coat a sack with slits cut for the arms and head. The karfir walked behind two Chinese men, hand in hand, who were wearing blue smock frocks, their pigtails carefully coiled up under their conical straw hats..." In this passage, see the underlined ordinal number "78th." This is number of a character's dressing, Highland trews, probably showing its size. Example #3: Ode on Indolence (By John Keats) "A third time pass'd they by, and, passing, turn'd Each one the face a moment whiles to me; Then faded, and to follow them I burn'd And ached for wings, because I knew the three; The first was a fair Maid, and Love her name; The second was Ambition, pale of cheek, And ever watchful with fatigued eye... I knew to be my demon Poesy." In this example, the speaker reports a morning when he sees three figures, mentioning them by using ordinal numbers. Seeing them the third time, the first figure is a beautiful woman named "love" and the second one named as "ambition." Example #4: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) "1st, The man-mountain shall not depart from our dominions, without our license under our great seal. "2d, He shall not presume to come into our metropolis, without our express order; at which time, the inhabitants shall have two hours warning to keep within doors. "4th, As he walks the said roads, he shall take the utmost care not to trample upon the bodies of any of our loving subjects, their horses, or carriages, nor take any of our subjects into his hands without their own consent ... "8th, That the said man-mountain shall, in two moons' time, deliver in an exact survey of the circumference of our dominions, by a computation of his own paces round the coast. This passage has used ordinal numbers in a very beautiful way. The author has used these numbers in words starting from 1st up to the 8th number, showing the order and list of rules that Gulliver agrees to follow with Lilliputians. Function of Ordinal Numbers The purpose of using ordinal numbers is to indicate position, or order of things or objects. These numbers show the order. Their function is to arrange different things in order due to the position and status of things. Since the counting process requires labeling of things with numbering, when objects or things are placed in an order, ordinal numbers tell their exact position, or they help to put things in an order in a collection. Ordinal numbers are commonly used in mathematics, sciences, literature, and every walk of life.

Argument

An argument is the main statement of a poem, an essay, a short story, or a novel, which usually appears as an introduction, or a point on which the writer will develop his work in order to convince his readers. Literature does not merely entertain. It also intends to shape the outlook of readers. Therefore, an argument does not intend to serve only as an introduction, but it attracts the reader's focus to an issue that will be made clear gradually. Common Argument Examples In our everyday life, we use different arguments in our discussions to convince others to accept our viewpoints. We do it in the same way in literature, meaning we state what we believe is true, and then we gradually build an argument around it to make others believe it is true as well. For example, the subject of an argument might be, "The internet is a good invention." Then, we support this contention with logical reasons, such as "It is a source of endless information," and "It is a hub of entertainment," and so on. In the end, we conclude the argument by giving our verdict. Examples of Argument in Literature Let us now analyze a few examples of argument from literature: Example #1: David Copperfield (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens starts his novel David Copperfield with this literary argument: "Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show." The above opening line is considered one of the best opening lines of a novel. It becomes the main statement or argument of the novel, as the whole novel depicts the adventures of the narrator, David. Many people let him down, and many others support him in hard times. In the end, he alone was not the hero of his life, but there were others who deserve the same status. Example #2: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) John Milton provides his argument or purpose of the poem in the first five lines of Paradise Lost, Book I: "Of Man's First Disobedience, and the Fruit Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal taste Brought Death into the World, and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat..." In the above lines, Milton states the reasons why man was thrown out of Eden, what is the reason for all our "woes," and how "one greater Man" (Jesus Christ) restored our status. The rest of the epical poem develops this argument - to "justify the ways of God to men". Example #3: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) Similarly, the opening lines of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice give a suitable example of argument: "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife." The plot of the novel revolves around this argument. We see girls and their parents hunting for rich bachelors. The eligible bachelors seem to have no other worries in their life except looking for beautiful partners. Hence, we see a game of matchmaking occupying the entire novel. Example #4: Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S. T. Coleridge) S. T. Coleridge appended his argument at the beginning of his poem Rime of the Ancient Mariner. He writes: "How a Ship having passed the Line was driven by storms to the cold Country towards the South Pole; and how from thence she made her course to the tropical Latitude of the Great Pacific Ocean; and of the strange things that befell; and in what manner the Ancyent Marinere came back to his own Country." Coleridge gives us a summary of his poem in a nutshell. Function of Argument Literature, on face value, may be seen as a tool to entertain us - with attractive verse, with sweet melody, or with a story with instances of humor or emotion displayed by interesting characters. However, this is not its ultimate aim. Writers consider literature as a powerful tool in their hands to shape or reform our thinking. Arguments come into play at this time. Writers carefully play with words, as well as giving reasons and examples, to persuade us to their points of view. Our outlook is molded by words that also entertain us.

Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay that presents arguments about both sides of an issue. It could be that both sides are presented equally balanced, or it could be that one side is presented more forcefully than the other. It all depends on the writer, and what side he supports the most. The general structure of an argumentative essay follows this format: Introduction: Attention Grabber / hook, Background Information, Thesis Statement Body: Three body paragraphs (three major arguments) Counterargument: An argument to refute earlier arguments and give weight to the actual position Conclusion: Rephrasing the thesis statement, major points, call to attention, or concluding remarks. Models for Argumentative Essays There are two major models besides this structure given above, which is called a classical model. Two other models are the Toulmin and Rogerian models. Toulmin model is comprised of an introduction with a claim or thesis, followed by presentation of data to support the claim. Warrants are then listed for the reasons to support the claim with backing and rebuttals. However, the Rogerian model asks to weigh two options, lists strengths and weaknesses of both options, and gives a recommendation after an analysis. Examples of Argumentative Essay in Literature Example #1: Put a Little Science in Your Life (by Brian Greene) "When we consider the ubiquity of cellphones, iPods, personal computers and the Internet, it's easy to see how science (and the technology to which it leads) is woven into the fabric of our day-to-day activities. When we benefit from CT scanners, M.R.I. devices, pacemakers and arterial stents, we can immediately appreciate how science affects the quality of our lives. When we assess the state of the world, and identify looming challenges like climate change, global pandemics, security threats and diminishing resources, we don't hesitate in turning to science to gauge the problems and find solutions. And when we look at the wealth of opportunities hovering on the horizon—stem cells, genomic sequencing, personalized medicine, longevity research, nanoscience, brain-machine interface, quantum computers, space technology—we realize how crucial it is to cultivate a general public that can engage with scientific issues; there's simply no other way that as a society we will be prepared to make informed decisions on a range of issues that will shape the future." These two paragraphs present an argument about two scientific fields — digital products and biotechnology. It has also given full supporting details with names. Example #2: Boys Here, Girls There: Sure, If Equality's the Goal (by Karen Stabiner) "The first objections last week came from the National Organization for Women and the New York Civil Liberties Union, both of which opposed the opening of TYWLS in the fall of 1996. The two groups continue to insist—as though it were 1896 and they were arguing Plessy v. Ferguson—that separate can never be equal. I appreciate NOW's wariness of the Bush administration's endorsement of single-sex public schools, since I am of the generation that still considers the label "feminist" to be a compliment—and many feminists still fear that any public acknowledgment of differences between the sexes will hinder their fight for equality." This paragraph by Karen Stabiner presents an objection to the argument of separation between public schools. It has been fully supported with evidences of the court case. Example #3: The Flight from Conversation (by Sherry Turkle) "We've become accustomed to a new way of being "alone together." Technology-enabled, we are able to be with one another, and also elsewhere, connected to wherever we want to be. We want to customize our lives. We want to move in and out of where we are because the thing we value most is control over where we focus our attention. We have gotten used to the idea of being in a tribe of one, loyal to our own party." This is an argument by Sherry Turkle, beautifully presented it in the first person plural dialogues. However, it is clear that this is part of a greater argument instead of the essay. Function of Argumentative Essay An argumentative essay presents both sides of an issue. However, it presents one side more positively or meticulously than the other one, so that readers could be swayed to the one the author intends. The major function of this type of essays is to present a case before the readers in a convincing manner, showing them the complete picture.

Dysphemism

Dysphemism is originated from the Greek word dys, means "miss," or "none," and pheme, which means "reputation," or "speech." It is a figure of speech that is defined as the use of disparaging or offensive expressions instead of inoffensive ones. Dysphemism is the use of negative expressions instead of positive ones. A speaker uses them to humiliate or degrade the disapproved person or character. Dysphemism examples may be classified according to the following types. Types of Dysphemism Synecdoche - It is used to describe something as a whole like, "she is a prick." Dysphemistic Epithets - The use of animal names, such as "pig," "bitch," "rat," "dog," or "snake." Euphemistic Dysphemism - This is when a soft expression is used without offending. Dysphemistic Euphemism - It is used as a mockery between close friends without any animosity. "-ist" Dysphemism - Targeted at a particular ethnicity. Homosexual Dysphemism - These terms are used regarding homosexuality like, "gay," "******," and "queer." Name Dysphemism - It is used when someone is called by his name, rather than by using his proper title, such as "How are you Bill?" (Instead of "Uncle Bill"). Non-verbal Dysphemism - It is used when offending someone with gestures. Cross-cultural Dysphemism - Different slang terms are used as dysphemistic in one culture; on the other hand, they might have a totally different meaning in other cultures. For instance, "fag" is a slur used for gay man in American English, whereas, in British English it used for a cigarette. Opposite to Euphemism Euphemism is a mild and positive expression used to replace an unpleasant or negative one. Whereas dysphemism is the opposite of euphemism; it is the replacement of a positive or neutral expression with an unpleasant or negative one. Examples of Dysphemism in Literature Example #1: The Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) "Let him remember too, cried Mr. Casey to her from across the table, the language with which the priests and the priests' pawns broke Parnell's heart and hounded him into his grave. Let him remember that too when he grows up. "— Sons of bitches! cried Mr.Daedalus. When he was down they turned on him to betray him and rend him like rats in a sewer. Low-lived dogs! And they look it! By Christ, they look it! They behaved rightly, cried Dante. They obeyed their bishops and their priests. Honour to them!" In this excerpt, Mr. Daedalus uses very harsh words in order to express his anger. Though he could have used less offensive words, Joyce has employed the dysphemistic technique. These humiliating expressions are shown in bold. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) HAMLET "Oh, that this too, too sullied flesh would melt, Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew, Or that the Everlasting had not fixed His canon 'gainst self-slaughter! O God, God... Fie on't, ah fie! 'Tis an unweeded garden That grows to seed... So excellent a king, that was to this Hyperion to a satyr..." Hamlet feels despondency about his mother's second marriage to his uncle. Hence, he uses harsh language to state that his flesh could have melted away, or that God has not forbidden suicide, and "fie on't" means "damn it." His father is like a god (Hyperion), and his uncle is like a beast (satyr). Example #3: The Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) "Whatever else is unsure in this stinking dunghill of a world a mother's love is not..." Stephen Daedalus, in this excerpt, uses a harsh and disparaging term for a world that is a "stinking dunghill," while comparing it to a mother's love which is opposite to that, being pure and free of such negativities of the world. Example #4: Othello (By William Shakespeare) OTHELLO "By heaven, I saw my handkerchief in 's hand. O perjured woman, thou dost stone my heart..." DESDEMONA "Alas, he is betrayed and I undone." OTHELLO "Out, strumpet! weep'st thou for him to my face?" OTHELLO "Down, strumpet." Here, Shakespeare uses the first type of dysphemism, which is Synecdoche, which means he describes the character of Desdemona as a sinful person by calling her a "perjured woman," and a "strumpet," which is an offensive word meaning "*****." Function of Dysphemism Dysphemism is used as a device for degradation, minimization, or humiliation of individuals who are disapproved of or condemned. When a speaker uses this technique, he uses marked form directed towards a group or the listeners. The purpose is to express anger or social distance from a particular group. It is frequently employed in literary texts, political speeches, and colloquial expressions. Sometimes, dysphemism could be the result of hatred and fear, though disapproval and contempt might also motivate dysphemism to be used.

Dystopia

Dystopia is a world in which everything is imperfect, and everything goes terribly wrong. Dystopian literature shows us a nightmarish image about what might happen to the world in the near future. Usually the main themes of dystopian works are rebellion, oppression, revolutions, wars, overpopulation, and disasters. On the other hand, utopia is a perfect world - exactly opposite of dystopia. Characteristics of Dystopia Generally, there is no government, or if there is, it is an oppressive and controlling government. Either there is a huge income gap between the poor and the rich, or everyone faces extreme poverty. Propaganda put forth by the government or ruling class takes control of human minds. Examples of Dystopia in Literature Example #1: The Hunger Games (By Suzanne Collins) Suzanne Collins depicts a dystopic world, Panem, in a futuristic society in her series, The Hunger Games. Consisting of a central government referred to as "Capitol," and thirteen remote districts, Panem displays a model of dystopian society due to harsh separation and discrimination between the unkind Capitol and the poor, enslaved outlying districts. We notice throughout the novel that Panem's Capitol makes use of intimidation and violence to control its people living in the Districts. It forces the districts to engage in "The Games" to enforce servitude under the guise of celebrating an absence of war. Though Capitol itself might appear utopian, due to an excessive availability of opulent consumer goods, its abundance of riches comes at the expense of the remote Districts. Example #2: 1984 (By George Orwell) In his classic novel, 1984, George Orwell shows a dystopian society. He has written this novel to describe the future, and the ways government takes advantage of new technologies in order to rule and control the people. The leading character, Winston Smith, falls in a trap where Big Brother, a leader of the party always watches him and other low-grade members of that society. Inner party members live a life of luxury, while outer members live in dirty apartments. Besides, there is no emotional and mental freedom. The party does not allow anyone to rebel, even by using their minds. We see violence everywhere in this dystopic society, and the majority of people are poor, which further proves it as a fine example of dystopia. We notice everything goes decrepit, and its scenes are often dreary and dark. Example #3: Brave New World (By Aldous Huxley) Aldous Huxley, in his most challenging novel, Brave New World, depicts a futuristic society where individual sacrifices for the cause of state, science controls and subjugates all types of history, and the arts are outlawed. Shortly, this book perfectly fits into a classic form of dystopian literature. Huxley draws dystopia through emotional and political events. He brings a dystopian setting by the mention of technology and higher authorities. With the increased use of technology, the need for a human work force decreases, leaving them with a great deal of depression. The novel explores the dark side of an apparently successful world, where everyone looks satisfied and contented with excessive pleasures of technology, which they achieve by sacrificing their personal freedoms. Example #4: The Giver (By Lois Lowry) Lois Lowry wrote a dystopian fiction, The Giver, because she thought it to be the best way to express her dissatisfaction about the unawareness of human beings about their dependence upon each other, their surroundings, and their environment. By using ironical situations of the utopian appearances, she exposes dystopian realities, in order to provoke readers to raise questions, and value their individual identities and freedom. In this novel, Jonas' community has no starvation, poverty, lack of housing, unemployment, or prejudice, and everything seems perfect. However, as the novel advances, Jonas gets insight into people's personal lives, and notices that they have given up their individualities and freedoms. Besides, the community is a hypocrite conforming to false ideas and becoming a bad place in which to live. Function of Dystopia Through dystopia, authors express their concerns about issues of humanity and society, and warn the people about their weaknesses. Authors use dystopia as a literary technique to discuss reality, and depict issues that might happen in the future. Thus, the role of dystopia in literary works is to educate and give awareness to the audience. Dystopias also serve as warnings about the current state of affairs of a government, or of those in power. In dystopic writings, authors point out the wrong-doings in a society or a system - the reason that it is often called a critique.

Discourse

Foucault presents possibly the best definition of discourse. He defines discourse as, "Systems of thoughts composed of ideas, attitudes, and courses of action, beliefs and practices that systematically construct the subjects and the worlds of which they speak." Originally, it has roots in the Latin language. The term assumes slightly different meanings in different contexts. In literature, discourse means speech or writing, normally longer than sentences, which deals with a certain subject formally. In other words, discourse is the presentation of language in its entirety, while performing an intellectual inquiry in a particular area or field, such as theological discourse or cultural discourse. General Classifications of Discourse Discourse can be classified into four main categories, namely: Exposition The main focus of this type of discourse is to make the audience aware about the topic of the discussion. Definitions and comparative analysis of different ideas and beliefs are examples of discourse exposition. Narration Narration is a type of discourse that relies on stories, folklore or a drama as a medium of communication. Stage play, story, and folklore are narrative discourse examples. Description This type involves describing something in relation to the senses. Descriptive discourse enables the audience to develop a mental picture of what is being discussed. Descriptive parts of novel or essay are descriptive discourse examples. Argument This type of discourse is based on valid logic and, through correct reasoning, tries to motivate the audience. Examples of argumentative discourse include lectures, essays, and prose. Examples of Discourse in Literature Poetic Discourse Poetic discourse is a type of literary conversation which focuses on the expression of feelings, ideas, imaginations, events, and places through specific rhymes and rhythms. Poetic discourse makes use of common words in appealing ways to present feelings and emotions. The mechanism of poetic discourse involves certain steps starting from different sources, then entering the mental process, mental realization, and then finally into a finished product as poetry. Example #1: A Character (By William Wordsworth) "I marvel how Nature could ever find space For so many strange contrasts in one human face: There's thought and no thought, and there's paleness and bloom And bustle and sluggishness, pleasure and gloom." Expressive Discourse Expressive discourse does not involve the presentation of facts, or the motivating of others, but is rather a reflection of our emotions that form the foundation of our expressions. This is a form of basic or entry-level discourse, and is beneficial for beginners in the field of literature. It primarily deals with generating ideas with no concrete source. Examples include academic essays and diaries. Example #2: The Diary of Samuel Pepys (By Samuel Pepys, 1660) "We met very early at our office this morning to pick out the twenty-five ships which are to be first paid off. After that to Westminster and dined with Mr. Dalton at his office, where we had one great court dish, but our papers not being done we could [not] make an end of our business till Monday next. Mr. Dalton and I over the water to our landlord Vanly, with whom we agree as to Dalton ..." Transactional Discourse The basic aim in this kind of discourse is to convey the message in such a way that it is clearly understood without any confusion. Whatever is said has no ambiguity - everything is clear for the reader. Usually, this type of discourse is in active voice. Examples include instructions, guidelines, manuals, privacy policies, and patient instructions as written by doctors. Function of Discourse The role of discourse is hard to ignore in our daily intellectual pursuits, for it provides a basis to conduct a comparative analysis and frame our perceptions about different things. For instance, two competing discourses about the civil war in Syria today can be used to qualify the war as either "war against dictatorship," or "war against imperialism." On the other hand, it could be deemed as "war against Islam," or "war for humanity." Thus, both discourses provide a distinct style, vocabulary, and presentation, which are required to convey the respective ideas to a specific audience. According to Jacques Lucan and Ferdinand de Saussure, language (discourse) is the main force which works behind all kinds of human activities and changes in social fabric; whereas Modernists attribute discourse to development and progress. Another important function of discourse is to generate and preserve truth as argued by the Postmodernist theories.

Denotation

Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings. Let us try to understand this term with the help of an example. If you search for the meaning of the word "dove" in a dictionary, you will see that its meaning is "a type of pigeon, a wild and domesticated bird having a heavy body and short legs." In literature, however, you frequently see "dove" used to mean a symbol of peace. Denotation and Connotation In literary works, we find it a common practice with writers to deviate from the dictionary meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Such deviations from the literal meanings are referred to as "figurative language," or "literary devices," e.g. metaphors, similes, personifications, hyperboles, understatements, paradoxes, and puns. Even in our daily conversation, we diverge from the dictionary meanings of words, preferring connotative or associated meanings of words in order to accurately convey our message. Below is a list of some common deviations from denotative meanings of words that we experience in our day-to-day life: Dog - suggests shamelessness or an ugly face. Dove - suggests peace or gentility. Home - suggests family, comfort, and security. Politician - suggests negative connotation of wickedness and insincerity Pushy - suggests someone is loud-mouthed and irritating. Mom and Dad - when used instead of "mother and father" suggest loving parents. Short Examples of Denotation She recognized the lovely aroma of her mother's cooking. (Smell) Vegetables are an inexpensive (Cheap) Hanna's interest in interior decoration has turned into her leisure pursuit. (Hobby) Aunt Jolly lives in a hut deep down in the forest. (Cabin) I stopped for brunch at a diner situated in the bay area. (Café) His parents are conservationists. (Environmentalists) My old computer has died. (Venerable) In a stealthy and quiet way, Bob entered into his lawyer's chambers. (Cautious) The son was somewhat intimidated by father's assertive (Confident) Ben is an adventurous (Courageous) Emily moved around the shore and stopped to take rest. (Relax) The man is flocking together young sheep. (Lambs) Harry has a pet and keeps it in a cage. (tamed animal) Sara forgot her sweater at home and is cold during her walk. (Chilly) John returns to his home (Family) Denotation Examples in Literature Example #1: Mending Wall (By Robert Frost) "And on a day we meet to walk the line And set the wall between us once again. We keep the wall between us as we go. To each the boulders that have fallen to each." In the above lines, the word "wall" is used to suggest a physical boundary, which is its denotative meaning, but it also implies the idea of an emotional barrier. Example #2: A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal (By William Wordsworth) "A slumber did my spirit seal; I had no human fears — She seemed a thing that could not feel The touch of earthly years. No motion has she now, no force; She neither hears nor sees; Roll'd round in earth's diurnal course With rocks, and stones, and trees." Wordsworth makes a contrast between a living girl and a dead girl in the first and second stanzas respectively. We are familiar with the meanings of the words used in the last line of the second stanza: rock, stone, and tree. However, the poet uses them connotatively, where "rock" and "stone" imply cold and inanimate objects, and the tree suggests dirt and thus the burial of that dead girl. Example #3: As you Like It (By William Shakespeare) "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, ..." Shakespeare moves away from the denotative meanings of words in the above lines, in order to give a symbolic sense to a few words. The phrase "a stage" symbolizes the world, the word "players" suggests human beings, and the word "parts" implies different stages of their lives. Example #4: Wild Asters (By Sara Teasdale) "In the spring, I asked the daisies If his words were true, And the clever, clear-eyed daisies Always knew. Now the fields are brown and barren, Bitter autumn blows, And of all the stupid asters Not one knows." Sara Teasdale develops a number of striking symbols by deviating from the denotative meanings of the words. In the above lines, "spring" and "daisies" are symbols of youth. "Brown and barren" is a symbol of transition from youth to old age. Finally, "bitter autumn" symbolizes death. Example #5: Richard Cory (By E. A. Robinson) "And he was always quietly arrayed, And he was always human when he talked ... "Good-morning," and he glittered when he walked. And he was rich — yes, richer than a king ... And Richard Cory, one calm summer night, Went home and put a bullet through his head." Here, the poet uses denotative language to emphasize the personality of Richard Cory, who was wealthy, indeed he was "richer than a king." He was well-educated, and a perfect celebrity - everyone in the town wished to be like him. He shines brightly in his speech and mannerisms, nevertheless, he kills himself in the end. Example #6: Nicomachean Ethics (By Aristotle) "[C]ontemplation is both the highest form of activity (since the intellect is the highest thing in us, and the objects that it apprehends are the highest things that can be known), and also it is the most continuous, because we are more capable of continuous contemplation than we are of any practical activity." In these lines, Aristotle explains the literal function of contemplation in the human mind. Also, he explains that contemplation is a human activity that is done continuously. He uses phrases and words that directly describe contemplation. Example #7: Fire and Ice (By Robert Frost) "Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice ... But if it had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice ..." In the above lines, the poet has used a number of denotative meanings of words. Here, "some say" denotes a group of people, and "I know" represents personal experience. Then "end," "fire," "perish," and "destruction" denote destruction and death. Example #8: Moby Dick (By Herman Melville) "What the white whale was to Ahab, has been hinted; what, at times, he was to me, as yet remains unsaid. Aside from those more obvious considerations touching Moby Dick...It was the whiteness of the whale that above all things appalled me." Ishmael opens the above example by referencing the white whale, calling him "Moby Dick." Also, he specifies and refers to the white color of the whale, and using it in its literal meaning. Function of Denotation Readers are familiar with denotations of words but denotations are generally restricted meanings. Writers, therefore, deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresh ideas and images that add deeper levels of meanings to common and ordinary words. Readers find it convenient to grasp the connotative meanings of words because of the fact that they are familiar to their literal meanings.

Denouement

Denouement is derived from the French word denoue, which means "to untie." Denouement is a literary device that can be defined as the resolution of the issue of a complicated plot in fiction. The majority of examples of denouement show the resolution in the final part or chapter, often in an epilogue. Denouement is usually driven by the climax. In mystery novels, however, the climax and denouement might occur simultaneously. In most of the other forms of literature, it is merely the end of the story. Examples of Denouement in Literature Denouement is a significant part of a literary piece, because it resolves the conflicts of the story, as shown in the following denouement examples. Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) CAPULET: "O brother Montague, give me thy hand. This is my daughter's jointure, for no more Can I demand..." MONTAGUE: "But I can give thee more, For I will raise her statue in pure gold, That whiles Verona by that name is known... As that of true and faithful Juliet..." CAPULET: "As rich shall Romeo's by his lady's lie, Poor sacrifices of our enmity..." PRINCE: "A glooming peace this morning with it brings. The sun, for sorrow, will not show his head..." The denouement occurs in the play when the Capulets and Montagues see their beloved children committing suicide at the tomb. The heads of the family realized that their bitter rivalry must end. Lord Capulet and Lord Montague agree to end their dispute to avoid further tragedy in the future. Example #2: The Great Gatsby (By F. Scott Fitzgerald) "'They're a rotten crowd,' I shouted across the lawn. 'You're worth the whole damn bunch put together...'" The denouement in The Great Gatsby happens when Nick decides to go back to Minnesota, to get away from the rich people engaged in all those things Nick thinks are part of the moral worthlessness in Gatsby's life. All the people in Gatsby's circle were unfaithful. Example #3: The Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger) "... That's all I'm going to tell about. I could probably tell you what I did after I went home, and how I got sick and all, and what school I'm supposed to go to next fall, after I get out of here, but I don't feel like it. I really don't. That stuff doesn't interest me too much right now... I mean how do you know what you're going to do till you do it? The answer is, you don't. I think I am, but how do I know? I swear it's a stupid question..." The denouement in this story occurs in the last part of the novel. Here, the character Holden is living in a psychiatric facility, from which he is recounting the story. He tells readers that, after the merry-go-round ride of Phoebe, he would go home to attend school and face his parents. Example #4: The Winter's Tale (By William Shakespeare) Gentleman: "One that gives out himself Prince Florizel/ Son of Polixenes, with his princess, she The fairest I have yet beheld, desires access..." Leontes: "What with him? he comes not Like to his father's greatness: his approach..." Florizel: "Most royal sir, from thence; from him, whose daughter His tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thence A prosperous south-wind friendly, we have cross'd..." Leontes: "My lord, Is this the daughter of a king? ... His tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thence..." Leontes: "My lord, Is this the daughter of a king..." In this excerpt from The Winter's Tale, the denouement occurs when Polixenes chases Florizel and Perdita to Sicily. After the true identity of Paulina is discovered, Polixenes and Leontes make up, and both families become happy. Leontes also reunites with the family and finds Hermoin alive. Function of Denouement The denouement is a final resolution or clarification in a literary work. It is used in different types of storytelling: novels, plays, movies, etc. In fact, it wraps up the whole story, and usually comes after a huge climax. When a heart-racing climax has created anxiety and excitement, denouement provides the audience a chance to breathe a sigh of relief. It places everything in proper order, and allows the central theme or sentiments of the movie or novel to resonate. Denouement is very important, as it resolves the issues in the end. The whole story can be destroyed if the denouement is written poorly.

Logos

Derived from a Greek word, Logos means "logic." Logos is a literary device that can be described as a statement, sentence, or argument used to convince or persuade the targeted audience by employing reason or logic. In everyday life, arguments depend upon pathos and ethos besides logos. Let's take a look at logos examples in literature and debates. Classification of Logos Before you learn what logos is, you must first understand its two categories as given below: Inductive reasoning - Inductive reasoning involves a piece of specific representative evidence or the case which is drawn towards a conclusion or generalization. However, inductive reasoning requires reliable and convincing evidence that is presented to support the point. Deductive reasoning - Deductive reasoning involves generalization at the initial stage and then moves on towards the specific case. The starting generalization must be based on reliable evidence to support it at the end. In some cases, both of these methods are used to convince the audience. Examples of Logos in Literature Example #1: Political Ideals (By Bertrand Russell) "The wage system has made people believe that what a man needs is work. This, of course, is absurd. What he needs is the goods produced by work, and the less work involved in making a given amount of goods, the better ... But owing to our economic system ...where a better system would produce only an increase of wages or a diminution in the hours of work without any corresponding diminution of wages." In this paragraph, Russell is presenting arguments for the unjust distribution of wealth and its consequences. He answers through logic and states that a reason for this injustice is due to evils in institutions. He deduces that capitalism and the wage system should be abolished to improve the economic system. Example #2: The Art of Rhetoric (By Aristotle) "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal." Aristotle is using syllogistic arguments here, where some of the arguments or assertions remain unstated. Since Socrates is a man; therefore, he is mortal; all men are mortal so. Eventually, they will die. This is the logic presented here. Example #3: Of Studies (By Francis Bacon) "Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man." This example is exact, precise, and compact with arguments, as well as a deduction or conclusion. At first, Bacon points out what reading, conference (discussion), and writing are, simultaneously giving the logic and reasoning to read, write, or conference. Example #4: Of Studies (By Francis Bacon) "Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation." This is also a perfect example of logos. Here, Bacon discusses the matter of theories versus skills. There comes a clash between reading and not reading. He argues that a reader is better than those who cling to what they already know. He uses the logic that reading is necessary because it improves skills. Example #5: Othello (By William Shakespeare) "Oh, beware, my lord, of jealousy! It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock The meat it feeds on ... Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger, But, oh, what damnèd minutes tells he o'er Who dotes, yet doubts — suspects, yet soundly loves ... She did deceive her father, marrying you ... She loved them most ... I humbly do beseech you of your pardon For too much loving you ..." In this excerpt, Iago convinces Othello with logic and reasoning and makes him doubtful that there is a secret relationship between Desdemona and Cassio. Logos Meaning and Function Logos is used when citing facts, in addition to statistical, literal, and historical analogies. It is something through which inner thoughts are presented logically, to persuade the audience. In society, rationality and logic are greatly valued, and this type of convincing approach is generally honored more than appeals made by a speaker or character to the audience. On the other hand, scientific reasoning and formal logic are perhaps not suitable for general audiences, as they are more appropriate for scientific professionals only.

Epiphany

Derived from the Greek word epiphaneia, epiphany means "appearance," or "manifestation." In literary terms, an epiphany is that moment in the story where a character achieves realization, awareness, or a feeling of knowledge, after which events are seen through the prism of this new light in the story. James Joyce, the great Irish writer, used this term in his writings to indicate a sudden eye-opener regarding the nature of a person or situation. He said that it is the moment in which "the soul of the commonest object ... seems to us radiant, and may be manifested through any chance, word, or gesture." He means to say that even insignificant things in our lives can suddenly inspire in us an awareness that can change our lives for good. A Common Example of Epiphany Let us consider an epiphany of a smoker: I used to smoke a lot. Everyone let me know that it was bad for my health however, I didn't pay any notice. One day I saw my two-year-old baby trying to grab a stubbed-out cigarette from the ashtray. Seeing this, it suddenly dawned on me how terrible smoking was, and I stopped smoking. So, this sudden feeling of knowledge that brings to light what was so far hidden, and changes one's life, is called epiphany. Examples of Epiphany in Literature Let us analyze some epiphany examples from different genres of literature. Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an epiphany that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWI. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is this: All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others. The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution. For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; "Mr. Jones," the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while "Boxer" the horse, represents the laborer class. The use of Epiphany in the novel allows Orwell to make his position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare also makes use of an epiphany in his play Hamlet. It is when Hamlet, the hero, is on a ship sailing to England. Till then, he was over-burdened with thinking and planning a flawless revenge on his father's murderer, Claudius. Suddenly there is a flash of realization and he says: [T]here is a divinity that shapes our ends, rough-hew them how we will. He realizes that there is no wisdom for him in trying to inflict the perfect revenge on Claudius - he must take hold of the moment and go with the current. Example #3: Miss Brill (By Katherine Manfield) We find another example of epiphany in the short story Miss Brill, written by Katherine Manfield. Miss Brill, being delighted to be part of the season in the Jardins Publique, particularly on Sundays, prepares herself for the occasion on a chilly day. She wears her fur coat, and walks towards a band playing music in the park. She sees life everywhere around her. It pleases her to imagine that she is part of all that takes place. In a flash of epiphany, she recognizes that she and everyone else in the park are mere actors, acting out their roles. There was nothing important about that gathering of actors and she was alone despite being with a crowd. Function of Epiphany The purpose of epiphany in a novel or a short story is to point out a turning point for a character, or in the plot, in the near future. It may also be used to change the opinion of one character about other characters, events, and places after a sudden awareness of the situation. It may also be a sign of a conclusion in the story.

Moral

Derived from the Latin term "morālis," moral means a message conveyed by, or a lesson learned from, a story, a poem, or an event. It is not necessary that the author or the poet has clearly stated it. It can be left for the audiences or the learners to derive. However, at times, moral is clearly stated in the shape of a proverb. The moral to a story is a universal aspect of the majority of fictional literature that it not only entertains, but also it serves the purpose of instruction, information, and improvement of the audiences. The chorus in the classical drama, for example, commented upon the proceedings and drew out a message for the audience. The novels of Charles Dickens, on the other hand, address the drawbacks of the social and economic system of Victorian Britain, carrying morals of their own type, which are implicit. In children's literature, morals are exclusively introduced by the phrase, "The moral of the story is ..." Modern story telling does not employ these explicit techniques, but uses irony and other devices to convey it. Examples of Moral in Literature Mostly, Aesop's fables are considered to have strong moral conclusions. However, almost all literary writings have some morals to be conveyed to readers. Literary works aimed at children are replete with moral lessons. They provide children with positive lessons and guidelines for the future. Maxims like "Be friends with whom you don't like," "Don't judge people by the way they look," and "Slow and steady wins the race" are normally the lessons found behind many stories. Example #1: The Fox and the Grapes (By Aesop) "Again and again he tried after the tempting morsel, but at last had to give it up, and walked away with his nose in the air, saying: 'I am sure they are sour.' " These are the closing lines taken from Aesop's The Fox and the Grapes. It is through the last statement that the fox expresses its dislike of grapes, which it had tried again and again to grasp. This particular story by Aesop discusses a general habit of the people who cannot admit their defeat. Instead, they pass on the blame to someone or something else. The same is the case with the fox in this story, who fails after several attempts. Example #2: Dr. Faustu (By Christopher Marlow) "My God, my God, look not so fierce on me! Alders and serpents let me breathe a while! Ugly hell, gape not: come not Lucifer: I'll burn my books: Ah Mephistophilis!" One can easily detect the horror and terror expressed by Dr. Faustus in his final soliloquy. His fall indicates that, in spite of being an educated person, he made a great mistake by selling his soul to the devil. His repentance from his misdeeds leads the reader to realize that the path of the devil is doomed. The story of Dr. Faustus symbolizes the eternal struggle between good and evil, and vice and virtue. Example #3: The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia (By Samuel Johnson) "I have here the world before me; I will review it at leisure: surely happiness is somewhere to be found ... Happiness must be something solid and permanent, without fear and without uncertainty." In his famous novel, Rasselas, Samuel Johnson narrates the story of a prince who escapes from the valley of happiness in search of eternal happiness, which he ultimately finds nowhere. And this is the moral lesson of this tale. Function of Moral During the period 1780 to 1830, morals were associated with the main purpose of literature, especially literature written for children. In the 18th century, the works by John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau focused their attention on children as the audience of literature. However, as it has been stated by E. M. Forster: every good story has a moral, and every bad story is a moral, now it is necessary to deduce the moral. This is because ultimately the aim of literature is to make the world a better place, which is impossible without teaching morals. Therefore, moral is necessary for a piece of literature, which then functions as the main gist of any literary piece.

Diacope

Diacope has originated from a Greek work thiakhop, which means "to cut into two." This literary device is a repetition of a phrase or word, broken up by other intervening words. For instance, a very popular example of diacope is in William Shakespeare's Hamlet, "to be, or not to be!" In this line, you can notice that the speaker has repeated the phrase "to be," which is separated by another phrase "or not." This is called diacope. Popular use of Diacope Example #1: The Roar (by Katy Perry) "You held me down, but I got up" You hear my voice, you hear that sound ... You held me down, but I got up Get ready 'cause I've had enough I see it all, I see it now" In this song, the phrase "You held me down," lays emphasis on main idea, which is confidence and strength in the time of adversity. Then, the repetition of the phrase "you hear" and "I see it" gives rhythm to the song. Types of Diacope There are two types of diacope: Vocative diacope This type of diacope just repeats a phrase or word for emphasis such as: "The horror! Oh, the horror!" Repetition in this line is on the phrase "the horror," which emphasizes how horrific something is! It also shows how a character is mentally overwhelmed. Elaborative diacope This version of diacope repeats a phrase or word with an additional description or adjective that describes, clarifies, or further lays emphasis on a particular aspect of the thing or subject such as: "He is standing with a lovely woman. A tall, well-dressed and beautiful woman." Here elaborative diacope adds further clarity to the appearance of a woman: tall, well-dressed and beautiful. Examples of Diacope in Literature Example #1: Antony and Cleopatra (by William Shakespeare) "Cleopatra: O sun, Burn the great sphere thou movest in! darkling stand The varying shore o' the world. O Antony, Antony, Antony! Help, Charmian, help, Iras, help; Help, friends below; let's draw him hither ... "Antony: I am dying, Egypt, dying; only I here importune death awhile..." This is a very good example of vocative diacope, where Cleopatra is repeating the words "Antony," "help," and "dying," which are shown in bold, for emphasis. Example #2: Deep Thoughts (by Jack Handey) "I can picture in my mind a world without war, a world without hate. And I can picture us attacking that world, because they'd never expect it." This is another example of vocative diacope in which the author has repeated the phrase "a world without" to emphasize the world. Example #3: The Life that I Have (by Leo Marks) "And the life that I have Is yours. The love that I have Of the life that I have Is yours and yours and yours. Yet death will be but a pause ... In the long green grass Will be yours and yours and yours." Here are two phrases "that I have" and "yours" the poet repeats to highlight love of a lover for the loved one. It also adds rhythm to the lines. Example #4: Growing Up (by Russell Baker) "He wore prim vested suits with neckties blocked primly against the collar buttons of his primly starched white shirts. He had a primly pointed jaw, a primly straight nose, and a prim manner of speaking that was so correct, so gentlemanly, that he seemed a comic antique." In the excerpt given above, the author has used elaborative diacope using a word "primly" to emphasize and illustrate man's primness that he is prim in looks, actions and dressing, etc. Example #5: A Child is Born (by Stephen Vincent Benet) "Life is not lost by dying! Life is lost Minute by minute, day by dragging day, In all the thousand, small uncaring ways." In the first sentence, the phrase "Life is not lost" is followed by same phrase "Life is lost," which is an instance of elaborative diacope. The author has re-defined and clarified it. Another repetition is on the words "minute" and "day," which emphasizes passing of time. Function of Diacope Diacope is frequently used in writing, advertising, slogans, catch-phrases, speeches, TV shows, and music, as well as in movie scripts. Its purpose is to describe, specify, and emphasize an idea or subject. Writers often use diacope to express their strong emotions, and to draw attention towards repeated phrase or words. It also serves to make a phrase memorable and rhythmic.

Diatribe

Diatribe is a violent or bitter criticism of something or someone. It is a rhetorical device used as a verbal attack against a person, group, institution, or a particular behavior. Merriam Webster defines diatribe as, "An angry and usually long speech or piece of writing that strongly criticizes someone or something." Its purpose is to point out the follies and weaknesses of something or someone. However, if the focus of criticism diverts from targeting the main object, it may become negative or destructive criticism on account of its harshness. Examples of Diatribe in Literature Example #1: Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) Joseph Conrad's narrative Heart of Darkness is based on forced labor of subjugated Africans, as well as the mistreatment and beatings by European colonialists. This serves as an adequate diatribe of imperialism and colonialist countries. The tone of this account is sympathetic toward Africans, while the character Marlowe describes imperialism as: "The conquest of the earth, which mostly means the taking it away from those who have a different complexion or who have slightly flatter noses than ourselves, is not a pretty thing..." Further, he uses severe criticism terming it a "robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a great scale," and Europeans "grabbed what they could get for the sake of what was to be got." Example #2: Cherry Orchard (By Anton Chekov) The character Trofimov appears a stronger person in Act II of Anton Chekov's Cherry Orchard, and also the only person who speaks out words of wisdom. In one of the scenes, Trofimov and Lopakhin begin quarrelling, needled by Lopakhin's remarks about his status as "eternal student," and his flirtation with Anya. Thereby, Trofimov launches a diatribe against Lopakhin and Russian intelligentsia, as they failed to improve the social conditions of deprived people by saying, "The vast majority of those intellectuals whom I know seek for nothing, do nothing, and are at present incapable of hard work. They call themselves intellectuals, but they use 'thou' and 'thee' to their servants, they treat the peasants like animals, they learn badly, they read nothing seriously, they do absolutely nothing, about science they only talk, about art they understand little ..." Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) In the chambers of Polonius, Laertes counsels Ophelia to rebuff the advances of Prince Hamlet. Laertes uses diatribe by describing Hamlet in this manner: "For Hamlet and the trifling of his favor, Hold it a fashion and a toy in blood, A violet in the youth of primy nature, Forward, not permanent, sweet, not lasting." Meanwhile, Polonius enters and launches his own diatribe about the topic going on between Laertes and Ophelia, saying: "Do not believe his vows, for they are brokers Not of that dye which their investments show." He calls Prince Hamlet a robust who is just playing with her feelings. Example #4: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) In Gulliver's Travels, Jonathan Swift attacks humanity. Swift not only uses satire, but also a diatribe against the follies of human learning, aristocracy, royalty, government of England, the dominant Whig Party, and war with France. He criticizes the failures and flaws of humanity to develop its order, reason, and harmony. His first voyage represents a commentary on the moral state and political events of England. For instance, Swift describes Lilliputians as six inches in height, displaying a smallness and pettiness symbolic of human institutions, such as state and church, and the Lilliputian Emperor represents English King George I. Example #5: The Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) Geoffrey Chaucer has employed bitter criticism in his collection of stories, The Canterbury Tales. Chaucer attacks Monk violently, by saying that, though his duty is to serve churches and people, instead he takes an interest in hunting and riding most of the time. Then comes the Friar, a clergyman whose duty is to hear confessions of the people, but he has married several women in the town. Chaucer describes him: "He hadde made ful many a marriage/ Of yonge women at his owene cost." Similarly, Chaucer criticizes other characters, such as a nun, the Prioress, the Wife of Bath, the Parson, the Summoner, and the Pardoner. Function of Diatribe Diatribe sharpens the critical faculty of writers. It also enables readers to understand and access a work, lending it a powerful effect on their lives. Diatribes or bitter criticisms appeal to multiple readers in different ways, due to their conflicting interpretations and comparisons about the objects criticized. In addition, diatribe makes readers aware of good and bad qualities of the objects and persons in question. Besides, it is very common in literary works, politics, and everyday speech.

Dichotomy

Dichotomy is from the Greek word dichotomia, which means "dividing in two." Dichotomy is a literary technique that divides a thing into two equal and contradictory parts, or between two opposing groups. In literary works, writers use this technique for creating conflicts in their stories and plays. Its common examples in literature are good and evil, soul and body, real and imaginary, heaven and hell, male and female, and savage and civilized, among others. Often, dichotomy appears in a single character; however, sometimes writers use separate characters for representing opposing ideas. Use of Dichotomy in Everyday Speech We need to improve infrastructure of this country; therefore, we will have to raise taxes. He is simple, yet strangely entangled in intuition. The income of this company is increasing; while its revenue, on the other hand, is decreasing. U.S. society claims to be the most affluent society in the world, but still there is a clear demarcation between rich and poor. Examples of Dichotomy in Literature Example #1: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) Good Angel: "O Faustus! lay that damned book aside, And gaze not upon it lest it tempt thy soul." Evil Angel: "Go forward, Faustus, in that famous art, Wherein all Nature's treasure is contain'd ..." Good Angel: "Sweet Faustus, think of Heaven, and heavenly things." Evil Angel: "No, Faustus, think of honour and of wealth." This is the most notable example of dichotomy, where good and bad angels represent two parts of Faustus's consciousness. Good angel asks Faustus to repent, and ensures his path to heaven; while bad angel asks him to seek power, lust, and knowledge that would lead to eternal damnation. Example #2: Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) Conrad has employed different dichotomies in his novel Heart of Darkness, such as light versus dark, turmoil versus calmness, and savagery versus civilization. In this story, the most significant dichotomy is savagery and civilization, as in the novel the imperialistic powers are of the view that they are representing civilization, while the natives are symbolizing savagery. However, as the story progresses, the civilized imperialistic powers are engaged in brutality against the locals. Kurtz himself presents an example of dichotomy as, though he is a modern civilized man, he becomes savage and brutal while living among savages. He realizes this in the end saying, "The horror...the horror." Example #3: As You Like It (William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare opens his play, As You Like It, by providing a dichotomy of city versus country life, where the pastoral mood depends on this contrast. In Act I, Scene I of the play, Orlando talks about life's injustices with Oliver, and complains by saying that he "know[s] no wise remedy how to avoid it." When later in this scene, Charles shows a relation between Duke Senior's whereabouts and his followers, the remedy becomes clear as he says: "... in the forest of Ardenne ... many young gentlemen ... fleet the time carelessly, as they did in the golden world." Many people heal in the dense forest, lovers unite, and duke returns to his throne. However, Shakespeare reminds his readers that life is not permanent in Ardenne. As the characters get ready to move back to the court, the author does not favor country life over city life. Instead, he suggests a necessary and delicate balance between these two sides. Example #4: Beowulf (By Anonymous) You can find a perfect example of dichotomy in the old English poem, Beowulf. This one expounds upon the theme of good versus evil, where Beowulf is a good character, and three monsters are evil characters. Beowulf is a larger-than-life personality, who kills Grendel, his mother, as well as the dragon. As a descendent of Cain, Grendel is evil, selfish, and strives for personal gain. Beowulf is a triumphant hero, who fights for others, serves them, and defends them. This poem also contains the dichotomy of light versus darkness, such as when Grendel appears to attack on mead hall at night, which shows evil and dark attacking good and light. Like Grendel, death represents darkness, whereas treasures Beowulf receives represent light. Function of Dichotomy You can find the use of dichotomy in literature, linguistics, philosophy, politics, mathematics, and life science, which is proof of its wide scope. Since it presents a striking contrast between two opposite objects or persons, it gives a better understanding to the readers by emphasizing the differences between opposite qualities of two things, or the same thing. In other words, it allows the readers to see conflicting sides with more clarity. It is also a very useful literary tool to identify things and ideas, and to differentiate contradictions between them.

Diction

Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing, determined by the choice of words by a speaker or a writer. Diction, or choice of words, often separates good writing from bad writing. It depends on a number of factors. Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly, words should be appropriate to the context in which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should be such that the listener or reader understands easily. Proper diction, or proper choice of words, is important to get the message across. On the other hand, the wrong choice of words can easily divert listeners or readers, which results in misinterpretation of the message intended to be conveyed. Types of Diction Individuals vary their diction depending on different contexts and settings. Therefore, we come across various types of diction. Formal diction - formal words are used in formal situations, such as press conferences and presentations. Informal diction - uses informal words and conversation, such as writing or talking to friends. Colloquial diction - uses words common in everyday speech, which may be different in different regions or communities. Slang diction - is the use of words that are newly coined, or even impolite. Examples of Diction in Literature Depending on the topics at hand, writers tend to vary their diction. Let us see some examples of diction in literature: Example #1: Ode on a Grecian Urn (By John Keats) John Keats, in his Ode on a Grecian Urn, uses formal diction to achieve a certain effect. He says: "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on ..." Notice the use of the formal "ye," instead of the informal "you." The formality here is due to the respect the urn inspires in Keats. In the same poem he says: "Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu." It is more formal to use "adieu" than to say "goodbye." Example #2: The Sun Rising (By John Donne) In sharp contrast to Keats, John Donne uses colloquialism in his poem The Sun Rising: "Busy old fool, unruly Sun, Why dost thou thus, Through windows, and through curtains, call on us? Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run? Saucy pedantic wretch, go chide. " Treating the sun as a real human being in this excerpt, the poet speaks to the sun in an informal way, using colloquial expressions. He rebukes the sun because it has appeared to spoil the good time he is having with his beloved. Further, he orders the "saucy pedantic sun" to go away. Example #3: The School (By Donald Barthelme) Writers skillfully choose words to develop a certain tone and atmosphere in their works. Read the following excerpt from a short story The School, by Donald Barthelme: "And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing." The use of the words "died," "dead," "brown sticks," and "depressing" gives a gloomy tone to the passage. Example #4: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) Sometimes writers repeat their chosen words or phrases to achieve an artistic effect, such as in the following example from A Tale of Two Cities, by Charles Dickens: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." By repeating the phrase "It was the ..." throughout the passage, the writer ensures that the readers will give more consideration to the characteristic of the era they are going to read about in the novel. Function of Diction In literature, writers choose words to create and convey a typical mood, tone, and atmosphere to their readers. A writer's choice of words, and his selection of graphic words, not only affect the reader's attitude, but also conveys the writer's feelings toward the literary work. Moreover, poetry is known for its unique diction, which separates it from prose. Usually, a poetic diction is marked by the use of figures of speech, rhyming words, and other devices.

Didacticism

Didacticism is a term that refers to a particular philosophy in art and literature that emphasizes the idea that different forms of art and literature ought to convey information and instructions, along with pleasure and entertainment. The word didactic is frequently used for those literary texts that are overloaded with informative or realistic matter, and are marked by the omission of graceful and pleasing details. Didactic, therefore, becomes a derogatory term referring to the forms of literature that are ostentatiously dull and erudite. However, some literary texts are entertaining as well as didactic. Didacticism in Morality Plays Morality plays of medieval Europe were perhaps the best exemplars of didactic literature. These plays were a type of theatrical performance that made use of allegorical characters to teach the audience a moral lesson. The most common themes that were presented in morality plays were what are commonly known as "the seven deadly sins": pride, lust, greed, envy, wrath, sloth and gluttony. Another theme that such plays exploited was that repentance and redemption were possible for a person, even when that person intentionally gave in to temptation. Historically, morality plays were a transitional step that lay between Christian mystery plays and the secular plays of the Renaissance theatre. Examples of Didacticism in Literature Example #1: Pilgrim's Progress (By John Bunyan) John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is one of the best didacticism examples in the form of spiritual allegory. The poem describes a religious and spiritual journey of a man on the way to deliverance. The poem describes an ordinary sinner, "Christian," who leaves the City of Destruction and travels towards Celestial City, where God resides, for salvation. On his way, he finds a companion, "Faithful," who helps him on his way to the City. On many occasions, many characters - "Hypocrisy," "Apollyon," "Worldly Wiseman," and "Obstinate and Pliable" - try to discourage or stop him from achieving his goal. Finally, he reaches the Celestial City carried by Hopeful's faith. The moral or didactic lesson that this allegorical poem intends to instruct is that the road to Heaven is not easy, and it is full of obstacles. Moreover, a Christian has to be willing to pay any cost to achieve his salvation. Besides, a man is full of sin, but this does not stop him from achieving glory. Example #2: Essay on Man (By Alexander Pope) Alexander Pope's Essay on Man is a moral treatise. It is a satirical verse that intends to instruct individuals in an indirect way by ridiculing vices of a society. "Know then thyself, presume not God to scan The proper study of Mankind is Man. Placed on this isthmus of a middle state, A Being darkly wise, and rudely great: With too much knowledge for the Sceptic side, With too much weakness for the Stoic's pride, He hangs between; in doubt to act, or rest; In doubt to deem himself a God, or Beast; In doubt his mind or body to prefer; Born but to die, and reas'ning but to err; Alike in ignorance, his reason such, Whether he thinks too little, or too much;" The above excerpt is taken from the first verse paragraph of the second book of the poem. It clearly sums up the humanistic and religious principles of the poem. Example #3: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) George Orwell's Animal Farm is an allegory, or a moral and didactic tale, that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar, Nicholas-II, and exposes the evil of the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWII. Clearly, the actions of the various animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also contains a depiction of how powerful people can alter the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is: "All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others." The animals on the farm stand for different sections of the then-Russian society occupying Russia after the revolution. For example, "pigs" represents those who became the authority after the revolution; "Mr. Jones," the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; and "Boxer," the horse, represents the laborer class. Didacticism in the novel permits Orwell to make his position on the Russian Revolution apparent, in order to expose its evils. Function of Didacticism Didacticism in literature aims at offering something additional to its readers, rather than merely offering pleasure and entertainment. Some critics may argue that didacticism may reduce literature to a tool for boring instructions, nevertheless it definitely gives readers a chance to improve their conduct, and comprehend evils which may lead him astray.

Dilemma

Dilemma is a Greek word that means "double proposition," or "perplexing situation," which presents two different possibilities, both of which seem practically acceptable. Dilemma is a rhetorical device in which a conflicting situation arises for a person to choose between right and wrong, where both seem of equal worth. Often times, dilemma involves an ethically wrong decision that may produce desirable outcomes, but which could have moral consequences. Or it involves a decision in which a person needs to choose one of the two options, both of which are equally good or bad. Examples of Dilemma in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) In the play Hamlet, William Shakespeare's leading character, Hamlet, struggles with a dilemma in how to out the orders of his father's ghost to kill his stepfather; in order to exact revenge for marrying his mother, and usurping the throne. Ophelia also faces a dilemma in the play, as her brother and father believe that Hamlet is not faithful to her, and would rather use her; whereas her heart is convinced that Hamlet loves her. Neither of them could reconcile the situation following the ethical dilemmas they got entangled in. Example #2: Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) We find a perfect example of moral dilemma in Christopher Marlowe's play, Dr. Faustus. His major moral dilemma is he desires to get extensive knowledge for his benefit, but intends to use it to exploit others. For this, he sells his soul to the representative of Mephistopheles. We see his moral dilemma through his lust. He wishes to get things that were impossible to get, like power to rule an entire kingdom, but at heart he feels that he is doing wrong. Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare uses several conflicts in his play, Othello, and one of them is person versus person. We find main the character, Othello, in a dilemma when he faces internal about conflict whether he should believe in Desdemona or not, and whether she is faithful to him or not. Othello trusts and loves her, until jealousy arises in him due to Iago's cruel manipulations. Example #4: Jane Eyre (By Charlotte Bronte) Charlotte Bronte, in her novel Jane Eyre, demonstrates the characters struggling with their consciences after facing moral dilemmas. The most prominent characters are Rochester, Saint John, and Jane. While analyzing Saint John's character, we come to know that he is determined to devote his life as a missionary. He thus feels inclined to like the work ethics of Jane, and proposes to her. Though John loves another girl, Rosamond Oliver, he cannot marry her, as she would not make as good a wife as a missionary would. Jane, on the other hand, also struggles with a dilemma when John tempts her. There is appeal to the life of a missionary, but then she refuses because she does not love John. Jane's second moral dilemma comes in the question of whether to marry Rochester or not, as he is already married to Bertha Mason. She finally resolves this one by marrying Rochester. Example #5: Crime and Punishment (By Fyodor Dostoyevsky) In Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov commits a murder in order to test his assumption that some people have a right to act in this way because they are capable of doing such things. Raskolnikov tries several times to justify his actions, and mentally compares himself with Napoleon Bonaparte, determining that murder is acceptable for pursuing a higher purpose. Example #6: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) Sophocles raises moral dilemma in his phenomenal play Oedipus Rex, in which he falls victim to a great tragedy when he sets out to discover the truth of his birth. He seeks the truth with the expectation that, after knowing the truth, he would be able to set things right in his city. However, we learn that despite his righteous intentions, everything proves to be a trauma for him. He faces the dilemma of relieving the people from plague, or leaving it to save himself. Function of Dilemma In literature, dilemma is a struggle occurring within the mind of a character. Therefore, it gives readers an insight into characters' lives. There may be a single or multiple dilemmas in a story. However, the purpose is to create a tension and complexity in a narrative by adding confusing and conflicting ideas. It also creates suspense and excitement in the story from the beginning to the end. Simply put, the leading characters have to struggle, evolve, and make choices in a story to change effectively.

Direct Characterization

Direct characterization means the way an author or another character within the story describes or reveals a character, through the use of descriptive adjectives, epithets, or phrases. In other words, direct characterization happens when a writer reveals traits of a character in a straightforward manner, or through comments made by another character involved with him in the storyline. Direct characterization helps the readers understand the type of character they are going to read about. For instance, in Arthur Miller's The Crucible, he describes his character John Proctor in this way: "He was the kind of man - powerful of body, even-tempered, and not easily led - who cannot refuse support to partisans without drawing their deepest resentment." Examples of Direct Characterization in Literature Example #1: The Most Dangerous Game (By Richard Connell) "The first thing Rainsford's eyes discerned was the largest man Rainsford had ever seen - a gigantic creature, solidly made and black bearded to the waist. ... " 'Ivan is an incredibly strong fellow,' remarked the general, 'but he has the misfortune to be deaf and dumb. A simple fellow, but, I'm afraid, like all his race, a bit of a savage.' " The above passage shows a good example of a direct characterization. Here Zaroff has explicitly described another character Ivan in the story The Most Dangerous Game, leaving readers with no more questions about him. Ivan is a muscular, huge man, having a long black beard. He is deaf and dumb, yet strong, Zaroff says. Example #2: The Old Man and the Sea (by Earnest Hemingway) "The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the tropic sea were on his cheek ... Everything about him was old except his eyes and they were the same color as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated." Hemingway uses the method of direct characterization to describe the old man's personality traits, especially the vivid eyes of his main character, the old man, Santiago in his novel. Example #3: Hedda Gabler (by Henrik Ibsen) "MISS JULIANA TESMAN, with her bonnet on a carrying a parasol, comes in from the hall, followed by BERTA, who carries a bouquet wrapped in paper. MISS TESMAN is a comely and pleasant- looking lady of about sixty-five. She is nicely but simply dressed in a grey walking-costume. BERTA is a middle-aged woman of plain and rather countrified appearance...GEORGE TESMAN comes from the right into the inner room ... He is a middle-sized, young-looking man ... He wears spectacles, and is somewhat carelessly dressed in comfortable indoor clothes." In this excerpt, Henrik Ibsen has described three characters: Miss Tesman, Berta, and George Tesman. He has clearly shown their personalities and mannerism through direct characterization. Example #4: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen) "Mr. Bingley was good-looking and gentlemanlike; he had a pleasant countenance, and easy, unaffected manners. ... he was discovered to be proud, to be above his company, and above being pleased; and not all his large estate in Derbyshire could then save him from having a most forbidding, disagreeable countenance, and being unworthy to be compared with his friend." Mr. Bingley, the romantic interest of Jane, and his friend, Mr. Darcey, are described in this excerpt through direct characterization. She has admired Mr. Bingley for his pleasant countenance, comparing him to Mr. Darcy. Example #5: The Canterbury Tales (by Geoffrey Chaucer) "He yaf nat of that text a pulled hen, That seith that hunters ben nat hooly men, Ne that a monk, whan he is recchelees... His heed was balled, that shoon as any glas, And eek his face, as he hadde been enoynt. His eyen stepe, and rollynge in his heed, That stemed as a forneys of a leed; His bootes souple, his hors in greet estaat." Through monk's portrait, his physical and social life, readers see a satire of the religious figures that should live a proper monastic life of hard work and deprivation. This is the achievement of the description of Chaucer that he has described a character through direct characterization. Function of Direct Characterization Direct characterization shows traits as well as motivation of a character. Motivation can refer to desires, love, hate, or fear of the character. It is a crucial part that makes a story compelling. Descriptions about a character's behavior, appearance, way of speaking, interests, mannerisms, and other aspects draw the interest of the readers and make the characters seem real. Also, good descriptions develop readers' strong sense of interest in the story.

Dissonance

Dissonance is the use of impolite, harsh-sounding, and unusual words in poetry. In other words, it is a deliberate use of inharmonious words, phrases, or syllables intended to create harsh sounding effects. Dissonance is opposite of assonance, and similar to cacophony, which is also a use of inharmonious sounds. This unpleasant combination of consonants and vowels create an awkward sound, which makes the reading uncomfortable, and adds emotional depth to a situation or moment. Use of Dissonance in Everyday Life and Music Dissonant sounds also occur in everyday life. For instance, the sound of a crying baby and a screaming person are dissonant sounds. These sounds are annoying and alarming to the listeners. In music, dissonance might make listeners feel uncomfortable; however, it helps to create a sense of tension in musical compositions. Examples of Dissonance in Literature Example #1: Soliloquy of the Spanish Cloister (by Robert Browning) "Gr-r-r-there go, my heart's abhorrence! Water your damned flower-pots, do! If hate killed men, Brother Lawrence, God's blood, would not mine kill you! What? your myrtle-bush wants trimming? Oh, that rose has prior claims - 'St, there's Vespers! Plena gratia Ave, Virgo! Gr-r-r-you swine!" Browning captures the attention of his readers by beginning and ending the above poem with a word "Gr-r-r." While in the rest of the stanza, he has employed dissonance. Example #2: The Dalliance of the Eagles (by Walt Whitman) "The clinching interlocking claws, a living, fierce, gyrating wheel, Four beating wings, two beaks, a swirling mass tight grappling, In tumbling turning clustering loops, straight downward falling." Whitman has employed dissonance by describing eagles. He has combined assonance and mono and bi-syllabic words to create dissonance. Example #3: Wind (by Ted Hughes) "At noon I scaled along the house-side as far as The coal-house door. Once I looked up - Through the brunt wind that dented the balls of my eyes The tent of the hills drummed and strained its guyrope... The wind flung a magpie away and a black- Back gull bent like an iron bar slowly." See how vowel sounds are so different in the following lines that they seem clashing with each another. These harsh sounds create disturbing effect that catches our attention. Example #4: Sunday Morning (by Wallace Stevens) "Complacencies of the peignoir, and late Coffee and oranges in a sunny chair, And the green freedom of a cockatoo Upon a rug mingle to dissipate The holy hush of ancient sacrifice." This is a very good instance of dissonance, where harsh-toned words interrupt the smooth and rhythmical flow of the words and hence create disturbing and jarring effect. Example #5: Macbeth (by William Shakespeare) "Of all men else I have avoided thee. But get thee back. My soul is too much charged With blood of thine already." In the above lines, Shakespeare has used blank verse and variant vowel sounds to create unpleasant effects. Example #6: Carrion Comfort (by Gerard Manely Hopkins) "Not untwist — slack they may be — these last strands of man Can something, hope, wish day come, not choose not to be. Scan... With darksome devouring eyes my bruisèd bones?" Hopkins has used alliteration with high accented syllables and dissonance that echo speaker's inner turmoil and noise and uncomfortable situations. Example #7: Princess Ida (by Gilbert and Sullivan) "Women of Adamant, fair neophytes— Who thirst for such instruction as we give, Attend, while I unfold a parable. The elephant is mightier than Man, Yet Man subdues him. Why? The elephant Is elephantine everywhere but here (tapping her forehead)..." These lines have used abrupt and conversational style. Also, the use of dissonance brings more abruptness in its style, causing shock and surprise to the readers. Function The use of inharmonious sounds creates unpleasant effects and draws attention of the readers by creating interesting variations. It is found in poetry, plays, advertising, music and everyday life. Its purpose is to depict some sort of discomfort, making the readers or the audience to feel shock and surprise. It helps to describe the situations, which are emotionally turbulent and tumultuous. However, sometimes the poets use dissonance to create humorous effects too. They often use these sounds in an unexpected manner to discover the limits of the language.

Distortion

Distortion is a literary device that twists, exaggerates, changes, and makes something quite different from what it actually is. Writers can distort a thought, an idea, a situation, or an image. They may use symbolism, satire, and personification to present distortion. For instance, in his novel Animal Farm, George Orwell uses personification and symbolism to distort stereotypes and historical figures. Read on to learn more about distortion in literature. Examples of Distortion in Literature Example #1: 1984 (by George Orwell) "Don't you see that the whole aim of Newspeak is to narrow the range of thought? In the end, we shall make thoughtcrime literally impossible, because there will be no words in which to express it. Every concept that can ever be needed will be expressed by exactly one word, with its meaning rigidly defined and all its subsidiary meanings rubbed out and forgotten." "[...] Every year fewer and fewer words, and the range of consciousness always a little smaller. Even now, of course, there's no reason or excuse for committing thoughtcrime. It's merely a question of self-discipline, reality-control. But in the end there won't be any need even for that." "[...] In fact there will be no thought, as we understand it now. Orthodoxy means not thinking - not needing to think. Orthodoxy is unconsciousness." In the above excerpt taken from 1984, George Orwell has used distortion of several facts as a manipulative device. He expresses that this is an important part of human thought, as it either limits or structures the ideas of individuals. Orwell has rather focused on political language to distort the story's concepts and events by naming them differently than their names in our reality. Example #2: Gulliver's Travels (by Jonathan Swift) Swift uses distortion in his writings, such as the use of diminution to launch an attack on human grandeur. For instance, in Book I of Gulliver's Travels, Swift presents the Lilliputian king as greedy and powerful, and people as diminutive mortals. In fact, the author ridicules their king, because kings are symbolic figures of grandeur and power. However, the Lilliputian king is just six inches tall. By manipulating the fact of their physical smallness, the author emphasizes the moral smallness and pettiness of the Lilliputians. Example #3: Catch 22 (by Joseph Hellen) Hellen has used distortion many times in ironic situations to get his message across in his novel, Catch 22. He has used distortion of justice, which is influenced by problematic personal integrity and greed. For instance, in part-5, Yossarian asks Orr if it is possible that he could remain on the land. In fact, anyone who is crazy could stay on the land. Doc replies that Orr can definitely remain on the land; however, first he would have to send a request. Orr is crazy and does not make a request. If he asks to stay on the land, it means he is not crazy; thus, those who want to get out of combat duty are not crazy, nor can they get out. Example #4: Shrek (by William Steig) Shrek is contradictory to traditional fairy tales, because the author did not use a pretty princess and pompous prince as his leading characters. Rather, he uses an Ogre as a hero, and a less-than-attractive woman as the damsel in distress. This is a completely reverse situation, with the author using distorted characters, creating humor as well as an odd storyline. Distortion satire can be seen in a number of reversal of situations. Fiona beats robin-hood, who tries to save her from the ogre. This shows distorts the situation, showing Fiona to be a damsel in distress, who ends up rescuing herself. The ogre takes the place of a prince, as he goes on a quest to save the princess with a secret. Donkey lives with the ogre, taking him as a friend - which is absurd, because ogres are gruesome. Donkey falls in love with a dragon that is likely to eat him. This is a reversal that is unbelievable for the readers - that donkey and dragon could live together peacefully. Finally, the distortion satire is complete when Fiona herself turns into an ogre at sundown. Function The use of distortion is found mostly in novels, short stories, and advertising. Its basic purpose is to create humor, and lay emphasis on a point, a thing, or a person by distorting reality. Sometimes, distortion may highlight a remarkable action or feature through comparison and contrast. It also criticizes, makes fun, and gives comic relief to readers. In addition, distortion describes an important feature of the story as being worse or better than it actually is.

Doppelganger

Doppelganger, a German word meaning "look-alike," or "double walker," originally referred to a ghost, or shadow of a person; but in modern times it simply refers to a person that is a look-alike of another person. Types of Doppelganger In literature, a doppelganger is usually shaped as a twin, shadow, or a mirror-image of a protagonist. It refers to a character who physically resembles the protagonist, and may have the same name as well. Several types of doppelganger can be spotted in world literature. It may take the form of an evil twin, not known to the actual person, who confuses people related to that original person. It may also be figured as one person existing in two different places at the same time. Sometimes, a doppelganger is a person's past or future self. In some cases, it may simply be a person's look-alike. Doppelganger in Folklore In traditional folklore, doppelganger is a malicious and evil character, having no shadow or reflection. It troubles and harms its counterpart by putting bad thoughts and ideas in his or her head. In some cultures, seeing one's doppelganger is bad luck, and is often a sign of serious illness or approaching death. Examples of Doppelganger in Literature Let us see some doppelganger examples and their role in literature: Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) The ghost of Hamlet's father in Shakespeare's Hamlet is an example of doppelganger. The idea of getting revenge is put in Hamlet's mind by the apparition of his father, who tells him that he was murdered. The use of a doppelganger helps Shakespeare to set up the plot of his play, which revolves around the theme of revenge. Example #2: William Wilson (By Edgar Allan Poe) William Wilson, a short story by Edgar Allan Poe, follows the theme of doppelganger. William, the protagonist, meets another boy in school, who had the same name and looked surprisingly like him. He dressed like him, and even walked like him. The only difference between them was that William's doppelganger could only talk in a whisper. The doppelganger haunts William all his life. Worn out by interference from his double in his affairs, William stabs him, only to discover - looking in the mirror -that he has stabbed himself. He hears the voice of his rival as if it was his own: "In me didst thou exist—and, in my death, see by this image, which is thine own, how utterly thou hast murdered thyself." Example #3: The Secret Sharer (By Joseph Conrad) Joseph Conrad uses a doppelganger theme in his short story The Secret Sharer. In the story, Laggatt, the ex-skipper of a ship, acts as a doppelganger of the Captain. The Captain discovers Laggatt swimming in the sea naked, helps him come aboard, and gives him his clothes to wear. The men have both similarities and dissimilarities. Laggatt, who is full of calmness and self-confidence, helps the Captain to get rid of his uncertainty and undue apprehensions. In fact, Laggatt is other self of the Captain, whom he has failed to discover until then. Example #4: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (By Robert Louis Stevenson) Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in his novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Hyde is an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll. Jekyll creates Hyde by scientific experiments, to prove his statement: "... man is not truly one, but truly two." He means that the human soul is a mixture of evil and good, and Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in Dr. Jekyll. As a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll can never fulfill the evil desires existing in him. Therefore, he separates his "evil-self," giving him a separate identity. Function of Doppelganger A survey of doppelganger examples leads one to conclude that this literary device serves a variety of purposes in literature. It may be used to show the "other self" of a character, which he or she has not discovered yet. This "other self" could be the darker side of the character that troubles, or the brighter side that motivates. Hence, the use of doppelganger helps writers to portray complex characters. Moreover, doppelganger gives rise to a conflict in a story. The doppelganger acts in a way that promises dire consequences for the main character, who puts in efforts to undo the actions of his double. Sometimes, the conflict is an inner one, where a character tries to understand himself by understanding his doppelganger.

Drama

Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. It is one of the literary genres, which is an imitation of some action. Drama is also a type of a play written for theater, television, radio, and film. In simple words, a drama is a composition in verse or prose presenting a story in pantomime or dialogue. It contains conflict of characters, particularly the ones who perform in front of audience on the stage. The person who writes drama for stage directions is known as a "dramatist" or "playwright." Types of Drama Let us consider a few popular types of drama: Comedy - Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary works, and provide a happy conclusion. The intention of dramatists in comedies is to make their audience laugh. Hence, they use quaint circumstances, unusual characters, and witty remarks. Tragedy - Tragic dramas use darker themes, such as disaster, pain, and death. Protagonists often have a tragic flaw — a characteristic that leads them to their downfall. Farce - Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama, which often overacts or engages slapstick humor. Melodrama - Melodrama is an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and appeals directly to the senses of the audience. Just like the farce, the characters are of a single dimension and simple, or may be stereotyped. Musical Drama - In musical dramas, dramatists not only tell their stories through acting and dialogue, but through dance as well as music. Often the story may be comedic, though it may also involve serious subjects. Examples of Drama in Literature Example #1: Much Ado About Nothing (By William Shakespeare) Much Ado About Nothing is the most frequently performed Shakespearian comedy in modern times. The play is romantically funny, in that love between Hero and Claudio is laughable, as they never even get a single chance to communicate on-stage until they get married. Their relationship lacks development and depth. They end up merely as caricatures, exemplifying what people face in life when their relationships are internally weak. Love between Benedick and Beatrice is amusing, as initially their communications are very sparky, and they hate each other. However, they all of sudden make up, and start loving each other. Example #2: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) Tragedy: Sophocles' mythical and immortal drama Oedipus Rex is thought to be his best classical tragedy. Aristotle has adjudged this play as one of the greatest examples of tragic drama in his book, Poetics, by giving the following reasons: The play arouses emotions of pity and fear, and achieves the tragic catharsis. It shows the downfall of an extraordinary man of high rank, Oedipus. The central character suffers due to his tragic error called hamartia; as he murders his real father, Laius, and then marries his real mother, Jocasta. Hubris is the cause of Oedipus' downfall. Example #3: The Importance of Being Earnest (By Oscar Wilde) Farce: Oscar Wilde's play, The Importance of Being Earnest, is a very popular example of Victorian farce. In this play, a man uses two identities: one as a serious person, Jack (his actual name), which he uses for Cesily, his ward, and as a rogue named Ernest for his beloved woman, Gwendolyn. Unluckily, Gwendolyn loves him partially because she loves the name Ernest. It is when Jack and Earnest must come on-stage together for Cesily, then Algernon comes in to play Earnest' role, and his ward immediately falls in love with the other "Ernest." Thus, two young women think that they love the same man - an occurrence that amuses the audience. Example #4: The Heiress (By Henry James) Melodrama: The Heiress is based on Henry James' novel the Washington Square. Directed for stage performance by William Wyler, this play shows an ungraceful and homely daughter of a domineering and rich doctor. She falls in love with a young man, Morris Townsend, and wishes to elope with him, but he leaves her in the lurch. The author creates melodrama towards the end, when Catherine teaches a lesson to Morris, and leaves him instead. Function of Drama Drama is one of the best literary forms through which dramatists can directly speak to their readers, or the audience, and they can receive instant feedback of audiences. A few dramatists use their characters as a vehicle to convey their thoughts and values, such as poets do with personas, and novelists do with narrators. Since drama uses spoken words and dialogues, thus language of characters plays a vital role, as it may give clues to their feelings, personalities, backgrounds, and change in feelings. In dramas the characters live out a story without any comments of the author, providing the audience a direct presentation of characters' life experiences.

Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony is an important stylistic device that is commonly found in plays, movies, theaters, and sometimes in poetry. Storytellers use this irony as a useful plot device for creating situations in which the audience knows more about the situations, the causes of conflicts, and their resolutions before the leading characters or actors. That is why readers observe that the speech of actors takes on unusual meanings. For instance, the audience knows that a character is going to be murdered, or will make a decision to commit suicide; however, one particular character or others may not be aware of these facts. Hence, the words and actions of characters would suggest a different meaning to the audience from what they indicate to the characters and the story. Thus, it creates intense suspense and humor. This speech device also emphasizes, embellishes, and conveys emotions and moods more effectively. Examples of Dramatic Irony from Literature Example #1: Macbeth (By J William Shakespeare) "There's no art To find the mind's construction in the face: He was a gentleman on whom I built An absolute trust." This is one of the best examples of dramatic irony. In this case, Duncan says that he trusts Macbeth, not knowing about the prophecy of witches that Macbeth is going to be the king, and that he would kill him. The audience, on the other hand, knows about the prophecy. This demonstrates dramatic irony. Example #2: There's Something About Mary (By Jonathan Richman) "I've done it several times before." "It's no big deal." Jonathan Richman's comedy movie, There's Something About Mary, contains several instances of dramatic irony. For instance, when Ted thinks that the police have arrested him for picking up a hitchhiker, the audience knows that the police are actually interrogating him about a murder. Therefore, when Ted delivers these seemingly-innocuous lines, it is comedic to the audience. Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare) "Othello: I think thou dost. And for I know thou 'rt full of love and honesty And weigh'st thy words before thou giv'st them breath..." This is another very good example of dramatic irony, when Iago manipulates Othello, and Othello puts his faith in Iago as an honest man. However, Iago is plotting against him without his knowledge. Again, the audience knows that Iago is deceiving, but Othello does not. Example #4: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) "If someone knows the killer is a stranger, from some other state, let him not stay mute... I pray, too, that, if he should become an honoured guest in my own home and with my knowledge, I may suffer all those things I've just called down upon the killers." Oedipus Rex presents one of the best examples of dramatic irony of all time. In the play, Oedipus seeks to expose the murderer of King Laius to solve a riddle; nonetheless, he himself is the murderer. Here, he declares that the murderer, who has killed Laius, might also kill him, not realizing the fact that he himself is the murderer. Example #5: A Doll's House (By Henrik Ibsen) "To be able to be free from care, quite free from care; to be able to play and romp with the children; to be able to keep the house beautifully and have everything just as Torvald likes it!" Nora is delightedly looking forward to those moments when she would be able to pay off her debts to Krogstad. This reflects that she would be free. However, her speech shows the use of dramatic irony when the readers know that her freedom is, in fact, bondage, which she comes to realize by the end of the story. Function of Dramatic Irony Many writers use dramatic irony as an effective tool to sustain and excite the readers' interest. Since this form of irony creates a contrast between situation of characters and the episodes that unfold, it generates curiosity. By allowing the audience to know important facts ahead of the leading characters, dramatic irony puts the audience and readers above the characters, and also encourages them to anticipate, hope, and fear the moment when a character would learn the truth behind events and situations of the story. More often, this irony occurs in tragedies, where readers are lead to sympathize with leading characters Thus, this irony emphasizes the fatality of incomplete understanding on honest and innocent people, and demonstrates the painful consequences of misunderstandings.

Dramatic Monologue

Dramatic monologue means self-conversation, speech or talks which includes interlocutor presented dramatically. It means a person, who is speaking to himself or someone else speaks to reveal specific intentions of his actions. However, in literature, it is a poetic form or a poem that presents the speech or conversation of a person in a dramatic manner. Features of a Dramatic Monologue A dramatic monologue has these common features in them. A single person delivering a speech on one aspect of his life The audience may or may not be present Speaker reveals his temperament and character only through his speech Types of Dramatic Monologue There are three major types of dramatic monologues such as: Romantic monologue Philosophical and psychological monologue Conversational monologue Dramatic Monologue Examples from Literature Example #1 "My Last Duchess" by Robert Browning "That's my last Duchess painted on the wall, Looking as if she were alive. I call That piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf's hands Worked busily a day, and there she stands. Will't please you sit and look at her? I said "Fra Pandolf" by design, for never read Strangers like you that pictured countenance, The depth and passion of its earnest glance, But to myself they turned (since none puts by The curtain I have drawn for you, but I) And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst, How such a glance came there; so, not the first Are you to turn and ask thus." This extract is from the famous monologue of a duke. He tells his audience, possibly the father of his new bride, about his last duchess who could not survive his severity. It is a type of psychological monologue which tells the psychological state of mind of the speaker. Browning has exposed the duke's cruel state of mind through this poem "My Last Duchess." Example #2 "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" by T. S. Eliot "Let us go then, you and I, When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a patient etherized upon a table; Let us go, through certain half-deserted streets, The muttering retreats Of restless nights in one-night cheap hotels And sawdust restaurants with oyster-shells: Streets that follow like a tedious argument Of insidious intent To lead you to an overwhelming question ... Oh, do not ask, "What is it?" Let us go and make our visit." This extract is from the poem "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" by T. S. Eliot, a famous and popular modern poet. He has highlighted the thoughts of a modern young man who is madly in love but still hesitates from expressing it. Therefore, he faces an existential dilemma. The poem highlights his psychological state of mind through this contemporary monologue. This extract highlights this dilemma of hesitation in the very first line and then is repeated in the last line. Example #3 "Lady Lazarus" by Sylvia Plath I have done it again. One year in every ten I manage it— A sort of walking miracle, my skin Bright as a Nazi lampshade, My right foot A paperweight, My face a featureless, fine Jew linen. This extract is from the famous monologue of Sylvia Plath's "Lady Lazarus." It also highlights her psychological state of mind about her act of committing suicide and subsequent failure. She has likened this act to the Holocaust to create her own powerful monologue. Example #4 "Dover Beach" By Matthew Arnold "The sea is calm tonight. The tide is full, the moon lies fair Upon the straits; on the French coast the light Gleams and is gone; the cliffs of England stand, Glimmering and vast, out in the tranquil bay. Come to the window, sweet is the night-air!" "Dover Beach" is another example of such an autobiographical monologue of Matthew Arnold. He has highlighted his own situation and his reaction over the sorrow that he is experiencing. This monologue expressed his thoughts about his bride when they were on honeymoon on the same breach. He recalls the past and writes about the sea again. Example #5 "Hawk's Monologue" by Ted Hughes "I sit in the top of the wood, my eyes closed. Inaction, no falsifying dream Between my hooked head and hooked feet: Or in sleep rehearse perfect kills and eat. The convenience of the high trees! The air's buoyancy and the sun's ray Are of advantage to me; And the earth's face upward for my inspection." These are the first two stanzas of the famous monologue of Ted Hughes. This poem presents a hawk perching high on a tree, thinking about his power and dreams. It presents a psychological state of mind of personified megalomaniac bird how he thinks when he holds power over the lives of other weak birds. This dramatic monologue is an example of how powerful people think when they have control over others. Dramatic Monologue Meaning and Function A monologue functions as a tool to give vent to one's thoughts. It provides an opportunity for the poets to use powerful words spoken through their characters. So, the characters can express themselves or their ideas without an obstacle or hindrance. A dramatic monologue is also a convenient device to present different characters and their inner thoughts through verses.

Critique

Critique is a literary technique that means to critically evaluate a piece of literary work, or a political or philosophical theory in detail. A critique could be a critical essay, an article evaluating a literary piece, or a review. It may be just like a summary that identifies the central issue, raises questions, takes notice of theoretical and experimental approaches, and reviews the significance of the results. Apart from that, its purpose is to highlight both the shortcomings as well as strengths of a literary piece or a work of art. Moreover, critical evaluation or assessment requires sufficient knowledge about the subject matter. Examples of Critique in Literature Example #1: The Guardian (By Philip Hope-Wallace) In The Guardian, critic Philip Hope-Wallace has portrayed Beckett's play, Waiting for Godot, as "inexplicit and deliberately fatuous." He also claimed this play to have "bored some people acutely. [while] Others found it a witty and poetic conundrum." Godot would possibly be a God, and the dresses of tramps are like Chaplinesque zanies in a circus. Both speak futile cross talks like music hall exchanges. This play bored audience acutely, while others consider it as a poetic and witty conundrum. Finally, he calls the play a dramatic vacuum. It is without any plot, climax, denouement, beginning, middle and end. Example #2: The Washington Post (By The Washington Post) A famous writer, Jonathan Yardley, gives a complete analysis of F. Scott Fitzgerald's popular novel, The Great Gatsby in The Washington Post. He calls the novel an enormous achievement in Fitzgerald's career. It is his masterwork and seems that no other American novel could ever come close to its literary artistry. This novel is very popular, and its every passage is famous, thus there is no need to retrace its details and familiar background. Fitzgerald has written it with unusual subtlety and sustained that tone in the entire novel. In the end, he says that this novel is "the most beautiful, compelling and true in all of American literature." Then he says, "If from all of our country's books I could have only one, The Great Gatsby, would be it." Example #3: Hamlet: Poem Unlimited (By Harold Bloom) In his book, Hamlet: Poem Unlimited, Harold Bloom declares William Shakespeare's Hamlet as "unlimited," coming "of no genre," because its greatness "... competes only with the world's scriptures." This amazing significance cannot emerge from a work, which is about tendentious and politicized things. Bloom abandons the idea that Prince Hamlet's double shock of his father's death and his mother's second marriage has brought a drastic change in Hamlet. The truth, however, is that "Something in Hamlet dies before the play opens." In fact, the theme or central idea of this play is "Hamlet's consciousness of his own consciousness, unlimited yet at war with itself." Thus, the play is about awakening of self-awareness, and Hamlet fights with "his desire to come to an end of playacting." Example #4: The Daily Telegraph (By Victoria Lambert) Victoria Lambert, in The Daily Telegraph, writes her critical reviews on Jane Austen's novel, Pride and Prejudice. She describes the novel as surprisingly comforting as much as iconoclastic. It is a great story that challenges the people's perceptions, and also draws a line through their thoughts and female history. Certainly, there is an enjoyment of the Georgian grace, a world where we can solve problems by a ball invitation, a new gown, and scrumptious gossip. The social life at Hampshire Vicarage, its complex social mores, obsessions with money and class, its picnics and parities, draw the readers - especially females - to a point of obsession. The critics appreciate Austen's overall depiction of the way money rules a society. She also admits Austen's ability to describe the human heart in detail, setting her literary pulse racing. Function of Critique Critiques vary widely, ranging from giving reviews of books, as these reviews might determine whether a book is going to be popular or not, to rhetorical analysis of articles and pieces of artwork. Its advantage is that, despite negative criticism and reviews, many books win commercial success. Sometimes a critic serves as a scholarly detective, authenticating unknown books and unearthing master pieces. Thus, obscure scholarly skills could work as a most basic criticism, bringing literary pieces to public attention. Besides, a critique may antagonize the author. Many authors do not feel that literature needs investigators, and advocates are not happy when they hear that their works are imitative, incomplete, or have unintended meanings. However, most critiques are useful, as they help improve the works of authors.

Dactyl

Dactyl is a metrical foot, or a beat in a line, containing three syllables in which the first one is accented, followed by second and third unaccented syllables (accented/unaccented/unaccented) in quantitative meter, such as in the word "humanly." In dactyl, we put stress on the first syllable, and do not stress second and third syllables, try to say it loud: "HU-man-ly." Dactyl originates from the Greek word dáktylos, which means "finger," because it is like bones of human fingers, beginning from a central long knuckle, which is followed by two short bones. Opposite to Anapest Dactyl is opposite to anapestic meter, as dactyl in a quantitative meter consists of a first stressed syllable, and then two unstressed syllables (stressed/unstressed/unstressed), such as a dactyl from Longfellow's poem Evangeline: "Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring ocean." However, anapest in a quantitative meter that contains first an unstressed syllable, followed by two stressed syllables (unstressed/stressed/stressed), such as William Cowper's anapestic line from his poem Verses Supposed to be Written by Alexander Selkirk, "I must finish my journey alone." Examples of Dactyl in Literature Example #1: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. 'Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!' he said. Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred." In this poem, Tennyson has used dactylic meter perfectly. Notice this dactylic pattern as one accented syllable, followed by two unaccented syllables. Dactylic syllables give rhythm and pause while reading, thus laying emphasis on certain words. Example #2: Evangeline (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) "THIS is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight ... Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre ... Dikes, that the hands of the farmers had raised with labor incessant ... Leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman? ... Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of heaven? ... List to the mournful tradition, still sung by the pines of the forest ... " This is a very popular example of dactylic meter appearing in combination with spondaic meter. Look at the words shown in bold, with a stress pattern of one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables. Example #3: The Lost Leader (By Robert Browning) "Just for a handful of silver he left us, Just for a riband to stick in his coat— Found the one gift of which fortune bereft us, Lost all the others she lets us devote; They, with the gold to give, doled him out silver, So much was theirs who so little allowed: How all our copper had gone for his service!" Browning has used dactylic meter to create a great rhythmic effect. Most of the lines of the above verses contain four dactyls. Example #4: (Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking (By Walt Whitman) "Out of the cradle, endlessly rocking Out of the mockingbird's throat, the musical shuttle Out of the Ninth-month midnight ..." Whitman is using dactyl in the phrase, "Out of the ..." as a pulse riding throughout this poem, which is generating a starting point for each new line. Example #5: Higgledy Piggledy (By Ian Lancashire) "Higgledy piggledy, Bacon, lord Chancellor. Negligent, fell for the Paltrier vice. Bribery toppled him, Bronchopneumonia Finished him, testing some Poultry on ice." This is a perfect example of a double dactyl poem. It is constructed of two quatrains, each consisting of dactylic dimeter lines. Here, the first line is a nonsense phrase, and the second one is a proper name, while the sixth line is a single double-dactylic word. Double dactyl creates rhythm and humor in this poem. Function of Dactyl Dactyl meter is rare in English poetry, as its prolong use has distorted the normal accent of words. Also, it gives the lines a jerky movement. The major purpose of dactylic rhythm is to create lilting movement and a break. Apart from this, it makes poems pleasing, as intrinsically it is delightful, and makes it more meaningful by using stressed and unstressed patterns. As far as the origin of its usage is concerned, Greek and Latin have introduced this metrical form in classical epic poetry for melody. However, later in the nineteenth century, it started appearing regularly after poets like Algernon Charles Swinburne and Robert Browning successfully used it.

Elegy

Elegy is a form of literature that can be defined as a poem or song in the form of elegiac couplets, written in honor of someone deceased. It typically laments or mourns the death of the individual. Elegy is derived from the Greek work elegus, which means a song of bereavement sung along with a flute. The forms of elegy we see today were introduced in the 16th century. Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, by Thomas Gray, and When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd, by Walt Whitman are the two most popular examples of elegy. Features of Elegy Usually, elegies are identified by several characteristics of genre: Just like a classical epic, an elegy typically starts with the invocation of the muse, and then proceeds by referencing traditional mythology. It often involves a poet who knows how to phrase thoughts imaginatively in the first person. Questions are raised by the poet about destiny, justice, and fate. The poet associates the events of the deceased with events in his own life by drawing a subtle comparison. This kind of digression gives the poet space to go beyond the main or crude subject to a deeper level where the connotations might be metaphorical. Towards the end the poet generally tries to provide comfort to ease the pain of the situation. Christian elegies usually proceed from sorrow and misery, to hope and happiness because they say that death is just a hindrance in the way of passing from the mortal state into the eternal state. An elegy is not always based on a plot. Examples of Elegy from Literature Example #1: In Memory of W. B. Yeats (By W. H. Auden) "With the farming of a verse Make a vineyard of the curse, Sing of human unsuccess In a rapture of distress; In the deserts of the heart Let the healing fountain start, In the prison of his days Teach the free man how to praise." Example #2: O Captain! My Captain! (By Walt Whitman) "O CAPTAIN! My Captain! our fearful trip is done; The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won; The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring: But O heart! Heart! Heart! O the bleeding drops of red, Where on the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead.O Captain! My Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up-for you the flag is flung-for you the bugle trills; 10 For you bouquets and ribbon'd wreaths-for you the shores a-crowding; For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning; Here Captain! Dear father! This arm beneath your head; It is some dream that on the deck, You've fallen cold and dead. My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still; My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will; The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done; From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won; 20 Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells! But I, with mournful tread, Walk the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead." Whitman wrote this elegy for Abraham Lincoln (16th president of the United States). Function of Elegy Elegy is one of the richest literary forms because it has the capacity to express emotions that deeply influence people. The strongest of the tools elegy uses is its reliance on memories of those who are no more. Most of the poets who wrote elegies were evidently awed by the frailty of human beings, and how the world completely forgets about the deceased at some point. However, the function of elegy is not as limited as it is thought. Whenever we take a look at elegy examples, what comes to mind are feelings like sorrow, grief, and lamentation; but, a study of the Latin elegy tells us otherwise. A great deal of genre created in western literature was inspired by Latin elegy, which was not always so somber. The most famous elegiac poets in Latin literature, such as Catullus, Ovid, and Propertius, used humor, irony, even slotted narratives into a poem and still called them elegy.

Ellipsis

Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in narratives to omit some parts of a sentence or event, which gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while acting or reading it out. It is usually written between the sentences as a series of three dots, like this: "..." Apart from being convenient, ellipses also help in advancing the story. Leaving out part of a sentence or an event by substituting it with ellipses is often done to either save time, or as a stylistic element. The ellipsis can be dated back to Ernest Hemingway, who presented the Iceberg theory, which is also called the theory of omission. Examples of Ellipsis in Literature Example #1: To the Lighthouse (By Virginia Woolf) Among the famous examples of ellipsis in literature, the best would be Virginia Woolf's novel To the Lighthouse. This book involves two parts, one before the World War I was fought and won, and the latter accounts for the events occurring afterwards. All the events that occurred in between have not been mentioned in the book. Rather, it has left to the readers to deduce the events from the notable changes that have occurred in the characters' lives. Example #2: Crash Blossoms, The New York Times, Jan. 27, 2010 (By Ben Zimmer) "The potential for unintended humor in 'compressed' English isn't restricted to headline writing; it goes back to the days of the telegraph. One clever (though possibly apocryphal) example once appeared in the pages of Time magazine: Cary Grant received a telegram from an editor inquiring, 'HOW OLD CARY GRANT? - to which he responded: 'OLD CARY GRANT FINE. HOW YOU?' The omitted verb may have saved the sender a nickel, but the snappy comeback was worth far more." Function of Ellipsis Ellipsis is also very commonly used in filmmaking. The parts and scenes that are of no significance to the film are usually omitted by editing. For instance, there would be no point in showing a scene that involves a character walking to the door to answer it unless there is something absolutely important in that scene that you would like to highlight. Normally, such a scene would be cut short by editing out the unnecessary parts. In such cases, the narrative logic allows the audience to ignore the ellipsis. A very good example of the use of ellipsis in filmmaking would be Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey. The movie directly proceeds to the modern technology (space station) from the most primitive tool of mankind (a bone). In film language, this kind of ellipsis is often called a match cut. It is bridged by the symbolic comparison between the two things. Importance of Ellipsis in Avoiding Superfluity The greatest of the artists over the years have tried to prove time after time their passion for getting things right. The process of writing and revision can be painstaking. A great piece of writing is not generally created overnight. It requires close observation and a keen eye that points out what should stay and what should go into the bin. A piece of writing cannot achieve that level of intensity without such exertion. What is its significance in the actual composition? This question has been deemed very important, and many writers have answered it by underlining the importance of avoiding superfluity. Each and every part of a narrative has to fulfill a purpose or it's all for naught. As Aristotle writes about the action of tragedy: "The structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and disturbed. For a thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference, is not an organic part of the whole" (Poetics 8). Sir Philip Sidney's concern is slightly different from what has been stated above, but he still emphasizes that every component bears significance, as he said, "one word cannot be lost but the whole work fails" (An Apology for Poetry, 122). This idea is not just limited to classical narratives and poems. The idea of functionality, referring to the notion that every part is important, and what is not important is not necessary, assembles economic and organic principles. It is founded on the concept that there is no waste in nature. The relevance of economy does not become any less important if we move from looking at the inherent structure, to studying the meaning of the narrative as a representation of the ideas and perspective of the author.

Enjambment

Enjambment, derived from the French word enjambment, means to step over, or put legs across. In poetry it means moving over from one line to another without a terminating punctuation mark. It can be defined as a thought or sense, phrase or clause, in a line of poetry that does not come to an end at the line break, but moves over to the next line. In simple words, it is the running on of a sense from one couplet or line to the next without a major pause or syntactical break. Features of an Enjambment Enjambment lines usually do not have a punctuation mark at the end. It is a running on of a thought from one line to another without final punctuation. It is used in poetry to trick a reader. Poets lead their readers to think of an idea, then move on the next line, giving an idea that conflicts with it. Poets can achieve a fast pace or rhythm by using enjambment. Multiple ideas can be expressed without using semi-colons, periods, or commas. It helps reinforce the main idea that might seem to be confusing with pauses. It can be seen in different songs and poems. It helps readers to continue thinking about the idea, which is expressed in one line, and which continues through to the next. Short Examples of Enjambment I think I had never seen A verse as beautiful as a flower. Autumn showing off colors slowly Letting the splendid colors Flow softly to earth below. The poet labors all his days To build the beauty in his rhyme. When rain drops are Exposed to sunlight, even Colorless become vibrant. Longer days have come, Cuckoos are here with joyous Shades of dark green arise! Amongst the bushes and thorns Beautiful red rose blooms. Breezy blue sky so clear, So bright and relaxing That escapes daily toil. The sunlight brightens the horizon Like the sky lightens a small island. Cold morning time Ice crystals reflect the rays Of blazing sunrise. Before the sunrise A chain of red clouds And all else is in the darkness. Lovely nature has something to offer you; so inhale the fresh air And, beautifully, learn by deciding where to go. Still in their cabins lay the murdered, But the air is filled with pain And tearful rain and gusty sighs. The rooms feel mirror reflection For that glowing face, The windows were covered With frost. Outside Is a world of ice. The moon moved above The clouds, suspended between Night and dawn. How beautiful are sunflowers That yield without difficulty, Blooming so fully now In the light of the sun. Examples of Enjambment from Literature Example #1: It is a Beauteous Evening (By William Wordsworth) "It is a beauteous Evening, calm and free; The holy time is quiet as a Nun Breathless with adoration; the broad sun Is sinking down in its tranquility; The gentleness of heaven is on the Sea; Listen! The mighty Being is awake, And doth with his eternal motion make A sound like thunder―everlastingly. ... "Thou liest in Abraham's bosom all the year; And worshipp'st at the Temple's inner shrine, God being with thee when we know it not." This poem is a perfect example of enjambment. In this poem, every line is running over to the next, while the sense is not finished at the end of lines, without pause or break. None of the lines make sense - or stand on their own - without the next line. Example #2: Endymion (By John Keats) "A thing of beauty is a joy forever: Its loveliness increases; it will never Pass into nothingness but still will keep A bower quiet for us, and asleep Full of sweet dreams, and health, and quiet breathing." Endymion is a famous example of enjambment. The first and last lines in the given poem have end marks, while the middle lines are enjambed. There is a flow of thought from one line to the next. Example #3: The Winter's Tale (By William Shakespeare) "I am not prone to weeping, as our sex Commonly are; the want of which vain dew Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have That honorable grief lodged here which burns Worse than tears drown ..." Shakespeare frequently used enjambment in his plays. This extract is filled with the heavy use of enjambment. In each line, the linguistic unit finishes mid-line with a caesura. The meaning flows from one line to next, and readers are forced to read the subsequent lines. Example #4: The Waste Land (By T. S. Eliot) "April is the cruelest month, breeding Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing Memory and desire, stirring Dull roots with spring rain. Winter kept us warm, covering Earth in forgetful snow, feeding A little life with dried tubers." In this extract, only two lines (4 and 7) are end-stopped. The rest of the lines are enjambed. Each line is expanded unexpectedly by enjambment. The thought and sense flow into the next lines. Example #5: Don't You Wonder, Sometimes? (By Tracy K. Smith) "After dark, stars glisten like ice, and the distance they span Hides something elemental. Not God, exactly. More like Some thin-hipped glittering Bowie-being—a Starman Or cosmic ace hovering, swaying, aching to make us see." In the above example, Smith has used enjambment at the end of each line, which continues until the last line, where an end-stop is used. Example #6: Harlem (By Langston Hughes) "What happens to a dream deferred? Does it dry up Like a raisin in the sun? Or fester like a sore — And then run? ... Maybe it just sags like a heavy load? Or does it explode?" This is a good example of enjambment. The poet uses a simile to compare a missed dream to a raisin getting dried in the sunlight, starting in the second line and ending in the third line. Then enjambment occurs in the ninth and the last lines. The fourth and seventh lines also use because the meaning continues to move on to the next lines. Example #7: Endymion (By John Keats) "The very music of the name has gone Into my being, and each pleasant scene Is growing fresh before me as the green Of our own valleys: so I will begin Now while I cannot hear the city's din ..." Here the first four lines are enjambed, the meaning and thought not ending. It rather moves on to the next lines, which maintain rhythm and pull the readers along from line to line. Example #8: The Red Wheelbarrow (By William Carlos Williams) "So much depends upon a red wheel barrow glazed with rain water beside the white chickens." Williams has used enjambment in the entire poem. There are four couplets, all of which have meaning continuing into the next lines, giving a flow to the poem. Functions of Enjambment Enjambment can be used to surprise readers by delaying the meaning of a line until the following line is read. Some writers use this technique to bring humorous effects to their work. It is good to use in verse in order to create a sense of natural motion. In poetry, the role of enjambment is normally to let an idea carry on beyond the restrictions of a single line. Another purpose of enjambment is to continue a rhythm that is stronger than a permanent end-stop, wherein complicated ideas are expressed in multiple lines.

Enumeration

Enumeration is a rhetorical device used for listing details, or a process of mentioning words or phrases step by step. In fact, it is a type of amplification or division in which a subject is further distributed into components or parts. Writers use enumeration to elucidate a topic, to make it understandable for the readers. It also helps avoid ambiguity in the minds of the readers. Examples of Enumeration in Literature Example #1: I Have a Dream (by Martin Luther King) "[W]hen we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual, 'Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!' " In this example, if we remove commas, apostrophes, and quotation marks, it would be difficult to understand the text. Example #2: Hints Toward an Essay on Conversation (by Jonathan Swift) "[A]mong such as deal in multitudes of words, none are comparable to the sober deliberate talker, who proceedeth with much thought and caution, maketh his preface, brancheth out into several digressions, findeth a hint that putteth him in mind of another story, which he promiseth to tell you when this is done; cometh back regularly to his subject, cannot readily call to mind some person's name, holding his head, complaineth of his memory; the whole company all this while in suspense; at length says, it is no matter, and so goes on. And, to crown the business, it perhaps proveth at last a story the company hath heard fifty times before; or, at best, some insipid adventure of the relater." In this example, by using enumeration, Swift describes a sober, deliberate talker, and then adds details of his qualities, making his message clear to understand. Example #3: Elegy for Jane (by Theodore Roethke) "I remember the neckcurls, limp and damp as tendrils; And her quick look, a sidelong pickerel smile; And how, once startled into talk, the light syllables leaped for her, And she balanced in the delight of her thought ... " In the above lines, the speaker recalls how Jane - a dead student - looked. He gives details by remembering her smile, her hair, and her beautiful spirit. Example #4: The Atlanta Compromise Address (by Booker T. Washington) "Cast down your bucket among these people who have, without strikes and labour wars, tilled your fields, cleared your forests, builded your railroads and cities, and brought forth treasures from the bowels of the earth, and helped make possible this magnificent representation of the progress of the South. Casting down your bucket among my people, helping and encouraging them as you are doing on these grounds, and to education of head, hand, and heart, you will find that they will buy your surplus land, make blossom the waste places in your fields, and run your factories." Booker describes people by adding their qualities one by one, which helps the audience to gain a real understanding of the writer's ideas. Example #5: Address to the Jury during the Anti-Conscription Trial in New York City, July 1917 (by Emma Goldman) "We say that if America has entered the war to make the world safe for democracy, she must first make democracy safe in America. How else is the world to take America seriously, when democracy at home is daily being outraged, free speech suppressed, peaceable assemblies broken up by overbearing and brutal gangsters in uniform; when free press is curtailed and every independent opinion gagged." Emma Goldman discusses how America can save democracy while waging war. She lists details about what might happen if America does not make it safe at home. Function By using enumeration, writers lay emphasis on certain ideas to elaborate them further. In fact, enumeration easily creates an impression on the minds of the readers. The details and listing make it easy for them to convey the real message they want to impart. However, if there is no use of enumeration in a text, it might become difficult for the reader to get the true meanings of ideas.

Epigram

Epigram is a rhetorical device that is a memorable, brief, interesting, and surprising satirical statement. It originated from the Greek word epigramma, which means "inscription," or "to inscribe." Often ingenious or witty statements are considered as epigrams, such as this quote by Eleanor Roosevelt: "No one can make you feel inferior without your consent." Oscar Wilde used an epigram in this quote: "As long as war is regarded as wicked, it will always have its fascination. When it is looked upon as vulgar, it will cease to be popular." Both of these epigrams are not only interesting and brief, but also satirical. The first one is about the sense of inferiority, while the second one is about war. This literary device is commonly used in poetry, where it appears as a short satirical poem with a single subject, ending in an ingenious or witty thought. Poets like Alexander Pope, John Donne, William Shakespeare, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge popularized epigram as a literary device during the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries. Jane Wilde, an Irish poet, believed that epigrams were much better than an argumentative speech. Common Use of Epigram Below are some popular examples of epigram used in common speech: "Mankind must put an end to war, or war will put and end to mankind." - John F. Kennedy "If we don't end war, war will end us." - G. Wells "It is better to light a candle than curse the darkness." - Eleanor Roosevelt "A word to the wise ain't necessary; it's the stupid ones who need all the advice." - Bill Cosby "Live simply, so that others may simply live." - Mother Teresa "I'm starting with the man in the mirror." - Michael Jackson "This is the moment when we must come together to save this planet. Let us resolve that we will not leave our children a world where the oceans rise and famine spreads and terrible storms devastate our lands." - Barack Obama "Blessed are the peacemakers." - Jesus Christ Examples of Epigram in Literature Example #1: Auguries of Innocence (By William Blake) "To see a world in a grain of sand, And a heaven in a wild flower, Hold infinity in the palm of your hand, And eternity in an hour." Blake wrote poetry about his existential and religious concepts during his times. The above quotation, from Auguries of Innocence, became very popular. The poem is packed with punch lines, and the poet has laid great emphasis on the concept. Example #2: Sonnet 76 (By William Shakespeare) "So all my best is dressing old words new, Spending again what is already spent: For as the sun is daily new and old, So is my love still telling what is told." These four lines of a sonnet by Shakespeare are a good example of an epigram. The poet refers to ideas and items simultaneously as both new and old. He tries to say that he has spent something, which he already has done. He is doing this to express perplexity with a lover, and also shows his feelings of desire for sexuality. Example #3: The Picture of Dorian Gray (By Oscar Wilde) "There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is not being talked about." "Women are a decorative sex. They never have anything to say, but they say it charmingly." "There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book. Books are well written, or badly written. That is all." Oscar Wilde was one of the most popular and skilled writers for using epigrams. This novel is filled with a number of epigrams, and here we have three prominent examples. Example #4: Hero and Leander (By John Donne) "Both robb'd of air, we both lie in one ground Both whom one fire had burnt, one water drown'd." This is a good example of epigram. While we cannot see any apparent humor, the contradiction is clearly visible in how two people could die with water and fire both. Therefore, the poem has some satirical purposes wrapped up in just two witty lines. Function of Epigram Epigram is a clever and witty statement expressed in just a few lines, pointing out foibles and truths of mankind. This is very common in poetry, but we also find it in prose, film, fiction writing, politics, and everyday speech. Epigrams serve the same purpose as do maxims and proverbs. However, the main purpose of using such statements is to leave a positive impression on the audience, as they demonstrate pure humor coupled with wisdom. Besides, writers use this literary device to cause listeners and readers to think deeply about their statements.

Epiphora

Epiphora, also known as "epistrophe," is a stylistic device in which a word or a phrase is repeated at the ends of successive clauses. Examples of epiphora are not only found in literary pieces, but debates and persuasive writings are also rich with epiphora examples. Epiphora and Anaphora Epiphora is an exact counterpart of another figure of speech, anaphora. An anaphora is repetition of the first part of successive sentences, whereas in an epiphora repetition occurs in the last part of successive clauses and sentences. For example, "Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better" is an example of anaphora, as the word "every" is repeated in the successive clauses. The sentence, "I am an American, he is an American, and everybody here is an American," exhibits epiphora, as the repetition is in the last part of the successive clauses. Despite being different in their structures, both anaphora and epiphora have the same function of laying emphasis on a particular point. Examples of Epiphora in Literature Example #1: The Tempest (By William Shakespeare) "Hourly joys be still upon you! Juno sings her blessings on you ... Scarcity and want shall shun you, Ceres' blessing so is on you." Here, Shakespeare wants to convey the importance of "you" through the use of epiphora. Example #2: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "Fie, fie, thou shamest thy shape, thy love, thy wit, Which, like a userer, abound'st in all, And uses none in that true sense indeed Which should bedeck thy shape, thy love, thy wit." Again, Shakespeare is at his best in using epiphora, as the phrase "thy shape, thy love, thy wit" comes twice within four lines. It puts much emphasis on three of Romeo's attributes. Friar Laurence is at his best when he speaks this dialogue. Example #3: Merchant of Venice (By William Shakespeare) BASSANIO: "Sweet Portia, If you did know to whom I gave the ring, If you did know for whom I gave the ring And would conceive for what I gave the ring And how unwillingly I left the ring, When nought would be accepted but the ring, You would abate the strength of your displeasure." PORTIA: "If you had known the virtue of the ring, Or half her worthiness that gave the ring, Or your own honor to contain the ring, You would not then have parted with the ring." Shakespeare played with the phrase "the ring" in his famous play The Merchant of Venice. He makes both of his characters use the same phrase again and again in their dialogues. Example #4: King Henry VI (By William Shakespeare) "Then, since this earth affords no joy to me But to command, to check, to o'erbear such As are of better person than myself, I'll make my heaven to dream upon the crown; And, whiles I live, to account this world but hell, Until my mis-shap'd trunk that bears this head Be round impaled with a glorious crown. And yet I know not how to get the crown, For many lives stand between me and home." Shakespeare plays with the word "crown," to emphasize his point here that it is important for the speaker. Example #5: Merchant of Venice (By William Shakespeare) "I'm a Pepper, he's a Pepper, she's a Pepper, we're a Pepper. Wouldn't you like to be a Pepper, too? Dr. Pepper." This is an advertising jingle for the Dr. Pepper soft drink. The phrase "a Pepper" has been repeated in all the phrases, to emphasize the point for consumers that they must join the Dr. Pepper bandwagon. Function of Epiphora Epiphora, or epistrophe, is a literary device that serves the function of furnishing an artistic effect to passages, in both poetry and prose. It lays emphasis on a particular idea, as well as giving a unique rhythm to the text, which consequently becomes a pleasurable experience for the readers. That is the reason that it is easily understood and memorized, and easier to comprehend. As a rhetorical or stylistic device, epiphora is brought into action to appeal to the emotions of the audience in order to persuade them.

Epistolary

Epistolary comes from a Greek word, epistolē, which means "letter." Epistolary is a literary genre pertaining to letters, in which writers use letters, journals, and diary entries in their works, or they tell their stories or deliver messages through a series of letters. Though the usual format of epistolary is letters, writers sometimes use other forms of document such as newspaper clippings and diary entries. Recently, writers also use electronic documents like emails, blogs, radio broadcast, and recordings. Examples of Epistolary in Literature Example #1: The Color Purple (By Alice Walker) Alice Walker's novel The Color Purpl, is a good example of an epistolary novel in which an impoverished black teenage girl, Celie, tells her story through writing letters to both her sister and God. Here, readers can learn about the difficult life of Celie through her words and the direct experiences she has faced. Alice Walker has chosen to let the readers encounter this story by using Celie's voice, providing Celie a power that she could not have in everyday life. However, in the film adaptation of this novel, these letters echoed through the monologues of characters. Example #2: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelley) Mary Shelley started her first novel, Frankenstein, in the form of letters. She uses three narratives or perspectives that allow readers to form opinions about the narrative. The first narrator is Robert Walton, who gives his point of view about Victor. Robert records the confessions and narrative of Victor when he is dying. The second narrator is Victor himself, who gives his point of view about Walton. Finally, the creature disrupts Victor and readers get its viewpoint. It is Walton who starts and ends this novel by relating a series of events through letters to his sister, creating suspense by using the word "demon." The letters of Victor and the monster's perspective on the other hand, give frames to the main body of the narrative. Example #3: Dracula (By Bram Stoker) Bram Stoker has employed epistolary format in his successful and widely recognized novel nineteenth century, Dracula. The author has compiled the entire novel in the form of letters, newspaper clippings, diary entries, doctor's notes, telegrams, and ship's logs. The narrators of this novel are protagonists, who supplement it with newspaper clippings to relate different events. Although this novel draws on letters form, it reduces the end of the narrative. Example #4: Pamela (By Samuel Richardson) Samuel Richardson' novel Pamela is another notable example of such novels in which you would find the device of epistolary. In this novel, Pamela attempts to run away from her lecherous master, Mr. B. Whenever her master tries to seduce her, she expresses her insecurities to impoverished parents by writing them letters. Mr. B., however, intercepts her letters, and gives her parents the wrong information by shifting her to another estate, and there she begins writing a journal, hoping that one day she would send it to her parents. By the end, Mrs. Jewkes finds letters written by Pamela, and gives them to Mr. B., who realizes Pamela's pious character, changes his mind, and decides to marry her. Example #5: Diary of a Young Girl (By Anne Frank) A teenage girl, Anne Frank, wrote Diary of a Young Girl, recording her experiences during World War II. She recounts her feelings and thoughts, including some important and some trivial details. After a month while writing this diary, Anne along with her family members was forced into hiding in some building in Amsterdam to avoid religious persecution at the hands of the Nazis. However, all of them died in 1944, except her father Otto Frank, who had her diary published in1947. Anne Frank's diary format provides the readers an intimate insight into Anne's feelings and thoughts during tough times. It is also remarkable in that Anne describes her dreams and hopes through historical context. Function of Epistolary Epistolary form can add realism to a narrative, as it imitates real life workings. It is therefore able to describe different points of view. The primary function of this form of writing is to give readers an intimate view of characters' feelings and thoughts, and develop a direct connection with the events through letters without interference of the author. This technique thus makes the literary piece a real experience for the readers. Also, a presentation of events from different viewpoint gives the story verisimilitude and dimension.

Epistrophe

Epistrophe is derived from a Greek word that means "turning upon," which indicates the same word returns at the end of each sentence. Epistrophe is a stylistic device that can be defined as the repetition of phrases or words at the ends of the clauses or sentences. It is also called "epiphora." Epistrophe examples are frequently found in literary pieces, in persuasive writing, and in speeches. The Difference Between Anaphora and Epistrophe Anaphora is the opposite of epistrophe, and means the repetition of the same phrase or word at the beginning of successive sentences, such as in this example: Five years have passed; Five summers, with the length of Five long winters! and again I hear these waters ... However, in epistrophe, the repetition of phrases or words is at the end of successive sentences such as in this example: "Hourly joys be still upon you! Juno sings her blessings on you ... Scarcity and want shall shun you, Ceres' blessing so is on you." Examples of Epistrophe in Literature Poets have written a number of poems in regular meters, and epistropheic meter is widely used in several of them. Example #1: The Rebel (By D. J. Enright) "When everybody has short hair, The rebel lets his hair grow long. When everybody has long hair, The rebel cuts his hair short. When everybody talks during the lesson, The rebel does'n say a word. When nobody talks during the lesson The rebel does'n say a word. When nobody talks during the lesson, The rebel creates a disturbance. When everybody wears a uniform, The rebel dresses in fantastic clothes. When everybody wears fantastic clothes The rebel dresses soberly. In the company of dog lovers, The rebel expresses a preference for cats. In the company of cat lovers, The rebel puts in a good word for dogs. When everybody is praising the sun, The rebel remarks on the need for rain. When everybody is greeting the rain, The rebel regrets the absence of sun. When everybody goes to the meeting The rebel stays at home and reads a book. When everybody stays at home and reads a book, The rebel goes to the meeting. When everybody says, yes please! The rebel says, No thank you. When everybody says: No thank you, The rebel says, yes please! It is very good that we have rebels You may not find it very good to be one." Here the phrases are repeated in consecutive lines throughout the poem. Example #2: The Unnamable (By Samuel Beckett) "Where now? Who now? When now?" Examples of epistrophe abound in Beckett's works. In this excerpt, the word "now" is repeated three times to place emphasis, as well as making the line memorable. It also creates cadence and rhythm. Example #3: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) BRUTUS: "Who is here so base that would be a bondman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so vile that will not love his country? If any, speak; for him have I offended ..." Again, Shakespeare is at his best in using this stylistic device. The repeated phrase at the ends of sentences is "for him have I offended." It appears three time in this excerpt. This shows the importance of the phrase. Example #4: The Grapes of Wrath (By John Steinbeck) "Then I'll be all aroun' in the dark. I'll be ever'where - wherever you look. Wherever they's a fight so hungry people can eat, I'll be there. Wherever they's a cop beatin' up a guy, I'll be there ... An' when our folk eat the stuff they raise an' live in the houses they build - why, I'll be there ..." In the following excerpt, Steinbeck has employed the phrase "I'll be there" again and again as epistrophe. The phrase is creating a sense of connection and familiarity, and focuses the attention of readers on these words. Example #5: Flood: A Romance of Our Time (By Robert Penn Warren) "The big sycamore by the creek was gone. The willow tangle was gone. The little enclave of untrodden bluegrass was gone. The clump of dogwood on the little rise across the creek — now that, too, was gone ..." In this novel, the phrase "was gone" is used as an epistrophe. These words act as common threads throughout the paragraph. It is also giving a regular rhyme and rhythm to the text. Function of Epistrophe The rhetorical function of this stylistic device is to give a striking emphasis to an idea, a thought, or a passage. The repetition helps in making the words memorable and pleasurable, due to the regular rhyme scheme. Also, it furnishes artistic effect, both in prose and in poetry. In addition, it lends rhythm to the text, and appeals to the emotions of readers.

Epithet

Epithet is a descriptive literary device that describes a place, a thing, or a person in such a way that it helps in making its characteristics more prominent than they actually are. Also, it is known as a "by-name," or "descriptive title." One can find many examples of epithet, may of which were Shakespeare's own coinages, in Shakespeare's works. For example: "Thou mad mustachio purple-hued maltworms! (Henry IV) "Death lies on her like an untimely frost. Upon the sweetest flower of all the field..." (Romeo and Juliet). Types of Epithet Kenning as Epithet Kenning examples may also be considered as epithet examples. Kenning is a type of an epithet, which is a two-word phrase that describes an object by employing metaphors. The Fixed Epithet Fixed epithets are found in epic poetry that involves the repetitive use of a phrase or word for the same object. Such as in Homer's Odyssey, the wife is described as "prudent," Odysseus himself as "many-minded," and their son Telemachus as "sound-minded." Argumentative Epithet Expert orators use argumentative epithets. Short arguments use this type of epithet to give hints. Epithet used as Smear Word An epithet used as a smear word means a derogatory word or name for someone or something. Misuse of Epithets Contemporary writers and speakers take extra care when they use epithets. They do not want to misuse this device and be accused of using racial or abusive epithets. Examples of Epithet in Literature Example #1: Brendon Hills (A. E. Housman) "Here of a Sunday morning My love and I would lie, And see the coloured counties, And hear the larks so high About us in the sky." Here, "coloured" is an epithet used to describe the pleasant and beautiful spring season in those countries where the poet wishes to enjoy his beloved's company. Example #2: Beauty and Beauty (By Rupert Brooke) "The earth is crying-sweet, And scattering-bright the air, Eddying, dizzying, closing round, With soft and drunken laughter..." In this excerpt, the description of the air and earth is enhanced by the usage of epithets: "crying-sweet," "scattering-bright," and "soft and drunken laughter." These epithets help in developing imagery in the minds of readers. Example #3: Ulysses (By James Joyce) "God! he said quietly. Isn't the sea what Algy calls it: a great sweet mother? The snot-green sea. The scrotum-tightening sea! I must teach you. You must read them in the original. Thalatta! Thalatta! She is our great sweet mother..." In this passage, Joyce uses several epithets to describe the sea. These epithets include "a great sweet mother," "snot-green sea," and "scrotum-tightening sea." Example #4: In Blue Evening (By Rupert Brooke) "My restless blood now lies a-quiver, Knowing that always, exquisitely, This April twilight on the river Stirs anguish in the heart of me..." Brooke makes use of epithets ("a-quiver," and "April twilight on the river") to describe the anguish and agitation he feels deep inside him. Example #5: The Odyssey (By Homer) "I've come, As you surmise, with comrades on a ship, Sailing across the wine-dark sea to men Whose style of speech is very different..." In these lines, the phrase "wine-dark' is used as an epithet in order to explain the color of the sea. This epithet enhances the description of the color of the sea. Example #6: In Lycidas (By John Milton) "What time the gray-fly winds her sultry horn, Blind mouths! that scarce themselves know how to hold A sheep-hook, or have learn'd aught else the least That to the faithful herdman's art belongs!" Milton employs epithets ("gray-fly," and "blind mouths") in this excerpt, describing first insects, and later referring to the desire of feeding the mouths. Function of Epithet With the use of epithets, writers are able to describe their characters and settings more vividly, in order to give richer meanings to the text. Since they are used as a literary tool, epithets help in making the description of someone or something broader and hence easier to understand. With the help of epithets, writers and poets develop suitable images in fewer words. Besides, the metaphorical use of epithets helps in making poetry and prose vibrant and strong.

Epizeuxis

Epizeuxis is derived from the Greek word epizeugnumi, which means "fastening together." It is defined as a rhetorical device in which the words or phrases are repeated in quick succession, one after another, for emphasis. It is also called "diacope." Difference Between Epistrophe, Anaphora and Epizeuxis These three literary devices have a major difference, in that epistrophe is the repetition of the words at the end of successive sentences, such as "Where now? Who now? When now..." (The Unnamable, by Samuel Beckett). Whereas, anaphora is the reverse of epistrophe; it is a repetition of the words and phrases at the beginning of successive sentences. The following is an example of anaphora: "This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land, (Richard II, by William Shakespeare) The third term epizeuxis is less refined than epistrophe and anaphora. But, it makes a very strong impact. Epizeuxis is the repetition of words in succession within a same sentence, such as "The horror, the horror," in Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad. Examples of Epizeuxis in Literature Example #1: Cymbeline (By William Shakespeare) "Hark, hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings, And Phoebus gins arise, His steeds to water at those springs On chaliced flowers that lies; And winking Mary-buds begin To open their golden eyes: With everything that pretty is, My lady sweet, arise: Arise, arise!" This is considered a perfect example of epizeuxis. Shakespeare has used words, like "hark" and "arise," intentionally in order to emphasize his point. Example #2: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) "And my poor fool is hanged! No, no, no life! Why should a dog, a horse, a rat have life, And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more, Never, never, never, never!" Shakespeare has beautifully used this device in this paragraph. In the first line, he has emphasized "no," repeating it three times. Similarly, he has repeated "never" four times in quick succession without using any other word. Example #3: The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby (By Tom Wolfe) "Phil Spector tamps his frontal lobes and closes his eyes and holds his breath. As long as he holds his breath, it will not rain, there will be no raindrops, no schizoid water wobbling, sideways, straight back, it will be an even, even, even, even, even, even, even world..." In the above extract, the word "even" is repeated at the end. This repetition makes this text notable for the readers. Also, it brings an emotional effect within the text. Example #4: The Spam (By Monty Python) "Waitress: Shut up! Shut up! Shut up! Bloody Vikings. You can't have egg, bacon, Spam and sausage without the Spam. Mrs. Bun: I don't like Spam! Mr. Bun: Shh dear, don't cause a fuss. I'll have your Spam. I love it. I'm having Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, baked beans, Spam, Spam, Spam and Spam ..." The author has repeatedly used the words "shut up" and "Spam." Although, the repeated words are used here to emphasize a point, they are giving a comic effect too. Example #5: Coda (By Dorothy Parker) "There's little in taking or giving, There's little in water or wine; This living, this living, this living Was never a project of mine." In this excerpt, the poet uses "this living" repeatedly for emphasis. These words provide melody and emphasis on a specific way of living. Also, it creates an artistic effect in the poem. Example #6: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Coleridge) "Alone, alone, all, all alone, Alone on a wide, wide sea." Here, the repetition of words "alone," "all," and "wide" is creating a rhythmic effect. These words draw the attention of the readers toward the supernatural incident, which has killed crew members of the ship, and has left the mariner all alone. Function of Epizeuxis The major function of epizeuxis is to create an appeal to the emotions of readers — to hit them with a bang. It is employed to inspire, encourage, and motivate the audience. Epizeuxis examples are found in literary writings as well as political speeches. As a literary device, it furnishes freshness to the texts, and gives artistic effect to a piece. Apart from adding rhythm to the texts, epizeuxis makes the reading of the literary text pleasurable and memorable. Also, it helps in drawing the focus to a particular thought, idea, or emotion through repetition.

Eponym

Eponym is a name of a legend or real person that writers associate with some other person, object, institution, or thing. Simply, we can define it as a famous person whose name is given to someone else, such as Homer has derived the name of his ancient epic The Odyssey from a major character, Odysseus. Many TV shows, books, and films have used eponymous characters like Emma, Harry Potter, and The Legend of Zelda. Besides, we commonly see the use of this literary device in literature, industry, places, and in several other fields. Everyday Use of Eponym The sandwich was given the name of a British politician, John Montagu, who was fourth Earl of Sandwich. The cardigan sweater was named after the British military officer, James Thomas Brudenell, who was Seventh Earl of Cardigan. The saxophone was given the name of Sax, a surname of a family from Belgium, which was skilled at making musical instruments. Examples of Eponym in Literature Example #1: The Secret Life of Walter Mitty (By James Thurber) James Thurber in his novel, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, introduces the main character Walter Mitty, who is a rather timid and unadventurous fellow, whose wife has the dominating role in their relationship. Beneath his humble and timid exterior, Walter Mitty hides dreams and a great fantasy in his life in which he imagines himself as a successful surgeon, a daredevil pilot, and a heroic naval commander. After his dreams, the phrase "Walter Mitty Dreams" is used to refer to a sort of wild fantasy that an average person can dream up to satisfy his/her daily grind. Example #2: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) Jonathan Swift, in his satirical novel Gulliver's Travels, uses the name "Lilliputian," which originates from the miniature and fictional name of an island nation situated in the South Pacific, where Gulliver was lashed to the ground. This term generally means anything small or miniature, or it may have a derogatory meaning, referring to pettiness or narrow-mindedness. Swift also used the term "Yahoos," which are an uncouth or degraded race of people whom Gulliver encounters on the Houyhnhnm island in book IV. Initially, Gulliver felt some difficulty recognizing them as human beings, because they were so backward, and an intelligent race of horses known as the Houyhnhnm would treat Yahoos as beasts. Today, Yahoo means an ignorant, uncouth, or brutish person. Besides, Americans use it also as an exclamation of happiness or excitement. More recently, a very well-known internet service has named its search engine and service providing company as Yahoo. Example #3: Life in London (By Pierce Egan) A Victorian writer Pierce Egan in his 1821 book, Life in London, featured two popular characters, Tom and Jerry. This book became very popular and finally their adventurous story gained entry into in William T. Moncrieff's play. More recently, William Hannah and Joseph Barbara have created a cartoon cat and mouse duo, dubbed Tom & Jerry. Their popularity in different comic books and on television continues today. Example #4: Pickwick Papers (By Charles Dickens) In Pickwick Papers, Charles Dickens has created his most endearing and enduring character, Mr. Samuel Pickwick, who is head of the Pickwick Club in London. He and his associates make a travelling society to visit different areas in England, to study the phenomena and peculiarities of life. The purpose is to do something good for others. Along the way, they encounter some shady and evil characters, like Mr. Jingle. However, the novel ends happily, as Mr. Pickwick successfully understands the crisis in a family and reunites a married young couple with their relatives. Hence, the term "Pickwickian" is used commonly now, meaning generosity and simplicity, like Mr. Pickwick demonstrated. There is another popular term from this book, which has made it into dictionaries: "Pickwickian sense. Merriam Webster defines it as something "intended or taken in a sense other than the obvious or literal one." This term derives from an incident that occurred between Mr. Blotton and Mr. Pickwick, who apparently abuse each other but, in fact, pay high regards. Function of Eponym Eponym is like an allusion that refers to a famous person. Therefore, it develops a link between a reference and the thing being referred to, and through this connection, readers are able to understand the idea easily. The scope of eponym is wide. It is everywhere, as we can easily find its frequent use in literature, politics, advertising, sciences, discoveries, music, films, medicines, and legal studies. Besides, eponyms give further meanings to the terms and increase readers' information by providing them reference of the names of famous persons from history.

Eristic

Eristic is a derivative of the Greek word eris, which means "to create strife," or "to wrangle." It is defined as a literary device in which the writers and speakers engage in a heated argumentation without reaching a conclusion or solving a particular issue. Also, this device has been used as a manner of argumentation in classical texts, which are usually based on specious reasoning and poor conclusions. It is also known as "discordia." Difference Between Eristic and Dialectic According to Plato, there is a slight difference between eristic and dialectic. Dialecticians apply proper divisions and distinctions to the subject being argued, while eristics do not apply such distinctions, since they follow verbal oppositions. Examples of Eristic in Literature Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) Lady Macbeth: "How now, my lord, why do you keep alone, Of sorriest fancies your companions making, Using those thoughts which should indeed have died With them they think on? Things without all remedy Should be without regard: what's done, is done ... To bed, to bed! There's knocking at the gate: come, come, come, come, give me your hand. What's done cannot be undone.—To bed, to bed, to bed!" Lady Macbeth uses eristic arguments in these lines. In her arguments with her husband, she states that what has been done is done and cannot be undone. Example #2: Why I am Not a Christian (By Bertrand Russell) "It is an easy argument to parody. You all know Voltaire's remark, that obviously the nose was designed to be such as to fit spectacles. That sort of parody has turned out to be not nearly so wide of the mark as it might have seemed in the eighteenth century, because since the time of Darwin we understand much better why living creatures are adapted to their environment ... but that they grew to be suitable to it, and that is the basis of adaptation. There is no evidence of design about it ..." Russell explains why he does not believe in God, and his doubt over Jesus' existence. He argues ad absurdum, and aims at winning the argument. Example #3: Of Truth (By Francis Bacon) "... men's minds, vain opinions, flattering hopes, false valuations ... and the like ... it would leave the minds, of a number of men ... full of melancholy and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves ..." In the above passage, Bacon tries to give possible reasons why men prefer to tell lies than tell the truth. There are so many causes, and not a single or a particular cause can resolve this issue. Example #4: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) POZZO: "No no, he does well to ask. Do I need the bones? (He turns them over with the end of his whip.) No, personally I do not need them any more. (Estragon takes a step towards the bones.) But ... but in theory the bones go to the carrier ..." ESTRAGON: "Mister ... excuse me, Mister ..." POZZO: "You're being spoken to, pig! Reply! (To Estragon.) Try him again." ESTRAGON: "Excuse me, Mister, the bones, you won't be wanting the bones?" POZZO: Mister! (Lucky bows his head.) Reply! Do you want them or don't you? They're yours ... I don't like it. I've never known him to refuse a bone before ... Nice business it'd be if he fell sick on me!" (He puffs at his pipe.) This is one of the great examples of eristic argument. The characters are discussing bones and their functions for human survival. All of them make different arguments, but find no solution in this discussion. Function of Eristic A close look at the above eristic examples would lead one to correctly to assume that the main purpose of eristic argumentation is to prolong a conflict, rather than resolve it. Though it was started by Sophists, it is now used in modern literary texts, speeches, and contentious topics of political debate. The purpose is to confuse the opponent. Hence, it is employed for the sake of conflict, and might involve comic effect and conspiracy theory. Besides, by searching eristic argumentation, critiques discover literary weaknesses. As a result, critics have a tendency to distort the writers' intentions. The aim is to win arguments, and a clear answer is often not provided.

Essay

Essay is derived from the French word essayer, which means "to attempt," or "to try." An essay is a short form of literary composition based on a single subject matter, and often gives the personal opinion of the author. A famous English essayist, Aldous Huxley defines essays as, "a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything." The Oxford Dictionary describes it as "a short piece of writing on a particular subject." In simple words, we can define it as a scholarly work in writing that provides the author's personal argument. Types of Essay There are two forms of essay: literary and non-literary. Literary essays are of four types: Expository Essay - In an expository essay, the writer gives an explanation of an idea, theme, or issue to the audience by giving his personal opinions. This essay is presented through examples, definitions, comparisons, and contrast. Descriptive Essay - As it sounds, this type of essay gives a description about a particular topic, or describes the traits and characteristics of something or a person in detail. It allows artistic freedom, and creates images in the minds of readers through the use of the five senses. Narrative Essay - Narrative essay is non-fiction, but describes a story with sensory descriptions. The writer not only tells a story, but also makes a point by giving reasons. Persuasive Essay - In this type of essay, the writer tries to convince his readers to adopt his position or point of view on an issue, after he provides them solid reasoning in this connection. It requires a lot of research to claim and defend an idea. It is also called an argumentative essay. Non-literary essays could also be of the same types but they could be written in any format. Examples of Essay in Literature Example #1: The Sacred Grove of Oshogbo (By Jeffrey Tayler) "As I passed through the gates I heard a squeaky voice. A diminutive middle-aged man came out from behind the trees — the caretaker. He worked a toothbrush-sized stick around in his mouth, digging into the crevices between algae'd stubs of teeth. He was barefoot; he wore a blue batik shirt known as a buba, baggy purple trousers, and an embroidered skullcap. I asked him if he would show me around the shrine. Motioning me to follow, he spat out the results of his stick work and set off down the trail." This is an example of a descriptive essay, as the author has used descriptive language to paint a dramatic picture for his readers of an encounter with a stranger. Example #2: Of Love (By Francis Bacon) "It is impossible to love, and be wise ... Love is a child of folly. ... Love is ever rewarded either with the reciprocal, or with an inward and secret contempt. You may observe that amongst all the great and worthy persons...there is not one that hath been transported to the mad degree of love: which shows that great spirits and great business do keep out this weak passion...That he had preferred Helena, quitted the gifts of Juno and Pallas. For whosoever esteemeth too much of amorous affection quitted both riches and wisdom." In this excerpt, Bacon attempts to persuade readers that people who want to be successful in this world must never fall in love. By giving an example of famous people like Paris, who chose Helen as his beloved but lost his wealth and wisdom, the author attempts to convince the audience that they can lose their mental balance by falling in love. Example #3: The Autobiography of a Kettle (By John Russell) "I am afraid I do not attract attention, and yet there is not a single home in which I could done without. I am only a small, black kettle but I have much to interest me, for something new happens to me every day. The kitchen is not always a cheerful place in which to live, but still I find plenty of excitement there, and I am quite happy and contented with my lot ..." In this example, the author is telling an autobiography of a kettle, and describes the whole story in chronological order. The author has described the kettle as a human being, and allows readers to feel, as he has felt. Function of Essay The function of an essay depends upon the subject matter, whether the writer wants to inform, persuade, explain, or entertain. In fact, the essay increases the analytical and intellectual abilities of the writer as well as readers. It evaluates and tests the writing skills of a writer, and organizes his or her thinking to respond personally or critically to an issue. Through an essay, a writer presents his argument in a more sophisticated manner. In addition, it encourages students to develop concepts and skills, such as analysis, comparison and contrast, clarity, exposition, conciseness, and persuasion.

Romance

Etymologically, romance comes from Anglo-Norman and Old French romanz, which means a story of chivalry and love. The word "romance" also refers to romantic love. As far as literature in concerned, the term has an entirely a different concept. It means romantic stories with chivalrous feats of heroes and knights. Romance describes chivalry and courtly love, comprising stories and legends of duty, courage, boldness, battles, and rescues of damsels in distress. Romance and Romanticism Romance, as pointed out, is a type of fiction, comprising idealized love, chivalry, obsessive association with somebody or some idea, and mysterious adventures. However, Romanticism is a specific movement and period in English literature during which poems, stories, and novels related to Romantic ideas were created. William Wordsworth, P. B. Shelly, Lord Byron, and John Keats are some of the most famous poets and writers of the Romantic period. However, Romances have been written since classical English period. Examples of Romance in Literature Example #1: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (Author Unknown) This 14th century romance, whose writer is still unknown, revolves around the bravery of Sir Gawain, a knight of King Arthur, who accepts the challenge from the Green Knight. Sir Gawain beheads the knight, but the knight goes away reminding him that he would appear again. In this struggle, Sir Gawain shows his true nature of bravery, chivalry, and courage when tested by a lady, as he stays in the castle of that very knight. Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) One of Jane Austen's most famous novels is Pride and Prejudice, which is a remarkable example of romance in English literature. This novel narrates the story of the Bennet family. Mrs. Bennett has five daughters, and she is desperate to get them married. She is seen trying to achieve her ambition throughout the novel. Elizabeth, the second of the five, possesses a sharp mind and independent nature, and she feels embarrassed at her mother's attempts to marry her off. Elizabeth meets Mr. Darcy, who is a wealthy landowner. She dislikes him in their first meeting, due to his arrogant attitude. However, as the story moves along, several other couples emerge on the scene. Although it is not a perfect example of a medieval romance, it is considered a good example of a romantic novel. Example #3: The Count of Monte Cristo (By Alexander Dumas) One more example of romance is The Count of Monte Cristo, written by French author Alexander Dumas, in 1844. The story of the novel takes place in France, Italy, and on some Mediterranean islands. The primary themes of the story comprise justice, bravery, courage, mercy, hope, and forgiveness. The narrative revolves round a man who is sent to prison wrongly. He manages to escape and acquires a fortune just by a stroke of luck. He ultimately starts avenging those who were responsible for his incarceration. His plans, however, have devastating effects on the innocent and the guilty alike. Characters reveal their true natures and inner selves through betrayal, acts of courage, selfishness, and timidity. The novel is a good example of a romance fiction. Example #4: Fifty Shades of Grey (By E. L. James) This is an example of modern erotic romance, which has won accolades in literary circles. In the story, the writer narrates the relationship between two college fellows - Anastasia Steel, and her young business lover Christian Grey. The story then depicts scenes of their erotic love, comprising elements of discipline, dominance, submission, masochism, and sadism. Despite ups and downs in their relations, they finally part, reviewing incompatibility in their love, but depicting several elements of modern love and modern chivalry. Function of Romance Romance serves the function of chivalry and adventure in literature. It is considered to be the only genre of literature capable of representing complex and cumulative themes. It is through romance, literature can highlight the cross-referenced as well as integrative nature of the written words. During the middle ages, romance was synonymous with aristocratic literature. It was because romance used to teach morals through the combination of stories of adventure, courtly love, and dedication. It was chivalric literature, which aimed at teaching the aristocracy the rules of behavior, bravery, courage, gentlemanliness, and life in general. In addition, the principle function of romance was to maintain order in society by presenting sources for entertainment.

Mood

In literature, mood is a literary element that evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers through words and descriptions. Usually, mood is referred to as the atmosphere of a literary piece, as it creates an emotional setting that surrounds the readers. Mood is developed in a literary piece through various methods, including setting, theme, tone, and diction. Let us see how writers use the afore-mentioned elements in their literary works to create a particular mood. Creating Mood through Setting Setting is the physical location in a piece of literature that provides background in which the events of the narrative take place. A particular setting not only provides support to the contents of the story, but also sets the mood of the readers. Let us analyze a few examples of mood developed using a setting: Example #1: Pickwick Papers (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful mood in his novel Pickwick Papers: "The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on." The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a serene and non-violent mood to the readers. Example #2: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) Emily Bronte, in Wuthering Heights, creates two contrasting moods through two contrasting settings. The events of the narrative takes place in two neighboring houses: Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. A depressing mood is created whenever Wuthering Heights is described. For example, in chapter 12 the narrator says: "There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness: not a light gleamed from any house, far or near all had been extinguished long ago: and those at Wuthering Heights were never visible..." On the contrary, the description of Thrushcross Grange creates a calm and peaceful mood: "Gimmerton chapel bells were still ringing; and the full, mellow flow of the beck in the valley came soothingly on the ear. It was a sweet substitute for the yet absent murmur of the summer foliage, which drowned that music about the Grange when the trees were in leaf." The contrast presented in the settings also helps in the development of the different characters. The people from Wuthering Heights are unsophisticated, while those from Thrushcross Grange are refined. Creating Mood through Tone The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is called the tone. The readers always rely on the writer's point of view of the events taking place in a story. They observe the story through his eyes. They feel the way the writer feels about the events taking place and the description provided. Therefore, the attitude of the writer evokes feelings and emotions in the readers. Example #3: The Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost) For instance, see how Robert Frost, in his poem The Road Not Taken, creates a gloomy feeling through his tone: "I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference." Frost informs us about his past with a "sigh" that gives the above lines an unhappy tone and thus evokes an unhappy mood. An unhappy mood is created because the poet convinces us that he regrets a choice he made in the past. Creating Mood through Diction Diction is the choice of words a writer uses. Diction or choice of words conveys deep feelings, and depicts the events, places, and characters in a literary work in specific colors, having an effect on the way the readers feel about them. Example #4: Gulliver's Travel (By Jonathon Swift) The following lines from Jonathon Swift's Gulliver's Travels is one of the great mood examples created using diction: "And being no stranger to the art of war, I have him a description of cannons, culverins, muskets, carabines, pistols, bullets, powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks, undermines, countermines, bombardments, sea-fights..." In order to create feelings of disgust in readers, for the destructive consequences of war, the writer chooses words that are unmelodious, harsh, and jarring. The diction in the above passage corresponds with the subject matter. Function of Mood Mood helps in creating an atmosphere in a literary work by means of setting, theme, diction, and tone. It evokes various emotional responses in readers, and thus ensures their emotional attachment to the literary piece they read. Once the readers are emotionally stirred, they fully comprehend the message that the writer tries to convey to them.

Poetic Justice

In literature, poetic justice is an ideal form of justice, in which the good characters are rewarded and the bad characters are punished, by an ironic twist of fate. It is a strong literary view that all forms of literature must convey moral lessons. Therefore, writers employ poetic justice to conform to moral principles. For instance, if a character in a novel is malicious and without compassion in the novel, he is seen to have gone beyond improvement. Then, the principles of morality demand his character to experience a twist in his fate and be punished. Similarly, the characters who have suffered at his hand must be rewarded at the same time. Examples of Poetic Justice in Literature Let us analyze a few examples of poetic justice in Literature: Example #1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) In Shakespeare's King Lear we see the evil characters - Goneril, Regan, Oswald, and Edmund - thrive throughout the play. The good characters - Lear, Gloucester, Kent, Cordelia, and Edgar - suffer long and hard. We see the good characters turn to gods, but they are rarely answered. Lear, in Act 2, Scene 4 calls upon heaven in a most pitiful manner: "... O heavens! If you do love old men, if your sweet sway Show obedience, if you yourselves are old, Make it your cause. Send down, and take my part!" Lear loses his kingdom by the conspiracies of his daughters Goneril and Regan, who are supported by Edmund. At Dover, Edmund-led English troops defeat the Cordelia-led French troops, and Cordelia and Lear are imprisoned. Cordelia is executed in the prison, and Lear dies of grief at his daughter's death. Despite all the suffering that good undergoes, the evil is punished. Goneril poisons her sister Regan due to jealousy over Edmund. Later, she kills herself when her disloyalty is exposed to Albany. In a climactic scene, Edgar kills Edmund. In Act 5, Scene 3 he says: "My name is Edgar, and thy father's son. The gods are just, and of our pleasant vices Make instruments to plague us. The dark and vicious place where thee he got Cost him his eyes." Here, "The gods are just" because they punish the evil for their evil actions. Example #2: Oliver Twist (By Charles Dickens) We see the role of poetic justice in the cruel character Mr. Bumble, in Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist. Mr. Bumble was a beadle in the town where Oliver was born - in charge of the orphanage and other charitable institutions in the town. He is a sadist and enjoys torturing the poor orphans. Bumble marries Mrs. Corney for money, and becomes master of her workhouse. Her,e his fate takes a twist as he loses his post as a beadle, and his new wife does not allow him to become a master of her workhouse. She beats him and humiliates him, as he himself had done to the poor orphans. Right at the end of the novel, we come to know that both Mr. and Mrs. Bumble end up being so poor that they live in the same workhouse that they once owned. Example #3: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) A classic example of poetic justice is found in the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles. In the play, Oedipus has committed the crime of defying gods by trying to escape his fate. Therefore, he left the kingdom he lived in, and went to the new kingdom of Thebes. He killed the king of the city after a quarrel, and married the queen. Later, we learn that the prophecy turned out true, as the man he killed turned out to be his father, and the queen his own mother. The Greek believed their destinies were predetermined - shaped by the gods and goddesses. Whosoever tried to defy them, committed a sin and deserved punishment. Function of Poetic Justice Generally, the purpose of poetic justice in literature is to adhere by the universal code of morality, in that virtue triumphs vice. The idea of justice in literary texts manifests the moral principle that virtue deserves a reward, and vices earn punishment. In addition, readers often identify with the good characters. They feel emotionally attached to them, and feel for them when they suffer at the hands of the wicked characters. Naturally, readers want the good characters to triumph and be rewarded; but they equally wish the bad characters to be penalized for their evilness. Thus, poetic justice offers contentment and resolution.

Ethos

In rhetoric, ethos represents credibility, or an ethical appeal, which involves persuasion by the character involved. Origin of Ethos The term has its roots in Aristotle's "ingredients of persuasion," or "appeals." He divides means of persuasion into three distinct categories: ethos, pathos, and logos. He says in his treatise On Rhetoric: "Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. [...] Persuasion is achieved by the speaker's personal character when the speech is so spoken as to make us think him credible." It is a means of convincing others of the character or credibility of the persuader. It is natural for us to accept the credibility of people whom we hold in reverence. In an argument, it is of utmost value for a speaker or a writer to impress upon listeners and readers the idea that is worth listening to. In other words, the credibility of a speaker or a writer relies on his or her authority on the subject matter, as well as on how much he or she is liked and deemed worthy of respect. Ethos and Ad Hominem Argument In an attempt to confirm his credibility, a writer or speaker will make use of a typical type of argument called an "ad hominem argument." It is an argument "against the man," which undermines the ethos of a speaker or a writer in opposition. It is a strategy in which a speaker or a writer attacks the character or personality of an opponent speaker or writer, rather than criticizing the matter of his or her point of view. Such an argument, however, is generally thought to be a logical fallacy. Nevertheless, it can prove to be exceptionally successful and is fairly common in politics. Examples of Ethos in Literature Classification of ethos may be based on its position, such as the following examples of ethos. Example #1: Choice of words can confirm ethos with customers: "Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced, not only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to expect nothing but the best. The advertisers try to build up their credibility with their customers by repeatedly mentioning the experience they have in the field, and the technical expertise of their staff. Example #2: "Doctors all over the world recommend this type of treatment." People tend to believe the opinions of doctors in the matter of medical treatments. Example #3: "John is a forensics and ballistics expert, working for the federal government for many years. If anyone's qualified to determine the murder weapon, it's him." Here, John is put forth as the most qualified person to determine the murder weapon - based on his ethos in working for the federal government as a forensic and ballistics expert. Example #4: "If his years as a soldier taught him anything, it's that caution is the best policy in this sort of situation." A soldier's opinion is more credible than an ordinary man's opinion in violent situations. Example #5: "My three decades of experience in public service, my tireless commitment to the people of this community, and my willingness to reach across the aisle and cooperate with the opposition, make me the ideal candidate for your mayor." The public can easily be persuaded by giving them some knowledge about a candidate's past experience, past actions, and preferred policies. Example #6: Ethos examples in TV ads are not only expressed in words. For instance, in a commercial for toothpaste, an actor puts on a white lab coat and talks about how that particular toothpaste is good for teeth. By putting on a white lab coat, an actor looks like a doctor, and thus gains credibility as people consider a doctor's remarks to be more credible than an actor's. Function of Ethos The above explanations and examples of ethos reveal the following facts about this device: Ethos confirms the credibility of a writer or a speaker, and thus they become trustworthy in the eyes of listeners and readers who, as a result are persuaded by the arguments. Ethos of a speaker or a writer is created largely by the choice of words he or she chooses to convince listeners or readers. Being an expert on the subject matter determines his or her ethos.

Non Sequitur

Non sequitur is a literary device that includes statements, sayings, and conclusions that do not follow the fundamental principles of logic and reason. They are frequently used in theater and comedies to create comedic effect. In fact, non sequitur is a Latin phrase that means "it doesn't follow." Here, non means "not," and sequitur means "to follow." It takes place when a difference is created between the principle idea and the conclusion, which finally leads to a fallacy. In conversation, non sequitur is something that is said, which seems quite absurd - to the point of confusion due to lack of proper meanings. It is sometimes taken as postulation, which means the statement might not be true. For instance: Maria drives a car. She must be a wealthy person. David eats broccoli. David should love to eat meat. The sentences do not follow a proper sequence in non sequitur, and words do not give the same meaning as readers suppose them to do. Types of Non Sequitur One can find non sequitur examples in everyday speech and in different fields of life, such as in the practice of law where non sequitur in arguments is regularly used. It can be classified into following six categories: Non sequitur in everyday speech: "Business is business, and a cup of tea is a cup of tea." Fallacy of the undistributed middle: "All humans have bones. Crocodiles have bones. Therefore, crocodiles are humans." Affirming the consequent: "If Charles is right, then Diana is right. As Diana is right, therefore, Charles is right." Denying the antecedent: "If I am Indian, then I am Asian. I am not Indian. Therefore, I am not Asian." Affirming a disjunct: "Adam is right or Eve is right. Adam is right, therefore Eve is not right." Denying a conjunct: "It is not that both Horse and Cow is true. Cow is not true. Therefore, Horse is true." Examples of Non Sequitur in Literature The best examples of non sequitur can be observed in the Theatre of the Absurd. Example #1: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) VLADIMIR: "Consult his family..." ESTRAGON: (anxious) "And we?" ESTRAGON: "And why would he shout?" VLADIMIR: "At his horse. Silence." ESTRAGON: (violently) "I'm hungry!" VLADIMIR: "Do you want a carrot..." VLADIMIR: "I might have some turnips..." VLADIMIR: "Oh pardon! I could have sworn it was a carrot..." ESTRAGON: (Chewing) "I asked you a question." VLADIMIR: "Ah." ESTRAGON: "Did you reply?" VLADIMIR: "How's the carrot?" ESTRAGON: "It's a carrot." Here we can clearly see the use of non sequiturs, where Estragon persistently asks a question, but Vladimir does not bother to answer. Example #2: Bald Soprano (By Eugene Ionesco) Mrs. Smith: "There, it's nine o' clock; we have drunk the soup, and eaten the fish and chips and the English salad ... That's because we live in the suburbs of London and because our name is smith." Mr. Smith: (continues to read and clicks his tongue) "Potatoes are very good, fried in fat: the salad oil was not rancid ... However, I prefer not to tell them that their oil is bad." Mr. Smith: (continues to read and clicks his tongue) "However, the oil from the grocer at the corner is till the best." Mr. Smith: (continues to read and clicks his tongue) In this excerpt, we can notice the strong use of non sequitur, where Mrs. Smith is talking to Mr. Smith, and he does not respond at all as it is quite absurd. Function of Non Sequitur Non sequitur is produced inadvertently due to some confusion, and even sometimes deliberately to confound the audience, in order to point out the confusion existing in the situation or society at large. However, it is often used in order to change the subject of the conversation, and give a humorous touch by jumping to a conclusion abruptly, without following the fundamental principles of conversation. Similarly, as a literary device it is used in the Theater of the Absurd, and in surreal absurdist comedies. In theater, there are characters that give one non sequitur after another and move away, to provide comedic effect. Since the audience cannot foresee what the next statement will be, they merely laugh at it.

Antagonist

In literature, an antagonist is a character, or a group of characters, which stands in opposition to the protagonist, which is the main character. The term "antagonist" comes from the Greek word antagonistēs, which means "opponent," "competitor," or "rival." It is common to refer to an antagonist as a villain (the bad guy), against whom a hero (the good guy) fights in order to save himself or others. In some cases, an antagonist may exist within the protagonist that causes an inner conflict or a moral conflict inside his mind. This inner conflict is a major theme of many literary works, such as Doctor Faustus, by Christopher Marlowe, Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, and A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man, by James Joyce. Generally, an antagonist appears as a foil to the main character, embodying qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of the main character. Examples of Antagonist in Literature Example #1: Antigone (By Sophocles) A classical example of an antagonist is that of King Creon in Sophocles' tragedy Antigone. Here, the function of the antagonist is to obstruct the main character's progress, through evil plots and actions. Antigone, the protagonist, struggles against King Creon, the antagonist, in her effort to give her brother a respectable burial. Through his evil designs, Creon tries to hamper her in this attempt by announcing that her brother was a traitor, and decreeing that "he must be left to the elements." This protagonist-antagonist conflict becomes the theme of this tragedy. Example #2: Othello (By William Shakespeare) Another example of an antagonist is the character of Iago in Shakespeare's Othello. Iago stands as one of the most notorious villains of all time, having spent all of his time plotting against Othello, the protagonist, and his wife Desdemona. Through his evil schemes, Iago convinces Othello that his wife has been cheating on him, and even convinces him to kill his own wife despite her being faithful to him. The thing that separates Iago from other antagonists is that we do not really know why he wants to destroy Othello. Example #3: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (By Robert Louis Stevenson) In his novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in which Hyde is not only an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll, but his antagonist. Jekyll creates Hyde by a series of scientific experiments in order to prove his statement: "Man is not truly one, but truly two." He means that a human soul is a mixture of evil and good. In other words, every man's antagonist exists within himself. Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in the honorable Dr. Jekyll. Well-known as a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll could never have fulfilled his evil desires. He separated his "evil-self" and gave him a separate identity, thus inventing his own antagonist who, as a result, brings his downfall. Example #4: To Kill a Mocking Bird (By Harper Lee) Bob Ewell is a malicious antagonist in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mocking Bird. Being convinced that Mayella may have been guilty of committing a crime, Ewell is bent on making sure that someone else gets the punishment. Ewell keeps on following Atticus, Judge Taylor, and Helen Robinson - even after the case is finished - and goes to the extent that he almost kills the Finch kids. In defense of Boo over the killing of Bob Ewell, Heck Tate said: "To my way of thinkin', Mr Finch, taking the one man who's done you and this town a great favour an' draggin' him with his shy ways into the limelight - to me, that's a sin. It's a sin and I'm not about to have it on my head. If it was any other man, it'd be different. But not this man, Mr. Finch." Function of Antagonist Conflict is a basic element of any plot. The presence of an antagonist alongside a protagonist is vital for the typical formula of a plot. The antagonist opposes the protagonist in his endeavors, and thus the conflict ensues. The protagonist struggles against the antagonist, taking the plot to a climax. Later, the conflict is resolved with the defeat of the antagonist; or, as in tragedies, with the downfall of the protagonist.

Archetype

In literature, an archetype is a typical character, an action, or a situation that seems to represent universal patterns of human nature. An archetype, also known as "universal symbol," may be a character, a theme, a symbol, or even a setting. Many literary critics are of the opinion that archetypes - which have a common and recurring representation in a particular human culture, or entire human race - shape the structure and function of a literary work. Carl Jung, Swiss psychologist, argued that the root of an archetype is in the "collective unconscious" of mankind. The phrase "collective unconscious" refers to experiences shared by a race or culture. Such experiences include such things as love, religion, death, birth, life, struggle, and survival. These experiences exist in the subconscious of every individual, and are re-created in literary works, or in other forms of art. Examples of Archetype in Literature Below is the analysis of common archetypes that exist in literature. Archetypes in Characters Example #1: The Hero He or she is a character who predominantly exhibits goodness, and struggles against evil in order to restore harmony and justice to society. Examples of hero include Beowulf, in the book Beowulf, Hercules, in the book Hercules, and d'Artagnan, from The Three Musketeers. Example #2: The Mother Figure Such a character may be represented as a Fairy God Mother, who guides and directs a child, Mother Earth, who contacts people and offers spiritual and emotional nourishment, or a Stepmother who treats their stepchildren poorly. Examples of a mother figure include: In Literature: Lucy and Madame Defarge, from Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities Disely, from William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury Gladriel, from J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings Glinda, from the Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz In Fairy Tales: The wicked stepmother in Charles Perrault's Cinderella The fairy godmothers in Charles Perrault's Sleeping Beauty Mother Goose The grandmother in Charles Perrault's Little Red Riding Hood In Mythology: The mythological figures of Persephone, Demeter, Hecate, Gorgon, Medusa Example #3: The Innocent Youth He or she is inexperienced, with many weaknesses, and seeks safety with others. Others like him or her because of the trust he or she shows in other people. Usually, the experience of coming of age comes in the later parts of the narratives. Examples of innocent youth include: Pip in Charles Dickens' Great Expectations Nicholas in Charles Dickens' The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby Joseph from Henry Fielding's The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews Example #4: The Mentor His or her task is to protect the main character. It is through the wise advice and training of a mentor that the main character achieves success in the world. Examples of mentor include: Gandalf in J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings Parson Adams in Henry Fielding's Joseph Andrews Senex in Madeleine L'Engle's A Wind in the Door Example #5: The Doppelganger It is a duplicate or shadow of a character, which represents the evil side of his personality. Examples of doppelganger in popular literary works include: William Shakespeare's Hamlet Mary Shelley's Frankenstein Edgar Allen Poe's William Wilson Robert Louis Stevenson's Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Example #6: The Scapegoat A character that takes the blame for everything bad that happens. Examples of scapegoat include: Snowball, in George Orwell's Animal Farm Example #7: The Villain A character whose main function is to go to any extent to oppose the hero, or whom the hero must annihilate in order to bring justice. Examples of villain include: Shere Khan, from Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book stories Long John Silver, from Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island Archetypes in Situations Example #8: The Journey The main character takes a journey, which may be physical or emotional, to understand his or her personality, and the nature of the world. Examples of archetype in journey include: Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy Henry Fielding's The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and of his Friend Mr. Abraham Adams Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels Example #9: The Initiation The main character undergoes experiences that lead him towards maturity. Examples of archetypes in initiation include: Henry Fielding's History of Tom Jones, a Foundling Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman Voltaire's Candide Example #10: Good Versus Evil It represents the clash of forces that represent goodness with those that represent evil. Examples of this archetype include: William Shakespeare's King Lear Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness Example #11: The Fall The main character falls from grace in consequence of his or her own actions. Examples of archetype in fall include: Oedipus, from Sophocles' Oedipus Rex Lear, from William Shakespeare's King Lear Function of Archetype The use of archetypical characters and situations gives a literary work a universal acceptance, as readers identify the characters and situations in their social and cultural context. By using common archetypes, writers attempt to impart realism to their works, as the situations and characters are drawn from the experiences of the world.

Apostrophe

In literature, apostrophe is a figure of speech sometimes represented by an exclamation, such as "Oh." A writer or speaker, using apostrophe, speaks directly to someone who is not present or is dead, or speaks to an inanimate object. It is important not to confuse apostrophe, the literary device, with the apostrophe punctuation mark ('). The punctuation mark shows possession, or marks the omission of one or more letters (contraction). Apostrophe in literature is an arrangement of words addressing a non-existent person or an abstract idea in such a way as if it were present and capable of understanding feelings. Examples of Apostrophe in Literature English literature is replete with instances of apostrophe. Let us have a look at a few examples. Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare makes use of apostrophe in his play Macbeth: "Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee! I have thee not, and yet I see thee still." In his mental conflict before murdering King Duncan, Macbeth has a strange vision of a dagger and talks to it as if it were a person. Example #2: The Star (By Jane Taylor) Jane Taylor uses apostrophe in the well-known poem, The Star: "Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky." This poem became one of the most popular nursery rhymes told to little children - often in the form of song. In this nursery rhyme, a child speaks to a star (an inanimate object). Hence, this is a classic example of apostrophe. Example #3: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelly) Look at how Mary Shelly uses apostrophe in her novel Frankenstein: "Oh! Stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity me, crush sensation and memory; let me become as naught; but if not, depart, depart, and leave me in darkness." Talking to stars, clouds, and winds is apostrophe. Example #4: Death Be Not Proud (By John Donne) "Death be not proud, though some have called thee Mighty and dreadful, for, thou art not so, For, those, whom thou think'st, thou dost overthrow, Die not, poor death, nor yet canst thou kill me." Here, Donne speaks to death, an abstract idea, as if it were a person capable of comprehending his feelings. Example #5: The Sun Rising (By John Donne) John Donne once more uses apostrophe in his poem The Sun Rising: "Busy old fool, unruly Sun, Why dost thou thus, Through windows, and through curtains, call on us? Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run? Saucy pedantic wretch ..." The poet addresses the sun in an informal and colloquial way, as if it were a real human being. He asks the Sun in a rude way why the Sun appeared and spoiled the good time he was having with his beloved. Example #5: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) James Joyce uses apostrophe in his novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man: "Welcome, O life! I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race." Being able to talk to something abstract - like life itself - is possible only in literature. Example #6: To a Stranger Born in Some Distant Country Hundreds of Years from Now (By Billy Collins) In this excerpt, the poet uses conventional apostrophe starting with "O": "O stranger of the future! O inconceivable being! Whatever the shape of your house, However you scoot from place to place, No matter how strange and colorless the clothes you may wear, I bet nobody likes a wet dog either. I bet everyone in your pub, Even the children, pushes her away." The speaker is talking to an imaginary character, the "stranger." Example #7: Sire (By W. S. Merwin) Another apostrophe example comes from the poem Sire, written by W. S. Merwin: "Forerunner, I would like to say, silent pilot, Little dry death, future, Your indirections are as strange to me As my own. I know so little that anything You might tell me would be a revelation." Function of Apostrophe By employing apostrophe in their literary works, writers try to bring abstract ideas or non-existent persons to life, so that the nature of emotions they want to communicate comes across in a better way. It is more convenient for readers to relate themselves to abstract emotions when they observe them in their natural surroundings. In addition, the use of apostrophe motivates readers to develop a perspective that is fresh, as well as creative.

Colloquialism

In literature, colloquialism is the use of informal words, phrases, or even slang in a piece of writing. Colloquial expressions tend to sneak in as writers, being part of a society, are influenced by the way people speak in that society. Naturally, they are bound to add colloquial expressions to their vocabulary. However, writers use such expressions intentionally too, as it gives their works a sense of realism. For instance, in a fiction story depicting American society, a greeting "what's up?" between friends will seem more real and appropriate than the formal "How are you?" or "How do you do?" Colloquialism Examples in Everyday Life Colloquial expressions vary from region to region. Below is a list of some colloquialism examples of American origin: Bamboozle - to deceive Bo bananas, or go nuts - go insane or be very angry Wanna - want to Gonna - going to Y'all - you all Be blue - to be sad Buzz off - go away Examples of Colloquialism in Literature Example #1: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) Mark Twain, in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, used black-American vernacular to realistically show how the "negroes" [Black Americans] talked: "I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I couldn't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome." The use of double negatives is evident in the above passage, and was used as a typical characteristic of black-American vernacular. Example #2: The Sun Rising (By John Donne) John Donne uses colloquialisms in his poem The Sun Rising: "Busy old fool, unruly Sun, Why dost thou thus, Through windows, and through curtains, call on us? Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run? Saucy pedantic wretch..." The poet addresses the sun in an informal and colloquial way, as if it were a real human being. He asks the sun in a rude manner why he had appeared and spoiled the good time he was having with his beloved. Not finishing there, he commands the "saucy pedantic sun" to go away. Example #3: Burro Genius (By Victor Villasenor) We cite the use of colloquial expressions in the play Burro Genius, by Victor Villasenor: "'I don't understand!' roared my father, putting his money back in his pocket. 'Hell, I've forgotten more than you or most people will EVER UNDERSTAND!' 'Salvador,' said my mother as quietly as she could, 'why don't you and Mundo go outside and let me talk to this woman alone.' 'Damn good idea!' said my father." In this passage, Salvador's father uses colloquial words like "hell" and "damn," which gives insight into his aggressive and harsh nature. The idea of using colloquialisms is to put diversity into the characters. Example #4: Of Mice and Men (By John Steinbeck) Yet another instance of colloquialism can be seen in Of Mice and Men, by John Steinbeck: "'Sure I will, George. I won't say a word.' 'Don't let him pull you in—but—if the son-of-a-bitch socks you—let 'im have it.' 'Never mind, never mind. I'll tell you when. I hate that kind of guy. Look, Lennie, if you get in any kind of trouble, you remember what I told you to do?' Lennie raised up on his elbow. His face contorted with thought. Then his eyes moved sadly to George's face. 'If I get in any trouble, you ain't gonna let me tend the rabbits.'" In the above example, the writer shows how vulgar colloquial expressions can be, depending upon who uses them, and how they use them. The above colloquial expressions are realistic enough as they are uttered by middle-aged men of a working class who are not well educated or refined. Function of Colloquialism Colloquial expressions in a piece of literature may give us deep insights into the writer's society. They tell us about how people really talk in their real lives. Therefore, they help a writer to form strong connections with readers. Colloquial expressions impart a sense of realism to a piece of literature, which again attracts readers as they identify it with their real life. Moreover, they add variety to the characters which makes them more interesting and memorable.

Conflict

In literature, conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two opposing forces, usually a protagonist and an antagonist. Internal and External Conflicts Careful examination of some conflict examples will help us realize that they may be internal or external. An internal or psychological conflict arises as soon as a character experiences two opposite emotions or desires - usually virtue and vice, or good and evil - inside him. This disagreement causes the character to suffer mental agony, and it develops a unique tension in a storyline, marked by a lack of action. External conflict, on the other hand, is marked by a characteristic involvement of an action wherein a character finds himself in struggle with those outside forces that hamper his progress. The most common type of external conflict is where a protagonist fights back against the antagonist's tactics that impede his or her advancement. Examples of Conflict in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Hamlet's internal conflict is the main driver in William Shakespeare's play Hamlet." It decides his tragic downfall. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play: "To be, or not to be - that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..." The conflict here is that Hamlet wants to kill his father's murderer, Claudius, but he also looks for proof to justify his action. This ultimately ruins his life, and the lives of his loved ones. Due to his internal conflict, Hamlet spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia (Hamlet's love interest) into such a state of despair that she commits suicide. Hamlet's indecisiveness almost got everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution came when he killed Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be asked for any justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an external conflict with his uncle Claudius. Example #2: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) Another example of an internal conflict is found in the character of Doctor Faustus in Marlowe's Doctor Faustus. Faustus has an ambitious nature. In spite of being a respected scholar, he sold his soul to Lucifer by signing a contract with his blood, in order to achieve ultimate power and limitless pleasure in this world. He learns the art of black magic, and defies Christianity. After the aforementioned action, we see Faustus suffering from an internal conflict where he thinks honestly about repenting, acting upon the advice of "the good angel," but "the bad angel" or the evil inside him distracts him by saying it is all too late. In conclusion, the resolution comes when devils take his soul away to Hell, and he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-ambition. Example #3: The Lord of the Flies Farm (By William Golding) The most straightforward type of external conflict is when a character in a story struggles against another character physically. In William Golding's novel The Lord of the Flies, for example, Ralph (the leader of the "good guys") steadily comes into conflict with Jack - a bully who later forms a "tribe" of hunters. Jack and his tribe give in to their savage instinct, and make attempts to hunt or kill the civilized batch of boys led by Ralph. Example #4: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee) Another kind of external conflict sets a character against the evil that dominates a society. In this case, a character may confront a dominant group with opposing priorities. For instance, in Harper Lee's novel To Kill a Mockingbird, an honest lawyer, Atticus Finch, goes up against the racist society in which he lives. Atticus has the courage to defend a black man, Tom Robinson, who has been falsely accused of a rape. Though Atticus has the support of a few like-minded people, most of the townspeople express their disapproval of his defense of a black man. Function of Conflict Both internal and external conflicts are essential elements of a storyline. It is essential for a writer to introduce and develop them, whether internal, external, or both, in his storyline in order to achieve the story's goal. Resolution of the conflict entertains the readers.

Speaker

In writing, the speaker is the voice that speaks behind the scene. In fact, it is the narrative voice that speaks of a writer's feelings or situation. It is not necessary that a poet is always the speaker, because sometimes he may be writing from a different perspective, or may be in the voice of another race, gender, or even a material object. It usually appears as a persona or voice in a poem. Read on to learn more about speaker in literature. Examples of Speaker in Literature Example #1: The Road Not Taken (by Robert Frost) The speaker in Frost's poem "The Road Not Taken" is a conflicted person, who does not tell anything about himself. However, the readers of this poem know that he is undergoing a big decision, that he has chosen a single path according to which he is directing his life, and this splits into two options ahead. Falling leaves and yellow woods are metaphors for the speaker's life, showing the downfall of his life. At this stage of life, it is not possible to return and make a new decision, because he knows the time is gone. The speaker is impulsive and adventurous, the reason that he has chosen the less traveled path. He is feeling a little regret, while his tone is also a bit sad. Example #2: Ode to Nightingale (by John Keats) In his poem "Ode to Nightingale," the speaker is Keats himself. He has played with tricky language, which proved lucky for him. He has managed to persuade himself that he has moved to a new setting and completely new perspective. He must have been under huge pressure that he wanted to escape into fantasy and leave this world. In fact, he is feeling down in life as a whole, and readers recognize that, at this point, he would try to end it all. However, readers are not convinced by his conversation about death - that it would be easy - and he himself does not seem to be convinced either. It all seems merely a show. The speaker also has displayed his knowledge of the Bible and the Greek myth in this tale. He has an active imagination, is well-read, and wants his readers to know it. Example #3: Annabel Lee (by Edgar Allan Poe) The speaker in "Annabel Lee," by Edgar Allan Poe, is the lover of Annabel Lee. The speaker seems to be engaging, charming, and someone whom a girl would meet and fall in love with right away. He is someone who would tell stories. As readers move on reading the poem, they start realizing that there is something wrong. The readers begin to feel the speaker will return to a particular subject, and would rage about something bad that may have happened to him. They notice a little sparkle in his eyes that makes readers a bit uncomfortable, because he fascinates them, and he cannot be ignored. Also, his voice has something powerful in it that draws the reader in. Example #4: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift) In "A Modest Proposal," Swift wants his readers to view the speaker as a reasonable and compassionate man that has a genuine interest in solving the problems and issues of the Irish people. In the first eight paragraphs, readers meet a kind and considerate man, who has keen insight into their troubles, which he will address shortly. In doing so, he moves from a rational approach to the problems, toward more sarcastic view. Through his speaker, Swift suggests a solution to poverty that makes use of children of less fortunate and poor families as a food source. By expressing this idea through the speaker, the author uses sarcasm, exaggeration, and imagery to put into words his disgust for the Irish society. It is, in fact, Swift himself who speaks through the voice of a speaker. The role of Swift's speaker is to give readers a glimpse of the underlying social problems in Ireland. This gets the point across, as well as challenges the readers to think about the plight of those less fortunate, rather than thinking only of themselves. Function The role of a speaker is one of the most important aspects in a written work. A speaker allows a more active voice, and plays the role of the mouthpiece in conveying the ideas of a writer or a poet to the audience. Just like actors, a speaker tells, or acts out directly, an account of what exactly occurs. It is found in different forms of writing, but is very common in poetry and novels.

Inciting Incident

Inciting incident in a plot is an event or a point that arrives at the beginning of a play, story book, or a film that disturbs the actions and life of a protagonist, and sets him to pursue the mission vigorously. It originates from a Latin word, incitāre, which means to start up, to put something into rapid motion, or to stimulate, or encourage something or some character. Inciting incident starts the action of a story, and sets the main question readers want to know. For instance, the inciting incident of William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" happens when the lovers meet and fall in love at first sight at a ball. You can easily recognize it because it introduces the major conflict between protagonist and antagonist. Examples of Inciting Incident in Literature Example #1: The Most Dangerous Game (by Richard Connell) The inciting incident of Richard Connell's "The Most Dangerous Game" occurs in the evening, when Rainsford and General Zaroff dine and discuss hunting. It starts off as a friendly conversation about their hunting adventure; however, it ends with a confession by General Zaroff that he kills people as a "game," and for fun while hunting. Soon after this confession, Zaroff proclaims that he wishes to hunt Rainsford. This revelation takes a catastrophic turn that leaves Rainsford in serious danger. Example #2: Hamlet (by William Shakespeare) "Let me not think on't! Frailty, thy name is woman — A little month, or ere those shoes were old With which she follow'd my poor father's body Like Niobe, all tears - why she, even she — O God! a beast that wants discourse of reason Would have mourn'd longer —" The inciting incident in Hamlet is the death of King Hamlet, which opens the play with the characters affected by this problem. In the very first Act, Hamlet is thrown into despair due to Gertrude's impulsive move to marry Claudius, his uncle. She could not wait a month, an act which drives Hamlet crazy, thus creating a serious problem that needs resolution. Example #3: Star Wars (by George Lucas) In "Star Wars," the inciting incident occurs when Darth Vader attacks the ship of Princess Leia. Prior to this event, civil war was going on there. It happens when the Empire exhibits its true color by boarding a ship illegally, which is supposed to be on a "diplomatic mission." This creates a real problem in the story. The Empire becomes cruel in its every effort to restrict rebellion; nevertheless this inciting incident shows us the beginning of deadly tensions, more of which are to come. Example #4: The Sixth Sense (by M. Night Shyamalan) The inciting incident in "The Sixth Sense" happens with the attack of Vincent on Malcom. Without the gunshot, the story would have no strong plot, and Malcom would have had no compulsion to meet Cole. The turning point in the first act comes with a revelation of Cole that he might face the same vicious tendencies which Vincent did. Taking his steps back and figuring out that Malcom would not help him, increases the problems and tensions caused by the point that Cole is just a "disturbed" child. Example #5: Death of a Salesman (by Arthur Miller) "WILLY: It's all right. I came back. LINDA: Why? What happened? (Slight pause.) Did something happen, Willy? WILLY: No, nothing happened. LINDA: You didn't smash the car, did you? WILLY (with casual irritation): I said nothing happened. Didn't you hear me? LINDA: Don't you feel well?" This play begins with Willy coming home. The repetition is a good technique to let audience notice how important a question is. The same happens in the following opening dialogue, which begins the inciting incident of this play. It sets up the main question among the readers, which is "What's wrong?" Function of Inciting Incident Since inciting incident means to stimulate, it catalyzes the protagonist to take action or go into motion. It jolts the protagonist out of his daily routine as it is an event that sparks the fuse of a plot. It is also necessary to happen for a narrative hook to kick in. In addition, it brings the major question, suspense, as well as action in the story. Thus, the main focus is main character and readers. You can find it in plays, movies, novels, and short stories.

Induction

Induction is known as a conclusion reached through reasoning. An inductive statement is derived using facts and instances which lead to the formation of a general opinion. Though all the facts upon which the conclusion is based are true, there is still a chance of the conclusion reached being false. This type of reasoning goes from specific facts to a general statement. An inductive statement is of two types: a strong inductive statement, or a weak inductive statement. It depends on its authenticity. A strong statement has the possibility of being false, but it is very unlikely. There is a very high probability that it is true. When it comes to weak inductive statements, they have conclusions which are very unlikely to be true, and the reasons are weak enough that the conclusion is not probable. It is not possible to exactly measure the strength of a statement, but it is possible to measure it in degrees. For a statement to be strong, it should be more probable when compared to being improbable, and should have a strong factual ground on which it is based. There are four different categories of inductive reasoning, namely inductive generalization, statistical syllogism, simple induction, and argument from analogy. Induction Examples Example #1: "This marble from the bag is black. That marble from the bag is black. A third marble from the bag is black. Therefore all the marbles in the bag are black." The statement above is an example of inductive reasoning. Since the first marble from the bag was black, the second was black, and the third was black, the conclusion reached is that all the marbles in the bag are black. Unless there were only those three marbles in the bag, this conclusion may not be true. Example #2: "I counted five or six people with green eyes; therefore all of the people have green eyes." This statement is an example of inductive generalization which uses evidence about a limited number of things to make an overall assumption of most things of that type. The authentication of this type of a statement depends on the number of things used to make the assumption and the total number of things. Example #3: "Sam is a bus driver. All drivers drive at 30 mph, therefore Sam drives at 30 mph." This statement is an example of statistical syllogism, which begins from a general statement and ends with a conclusion about an individual. Example #4: "John and David are brothers. John likes to eat Pizza and Hamburgers. David likes to eat Pizza. Therefore, one assumes that David also likes to eat Hamburgers." This statement is an example of an argument from analogy, which begins by the noting of two or more properties and drawing the conclusion that they must share some additional properties. Example #5: "All the kids in the park can jump; therefore, Ilene's kid can jump also." This statement is an example of simple induction. These types of statements begin with evidence of a group and leads to a conclusion about an individual. This statement begins with an assumption about all kids, then comes down to applying that assumption to "Ilene's kid," which is one specific child. Example #6: "Around 80 percent of the girls wore heels, Jane is a girl. Therefore, Jane wore heels." This statement is an example of a strong inductive statement. Example #7: "Some actors are girls. Tom is a boy. Therefore, Tom is an actor." This statement is an example of a weak inductive statement. Example #8: "There are 15 clips in the bag; in a random draw 12 are pink. Therefore, all clips in the bag are pink." This is a strong inductive statement, as it is logical and the probability of it being true is greater than it being false. Function of Induction Induction is used to predict what may happen in the future, and establish a possibility of what may happen next. Inductive statements allow you to establish probability and prepare accordingly. At the same time, they also allow you to argue a point without having to actually prove the fact. They can only prove to be right or wrong following further research and observation. Inductive statements are used in everyday life as well. In fact, we all use inductive statements in everyday life to prove our point when talking about the weather, about other people, and even general situations.

Inference

Inference is a literary device used commonly in literature, and in daily life, where logical deductions are made based on premises assumed to be true. Another definition of inference suggests that it is rational but non-logical, which means that, through the observation of facts presented in a particular pattern, one ultimately sees different or new interpretations and perspectives. Symbols and anomalies are very important during its use. Inferences are not so much used for coming to conclusions, but to open up new ways of inquiry. When inference is studied from this aspect, it is further divided into two types: inductive and deductive inference. Examples of Inference in Literature Example #1: The Great Gatsby (By F. Scott Fitzgerald) "It was after we started with Gatsby toward the house that the gardener saw Wilson's body a little way off in the grass, and the holocaust was complete." The above excerpt is one of the examples of inference from literature. After reading this line from The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald, a reader who is smart enough to make a quick inference will simultaneously understand that Gatsby's life has ended. The most significant part of this sentence is that the protagonist in the novel, Mr. Gatsby, has been murdered. Nevertheless, the circumstances surrounding his demise can be all the more interesting if looked at closely. Among the factors that contributed to his death, the most dominant one is his rebuttal to let go of the past. Earlier the day Gatsby was killed, there was a part where he stopped his servant from emptying the pool, even though the air was cold because he felt that summer was not over yet. Looking at this particular part more profoundly incites us to make an association between Gatsby's denial of the end of summer, and his denial of the dissolution of his relation with Daisy. So, we could say that if Gatsby had made peace with the current circumstances, and had moved on, he might not have gotten himself killed. Example #2: The Pirate Solution, Big Bang Theory (By Staff Writers) Sheldon Cooper: "I took another look at the board, and I realized you were right." Raj Koothrappali: "So you were wrong." Sheldon Cooper: "I'm not saying that." Raj Koothrappali: "That's the only logical inference." Sheldon Cooper: "I'm still not saying it." Inference examples are also found in TV series. The above dialogue from the popular TV series Big Bang Theory, in the 2009 episode The Pirate Solution, is the best example that could be presented here. You can easily understand Raj's inference that, because Sheldon admitted that Raj's opinion was right, Sheldon was actually wrong. Function of Inference The function of inference is important, not only in literature, but in daily life to make sense of things people say and do. The skills inference teaches us are not only required to make out the underlying meanings of phrases and arguments, but also to perceive the implicit concealed meanings that enhance the overall quality of communication. It is also used to draw one's own conclusions from a script. Inference plays a central role in understanding texts by translating in one's mind the effects of the usage of particular words. It also makes us see the literary value of a text by highlighting its strengths. Moreover, inference has a great deal of significance in enhancing the learning abilities of students academically and otherwise. The ability to make inferences helps students develop an understanding of the author's perspective by grasping the subtle underlying meanings in a text. Without inference, people usually end up translating a text word by word, missing out on the associations a writer is trying to make. Such a lacking approach keeps us from comprehending the "whole picture" of a piece of writing. The delight a reader feels while going through a text is because of the inferences he makes along the way. People who are better at inferring generally have much more fun while reading than those who do not. The reason is that they understand the script better because they are able to see things that are not too obvious, which is why they follow a story or text better and enjoy it all the more. Besides, understanding the text better helps them draw information from their existing knowledge, and relate to the characters more deeply. In learning the processes of inference, people generally come to find that in places reading a text independently makes it incomplete. There are certain concepts and feelings that we understand better when we associate them with our own experiences. It also aids in learning concepts like themes, characters, and figurative language. When this process is repeated consciously and systematically, it becomes a skill that helps us fill the gaps in understanding a script.

Innuendo

Innuendo can be defined as an indirect or a subtle observation about a thing or a person. It is generally critical, disparaging, or salacious in nature, and its use is almost always derogatory. However, it must be kept in mind that it is the most thinly-veiled form of satire, and when it is strong, it takes the shape of criticism. Types of Innuendo Innuendo can be categorized into different forms, such as: Innuendo in nature Innuendo in everyday life Innocent innuendo Accidental innuendo Sexual innuendo Examples of Innuendo in Literature Several literary writers consider innuendo an unbelievably gratifying experience, and they feel an urge to create pages laced with innuendo until at last their stream of innuendo saturates the text with fun and naughtiness. Let us have a look at some examples: Example #1: Hard Times (By Charles Dickens) Several characters in Dickens' Hard Times were named by the author according to how he saw their realities in life. For example, the school teacher is named "Mr. Choakumchild," which reflects his criticism of the educational system of that time. Similarly, he names a union leader "Slackbridge," which shows how he viewed dishonest workers of the time. The objective is to provide a comment to the readers according to the situation in the story, and how the readers should view the characters. This is a mild form of innuendo. Example #2: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (By T. S. Eliot) "Shall I part my hair behind? Do I dare to eat a peach?" These are lines from The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, are spoken by a character who is suffering from sexual frustration. The innuendo, quite visible here, is the reflection of the speaker's impotence. Example #3: Now Look What You've Done (By Roderick Molasar) "Now look what you've done, She pouted In that exquisitely girlish and Lilting soft voice of hers. It's all red and swollen... To get bitten by a rattlesnake Right up the crack of her ****" Sexual innuendo has become very common in romantic poetry, and predominantly in dramas written in a time when it was not possible to use such language openly. Example #4: Oliver Twist (By Charles Dickens) "With this irrepressible ebullition of mirth, Master Bates laid himself flat on the floor: and kicked convulsively for five minutes, in an ecstasy of facetious joy. Then jumping to his feet ... advancing to Oliver, viewed him round and round ..." "'It's the worst of having to do with women,' said the Jew, replacing his club; 'but they're clever, and we can't get on, in our line, without 'em. Charley, show Oliver to bed.'" "The noise of Charley's laughter, and the voice of Miss Betsy, who opportunely arrived to throw water over her friend ... perform other feminine offices for the promotion of her recovery..." In Dickens' novel Oliver Twist, the author offered interesting surprises to readers. He used a lot of innuendos that appear whenever he brings in his character named "Master Bates." Example #5: Venus and Adonis (By William Shakespeare) "Graze on my lips, and if those hills be dry Stray lower, where the pleasant fountains lie." A good example of innuendos can be seen in this poem. Function of Innuendo Literature abounds with innuendo - especially romantic poetry, novels, and dramas. Some authors believe that innuendos are used to fill a void in literature, and that their readers consider them as uplifting and entertaining. However, they come across as passive and aggressive categories of communication, since they are indirect and generally used to attack or insult somebody or some section of society. Innuendos serve as oblique allusions and vague references to reputation and character. Hence, they could be the best tool for those who do not want to be direct. Innuendo can be an effective way of undermining somebody's character in society.

Internal Rhyme

Internal rhyme is a poetic device that can be defined as metrical lines in which its middle words and its end words rhyme with one another. It is also called "middle rhyme," since it comes in the middle of lines. Types of Internal Rhyme Same Line: Rhyme in the same line comes when the words rhyme in a single line. For example, "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Separate Line: Rhyme in separate lines comes when two or more words rhyme in the middle of the separate lines. For example, "While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door." End of, and Middle of Line: Rhyme of the words at the end of lines and words in the middle of the lines come when the words at the end of lines rhyme with the words in the middle of the next lines. For example: "... Eagerly I wished the morrow; - vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow - sorrow for the lost Lenore..." (The Raven, by Edgar Allen Poe) Examples of Internal Rhyme in Literature Example #1: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe) "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door... Ah, distinctly I remember it was in the bleak December; And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor. Eagerly I wished the morrow; - vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow - sorrow for the lost Lenore..." This is the most popular poem of Edgar Allen Poe, where he uses internal rhyme. Here we can see examples of internal rhymes where the words rhyme in the same lines, in separate lines, and in the proceeding lines. Example #2: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) ALL: "Double, double toil and trouble, Fire burn and cauldron bubble..." This is an excerpt from Macbeth, where all witches speak. This is an example of the first type of internal rhyme in which words rhyme in the same line. Example #3: Pink Dominoes (By Rudyard Kipling) "Jenny and Me were engaged, you see... So a kiss or two was nothing to you... Jenny would go in a domino.... While I attended, clad in a splendid... Now we had arranged, through notes exchanged... At Number Four to waltz no more... When Three was over, an eager lover..." In the given lines of Kipling's Pink Dominoes, the poet has used the first type of internal rhyme. Example #4: The Rime of Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge) "The ship was cheer'd, the harbor clear'd, And every day, for food or play, In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud,.. Whiles all the night, through fog-smoke white, Glimmer'd the white moonshine ... "Why look'st thou so?'—'With my crossbow Ah wretch! Said they, the bird to slay... Then all averr'd, I had kill'd the bird... The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew..." In this excerpt, the rhyming words create a musical effect and give emphasis to the meanings. Example #5: Annabel Lee (By Edgar Allan Poe) "For the moon never beams without bringing me dreams Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; And the stars never rise but I feel the bright eyes Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; And so, all the night-tide, I lie down by the side Of my darling, my darling, my life and my bride..." In the above example, the first type of internal rhyme is employed. The words which create internal rhyme are shown in bold. These words give rhythm and a regular rhyme scheme to the poem. Function of Internal Rhyme The sound repetition due to internal rhyme makes a poem or story unified. It is employed to heighten the poem's effect,s and this internal rhyme can take place in the same line or two separate alternating lines. Also, it adds to the meanings of words, and enhances musical the effect of a poem.

Intertextuality

Intertextuality is a sophisticated literary device making use of a textual reference within some body of text, which reflects again the text used as a reference. Instead of employing referential phrases from different literary works, intertextuality draws upon the concept, rhetoric, or ideology from other writings to be merged in the new text. It may be the retelling of an old story, or the rewriting of popular stories in modern context for instance, James Joyce retells The Odyssey in his very famous novel Ulysses. Difference Between Intertextuality and Allusion Although both these terms seem similar to each other, they are slightly different in their meanings. An allusion is a brief and concise reference that a writer uses in another narrative without affecting the storyline. Intertextuality, on the other hand, uses the reference of the full story in another text or story as its backbone. Examples of Intertextuality in Literature Example #1: Wide Sargasso Sea (By Jean Rhys) In his novel, Wide Sargasso Sea, Jean Rhys gathers some events that occurred in Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre. The purpose is to tell readers an alternative tale. Rhys presents the wife of Mr. Rochester, who played the role of a secondary character in Jane Eyre. Also, the setting of this novel is Jamaica, not England, and the author develops the back-story for his major character. While spinning the novel, Jane Eyre, Rhys gives her interpretation amid the narrative by addressing issues such as the roles of women, colonization, and racism that Bronte did not point out in her novel otherwise. Example #2: A Tempest (By Aime Cesaire) Aime Cesaire's play A Tempest is an adaptation of The Tempest by William Shakespeare. The author parodies Shakespeare's play from a post-colonial point of view. Cesaire also changes the occupations and races of his characters. For example, he transforms the occupation of Prospero, who was a magician, into a slave-owner, and also changes Ariel into a Mulatto, though he was a spirit. Cesaire, like Rhys, makes use of a famous work of literature, and put a spin on it in order to express the themes of power, slavery, and colonialism. Example #3: Lord of the Flies (By William Golding) William Golding, in his novel Lord of the Flies, takes the story implicitly from Treasure Island, written by Robert Louis Stevenson. However, Golding has utilized the concept of adventures, which young boys love to do on the isolated island they were stranded on. He, however, changes the narrative into a cautionary tale, rejecting the glorified stories of Stevenson concerning exploration and swash buckling. Instead, Golding grounds this novel in bitter realism by demonstrating negative implications of savagery and fighting that could take control of human hearts, because characters have lost the idea of civilization. Example #4: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (By C. S. Lewis) In this case, C. S. Lewis adapts the idea of Christ's crucifixion in his fantasy novel, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. He, very shrewdly, weaves together the religious and entertainment themes for a children's book. Lewis uses an important event from The New Testament, transforming it into a story about redemption. In doing so, he uses Edmund, a character that betrays his savior, Aslan. Generally, the motive of this theme is to introduce other themes, such as evil actions, losing innocence, and redemption. Example #5: For Whom the Bell Tolls (By Earnest Hemingway) In the following example, Hemingway uses intertextuality for the title of his novel. He takes the title of a poem, Meditation XVII, written by John Donne. The excerpt of this poem reads: "No man is an island ... and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee." Hemingway not only uses this excerpt for the title of his novel, he also makes use of the idea in the novel, as he clarifies and elaborates the abstract philosophy of Donne by using the concept of the Spanish Civil War. By the end, the novel expands other themes, such as loyalty, love, and camaraderie. Function of Intertextuality A majority of writers borrow ideas from previous works to give a layer of meaning to their own works. In fact, when readers read the new text with reflection on another literary work, all related assumptions, effects, and ideas of the other text provide them a different meaning, and changes the technique of interpretation of the original piece. Since readers take influence from other texts, and while reading new texts they sift through archives, this device gives them relevance and clarifies their understanding of the new texts. For writers, intertextuality allows them to open new perspectives and possibilities to construct their stories. Thus, writers may explore a particular ideology in their narrative by discussing recent rhetoric in the original text.

Inversion

Inversion, also known as "anastrophe," is a literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed, in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter. Inversion Techniques Inversion is achieved by doing the following: Placing an adjective after the noun it qualifies, g. the soldier strong Placing a verb before its subject g. shouts the policeman Placing a noun before its preposition g. worlds between In the English language, there are inversions that are part of its grammar structure, and are quite common in their use. For instance, inversion always occurs in interrogative statements where verbs, or auxiliaries, or helping verbs are placed before their subjects. Similarly, inversion happens in typical exclamatory sentences where objects are placed before their verbs and subjects, and preceded by a wh- word, such as the following examples of inversion: What a beautiful picture it is! Where in the world were you! How wonderful the weather is today! Examples of Inversion in Literature Apart from the above-mentioned common inversions, some unusual inversions are employed in literature by writers, in order to achieve some special artistic effects. Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) It was a common practice in the days of William Shakespeare to use inversions. Look at an example of inversion from Romeo and Juliet, Act 1, Scene 5: "Her mother is the lady of the house, And a good lady, and wise and virtuous. I nursed her daughter that you talked withal. I tell you, he that can lay hold of her, Shall have the chinks." Example #2: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) Here is another example of inversion from Shakespeare's Play Macbeth: MACBETH: "If't be so, For Banquo's issue have I fil'd my mind, For them the gracious Duncan have I murther'd, Put rancors in the vessel of my peace Only for them, and mine eternal jewel Given to the common enemy of man, To make them kings -the seed of Banquo kings! Rather than so, come, Fate, into the list, And champion me to the utterance!" The inversions in the above lines serve to highlight the conflict in Macbeth's mind after he had killed Duncan. The conflict was leading him to insanity gradually. Example #3: Kubla Khan (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge) Inversion examples are more common in poetry than in prose. Inversion creates meter and rhyme in the lines. Coleridge uses inversion artistically in his renowned poem Kubla Khan: "In Xanadu did Kubla Khan A stately pleasure-dome decree: Where Alph, the sacred river, ran Through caverns measureless to man Down to a sunless sea. So twice five miles of fertile ground With walls and towers were girdled round; And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills, Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree; And here were forests ancient as the hills, Enfolding sunny spots of greenery." The inversions enhance the artistic effect of the poem. Example #4: Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) Read the following lines from William Wordsworth's poem Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood: "To me alone there came a thought of grief: A timely utterance gave that thought relief, And I again am strong: The cataracts blow their trumpets from the steep..." Example #5: Adonais (By Percy Bysshe Shelley) Shelly describes his favorite literary and political personality, Milton, in the following lines: "Blind, old, and lonely, when his country's pride, The priest, the slave, and the liberticide, Trampled and mocked with many a loathed rite..." The inverted syntax in the above lines aids the poet to lay an emphasis, and highlight the distinctive qualities of John Milton even more. Example #6: Love in Jeopardy (By Humbert Wolfe) Similarly, in the poem Love in Jeopardy, by Humbert Wolfe, there is an inversion of an unusual kind. He wrote: "Here by the rose-tree they planted once of Love in Jeopardy an Italian bronze." Here, the poet attempts to produce an ancient effect, as he is describing an old statue in the poem. Function of Inversion Like all literary devices, the main function of inversion in prose or poetry is to help writers achieve stylistic effect, like laying an emphasis on a particular point, or changing the focus of the readers from a particular point. In poetry, inversions are regularly used to create rhythm, meter, or rhyming scheme in the lines.

Irony

Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that ends up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between appearance and reality. Types of Irony On the grounds of the above definition, we distinguish two basic types of irony: (1) verbal irony, and (2) situational irony. Verbal irony involves what one does not mean. For example, when in response to a foolish idea, we say, "What a great idea!" This is verbal irony. Situational irony occurs when, for instance, a man is chuckling at the misfortune of another, even when the same misfortune is, unbeknownst to him, befalling him. Difference Between Dramatic Irony and Situational Irony Dramatic irony is frequently employed by writers in their works. In situational irony, both the characters and the audience are fully unaware of the implications of the real situation. In dramatic irony, the characters are oblivious of the situation, but the audience is not. For example, in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, we know well before the characters that they are going to die. In real life circumstances, irony may be comical, bitter, or sometimes unbearably offensive. Common Examples of Irony Let us analyze some interesting examples from our daily life: I posted a video on YouTube about how boring and useless YouTube is. The name of Britain's biggest dog was "Tiny." You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel, and the next thing you know, you've slipped too. The butter is as soft as a slab of marble. "Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera." Short Examples of Verbal Irony The doctor is as kind hearted as a wolf. He took a much-needed vacation, backpacking in the mountains. Unfortunately, he came back dead tired. His friend's hand was as soft as a rock. The desert was as cool as a bed of burning coals. The student was given 'excellent' on getting zero in the exam. The roasted chicken was as tender as a leather boot. He was in such a harried state that he drove the entire way at 20 miles per hour. He enjoyed his job about as much as a root canal. My friend's kids get along like cats and dogs. Their new boss was as civilized as a shark. The new manager is as friendly as a rattlesnake. The weather was as balmy as a winter day in Siberia. A vehicle was parked right in front of the no-parking sign. The CEO of a big tobacco company said he did not smoke. The fear of long words is called "Hippopotomonstrosesquippedalio phobia." Irony Examples in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) We come across the following lines in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Scene V: "Go ask his name: if he be married. My grave is like to be my wedding bed." Juliet commands her nurse to find out who Romeo was, and says if he were married, then her wedding bed would be her grave. It is a verbal irony because the audience knows that she is going to die on her wedding bed. Example #2: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) Shakespeare employs this verbal irony in Julius Caesar, Act I, Scene II: CASSIUS: " 'Tis true this god did shake." Cassius, despite knowing the mortal flaws of Caesar, calls him "this god". Example #3: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) In the Greek drama Oedipus Rex, written by Sophocles: "Upon the murderer I invoke this curse - whether he is one man and all unknown, Or one of many - may he wear out his life in misery to miserable doom!" The above lines are an illustration of verbal and dramatic irony. It was predicted that a man guilty of killing his father and marrying his own mother brought A curse on the city and its people. In the above-mentioned lines, Oedipus curses the man who is the cause of the curse. He is ignorant of the fact that he himself is that man, and thus he is cursing himself. The audience, on the other hand, knows the situation. Example #4: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Coleridge) Irony examples are not only found in stage plays, but in poems too. In his poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Coleridge wrote: "Water, water, everywhere, And all the boards did shrink; Water, water, everywhere, Nor any drop to drink." In the above-stated lines, the ship - blown by the south wind - is stranded in the uncharted sea. Ironically, there is water everywhere, but they do not have a single drop of drinkable water. Example #5: The Gift of the Magi (By W.H. Auden) This is an example of situational irony, in which the wife sells her most prized possession - her hair - to get her husband a Christmas present; and the husband sells his most dear possession - the gold watch - to get his wife a Christmas present. By the end, it is revealed that neither has the utility of the present bought by the other, as both sell their best things to give the other one a gift. Combs, the gift for the wife, is useless because she has sold her hair. The gold watch chain, the gift for the husband, is useless because he has sold the watch to get the combs. The situation becomes ironic for such an incident. Example #6: Othello (By William Shakespeare) There are many examples of verbal irony, in which the speaker means the opposite of what he says, in Othello by Shakespeare, as given below: OTHELLO: "O, thou art wise! 'Tis certain" (IV.I.87), "Honest Iago . . . " (V.II.88), (II.III.179) & (I.III.319), "I know, Iago, Thy honesty and love doth mince this matter" (II.III.251-52). These few lines tell us how Othello uses irony to talk about Iago. IAGO: "My lord, you know I love you." (III.III.136) This shows that Iago only uses this phrase superficially, with quite the opposite meaning. Example #7: The Tell-Tale Heart (By Edgar Allan Poe) In the short story The Tell-Tale Heart, by Edgar Allan Poe, there are many instances of irony as given below: The murderer poses that he is a wise and intelligent person, who takes each step very carefully to kill the victim. However, the way the old's man eye prompts him to murder the victim is very ironic. He behaves absolutely insanely throughout the story. Another instance of irony in the same story is that the killer himself confesses his crime without being asked by the police. The police are there just to investigate the shriek some neighbor has reported. However, their delayed stay makes the killer very nervous, and he confesses his crime of murder in their presence. He even tells where he has buried the dead body. Function of Irony Like all other figures of speech, irony brings about some added meanings to a situation. Ironical statements and situations in literature develop readers' interest. It makes a work of literature more intriguing, and forces the readers to use their imaginations to comprehend the underlying meanings of the texts. Moreover, real life is full of ironical expressions and situations. Therefore, the use of irony brings a work of literature to the life.

Isocolon

Isocolon is a rhetorical device that involves a succession of sentences, phrases, and clauses of grammatically equal length. In this figure of speech, a sentence has a parallel structure that is made up of words, clauses, or phrases of equal length, sound, meter, and rhythm. Isocolon is the repetition of similar grammatical forms. Types of Isocolon Examples of isocolon may fall under any of the following types: Bicolon - Bicolon has two grammatically equal structures. An example for this is Harley Davidson's slogan "American by Birth. Rebel by Choice." Tricolon - If there are three grammatically equal structures, it is called a tricolon. Such as: "That government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth." (Abraham Lincoln) Tetracolon - "I'll give my jewels for a set of beads, /My gorgeous palace for a hermitage, /My gay apparel for an almsman's gown, /My figured goblets for a dish of wood..." (Richard II, by William Shakespeare). This is an example of tetra colon, where four parallel grammatical structures are written in succession. Tetracolon is also known as quatrains. Examples of Isocolon in Literature Example #1: Community (By John Donne) "Good we must love, and must hate ill, For ill is ill, and good good still; But there are things indifferent, Which we may neither hate, nor love, But one, and then another prove, As we shall find our fancy bent..." Donne has used contrasting ideas of love and hate, good and ill, which are placed in a parallel format of equal lengths. He wants to lay emphasis on the main point that humans love good because it is good, whereas they hate bad because it is actually bad. Example #2: The Tyger (By William Blake) "What the hammer? what the chain? In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil? what dread grasp Dare its deadly terrors clasp?" Blake makes effective use of isocolon in this poem. Here, the parallel structures start with a question that creates a regular rhythm inside the text. Example #3: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) "Pity is the feeling which arrests the mind in the presence of whatsoever is grave and constant in human sufferings and unites it with the sufferer. Terror is the feeling which arrests the mind in the presence of whatsoever is grave and constant in human sufferings and unites it with the secret cause..." This is also one of the famous isocolon examples, where the successive clauses are written in the same length, and with parallel structure. This device is useful in creating a beautiful rhythm. Example #4: Henry VIII (By William Shakespeare) "My lord, we have Stood here observing him: Some strange commotion Is in his brain: he bites his lip, and starts; Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground, Then, lays his finger on his temple; straight, Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again, Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts His eye against the moon: in most strange postures." In this example, isocolon is converted into diazeugma, where multiple verbs are connected to a single subject. These multiple verbs with the same length create special dramatic effect, and make the description more vivid. Example #5: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair..." Due to the repeated phrase "it was..." in the passage, readers are provoked to focus on the characteristics of "age." Function of Isocolon The use of isocolon in speech and in writing helps in maintaining consistency and creating balanced ideas. Because parallel phrases and clauses are recurring in isocolons, this can be a very effective persuasive device. Isocolon brings rhythm and balance to sentences, hence, it gives a smooth flow to the ideas expressed in a piece. For this reason, famous lawyers and politicians extensively employ this technique of persuasion. Isocolons are found in literary works, as well as in political, social, and ordinary conversation.

Jargon

Jargon is a literary term that is defined as the use of specific phrases and words in a particular situation, profession, or trade. These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings accepted and understood in that field. Jargon examples are found in literary and non-literary pieces of writing. The use of jargon becomes essential in prose or verse or some technical pieces of writing, when the writer intends to convey something only to the readers who are aware of these terms. Therefore, jargon was taken in early times as a trade language, or as a language of a specific profession, as it is somewhat unintelligible for other people who do not belong to that particular profession. In fact, specific terms were developed to meet the needs of the group of people working within the same field or occupation. Jargon and Slang Jargon is sometimes wrongly confused with slang, and people often take it in the same sense but a difference is always there. Slang is a type of informal category of language developed within a certain community, and consists of words or phrases whose literal meanings are different than the actual meanings. Hence, it is not understood by people outside of that community or circle. Slang is more common in spoken language than written. Jargon, on the other hand, is broadly associated with a subject, occupation, or business that makes use of standard words or phrases, and frequently comprised of abbreviations, such as LOC (loss of consciousness), or TRO (temporary restraining order). However, unlike slang, its terms are developed and composed deliberately for the convenience of a specific profession, or section of society. We can see the difference in the two sentences given below. Did you hook up with him? (Slang) Getting on a soapbox (Jargon) Examples of Jargon in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Historical Legal Jargon HAMLET to HORATIO: "Why, may not that be the skull of a lawyer? Where be his quiddities now, his quillities, his cases, his tenures, and his tricks? Why does he suffer this mad knave now to knock him about the sconce with a dirty shovel, and will not tell him of his action of battery? Hum! This fellow might be in's time a great buyer of land, with his statutes, his recognizances, his fines, his double vouchers, his recoveries: is this the fine of his fines, and the recovery of his recoveries, to have his fine pate full of fine dirt? Will his vouchers vouch him no more of his purchases and double ones too, than the length and breadth of a pair of indentures? The very conveyances of his lands will scarcely lie in this box; and must the inheritor himself have no more, ha?" Here, you can see the use of words specifically related to the field of law, marked in bold. These are legal words used at the time of Shakespeare. Example #2: Patient Education: Nonallergic Rhinitis (By Robert H Fletcher and Phillip L Lieberman) Medical Jargon "Certain medications can cause or worsen nasal symptoms (especially congestion). These include the following: birth control pills, some drugs for high blood pressure (e.g., alpha blockers and beta blockers), antidepressants, medications for erectile dysfunction, and some medications for prostatic enlargement. If rhinitis symptoms are bothersome and one of these medications is used, ask the prescriber if the medication could be aggravating the condition." This passage is full of medical jargon, such as those shown in bold. Perhaps only those in the medical community would fully understand all of these terms. Example #3: Marek v Lane (By U.S. Supreme Court Ruling) Modern Legal Jargon "In August 2008, 19 individuals brought a putative class action lawsuit in the U. S. District Court for the Northern District of California against Facebook and the companies that had participated in Beacon, alleging violations of various federal and state privacy laws. The putative class comprised only those individuals whose personal information had been obtained and disclosed by Beacon during the approximately one-month period in which the program's default setting was opt out rather than opt in. The complaint sought damages and various forms of equitable relief, including an injunction barring the defendants from continuing the program." This ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court is full of modern legal jargon. The terms shown in bold are a good example of jargon that is not likely to be understood by the typical person. Function of Jargon The use of jargon is significant in prose and verse. It seems unintelligible to the people who do not know the meanings of the specialized terms. Jargon in literature is used to emphasize a situation, or to refer to something exotic. In fact, the use of jargon in literature shows the dexterity of the writer, of having knowledge of other spheres. Writers use jargon to make a certain character seem real in fiction, as well as in plays and poetry.

Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is a literary technique in which two or more ideas, places, characters, and their actions are placed side by side in a narrative or a poem, for the purpose of developing comparisons and contrasts. In literature, juxtaposition is a useful device for writers to portray their characters in great detail, to create suspense, and to achieve a rhetorical effect. It is a human quality to comprehend one thing easily by comparing it to another. Therefore, a writer can make readers sense "goodness" in a particular character by placing him or her side-by-side with a character that is predominantly "evil." Consequently, goodness in one character is highlighted by evil in the other character. Juxtaposition in this case is useful in the development of characters. Examples of Juxtaposition in Literature Example #1: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) John Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the narrative poems that can be used as an example of juxtaposition. This well-crafted literary piece is clearly based on the juxtaposition of two characters: God and Satan. Frequently in the poem, the bad qualities of Satan and the good qualities of God are placed side-by-side, and the comparison made brings to the surface the contrast between the two characters. The juxtaposition in this poem helps us to reach the conclusion that Satan deserved his expulsion from the paradise because of his unwillingness to submit to God's will. Example #2: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens uses the technique of juxtaposition in the opening line of his novel A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way ..." In order to give us an idea of the factors responsible for the French Revolution, Dickens uses juxtaposition throughout the novel. Here, the haves and have-nots are put side-by-side to highlight the presence of severe disparity and discord in the then-French society, which ultimately paved the way for the revolution. By examining the given juxtaposition, readers can vividly imagine the calamitous atmosphere before the revolution, and understand its need at that time. Example #3: Do not Go Gentle into that Good Night (By Dylan Thomas) We can see juxtaposition examples in poems, too. "Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light. And you, my father, there on the sad height, Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray. Do not go gentle into that good night. Rage, rage against the dying of the light." In Dylan Thomas' poem Do not Go Gentle into that Good Night, the speaker is asking his father not to give up, like ordinary dying men, but to fight against it to survive. The juxtaposition is in the action of struggle for life, to put off death by not merely lying down to wait for death. Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Juxtaposition is a literary device that William Shakespeare uses most commonly in his play Romeo and Juliet. We notice the juxtaposition of light and darkness repeatedly. Consider an example from Act I, Scene V: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;" Here, the radiant face of Juliet is juxtaposed with a black African's dark skin. Romeo admires Juliet by saying that her face seems brighter than brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that, at night, her face glows like a bright jewel that shines against the dark skin of an African. Function of Juxtaposition Writers employ the literary technique of juxtaposition in order to surprise their readers and evoke their interest, by means of developing a comparison between two dissimilar things by placing them side by side. The comparison drawn adds vividness to a given image, controls the pacing of the poem or a narrative, and provides a logical connection between two vague concepts.

Kinesthesia

Kinesthesia is a type of imagery that is used as a poetic device. It is a poetic device that gives a feeling of natural, or physical bodily movement or action (like a heartbeat, a pulse, and breathing). It also refers to tension along with the movement. Since the word kinetic means motion or movement, kinesthetic imagery is the representation of the actions and movements of an object or a character. Famous authors William Shakespeare and William Wordsworth, respectively, wrote the following examples of kinesthesia: "This sensible warm motion to become A kneaded clod; and the delighted spirit To bathe in fiery floods, or to reside In thrilling region of thick-ribbed ice..." (Measure for Measure, by William Shakespeare) Above, Shakespeare presents the phrases "warm motion," and "clod" as kinesthetic imagery. "Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance..." (I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, by ‎William Wordsworth) Classification of Kinesthesia Kinesthetic imagery is further divided into various categories: Touch: Like running fingers on silk fabric Physical movement: Gives feelings of involvement in an activity, like walking on grass Temperature: For example, it might involve sunlight falling over the body Feelings: Internal feelings, like being angry, sad, happy, peaceful, and calm. Examples of Kinesthesia in Literature Example #1: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) "With a wild rattle and clatter, and an inhuman abandonment of consideration not easy to be understood in these days, the carriage dashed through streets and swept round corners, with women screaming before it, and men clutching each other and clutching children out of its way. At last, swooping at a street corner by a fountain, one of its wheels came to a sickening little jolt, and there was a loud city from a number of voices, and the horses reared and plunged ..." In this example, kinesthesia is used as the movements of a carriage that is constantly moving along the streets, and the physical actions of women and children. These movements are shown in bold words. Example #2: Meeting At Night (By Robert Browning) "The gray sea and the long black land; And the yellow half-moon large and low; And startled little waves that leap In fiery ringlets from their sleep, As I gain the cove with pushing prow, And quench its speed i' the slushy sand. Then a mile of warm sea-scented beach; Three fields to cross till a farm appears; A tap at the pane, the quick sharp scratch And blue spurt of a lighted match, And a voice less loud, thro' its joys and fears, Than the two hearts beating each to each!" The speaker's descriptions of the physical features of the landscape are good Kinesthesia examples. Kinesthesia is employed in the lines in bold. The speaker is sailing in a boat, which is described as a "pushing prow." There are other words suggesting physical actions, like "speed," "cross," and finally, "two hearts beating." Example #3: I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (By W. Wordsworth) "Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the milky way, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of a bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance." Wordsworth describes the beautiful daffodils and their movement as dancing. He explains how they grow, and their physical movement. Kinesthesia is used as in words, such as "stretched," "tossing" their heads, and "dance." Example #4: Hyperion (By John Keats) "At this, through all his bulk an agony Crept gradual, from the feet unto the crown, Like a lithe serpent vast and muscular Making slow way, with head and neck convulsed From over-strained might..." Here, kinesthetic imagery is used as an awareness of the movement and muscle tension. This excerpt is a perfect example of kinesthesia. Keats beautifully describes muscular agony, and feelings of exhaustion. Function of Kinesthesia Kinesthesia is used in poetry and prose to describe the vivid physical actions or movements of characters and objects. It is used as a graphic and vibrant technique of scenes that appeal to the senses of the readers. Besides, it helps the imagination of a reader to envision the scenes and characters in literary works. Kinesthesia could be used in two forms: descriptive and figurative. In addition, writers not only employ kinesthesia for physical movements, they also create images based on the intensity of feelings and depth of meaning.

Eulogy

Known as homily, the term eulogy originates from the Greek word eulogia, which means "to praise" somebody or something. A eulogy is a literary device that is a laudatory expression in a speech, or a written tribute to a person recently deceased. We can say, it is a commendation or high praise intended to give honor, generally to a dead family member or loved one, or it is a tribute given to a dead person at his or her funeral. Eulogies are also paid as tributes to living persons; for instance, one can dedicate it to his retired colleagues, bosses, or employees for winning respectable position and noble deeds. Hence, in general, it is a gesture of honoring somebody. Difference Between Eulogy, Elegy and Obituary These three terms are often confused due in their meanings. A eulogy and an elegy are similar because both are written for the dead. An elegy is a song or a poem with a lamenting tone that expresses loss of a family member or a loved one. A eulogy, by contrast, is a speech or written tribute to the deceased, or perhaps to a living person, and it is not necessarily in the form of a poem. However, an obituary is a completely different term than eulogy and elegy, as it is a published biography intended to recount the life of someone who recently died. Examples of Eulogy in Literature Example #1: On Mr. Wm. Shakespeare, he died in April 1616 (By William Basse) "Renowned Spenser, lie a thought more nigh To learned Chaucer, and rare Beaumont lie A little nearer Spenser to make room For Shakespeare in your threefold, fourfold tomb. Betwixt this day and that by fate be slain... Sleep rare tragedian Shakespeare, sleep alone, That unto us and others it may be Honor hereafter to be laid by thee." Basse has dedicated this eulogy to William Shakespeare 25 years after his death. He suggests that his grave should have been next to Spenser, Chaucer, and Beaumont in Westminster Abbey. Example #2: After Thought (By William Wordsworth) "I thought of Thee, my partner and my guide, As being past away.—Vain sympathies! ... Still glides the Stream, and shall for ever glide; The Form remains, the Function never dies; While we, the brave, the mighty, and the wise, We Men, who in our morn of youth defied The elements, must vanish;—be it so! ..." Through love, through hope, and faith's transcendent dower, We feel that we are greater than we know." Wordsworth has written this eulogy in honor of his close friend. The speaker is recalling his deceased friend's memories in that, though he is physically no more with him, his noble deeds will never die. Example #3: O Captain, O Captain (By Walt Whitman) "O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won, The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring; But O heart! heart! heart! ..." In this poem, Whitman pays tribute to American president Abraham Lincoln, whom many Americans recognize as a hero. The speaker calls him a captain, and then calls "dear father!" He pays high regards to his captain for making the mission successful, and for the services he has done for his country: "From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won." Example #4: A Farewell (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "A thousand suns will stream on thee A thousand moons will quiver; But not by thee my steps shall be Forever and forever." Alfred Lord Tennyson's poem A Farewell is also a eulogy in which the poet himself says goodbye to nature. He describes this fact beautifully, that death is inevitable and nobody can escape it. He says goodbye to trees, seas, and rivers and to other elements of nature because he will die and will be forgotten, except his good deeds. But nature will remain the same forever. Function of Eulogy Eulogies are written or spoken memorials that help recall happy and good memories of dead loved ones. In literary works, eulogies can make the deceased appear more real and good to all those people who have not seen or known them. Many writers and poets have written eulogies in the honor of famous literary figures. Another function of eulogy is to keep the memories of dead ones alive. As we have learned from the above-mentioned examples, the nature of a eulogy is optimistic, it is intended to boost the morale of the depressed family.

Lampoon

Lampoon is a form of virulent satire in verse or prose, which is sometimes a malicious or unjust attack on a person, an institute, or an activity. Simply, when a writer or an artist makes fun of someone or something, by imitating the same thing in a funny way, it is called "lampooning." It is a more subtle and broad form of satire, which intends to ridicule in clear terms, while satire uses comedy to ridicule vices, follies, fashions, or pretentions. In fact, both terms are same. However, the first one - lampoon - is specific, while the second one - satire - is general. Example of Lampoon in Music Example #1: Money (by Pink Floyd) "Money, get away. Get a good job with good pay and you're okay. Money, it's a gas. Money, so they say Is the root of all evil today. But if you ask for a raise it's no surprise that they're giving none away ..." Pink Floyd has elaborated lampoon satirical musical album "The Dark Side of the Moon" with political and social commentary. In this song, the satire of greed for money is emphasized. Money is sardonic and biting, there reason that there is no way to think about other things. Examples of Lampoon in Literature Example #1: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift) In A Modest Proposal, Swift satirizes the idea of eating infants, selling them to wealthy people so that the poor could live easily without getting involved in prostitution. Swift makes fun of the fact that, despite such grave problems, society has not done anything practically to solve it. Therefore, his pompous, modest proposal about producing a market for babies, makes the whole scenario ridiculous. In fact, Swift shows his concern for the bad state of affairs happening in Ireland. In simple words, selling babies to wealthy people for consumption is completely bizarre, and lays emphasis on the satirical device lampoon, which is here directed against an insensitive society. Example #2: Mac Flecknoe (by John Dryden) John Dryden wrote a famous lampoon "Mac Flecknoe," which triggered a devastating attack on Thomas Shadwell, a Whig playwright. Dryden ridiculed Shadwell's abilities as a critic and literary artist in a way that his literary reputation suffered a lot ever since. The basis of his satire represented Shadwell as a dunce, which is a difference of opinion between Dryden and Shadwell over the quality and value of Ben Johnson's wit. Shadwell does not see Elizabethan playwright critically, while Dryden sees Johnson lacking this quality. Example #3: A Collection of Miscellany Poems, Letters, &c (by Mr. Brown) "Thou cur, half French, half English breed, Thou mongrel of Parnassus." Satirical writings of Brown are notable for crudeness rather than for wit. He was pertinacious in worrying his adversaries. He would never stop his quarrel and launch attacks again and again. He had published the above mentioned lines in his satirical and humorous verses in "A Collection of Miscellany Poems, Letters, & c," in which he made a bitter attack against his arch foe, Tom Durfey. Example #4: Huckleberry Finn (by Mark Twain) "Pretty soon I wanted to smoke, and asked the widow to let me. But she wouldn't ... Here she was a-bothering about Moses, which was no kin to her, and no use to anybody, being gone, you see, yet finding a power of fault with me for doing a thing that had some good in it. And she took snuff, too; of course that was all right, because she done it herself." Twain lampoons on the idea of civilized society that Huck finds himself thrust into. In this example, the characters of Miss Watson and Widow Douglas prove themselves moral and religious hypocrites, as Widow would not allow Huck to smoke, however she consumes tobacco herself. Function The purpose of using lampoon is to emphasize absurdities and follies of a person or situation in a humorous way. Satire, as a parody, plays the role of pointing out the object or person as ludicrous and serves to change the opinion of the people about it. It may take various forms from written words to jokes, drawings, television sketches, or entire productions and shows. In literature, it can be a short poem, letter, or full novel. Lampoon is used extensively in the two most recognizable and famous satirical mediums, film and television. From advertising and news, to discussion programs; and from politics to dramas, it is everywhere. Also, it is common in music, video games, and internet using satirical cartoons, etc.

Dynamic Character

Like a round character, a dynamic character also undergoes changes throughout the narrative, due to conflicts he encounters on his journey. A dynamic character faces trials and tribulations, and takes time to learn from his encounters, his experiences, and his mistakes, as well as from other characters. Sometimes a character learns a lesson, and gains maturity, such as Prince Hal in Shakespeare's Henry IV. Some characters discover mistakes in their points of view, and others discover important aspects of their own personalities, such as Neville Longbottom did in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. All of these changes make a character dynamic, but they are implied changes, not stated outright. Difference between Dynamic and Round Character Though dynamic and round characters both undergo character development, there is a slight difference between them. The traits of a dynamic character are not described outright. Rather, his traits are referred to as they change over time. On the other hand, a round character's traits are complex, and described by the author. Round characters are dynamic as well, such as Hamlet. Examples of Dynamic Characters in Literature Example #1: Harry, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (By J. K. Rowling) The most important conflict in this novel is the inner conflict of Harry Potter, which makes him a dynamic character. Harry perceives that he shares some abilities similar to Tom Riddle, who becomes the evil Lord Voldemort, and this makes him worry that he might also turn out to be an evil character. Dumbledore mentions Harry's presence in Gryffindor House, and Tom Riddle's in Slytherin House. Harry, in a defeated tone, says, "It only puts me in Gryffindor" because Harry did not want to go in Slytherin. Beaming again, Dumbledore says, "exactly ... Which makes you very different from Tom Riddle. It is our choices, Harry ... far more than our abilities." Harry learns this lesson about the importance of the choices one makes. It resolves his inner conflict, making him a good example of a dynamic character. Example #2: Hamlet, Hamlet (by William Shakespeare) Throughout the play, Hamlet is worried about life and death, and it is this apprehension that makes him a dynamic character. The greatest fear of Hamlet is the afterlife, which is quite understandable, because his father's Ghost comes out of purgatory and tells him about the horror and terror awaiting there. Because of his preoccupation with this fear, Hamlet does not act out on his desire to take vengeance on Claudius. Nevertheless, when he visits the graveyard, and holds Yorick's dead skull, he becomes apprehensive of the inevitability of death. Hamlet thinks that even great men, such as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar, could not escape it. This philosophical change in his perspective about death lets him finally take revenge on King Claudius. Example #3: Jack, Lord of the Flies (by William Golding) There are four dynamic characters in this novel: Jack, Ralph, Simon, and Piggy. Jack is the most prominent among them - an important dynamic character who goes through a lot of changes during the course of the novel. On the island, Jack encounters life-changing experiences that develop and change the character forever. He has never thought that he would live the way he lives on the island. His authoritative nature, violence, and instinctual behavior make him a dynamic character. Example #4: Sydney Carton, A Tale of Two Cities (by Charles Dickens) Sydney Carton is another good example of a dynamic character. At the very beginning of the story, Carton describes himself as he states, "I am a disappointed drudge, sir. I care for no man on earth, and no man on earth cares for me." He throws himself in a depressed state - digging a hole from which he is sure he could never escape. Sydney is frustrated, and thinks his purpose in life is only to serve C. J. Stryver. The only beautiful part of his life is his love for Lucie Manette. When he hears the news that she will marry Charles Darnay, Sydney is heartbroken, which drives him to reveal his feelings to her. This conversation brings a turning point in Sydney's life, which causes him to begin taking better care of himself and people around him. Function of Dynamic Character A dynamic character plays an important role in a narrative. Often it is the main character of the story, which helps to build a compelling and convincing story. By going through an important transition, having a coming-of-age experience, pulling through trials, gaining maturity, feeling a change of the heart, and developing likable qualities, a dynamic character shows he has made a full transformation. All these changes bring a flavor to the story line and an element of surprise to the readers.

Octave

Octave has been derived from the Latin word octāva, which means "eighth part." It is a verse form that contains eight lines, which usually appear in an iambic pentameter. In simple words, it can be any stanza in a poem that has eight lines and follows a rhymed or unrhymed meter. Types of Octave Canzonetta Each stanza of this verse form follows rhyme scheme of a, b, a, b, c, d, c, D. or a, b, a, b, c, b, c, B. the last line may repeat any meter. Cavatina It appears in quatrains with uneven couplets and ends with a declamatory rhyming couplet. It follows alternating iambic pentameter and iambic dimeter lines. The rhyme scheme is: xaxa xbxb xcxc, where x is unrhymed. Ottava Rima This form of octave contains 8 lines, which usually appear in iambic pentameter pattern. Each stanza contains three alternate rhyming lines with one double rhyme. It follows rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-c-c. Sicilian Octave This verse form contains eight lines with 11 syllables, called hendecasyllable in Italian. It follows the rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b. Italian or Petrarchan Octave Initially, it did not follow any set rhyming patter; however, later on it followed iambic pentameter with rhyme scheme of a-b-b-a-a-b-b-a. Hymnal and Common Octave It follows rhyming pattern a-b-c-b-a-b-c-b. The first one uses iambic tetrameter and the second one uses iambic trimeter. Octave Sometimes it is in the form of free or blank verse or unusual pattern. However, the most common rhyming pattern for this verse form is a-b-b-a-a-b-b-a. Huitain Huitain consists of 8 or 10 syllables with each line having rhyming pattern of a-b-a-b-b-c-b-c or a-b-a-b-a-c-a-c Sicilian Octave It does not have a set form, but commonly follows rhyming pattern of a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b. Strambotto Tuscano It follows rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-c-c. Each line contains 11 syllables. Strambotto Siciliano It uses a rhyming pattern a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b. There are 11 syllables in each line. Strambotto Romagnuolo It uses rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-c-c-d-d with 11 syllables in each line. Unwreathed Octave It also uses double rhymes with external rhyme as b-a-b-d-c-d-c and Internal rhyme a-b-a-c-d-c-x. There is no set meter. Wreathed Octave It also has double rhymes with external rhyme as a-b-a-b-c-d-c-d and internal rhyme follows the pattern of x-a-b-a-d-c-d-c. Examples of Octave in Literature Example #1: The New Colossus (By Emma Lazarus) 'Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame, With conquering limbs astride from land to land; Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame... The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame. This is an example of Petrarchan Octave, which follows the rhyme scheme of a-b-b-a-a-b-b-a. It is the first part of Petrarchan or Italian sonnet. Example #2: Of the Gentle Heart (by Guido Guinicelli) Within the gentle heart Love shelters him As birds within the green shade of the grove. Before the gentle heart, in nature's scheme, Love was not, nor the gentle heart ere Love... And Love has his effect in gentleness. This stanza presents an example of Canzonetta, a verse form that uses rhyming pattern of a, b, a, b, c, d, c, D. Example #3: Filiocola (by Giovanni Boccaccio) Qui, d'Atropos il colpo ricevuto, giace di Roma Giulia Topazia, dell'alto sangue di Cesare arguto discesa, bella e piena d'ogni grazia... Dio biasimar che fè sí gran fallazia. Boccaccio has used this 8-line verse Sicilian Octave in his earlier poem Filiocola. This form follows rhyme scheme of a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b. Example #4: Sonnet 16 (by John Milton) When I consider how my light is spent Ere half my days in this dark world and wide, Lodg'd with me useless, though my soul more bent... "Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?" I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent... This is an example of octave, which is the first part of Italian sonnet that ends with a contrasting sestet. It commonly uses a metrical pattern of iambic pentameter, 5 iambs in each line, which is shown as underlined in the second last line. Function of Octave An octave serves as a musical interval or plays the role of a short distance between two musical notes. In fact, it is a distance between two notes with similar letter names. In poetry, it represents eight lines of a poem, often the first part of a sonnet, where it poses questions, while the second part, sestet, answers them. To put it in simple words, an octave provides a dilemma or a problem in the first part, which, sestet, as the second part resolves.

Paraphrase

Often when we hear news stories and watch television shows, we want to tell our families, friends, and colleagues about what, how, and why something happened. In fact, we recount the story, its main characters, and events in our own words. This technique is called paraphrasing, which is to express an idea or somebody's message in our own words, by maintaining the meaning of the original material. Paraphrase is a Greek word, paraphrasis, which means "to tell in other words." Simply, it is to restate a statement in different words than the original text, while keeping the meaning and sense of the original source the same. Paraphrase and Summary Both summarizing and paraphrasing use similar actions by involving almost the same processes. However, their objectives are different. Summary aims at condensing the original source into a shorter form. Paraphrase has no concern with length, but is a rewording or restating or the original source in different words, keeping the length or word count almost the same. Examples of Paraphrase in Literature Example #1: Romeo & Juliet (By Robert Burns) "But soft, what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief, That thou, her maid, art far more fair than she ... The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars As daylight doth a lamp; her eye in heaven Would through the airy region stream so bright That birds would sing and think it were not night." Paraphrase: But please wait and see the light from that window. It is the east, and my love Juliet is the sun. Come up beautiful sun, kill the jealous moon that is already sick and pale due to grief, as Juliet is more beautiful than the moon ... The brightness of Juliet's cheeks would surpass the brightness of stars, like the sun's light outshines the light of a lamp. If her eyes were in the sky, they would be so bright through the spaces that birds might start singing, considering it was day light. Example #2: The Sun Rising (By John Donne) "Busy old fool, unruly sun, Why dost thou thus, Through windows and through curtains call on us?... Shine here to us, and thou art everywhere; This bed thy center is, these walls, thy sphere." Paraphrase: You nosy old stupid busybody! The sun, you obey no normal rules - why are you waking us up like this, interfering with our personal life by entering through the windows and curtains? ... Go ahead and shine on us - while doing so you will shine everywhere. This bed is the center of the entire universe, around which you revolve, and the walls of our room are like a sphere, which holds you in the heavens. Example #3: Pride & Prejudice (By Jane Austen) "It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife." Paraphrase: Everyone agrees on this point, that a prosperous man needs to have a wife. Example #4: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "Whence is that knocking?— How is't with me, when every noise appals me? What hands are here! Ha, they pluck out mine eyes. Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No, this my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red." Paraphrase: Where is this knocking coming from? Why does every noise frighten me? Whose hands are these plucking out my eyes? Will the ocean's water wash the blood from my hands? No, instead these hands will change the color of the water from green to red. Function of Paraphrase The paraphrasing technique allows writers to change the original text, so that it does not look the same, yet without changing its meaning. Effective paraphrasing could help avoid the risk of plagiarism. There are many functions of this literary technique; first, it helps the readers to understand what they have read, especially when the syntax and diction of a writer look foreign and complex to the reader. Secondly, it could direct the attention of the reader toward the tone of the text and its significant details. Finally, since it clears up the meaning of the text, it helps readers to generate different questions from the paraphrasing text, such as when, what, and why something occurred.

Omniscient

Omniscient is a literary technique of writing a narrative in third person, in which the narrator knows the feelings and thoughts of every character in the story. Through omniscient narrative, the author brings an entire world of his characters to life, and moves from character to character, allowing different voices to interpret the events, and maintaining omniscient form — that is keeping a distance. Omniscient narrative tells the story of every character by demonstrating that only the narrator possesses information. Types of Omniscient Omniscient has two basic types: Omniscient Point of View - When a narrator has knowledge about all the characters in a narrative, it is an omniscient, or all-knowing, point of view. Limited Omniscient Point of View - In limited omniscient point of view, a narrator has limited knowledge of just one character, leaving other major or minor characters. Examples of Omniscient in Literature Example #1: The Scarlet Letter (By Nathaniel Hawthorne) The narrator in Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel, The Scarlet Letter, is an omniscient one, who scrutinizes the characters, and narrates the story in a way that shows the readers that he has more knowledge about the characters than they have about themselves. Though the narrator is an omniscient one, he is also a subjective narrator, meaning the readers form their own opinions about the things that take place. Example #2: Da Vinci Code (By Dan Brown) Dan Brown, in his novel Da Vinci Code, uses omniscient narrative, and employs several characters to speak in front of the audience, demonstrating what each character thinks and sees. Also the narrator provides information about background and related knowledge that characters are unaware of. Example #3: Little Women (By Louisa May Alcott) "Margaret, the eldest of the four, was sixteen, and very pretty, being plump and fair, with large eyes, plenty of soft brown hair, a sweet mouth, and white hands, of which she was rather vain. Fifteen-year-old Jo was very tall, thin, and brown, and reminded one of a colt ... Elizabeth, or Beth, as everyone called her, was a rosy, smooth-haired, bright-eyed girl of thirteen, with a shy manner, a timid voice, and a peaceful expression, which was seldom disturbed ... " Alcott uses an omniscient narrator, as we hear a disembodied voice knowing everyone's feelings and thoughts, exploring all characters from inside and out. Here, the narrator gives a description of the March sisters. Example #4: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (By J.K. Rowling) "Harry had taken up his place at wizard school, where he and his scar were famous ... but now the school year was over, and he was back with the Dursleys for the summer, back to being treated like a dog that had rolled in something smelly ... The Dursleys hadn't even remembered that today happened to be Harry's twelfth birthday. Of course, his hopes hadn't been high?" Rowling employs omniscient limited narrator voice, in which readers see what Harry observes, and know what he feels and thinks. They are, however, unable to follow what the Dursleys feel or think about Harry. Example #5: The Jilting of Granny Weatherall (By Katherine Anne Porter) Another perfect example of omniscient limited voice is Katherine Anne Porter's short story The Jilting of Granny Weatherall. In this narrative, readers follow the main character very closely. They know the feelings and thoughts of Granny Weatherall. Porter begins this novel by showing Granny lying sick on the bed. Readers proceed through her perspective. Function of Omniscient The purpose of using omniscient technique is to allow the audience to know everything about the characters. This is how they can gain an insight into characters' minds, and create a bond with them. Readers also see and observe the responses of multiple characters, which helps them understand the plot of the narrative. It also allows authors to make use of multiple voices in a story. By experiencing a narrative through multiple voices, readers can look into the depths of the story. In addition, readers can have an objective interpretation of the characters and events, in contrast to more personal or subjective interpretations. Finally, an omniscient narrator allows for a better storytelling, as it involves multiple characters, and several plot lines with different interpretations of the same event. Thus, a story could be more interesting when the plot moves from character to character.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia, pronounced on-uh-mat-uh-pee-uh, is defined as a word which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting. For instance, saying, "The gushing stream flows in the forest" is a more meaningful description than just saying, "The stream flows in the forest." The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a "gushing stream," which makes the expression more effective. In addition to the sounds they represent, many onomatopoeic words have developed meanings of their own. For example, the word "whisper" not only represents the wispy or breathy sound of people talking quietly, but also describes the action of people talking quietly. Common Examples of Onomatopoeia The buzzing bee flew away. The sack fell into the river with a splash. The books fell on the table with a loud thump. He looked at the roaring The rustling leaves kept me awake. The different sounds of animals are also considered as examples of onomatopoeia. You will recognize the following sounds easily: Meow Moo Neigh Tweet Oink Baa Groups of Onomatopoeic Words Onomatopoeic words come in combinations, as they reflect different sounds of a single object. For example, a group of words reflecting different sounds of water are: plop, splash, gush, sprinkle, drizzle, and drip. Similarly, words like growl, giggle, grunt, murmur, blurt, and chatter denote different kinds of human voice sounds. Moreover, we can identify a group of words related to different sounds of wind, such as swish, swoosh, whiff, whoosh, whizz, and whisper. Examples of Onomatopoeia in Literature Onomatopoeia is frequently employed in literature. We notice, in the following examples, the use of onomatopoeia gives rhythm to the texts. This makes the descriptions livelier and more interesting, appealing directly to the senses of the reader. Below, a few Onomatopoeia examples are highlighted in bold letters: Example #1: Come Down, O Maid (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "The moan of doves in immemorial elms, And murmuring of innumerable bees..." Example #2: The Tempest (By William Shakespeare) "Hark, hark! Bow-wow. The watch-dogs bark! Bow-wow. Hark, hark! I hear The strain of strutting chanticleer Cry, 'cock-a-diddle-dow!'" Example #3: For Whom the Bell Tolls (By Ernest Hemingway) "He saw nothing and heard nothing but he could feel his heart pounding and then he heard the clack on stone and the leaping, dropping clicks of a small rock falling." Example #4: The Marvelous Toy (By Tom Paxton) "It went zip when it moved and bop when it stopped, And whirr when it stood still. I never knew just what it was and I guess I never will." Example #5: Get Me to the Church on Time (By Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe) "I'm getting married in the morning! Ding dong! the bells are gonna chime." Onomatopoeia and Phanopoeia Onomatopoeia, in its more complicated use, takes the form of phanopoeia. Phanopoeia is a form of onomatopoeia that describes the sense of things, rather than their natural sounds. D. H. Lawrence, in his poem Snake, illustrates the use of this form: "He reached down from a fissure in the earth-wall in the gloom And trailed his yellow-brown slackness soft-bellied down, over the edge of the stone trough And rested his throat upon the stone bottom, And where the water had dripped from the tap, in a small clearness He sipped with his straight mouth..." The rhythm and length of the above lines, along with the use of "hissing" sounds, create a picture of a snake in the minds of the readers. Function of Onomatopoeia Generally, words are used to tell what is happening. Onomatopoeia, on the other hand, helps readers to hear the sounds of the words they reflect. Hence, the reader cannot help but enter the world created by the poet with the aid of these words. The beauty of onomatopoeic words lies in the fact that they are bound to have an effect on the readers' senses, whether that effect is understood or not. Moreover, a simple plain expression does not have the same emphatic effect that conveys an idea powerfully to the readers. The use of onomatopoeic words helps create emphasis.

Legend

Originated from Latin legendus, legend means "something which ought to be read." According to J. A. Cuddon, a legend is "a story or narrative that lies somewhere between myth and historical fact and which, as a rule, is about a particular figure or person." Traditionally, a legend is a narrative that focuses on a historically or geographically specific figure, and describes his exploits. Similar to a myth, a legend can provide an etymological narrative, often filling in historical gaps. Difference Between a Legend and a Myth There are marked differences between a legend and a myth. While legends are made up stories, myths are stories that answer questions about the working of natural phenomenon. Myths are set in olden times, even in pre-historic times. However, legends are stories about people and their actions, or deeds they perform to save their people or nations. The people mentioned in legends might have lived in recent times, or sometime in known history. Legends are told to serve a specific purpose, and can be based on facts - but they are not completely true. People mentioned in a legend might not have really done what the story of the legend relates. In some cases, legends change the historical events. King Arthur, Beowulf, and Queen Boadicea are some popular English legends. However, it is also important to understand that some of the stories about the Knights of the Round Table, and Merlin the Magician may not be true. The common point between a myth and a legend is that they both have been passed down from generation to generation in oral form. Examples of Legend from Literature Example #1: Faust Faust is the major character in the classical German legend. According to the legend, Faust was a dissatisfied scholar. On account of his dissatisfaction, he makes a deal with the devil in exchange for his soul. The deal promises him a great deal of knowledge, and limitless pleasures of the world. However, he meets his tragic end, as the devil takes his soul after his death. In fact, the legend of Faust presents an over-ambitious man, who surrenders his moral integrity for the achievement of worldly powers and success for a limited period of time. This kind of character teaches us the lessons of moral integrity, and the value of ethical uprightness. Example #2: The Flying Dutchman The Flying Dutchman is the legend of a ghost ship. According to the legend, the Flying Dutchman is cursed to never dock at a port, being doomed to sail in the oceans forever. It is likely that the legend has originated from the nautical folklore of the 17th century. The oldest surviving version of this legend dates back to the late 18th century. During the 19th and 20th centuries, there were reports of sighting the ship as a hull glowing with ghostly light. When another ship tried to make contact, the crew from the Flying Dutchman tried to send messages to land, or to people dead long ago. According to the lore, seeing the Flying Dutchman is an omen of doom. Example #3: King Arthur According to medieval histories, King Arthur was the British leader who led the British army against the invaders in the 5th and 6th centuries. It is mainly folklore that led to the composition of the legendary King Arthur story. Some literary inventions have been made in the story, but historical existence of King Arthur has always been questioned. There exist a few historical sources, such as the Annales Cambrige, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas, which may be attributed as sources of the legend of King Arthur. Function of Legend In literature, the function of a legend is to present the story of human actions in such a way that they are perceived by the audience to be true. Actions are presented as if they have taken place within human history. For its audiences, a legend has to include happenings that are not outside the realm of possibility, but it may include miracles. Change has certainly occurred in legends over time, giving them a freshness, vitality, and a realistic taste. On the contrary, a large number of legends function in the realm of uncertainty; neither believed, nor doubted by the audiences.

Overstatement

Overstatement is an act of stating something more profoundly than it actually is, in order to make the point more serious or important or beautiful. In literature, writers use overstatement as a literary technique for the sake of humor, and for laying emphasis on a certain point. For instance, when in his poem I wandered lonely as a cloud, Wordsworth reports daffodils as, "stretched in never-ending line." In fact, he is not saying this statement literally; rather he is merely using overstatement to add emphasis on the long line of daffodils. Examples of Overstatement in Literature Example #1: The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County (By Mark Twain) In Mark Twain's short story, The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, there are several instances of overstatement. For instance, when Simon Wheeler narrates his stories concerning Jim Smiley, Wheeler makes claim that Jim was a gambler and he probably would, "... foller that straddle-bug to Mexico but what he would find out where he was bound for and how long he was on the road." It further talks about a bull pup of Jim Smiley and Andrew Jackson: "... his underjaw'd begin to stick out like the fo'castle of a steamboat, and his teeth would uncover, and shine savage like the furnaces." Example #2: The Sahara of the Bozart (By H. L. Mencken) "It is, indeed, amazing to contemplate so vast a vacuity. One thinks of the interstellar spaces, of the colossal reaches of the now mythical ether. Nearly the whole of Europe could be lost in that stupendous region of fat farms, shoddy cities and paralyzed cerebrums: one could throw in France, Germany and Italy, and still have room for the British Isles. And yet, for all its size and all its wealth and all the 'progress' it babbles of, it is almost as sterile, artistically, intellectually, culturally, as the Sahara Desert." Mencken presents evidence to show his disdain against the southern region of U.S. He berates it for its paucity of cultural, and artistic and intellectual attainment, and therefore calls it the "Sahara Desert," which is culturally dead. Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the check of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiop's ear." Romeo is praising Juliet's beauty by using light exaggeration. Here, the playwright uses metaphor to get this job done by comparing Juliet to a burning light that gives light to torches, and like a glowing jewel that shines against African cheeks. Example #4: Revenge of the Pork Person (By Dave Barry) "A man can have a belly you could house commercial aircraft in and a grand total of eight greasy strands of hair, which he grows real long and combs across the top of his head so that he looks, when viewed from above, like an egg in the grasp of a giant spider, plus this man can have B.O. to the point where he interferes with radio transmissions, and he will still be convinced that, in terms of attractiveness, he is borderline Don Johnsons." In this instance, the author is making an overstatement by a silly comparison between a man's belly and various other things. Example #5: Parker's Back (By Flannery O'Connor) Flannery O'Connor, in one of his short stories, Parker's Back, uses overstatement by writing: "And the skin on her face was thin and drawn tight like the skin on an onion and her eyes were gray and sharp like the points of two ice picks." Example #6: I wandered lonely as a cloud (By William Wordsworth) "An hundred years should go to praise Thine eyes and on thy forehead gaze; Two hundred to adore each breast, But thirty thousand to the rest; An age at least to every part, ..." In this example, the poet exaggerates the beauty of his beloved, and says if he had enough time, he would keep on complimenting all of her body parts, even for a bazillion years, which is quite impossible. Function of Overstatement Writers use this literary technique intentionally to create certain effect. Mostly, it helps to lay emphasis on some point. In prose, its purpose is to create humor and emphasis. When writers want to emphasize a point, they overstate it or exaggerate it. While in poetry, its purpose is to make comparisons and create images. Poets also use it for emphasizing a contrast between two things, by stating one idea as normal and another with overstatement.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, such as "cruel kindness," or "living death". However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The contrasting ideas may be spaced out in a sentence, such as, "In order to lead, you must walk behind." Difference Between Oxymoron and Paradox It is important to understand the difference between an oxymoron and a paradox. A paradox may consist of a sentence, or even a group of sentences. An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a combination of two contradictory or opposite words. A paradox seems contradictory to the general truth, but it does contain an implied truth. An oxymoron, however, may produce a dramatic effect, but does not make literal sense. Examples of oxymoron are found both in casual conversations and in literature. Common Examples of Oxymoron Open secret Tragic comedy Seriously funny Awfully pretty Foolish wisdom Original copies Liquid gas The above oxymoron examples produce a comical effect. Thus, it is a lot of fun to use them in your everyday speech. Short Examples of Oxymoron in Speech There was a love-hate relationship between the two neighboring states. The professor was giving a lecture on virtual reality. Paid volunteers were working for the company. The channel was repeating the old news again and again. The contractor was asked to give the exact estimate of the project. A lot of soldiers have been killed in friendly fire. The doctor was absolutely unsure of the nature of his illness. All the politicians agreed to disagree. There was an employee in the office who was regularly irregular. The hero of the play was so dejected that he was the perfect embodiment of being alone in a crowd. The heads of state gathered to determine an approximate solution to the crisis. The green pasture surrounded by hills was teeming with a deafening silence. The political scientist was asked to give his unbiased opinion on the current issue. The CEO of a multinational company said, "We have been awfully lucky to have survived the disastrous effects of the recent economic recession." The program was not liked by the people, for a lot of unpopular celebrities were invited. Examples of Oxymoron in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O anything, of nothing first create! O heavy lightness! Serious vanity! Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is! This love feel I, that feel no love in this. Dost thou not laugh? We notice a series of oxymora being employed when Romeo confronts the love of an inaccessible woman. An intense emotional effect is produced, to highlight his mental conflict by the use of contradictory pairs of words, such as "hating love," "heavy lightness," "bright smoke," "cold fire," and "sick health". Example #2: Lancelot and Elaine (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) The shackles of love straiten'd him His honour rooted in dishonoured stood And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true We clearly notice the use of oxymoron in the phrases "shackles... straiten'd," "honour... dishonor," "faith unfaithful," and "falsely true". Example #3: Petrarch's 134th sonnet (By Sir Thomas Wyatt) I find no peace, and all my war is done I fear and hope, I burn and freeze like ice, I flee above the wind, yet can I not arise; The contradicting ideas of "war ... peace," "burn ... freeze," and "flee above ... not rise" produce a dramatic effect in the above-mentioned lines. Example #4: Essays of Criticism (By Alexander Pope) The bookful blockhead ignorantly read, With loads of learned lumber in his head, With his own tongue still edifies his ears, And always list'ning to himself appears. The above lines provide fine evidence of Pope's witticism. The oxymora "bookful blockhead" and "ignorantly read" describe a person who reads a lot, but does not understand what he reads, and does not employ his reading to improve his character. Example #5: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Shakespeare makes use of oxymora in his plays to develop a paradox. I will bestow him, and will answer well The death I gave him. So, again, good night. I must be cruel, only to be kind: Thus bad begins and worse remains behind. One word more, good lady. In the above lines taken from "Hamlet," Shakespeare draws two contradictory ideas: "be cruel ... to be kind". The contradiction is understood in the context of the play. Hamlet wants to kill Claudius, the murderer of his father, who has married his mother. Hamlet does not want his mother to be the beloved of his father's murderer. Therefore, he is of the view that this murder will purge her. Example #6: Romeo and Juliet , Act I, Scene II (By William Shakespeare) O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face! Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave? Beautiful tyrant! fiond angelical! Dove-feather'd raven! wolvish-ravening lamb! Despised substance of divinest show! Just opposite to what thou justly seem'st; A damned saint, an honourable villain! O, nature! what hadst thou to do in hell When thou didst bower the spirit of a fiend This extract makes use of some good oxymora, such as "damned saint," and "honorable villain," etc. Function of Oxymoron Oxymoron produces a dramatic effect in both prose and poetry. For instance, when we read or hear the famous oxymoron, "sweet sorrow," crafted by Shakespeare, it appeals to us instantly. It provokes our thoughts, and makes us ponder the meaning of contradicting ideas. This apparently confusing phrase expresses the complex nature of love, that can never be expressed through simple words. In everyday conversation, however, people do not use oxymoron to make deep statements like the one above. Instead, they do it to show wit. The use of oxymoron adds flavor to their speech.

Pacing

Pacing is a stylistic device, which shows how fast a story unfolds. It is because when readers feel frustration in the length of the story, the writers use different techniques to control the pace of the story. If he writes a short story, he does not have to tell his tale through many pages, therefore, he cuts away extra words. However, when it is a long story or a novel, the pace is controlled through mix up, which means to use short sentences and active verbs in intense action scenes, and use descriptions with details for slower-paced scenes. Writers use this pace by choosing the exact words. In simple words, pacing is moving a story forward with a certain speed. Elements of Pacing Let us see a few important pacing elements: Action - An action scene dramatizes the significant events of the story and shows what happens in a story. Cliffhanger - When the end of a chapter or scene is left hanging, naturally the pace picks up, because readers would turn the pages to see what happens next. Dialogue - A rapid fire dialogue with lesser or irrelevant information is captivating, swift and invigorates scenes. Word Choice - The language itself is a means of pacing, like using concrete words, active voice, and sensory information. Examples of Pacing in Literature Example #1: Da Vinci Code (by Dan Brown) The most exciting stories use sequences that move forward at different paces, which keep the audience engaged. In his novel, The Da Vinci Code, Dan Brown has accomplished this task by juxtaposing various chapters, featuring dialogues, which convey information about relics, and characters with very fast-paced action sequences. Though the book moves quickly, the chapters move with a leisurely-paced sequence that helps keep the tension in the story high. This all contributes to a well-paced story, without letting the readers feel bored. Example #2: The Most Dangerous Game (by Richard Connell) In his short story, The Most Dangerous Game, Richard Connell creates exciting and tense feelings of anticipation and uncertainty throughout the story. Suspense is the key that makes the story powerful and keeps it fast paced, but the story does not feel rushed. We also do not find a good stopping point anywhere. In fact, every event of the plot is marked by a great moment of suspense. For instance, when Whitney starts the narrative by saying, "Off there to the right - somewhere - is a large island. It's rather a mystery." This gives a hint to the readers that the island is very important, and thereafter the story jumps into resolving the mystery. Example #3: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen) There are various subplots in Jane Austen's novel, Pride and Prejudice, which keep the story of the novel moving. These subplots include the romance between Bingley and Jane, the marriage of Collins and Charlotte, the seduction leading to marriage between Lydia and Wickham, and a major conflict between Wickham and Darcy. Jane Austen also has used letters as a literary device to change the pace of her story through emotional communication. Example #4: The Necklace (by Guy de Maupassant) The most incredible thing about writing is his control over pacing and timing. To capture the superior mentality of Mme. Loisel in his famous story The Necklace, he vividly immerses readers into the reality. Maupassant uses his word choice and pacing to control readers' experience. Then there is a ball invitation, and a necklace ball sequence, where she loses her necklace - a sequence of looking for it, not finding it, and finally buying a brand new one. Then there are ten years of hard living and poverty, which M. Loisel and Mme must confront. In fact, there is a lot to cover in just five or six pages; despite that, the story does not feel rushed or slow. Function of Pacing Pacing is not only the speed at which a story moves, but also a technique, which determines the appeal of the story for the audience. It is because a slow-paced work appeals to older audiences, while a fast-paced work appeals to younger audiences. It is not only fiction writers who use this technique, but poets also employ punctuation and formatting to set pace of their poems. Even they use meter and rhyme to affect the pace. Besides, nonfiction writers use it to keep their work fast-paced to avoid dullness, and slow-paced to give more attention to details.

Parable

Parable is a figure of speech, which presents a short story, typically with a moral lesson at the end. You often have heard stories from your elders, such as The Boy Who Cried Wolf, and All is Vanity. These are parables, because they teach you a certain moral lesson. Parable is, in fact, a Greek word, parable, which means "comparison." It is like a succinct narrative, or a universal truth that uses symbolism, simile, and metaphor, to demonstrate the moral lesson intended to be taught. Like analogy, we find the use of parables in verse and prose, specifically in religious texts, such as the Upanishad or the Bible. Examples of Parable in Literature Example #1: The Cow (From The Holy Quran) The holy Quran narrates a parable in second chapter, Al Baqra 2: 259, in which a man happened to pass through hamlet - a place where people died centuries ago. The man doubted the power of God, and thought of how He would resurrect them on Doomsday. Subsequently, God caused him to die, resurrected him after a hundred years, and asked him how long he slept, to which he replied only a day. However, his food was still fresh, which he brought with him. This shows that God has control over all things and time. The traveler's donkey, on the other hand, was dead and had become a skeleton. Then, God joined the bones, muscles, flesh, and blood of the donkey again before the man, and brought it back to life. Hence, this parable taught us a moral lesson in three ways: God can change time. God has power over life, death, resurrection, and no other can have this power. Humans have no power, and they should put their faith only in God. Example #2: The Good Samaritan (From The Holy Bible) Jesus told a very popular parable of a Good Samaritan in the holy Bible. The Gospel of Luke (10:29-37) describes that there was a traveler (who may have been a Jew), whom some people had robbed and beaten alongside the road, then left him. A Levite and a priest passed through that way, but both ignored the man. Eventually, a Samaritan came by and helped the injured and miserable man, without thinking about his race or religious belief (generally, Samaritans despised Jews). Later, the traveler revealed himself to be the Christ. The moral of this parable is to help all those who are in need, without having prejudice for anyone due to perceived differences. Example #3: The Emperor's New Clothes (By Hans Christian Anderson) Hans Christian Anderson wrote a short parable, "The Emperor's New Clothes. The author tells about the life of a silly and vain emperor, whom two cheaters approached, pretending to be artists. They suggested that he wear their clothes, which they said would make him invisible in front of incompetent and stupid people. The emperor agreed, and paid them to make such clothes, as he enjoyed wearing fancy dress. In fact, they did not make any fancy suit; however, people started admiring them, so that they might not be considered useless and stupid. Therefore, the emperor took off his clothes and wore the invisible dress, which actually left him prancing around town naked. Nobody told him the truth except a young boy who screamed to see him. Thus, the moral of this parable is that people should have their own opinions, and they need not depend upon others' opinions. Example #4: The Prodigal Son (From The Holy Bible, Book of Luke) In the book of Luke (15:11-32), Jesus teaches about the love of God for humanity. In this parable, a rich father divides his estate - while he was still living - between his two sons. His younger son does not want to wait until his father's death for his inheritance, and asks for it immediately. That son wastes the whole of his newfound wealth, and becomes miserable. Realizing he will need his father's help to survive, he returns home to beg to become one of his father's hired servants. Rather than being angry, the father welcomes his wayward son, celebrating his return. The elder son, who had remained with his father the entire time, not wasting his inheritance, was perplexed by this, and refused to take part in the celebration. He said to his father: "Lo, these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make merry with my friends..." The father replies to the eldest son: "Son, thou art ever with me, and all that I have is thine. It was meet that we should make merry, and be glad: for this thy brother was dead, and is alive again; and was lost, and is found." When father dies, he leaves his remaining inheritance for the elder son. The tale conveys the symbolic message that God is like a fatherly figure, who loves humanity despite its rebellious nature, and those who follow His path, are welcomed by Him, even if they have strayed. Function of Parable Parable is a great teaching tool, because it often uses symbolic imagery and metaphors that the audience can easily recognize. Thus, the storyteller can convey complicated moral truths in such a way that they become relatable and understandable to one's own life. Sometimes listeners have to discern the lesson that a parable conveys, and the audience also participates in arriving at the conclusion in this way. Generally, parables help readers understand philosophical issues or moral lessons in relatable terms, while tellers could lead them in a better way to apply such principles in their daily lives.

Realism

Realism is a movement in art, which started in the mid nineteenth century in France, and later spread to the entire world. Realism entered literature at almost at the same time. Its real objective was to root out what is called fantastic and romantic in literature and art, to insert what is real. In literature, writers use realism as a literary technique to describe story elements, such as setting, characters, themes, etc., without using elaborate imagery, or figurative language, such as similes and metaphors. Through realism, writers explain things without decorative language or sugar-coating the events. Realism is something opposite to romanticism and idealism. Read on to learn more about realism in literature. Examples of Realism in Literature Example #1: The Cherry Orchard (by Anton Chekhov ) VARYA. There's been an unpleasantness here while you were away. In the old servants' part of the house, as you know, only the old people live - little old Efim and Polya and Evstigney, and Karp as well ... Then I heard that they were saying that I had ordered them to be fed on peas and nothing else; from meanness, you see. ... So I call Evstigney. ... [Yawns] He comes. "What's this," I say, "Evstigney, you old fool."... [Looks at ANYA] Anya dear! [Pause] ... My darling's gone to sleep!" This monologue looks like a rambling and an idle complaint. However, it reveals many things about Anya, Varya, and their situation at home. It presents a perfect example of social realism, as it exemplifies old feudal order slowly giving way to a rapidly growing mercantile and capitalistic middle class. Example #2: The Rape of the Lock (by Alexander Pope) "The Rape of the Lock" reflects cultural and social realism of the aristocratic society during the eighteenth century. The people of that aristocratic society were mainly urban, with flow of money gained from commerce and trade. They spent a great deal of time in back biting, idle gossip, love games, and playing card games. Pope has presented details of daily routine of such gentle men and women in an amusing way. Belinda and Lord Peter are representatives of that society. Pope describes Belinda's preparation in front of a dressing table in an amusing and ironic way. Many people consider her dressing table a sacred place of worship. He gives minute details of how ladies are concerned to enhance their beauty by artificial methods. Example #3: Adam Bede (by George Eliot) "Adam Bede" is one of the best examples of Victorian literature that aims to highlight social realism. Victorian society was rigid and afflicted with prejudices and bigotry against women. This realism includes the elements of realistic presentation - highlighting the poor people, and reflecting on their problems by setting them in the rural background, and presenting their religious and the moral sense. Social gap was another issue in that society. As in the novel, the remnants of feudalism were still alive in Hayslope society. Hetty belonged to the working class and was madly in love with Arthur Donnithorne, who belonged to a feudal class. This held a certain charm for the people of the working class. She wanted to marry him, to be the wife of an honorable feudal man. However, her fantasy was destroyed, as it lead to a tragic end. This left a deep mark on the psyche of Hayslope inhabitants. Hetty's personal accident suggests the harsh reality of a society that faces two unequal and different classes, as they try to unite due to emotions rather than reason. Example #4: The Crucible (by Arthur Miller) In his play, "The Crucible," Arthur Miller presents realism, which is based on making his character appearing lifelike figures. Miller has created a chain of events to demonstrate iconic realism by using characterization, language, and dialogue. He has chosen a story of human interaction to describe his own concern for the cultural future of the United States, and humanity at large. It is true that the witch trials in Salem actually happened, and people such as Rebecca and John Proctor were killed. The murders of these innocent people have a powerful impact on readers, not because of the author's style, but because of the horrifying subject matter. Miller's use of language is also very powerful, especially where the judges and the accusers twisted ideas and words to create contrasts and paradoxes from which the accused could not escape. This was the reality of life at that time. Function Realism attempts to illustrate life without romantic subjectivity and idealization. It focuses on the actualities of life, and truthfully treats the commonplace characters of everyday life. The purpose of using realism is to emphasize the reality and morality that is usually relativistic and intrinsic for the people as well as the society. This sort of realism makes the readers face reality as it happens in the world, rather than in the make-believe world of fantasy.

Red Herring

Red herring is a kind of fallacy that is an irrelevant topic introduced in an argument to divert the attention of listeners or readers from the original issue. In literature, this fallacy is often used in detective or suspense novels to mislead readers or characters, or to induce them to make false conclusions. Let us consider a simple example of a red herring. A teacher catches a student cheating during a test. The student in response says, "I know I've made a mistake. But think of my parents. They're going to be heartbroken." The student uses a red herring in his response. He tries to appeal to pity to distract his teacher from the real issue. The term red herring literally refers to a kind of dried red fish, which has a pungent smell. In fox hunting, hounds are prevented from catching the fox by distracting them with the strong scent of red herring. Similarly, a person can be stopped from proving his point, or discovering something important, in an argument by distracting him with an irrelevant issue. Common Red Herring Examples Some examples of red herring fallacy in casual conversations are given below: Example 1: Mother: It's bedtime Jane Jane: Mom, how do ants feed their babies? Mother: Don't know dear, close your eyes now. Jane: But mama, do ant babies cry when they're hungry? This conversation shows how a child tries to distract her mother so that she [Jane] can stay awake a little longer. Example 2: There is a lot of commotion regarding saving the environment. We cannot make this world an Eden. What will happen if it does become Eden? Adam and Eve got bored there! The idea of Adam and Eve getting bored in Eden throws the listeners off the real issue of damaging the environment. Examples of Red Herring in Literature Mystery and suspense novels are rich with red herring examples, as writers frequently use them to veil the facts from the readers in order to develop their interest. Example #1: Da Vinci Code (By Dan Brown) The character of Bishop Aringarosa, in Dan Brown's novel Da Vinci Code, serves as an example of a red herring throughout the novel. The character is presented in such a way that the readers suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the church. Later, it is revealed that he is innocent. This example of a red herring in the novel distracts the readers from who the real bad guy is, and thus adds to the mystery of the story. Interestingly, the Italian surname of the bishop "Aringarosa" translates in English as "red herring." Example #2: Sherlock Holmes: Hound of the Baskervilles (By Sir Arthur Conan Doyle) Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes: Hound of the Baskervilles presents a classic example of red herring. The readers are thrown off the real murderer and start suspecting the escaped convict and Barrymore. In the end, however, the mystery is resolved by the unexpected confession of Beryl that her husband Stapleton was the real culprit, and was behind the whole mystery of the killer Hound. Example #3: The Withdrawing Room (By Charlotte Macleod) We observe the killer planting false clues and providing red herrings in Charlotte Macleod's The Withdrawing Room. Augustus Quiffen, a lodger at Sarah's Brownstone home, is killed falling under the train. Seemingly, it was an accident, until Mary Smith tells Sarah that it was a murder, but she cannot identify the murderer. Sarah and Max Bittersohn investigate the matter, and find that the killer had planned the death beforehand, and that he was well-prepared to conceal it with a convincing red herring. Function of Red Herring A red herring is a common device used in mystery and thriller stories to distract the reader from identifying the real culprit. The red herring in a story can take the form of characters that the reader suspect, but who turn out be innocent when the real murderer is identified. It aims at keeping the readers guessing at the possibilities until the end, and therefore keeps them interested in the story. Readers enjoy solving the mysteries created by red herrings in the story. Undoubtedly, it would be difficult to keep the reader's interest, if thrillers exposed the killer from the start. Moreover, for politicians, red herrings come in handy as they use them frequently to dodge difficult questions in a discussion or an argument. They do it by referring to a different issue, which of course is irrelevant, to sidetrack from the original issue under discussion.

Reductio ad Absurdum

Reductio ad absurdum is a Latin term that means "to reduce something to absurdity." It is a figure of speech that is defined as a manner of arguing something for one's own position by showing the absurdity of the position of his opponent. In simple words, it means to reduce an argument to absurdity, by drawing conclusions with logical limits, or by showing ridiculous consequences. Reductio ad absurdum in satires breaks down an idea to the point of absurdity. Difference Between Reductio ad Absurdum and Appeal to Ridicule Reductio ad absurdum examples cannot be used as an appeal to ridicule. Though both devices are extensively used in satire, an appeal to ridicule is the use of ridiculing a situation without arguing or explanation; while, reductio ad absurdum pursues arguments and logical consequences. Examples of Reductio ad Absurdum in Literature Example #1: The Ladies' Dressing Room (By Jonathan Swift) "Five hours, (and who can do it less in?) By haughty Celia spent in dressing; The goddess from her chamber issues, Arrayed in lace, brocades and tissues... Her ointments, daubs, and paints and creams, Her washes, slops, and every clout Such order from confusion sprung, Such gaudy tulips raised from dung." Swift uses reductio ad absurdum as a satirizing technique here. In this case, the purpose is to ridicule the duality of individuals in their private and public spheres. Example #2: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift) "I think it is agreed by all parties, that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the backs, or at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present deplorable state of the kingdom ... cheap and easy method of making these children sound and useful members of the common-wealth, would deserve so well of the publick, as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation." This is one of the more famous examples of reductio ad absurdum in English literature. Here, Swift uses reductio ad absurdum by arguing about social conditions to ridiculous lengths. This highlights a horrific situation of children. Example #3: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) ESTRAGON: "That's the idea, let's ask each other questions ..." "Nothing happens, nobody comes ... nobody goes, it's awful ..." ESTRAGON: "What did we do yesterday?" VLADIMIR: "What did we do yesterday?" ESTRAGON: "Yes." VLADIMIR: "Why ... (Angrily.) Nothing is certain when you're about ... ESTRAGON: "In my opinion we were here." Estragon and Vladimir indulge themselves in useless and aimless activities. They talk, joke, rebuke, question, and argue about the reason of their existence. This excerpt is full of reductio ad absurdum because characters push the conversation to extreme ridicule with argumentations. Example #4: The Republic (By Plato) Polemarchus: "The physician." Socrates: "Or when they are on a voyage, amid the perils of the sea?" Polemarchus: "The pilot." Socrates: "And in what sort of actions or with a view to what result is the just man most able to do harm to his enemy and good to his friends?" Socrates: "But when a man is well, my dear Polemarchus, there is no need of a physician? "No." Socrates: "Then in time of peace, justice will be of no use?" Polemarchus: "I am very far from thinking so ..." Adeimantus: "The strongest point of all has not been even mentioned, he replied." Socrates: "Well, then, according to the proverb, 'Let brother help brother'" Adeimantus: "Nonsense, he replied..." In this extract, Plato argues for justice - that men should be just. By using this technique, he ridicules the questions of other speakers. Adeimantus disagrees to the extreme of absurdity against Glaucon's claims regarding people wanting to be unjust rather than just. Function of Reductio ad Absurdum Reductio ad absurdum makes a situation ridiculous or extremely absurd. Often, it is used to point out the flaws of an original claim that is untenable or false. It was exclusively employed in Greek philosophy. However, later on it was introduced in prose, as well as philosophical and formal mathematical reasoning. Today, it is used mostly in informal debates. The purpose of using this technique is to expose the foolishness and ridiculous attitudes of certain assumptions and behaviors. However, there is a great danger that readers might fail to recognize the objectives clearly.

Solecism

Reductio ad absurdum is a Latin term that means "to reduce something to absurdity." It is a figure of speech that is defined as a manner of arguing something for one's own position by showing the absurdity of the position of his opponent. In simple words, it means to reduce an argument to absurdity, by drawing conclusions with logical limits, or by showing ridiculous consequences. Reductio ad absurdum in satires breaks down an idea to the point of absurdity. Difference Between Reductio ad Absurdum and Appeal to Ridicule Reductio ad absurdum examples cannot be used as an appeal to ridicule. Though both devices are extensively used in satire, an appeal to ridicule is the use of ridiculing a situation without arguing or explanation; while, reductio ad absurdum pursues arguments and logical consequences. Examples of Reductio ad Absurdum in Literature Example #1: The Ladies' Dressing Room (By Jonathan Swift) "Five hours, (and who can do it less in?) By haughty Celia spent in dressing; The goddess from her chamber issues, Arrayed in lace, brocades and tissues... Her ointments, daubs, and paints and creams, Her washes, slops, and every clout Such order from confusion sprung, Such gaudy tulips raised from dung." Swift uses reductio ad absurdum as a satirizing technique here. In this case, the purpose is to ridicule the duality of individuals in their private and public spheres. Example #2: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift) "I think it is agreed by all parties, that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the backs, or at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present deplorable state of the kingdom ... cheap and easy method of making these children sound and useful members of the common-wealth, would deserve so well of the publick, as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation." This is one of the more famous examples of reductio ad absurdum in English literature. Here, Swift uses reductio ad absurdum by arguing about social conditions to ridiculous lengths. This highlights a horrific situation of children. Example #3: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) ESTRAGON: "That's the idea, let's ask each other questions ..." "Nothing happens, nobody comes ... nobody goes, it's awful ..." ESTRAGON: "What did we do yesterday?" VLADIMIR: "What did we do yesterday?" ESTRAGON: "Yes." VLADIMIR: "Why ... (Angrily.) Nothing is certain when you're about ... ESTRAGON: "In my opinion we were here." Estragon and Vladimir indulge themselves in useless and aimless activities. They talk, joke, rebuke, question, and argue about the reason of their existence. This excerpt is full of reductio ad absurdum because characters push the conversation to extreme ridicule with argumentations. Example #4: The Republic (By Plato) Polemarchus: "The physician." Socrates: "Or when they are on a voyage, amid the perils of the sea?" Polemarchus: "The pilot." Socrates: "And in what sort of actions or with a view to what result is the just man most able to do harm to his enemy and good to his friends?" Socrates: "But when a man is well, my dear Polemarchus, there is no need of a physician? "No." Socrates: "Then in time of peace, justice will be of no use?" Polemarchus: "I am very far from thinking so ..." Adeimantus: "The strongest point of all has not been even mentioned, he replied." Socrates: "Well, then, according to the proverb, 'Let brother help brother'" Adeimantus: "Nonsense, he replied..." In this extract, Plato argues for justice - that men should be just. By using this technique, he ridicules the questions of other speakers. Adeimantus disagrees to the extreme of absurdity against Glaucon's claims regarding people wanting to be unjust rather than just. Function of Reductio ad Absurdum Reductio ad absurdum makes a situation ridiculous or extremely absurd. Often, it is used to point out the flaws of an original claim that is untenable or false. It was exclusively employed in Greek philosophy. However, later on it was introduced in prose, as well as philosophical and formal mathematical reasoning. Today, it is used mostly in informal debates. The purpose of using this technique is to expose the foolishness and ridiculous attitudes of certain assumptions and behaviors. However, there is a great danger that readers might fail to recognize the objectives clearly.

Refrain

Refrain is a verse, a line, a set, or a group of lines that appears at the end of stanza, or appears where a poem divides into different sections. It originated in France, where it is popular as, refraindre, which means "to repeat." Refrain is a poetic device that repeats, at regular intervals, in different stanzas. However, sometimes, this repetition may involve only minor changes in its wording. It also contributes to the rhyme of a poem and emphasizes an idea through repetition. Difference Between Refrain, Repetition and Villanelle Refrain is a type of repetition, but it is somewhat different from repetition. Refrain is repetition of usually a line, a phrase, two or three lines, or even words in a poem. Repetition, on the other hand, involves repetition of words, phrases, syllables, or even sounds in a full piece. Another difference is that a refrain in a poem may appear at the end of a stanza; however, this recurrence of words and phrases in repetition may occur in any line of stanza. Villanelle, on the contrary, is a poetic form consisting of nineteen lines that uses refrain in its first and third lines. Short Examples of Refrain in Poetry It is magical, yes, this life that I live Each day it gives something Something it gives each day. It is magical, absolutely magical the life that I live. Once I heard an Angel singing, When the morning was springing Peace Mercy Pity, Is the way world releases, Once I heard an Angel singing. Writing Starting, end Lyrical sounds Effervescent vowels go up Writing starting, end. God will surely show me the way When distressing pain drag me down, And I have nothing to say, I simply cling to this song and pray, God will surely show me the way When there seems no way. On a crowded hill surrounding a mill, Across a shallow stream, nearer they seem, They will be waiting. On a quiet hill near the whining mill, They will be waiting. Thank you God for such a bright day The sweet sunshine smiles everyway. O Cauldron, don't distress For those who put you in trouble, Under the sky, below the heather; Whose bones and blood, now dry and dust, O Cauldron, don't distress. In the heat of gleaming sunlight I'm filled with joy As my thoughts are streaming, Everything is unfolding, revealing. I'm flushed with an illusion That dispels confusion Of everything is unfolding, revealing. Under the shades of tranquility, Take a moment of medication Set aside briefly that compels, Absorb solace Under the shades of tranquility. Why are they here? Where have they come from? What's the purpose behind? Why are they here? Is it possible That nuisance, Should stop converting right into wrong? Is it possible? The tides rise, the tides fall The darkness settles on the walls, The travelers rush towards the town The tides rise, the tides fall. Can't stop my thoughts, No matter how hard I try, Can't block them out. My thoughts are racing Can't block them out. I do see the glory of morning, Such a lovely beauty of flowers please me, I do see the glory of morning. Examples of Refrain in Literature Example #1: One Art (By Elizabeth Bishop) "The art of losing isn't hard to master; so many things seem filled with the intent to be lost that their loss is no disaster... Lose something every day. Accept the fluster of lost door keys, the hour badly spent. The art of losing isn't hard to master though it may look like (Write it!) like disaster." In this example, the poet has repeatedly used the refraining line "The art of losing isn't hard to master" throughout the poem. This refraining line is creating rhythm as well as emphasizing the idea. Notice that this line, though, varies slightly in the final stanza, yet is still considered to be a refrain. Example #2: Annabel Lee (By Edgar Allan Poe) "It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea, That a maiden there lived whom you may know ... I was a child and she was a child, In this kingdom by the sea, But we loved with a love that was more than love — I and my Annabel Lee ..." The poet is using refraining line "In a kingdom by the sea." This appears in the second line of each stanza, and recurs in the final line of the third stanza, drawing readers' attention, and contributing to its meter and rhythm. Example #3: Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night (By Dylan Thomas) "Do not go gentle into that good night, Old age should burn and rave at close of day; Rage, rage against the dying of the light... "And you, my father, there on the sad height, Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray. Do not go gentle into that good night. Rage, rage against the dying of the light." This is very a famous poem using two refrains; one comes in the first line, as "Do not go gentle into that good night"; while second comes in the third line of each stanza. These refrains make the poem catchy and easy to remember. Example #4: Stopping by Woods On a Snowy Evening (By Emily Dickinson) "The woods are lovely, dark, and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." Frost has used refrain in only the last stanza that he repeats twice as "And miles to go before I sleep." It gives rhythm to the poem and lay emphasis on this idea of doing many things before dying. Example #5: Excelsior (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) "The shades of night were falling fast... A banner with the strange device, Excelsior! There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay... A voice fell like a falling star, Excelsior!" The poet makes use of refrain with "Excelsior" throughout the entire poem, creating rhythm and drawing the attention of readers. Example #6: The Properly Scholarly Attitude (By Adelaide Crapsey) "The poet pursues his beautiful theme; The preacher his golden beatitude; ... Of the properly scholarly attitude— The highly desirable, the very advisable, The hardly acquirable, properly scholarly attitude." In the above given poem, Crapsey uses refrain "properly scholarly attitude" to highlight the theme of being a poet having proper scholarly attitude. Example #7: O Captain! My Captain! (By Walt Whitman) "O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up — for you the flag is flung — for you the bugle trills..." The poet uses refrain throughout this poem to emphasize elegiac theme. See the repetition of the words "captain," "rise up," and "for you" in just these two lines. This theme continues throughout. Function of Refrain Refrain is purely a poetic device, and the most important function that a refrain may serve in poetry is to lay emphasis and create rhythm. When a line or phrase recurs in a poem, or a piece of literature, it becomes noticeable to the readers. By using refrain, poets can make their ideas memorable, and draw the attention of the readers toward a certain idea. This is done by using a single line recurrently throughout a poetic work, allowing readers to take a pause each time they come upon such repetition.

Repetition

Repetition is a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer and more memorable. There are several types of repetition commonly used in both prose and poetry. As a rhetorical device, it could be a word, a phrase, or a full sentence, or a poetical line repeated to emphasize its significance in the entire text. Repetition is not distinguished solely as a figure of speech, but more as a rhetorical device. Types of Repetition The following examples of repetition are classified according to the different types of repetition used, both in literature and in daily conversations. Anadiplosis: Repetition of the last word in a line or clause. Anaphora: Repetition of words at the start of clauses or verses. Antistasis: Repetition of words or phrases in opposite sense. Diacope: Repetition of words broken by some other words. Epanalepsis: Repetition of the same words at the beginning and the end of a sentence. Epimone: Repetition of a phrase (usually a question) to stress a point. Epiphora: Repetition of the same word at the end of each clause. Gradatio: A construction in poetry wherein the last word of one clause becomes the first of the next, and so on. Negative-Positive Restatement: Repetition of an idea first in negative terms, and then in positive terms. Polyptoton: Repetition of words of the same root, with different endings. Symploce: A combination of anaphora and epiphora, in which repetition is both at the end and at the beginning. Short Examples of Repetition in Poetry If you think you can do it, you can do it. The boy was a good footballer, because his father was a footballer, and his grandfather was a footballer. The bird said, "I don't sing because I am happy, I am happy because I sing." The politician declared, "We will fight come what may, we will fight on all fronts, we will fight for a thousand years." The judge commanded, stamping his mallet on the table, "Order in the court, order in the court." The refugees were crossing into the neighboring country when they saw blood all around — blood on the passageways, blood on the fields, blood on the When they came out of the cinema hall they all agreed, the film was a waste of money, it was a waste of time and energy. The boy was terrified when he was taken to the hospital; he shuddered at the least sound, and he shuddered at the least breath of air into the room. The president said, "Work, work, and work," are the keys to success. The orator said, "Good morning to the old, good morning to the young, good morning to each and every one present." The team captain reiterated his resolve to win the match, win the tournament, and win the hearts of his people. The general said to his army, "Men — You must fight for the life of your people, your family, and your country." The boss repeated his routine advice, "Don't come late, don't leave early, and don't delay your work." The students chanted to raise the spirits of their team during the match, "We will win, we will win." The new boss says that, in this organization, the wrong person was appointed for the wrong job, following the wrong procedure, but this will not happen again. Examples of Repetition in Literature Example #1: One Art (By Elizabeth Bishop) "The art of losing isn't hard to master; so many things seem filled with the intent to be lost that their loss is no disaster... Lose something every day. Accept the fluster of lost door keys, the hour badly spent. The art of losing isn't hard to master though it may look like (Write it!) like disaster." In this example, the poet has repeatedly used the refraining line "The art of losing isn't hard to master" throughout the poem. This refraining line creates rhythm, and emphasizes the idea. Notice that this line, however, varies slightly in the final stanza, yet is still considered to be a refrain. Example #2: Annabel Lee (By Edgar Allan Poe) "It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea, That a maiden there lived whom you may know ... I was a child and she was a child, In this kingdom by the sea, But we loved with a love that was more than love — I and my Annabel Lee ..." The poet is using the refraining line "In a kingdom by the sea." This appears in the second line of each stanza, and recurs in the final line of the third stanza, drawing readers' attention, and contributing to its meter and rhythm. Example #3: Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night (By Dylan Thomas) "Do not go gentle into that good night, Old age should burn and rave at close of day; Rage, rage against the dying of the light... And you, my father, there on the sad height, Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray. Do not go gentle into that good night. Rage, rage against the dying of the light." This is very a famous poem using repetitions of the refrain, "Do not go gentle into that good night," and "Rage, rage against the dying of the light." These refrains make the poem catchy and easy to remember. Example #4: Stopping by Woods On a Snowy Evening (By Emily Dickinson) "The woods are lovely, dark, and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." Frost has used a repeated refrain in only the last stanza, as he utters, "And miles to go before I sleep." It gives rhythm to the poem, and lays emphasis on this idea of doing many things before dying. Example #5: Excelsior (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) "The shades of night were falling fast... A banner with the strange device, Excelsior! There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay... A voice fell like a falling star, Excelsior!" The poet makes use of refrain "Excelsior!" throughout the entire poem, creating rhythm and drawing the attention of readers. Example #6: The Properly Scholarly Attitude (By Adelaide Crapsey) "The poet pursues his beautiful theme; The preacher his golden beatitude ... Of the properly scholarly attitude— The highly desirable, the very advisable, The hardly acquirable, properly scholarly attitude." In this poem, Crapsey uses the refrain, "properly scholarly attitude" to highlight the theme of being a poet having proper scholarly attitude. Example #7: O Captain! My Captain! (By Walt Whitman) "O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up — for you the flag is flung — for you the bugle trills..." The poet uses refrain throughout this poem to emphasize the mournful theme. See the repetition of the words "captain," "rise up," and "for you" in just these two lines. This theme continues throughout. Example #8: 1940 Speech to House of Commons (By Winston Churchill) "We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender." This is a beautiful example of repetition in prose, where the speaker has repeated "we shall," and "we shall fight" several times. Example #9: I Have a Dream speech (By Martin Luther King, Jr.) "I have a dream that one day down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification - one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. I have a dream today. I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together." In this famous speech by American civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., he repeats the phrase "I have a dream" a number of times. This makes the speech very powerful and memorable. Function of Repetition Refrain is purely a poetic device, and the most important function that a refrain may serve in poetry is to lay emphasis and create rhythm. When a line or phrase recurs in a poem, or a piece of literature, it becomes noticeable to the readers. By using refrain, poets can make their ideas memorable, and draw the attention of readers toward a certain idea. This is done by using a single line recurrently throughout a poetic work, allowing readers to take a pause each time they come upon such repetition.

Rhetoric

Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince, influence, or please an audience. For instance, a person gets on your nerves, you start feeling irritated, and you say, "Why don't you leave me alone?" By posing such a question, you are not actually asking for a reason. Instead, you simply want him to stop irritating you. Thus, you direct language in a particular way for effective communication, making use of rhetoric. A situation where you make use of rhetoric is called a "rhetorical situation." Difference Between Rhetorical Device and Figures of Speech Rhetorical figures or devices are employed to achieve particular emphasis and effect. Rhetorical devices, however, are different from "figures of speech". Wherever and whenever a figure of speech is used in written texts and speech, it alters meanings of words. For example, the metaphor used in the expression "He is a tiger," is a complete altered form of a simple idea "He is brave." Try to compare this example to the use of a rhetorical device in the example below: "I am never ever going to rob anyone for you and never, never ever give in to your sinful wish." The repetition in the above example does lay emphasis on the statement but does not alter the sense of it. Common Rhetoric Examples Below are a few examples on how rhetoric is employed by using various literary devices: How did this idiot get elected? - A rhetorical question to convince others that the "idiot" does not deserve to be elected. Here comes the Helen of our school. - An allusion to "Helen of Troy," to emphasize the beauty of a girl. I would die if you asked me to sing in front of my parents. - A hyperbole to persuade others not to use force to make you do something you don't want to do. All blonds are dumb. - Using a stereotype to develop a general opinion about a group. Nevertheless, the difference between rhetorical devices and figures of speech is so minute that both share many features. A figure of speech becomes a device in rhetoric when it is aimed at persuading the readers or listeners. Examples of Rhetoric in Literature Let us try to analyze the use of rhetoric in some literary works: Example #1: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) John Milton's Paradise Lost has several examples of rhetoric. To quote an example from Book V: "...advise him of his happy state— Happiness in his power left free to will, Left to his own free will, his will though free Yet mutable." The repetition of the phrase "free will" emphasizes the theme of human creation, which is making free choices, but the phrase "yet mutable" creates ambiguity that, despite being free, Adam had to be careful, as a wrong act could make him lose his freedom. Example #2: Death, be not Proud (By John Donne) John Donne addresses death in his Death, be not Proud (Holy Sonnet 10) by saying: "Thou 'art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men, And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell, And poppy 'or charms can make us sleep as well And better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then?" The rhetorical question "why swell'st thou then?" serves to play down the horrific nature of death. He devalues death by calling it a "slave," and that it keeps the despicable company of "poison, war, sickness" and seeks their support. Example #3: Crossing Brooklyn Ferry (By Walt Whitman) We see Walt Whitman in his poem Crossing Brooklyn Ferry use anaphora to create a rhetorical effect: "Flood-tide below me! I watch you, face to face; Clouds of the west! sun there half an hour high! I see you also face to face." Anaphora is a device where the same word or phrase is repeated at regular intervals to achieve a rhetorical effect. Function of Rhetoric Rhetoric, as explained above, is a tool for writers and orators which empowers them to convince their readers and listeners about their point of view. Often, we find rhetoric examples in religious sermons and political speeches. They aim to make comparisons, to evoke tender emotions, to censure rivals, and all this is done to persuade listeners. Advertisers give their ads a touch of rhetoric to boost their sales by convincing people that their product is better than other products in the market. For instance, in an advertisement, a girl - after shampooing her hair with a particular product - says, "I can't stop touching my hair." This is an attempt to entice consumers, through visual rhetoric, to buy this product, in order to have soft and shiny hair like her.

Rhetorical Devices

Rhetorical devices are literary elements used to convince or persuade audiences using logos, pathos, and ethos. Their appropriate use makes the text rich, lifelike and enjoyable in prose and poetry. When carefully inserted, they transform an ordinary piece of writing into a memorable, evocative and pleasant literary work. It is due to these devices the readers feel aligned to the character or the writer. Also, the audiences understand the uniqueness and depth of the text. However, rhetorical devices appeal to one's sensibilities in four ways: logos, pathos, ethos, and kairos. Types of Rhetorical Devices There are many types of rhetorical devices such as: Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds in the first letter of the word in the same line. Antithesis: An antithesis is a figure of speech that refers to the juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas. Anaphora: It refers to the repetition of a word or expression in the first part of some verses. Refrain: The lines that are repeated at some distance in the poems are called refrain. Metaphor: It is a figure of speech in which an implied comparison is made between the objects different in nature. Parallelism: Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that is grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning, or meter. Examples from Literature Example #1 God's Grandeur by Gerard Manley Hopkins "The world is charged with the grandeur of God. It will flame out, like shining from shook foil; It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oil Crushed. Why do men then now not reck his rod? Generations have trod, have trod, have trod; And all is seared with trade; bleared, smeared with toil; And wears man's smudge and shares man's smell: the soil Is bare now, nor can foot feel, being shod." God's Grandeur is a famous poem of the 19th century which illustrates two things: the poet's excitement on the everlasting presence of God and his resentment on the ruination caused by mankind. The first part of the poem deals with Hopkins's feelings about God's presence and his power in the world. While, in the second part, he shows resentment on the approach of a modern man whose excessive alteration in nature has brought destruction in the world. Hopkins has used many rhetorical devices to grab the reader's attention. Parallelism is used in the first stanza where, "And all is seared with trade" is paralleling with "bleared, smeared with toil." Anaphora is used in the fifth line where Hopkins has repeated the words "have trod" to emphasize the ruination caused by men on the earth. He has also used metaphor, assonance consonance and alliteration to create a special effect in the poem. Example #2 A Psalm of Life by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Tell me not, in mournful numbers, Life is but an empty dream! For the soul is dead that slumbers, And things are not what they seem. Life is real! Life is earnest! And the grave is not its goal; Dust thou art, to dust returnest, Was not spoken of the soul. Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, Is our destined end or way; But to act, that each to-morrow Find us farther than to-day. Art is long, and Time is fleeting, And our hearts, though stout and brave, Still, like muffled drums, are beating Funeral marches to the grave. The poem deals with the subject of life and the possibilities it offers to mankind. It also evokes and instructs them to live life at its maximum. He presents a highly optimistic view of life and argues that it is full of chances and opportunities. Therefore, we should try to seek them. Wadsworth has used many rhetorical devices in this poem to present his idea convincingly. For example, allusion is used in the opening line of the poem such as, "Tell me not, in mournful numbers." Here, the numbers refer to the chapters and sections of the Bible. Parallelism device is used in the second stanza where "Life is real" is paralleling "Life is earnest." He has also used assonance, consonance, alliteration, and anaphora in the poem to engage the readers. Example #3 The Second Coming by William Butler Yeats "Surely some revelation is at hand Surely the Second Coming is at hand. The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi Troubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desert A shape with lion body and the head of a man, A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun, Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds. The darkness drops again; but now I know That twenty centuries of stony sleep Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle, And what rough beast, its hour come round at last, Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?" The Second Coming revolves around the political, cultural and spiritual issues. The poet predicts that some kind of "Second Coming" is arriving and that the chaos in the world manifests that the arrival is not so far. To him, the Second Coming would lead humanity to more catastrophes. Yeats has implied plenty of rhetorical devices in the poem to express his fears. For example, he has used hyperbole in the tenth line where it is stated as, "Surely the second coming is at hand," as if he is very much sure about the arrival of the beast. There are many metaphors used in this poem such as, "the falcon" and "the falconer" that stand for the world and the controlling force that directs the humanity and "the rough beast" is also the metaphor of second coming. Functions of Rhetorical Devices Rhetorical devices are used as tools to evoke responses on the reader's part. It provides them an opportunity to understand the emotions, feelings, and ideas of the poet or the writer at a deeper level. Also, using rhetorical devices help writers to sketch a vivid experience for the audience. They also persuade the audiences about the writers' perspectives. They make the texts to be loaded with messages to be conveyed to the r. Use of different rhetorical devices make the objectives of the writers clear to the readers.

Superlative

Superlative is a literary device that is usually an adjective or adverb used to distinguish an object from three or more others of its type. Superlative is used in both literary as well as scientific writing to emphasize certain objects, persons, places, or events, which have unique or extraordinary attributes. The term superlative can only be applied when three or more objects are compared. Superlatives are usually formed by adding the suffix -est to most adjectives and adverbs, or by adding "most" or "least" before them. Some common examples of superlative are given below. My cousin is the tallest among the giants Ellen DeGeneres gave the funniest commencement speech in the history of our university. Which do you suppose is the most difficult language to learn? Superlative and Adjective/Adverb It is important to note here that superlatives should not be confused with comparative adjectives and adverbs. In comparative adjectives or adverbs you compare two objects, while the superlative comparison is between three or more objects. Examples of Superlative in Literature Example #1: King Lear, Act Two, Scene 3 (By William Shakespeare) "While I may scape, I will preserve myself: and am bethought To take the basest and most poorest shape, That ever penury, in contempt of man, Brought near to beast." Just observe the words in bold. Here, the double superlative has been used by Shakespeare. Example #2: Song (By John Donne) "Sweetest Love! I do not go For weariness of thee, Nor in hope the world can shew A fitter love for me..." John Donne employed some of the most beautiful usage of superlatives in his famous poems, such as the one given here: "Sweetest Love." Example #3: A Fever (By John Donne) "Or if when thou, the world's soul, goest It stay,'t is but thy carcase then, The fairest woman but thy ghost, But corrupt worms the worthiest men." The words in bold are two superlative examples. Example #4: I Love You the Purplest (By Barbara M. Joosse) "Mama, who has the most worms?" he asked. Mama smiled. "Max, your can is full of the liveliest worms. And Julian, your can has the juiciest." Barbara M. Joosse has used some beautiful examples of superlatives in her "I Love You the Purplest. Example #5: Subterranean Gothic (By Paul Theroux) "It has the longest rides of any subway in the world, the biggest stations, the fastest trains, the most track, the most passengers, the most police officers. It also has the filthiest trains, the most bizarre graffiti, the noisiest wheels, the craziest passengers, the wildest crimes." Paul Theroux, in "Subterranean Gothic," makes a very interesting use of superlative as can be seen in this paragraph. Example #6: The Anthologist (By Nicholson Baker) "It is turning out to be the most beautiful, most quiet, largest, most generous, sky-vaulted summer I've ever seen or known - inordinately blue, with greener leaves and taller trees than I can remember, and the sound of the lawnmowers all over this valley is a sound I could hum to forever." Another amusing example of superlatives can be found in The Anthologist, by Nicholson Baker, as shown in the above excerpt. Function of Superlative A superlative is used to indicate an extreme or unsurpassed level of emotion, association, or hatred for an object or a person, or even an event. Particularly, in literature it is used to show the best or the worst of something, to add color or romance to a literary piece.

Suspense

Suspense is a literary device that authors use to keep their readers' interest alive throughout the work. It is a feeling of anticipation that something risky or dangerous is about to happen. The purpose of using this type of anxiety in literature is to make readers more concerned about the characters, and to form sympathetic association with them. Therefore, authors create scenarios that could force readers to understand, and to want to read on to see what their beloved characters face the next. Difference Between Suspense and Mystery Mystery and suspense are interrelated. Sometimes it becomes difficult to differentiate between them. For example, the author exposes the same information for his readers in the mystery narrative that a detective may know. In a suspense narrative, on the other hand, the protagonist gradually becomes aware of the peril and dangers, which readers already know. Secondly, in a mystery, a major event such as a murder or robbery happens at first and then the protagonist solves it, whereas in a suspense story, a major event occurs at the end, and various events unfold, twist, turn, and surprise the readers prior to that event. Examples of Suspense in Literature Example #1: Tarzan of the Apes (by Edgar Rice Burroughs) In his novel, Tarzan of the Apes, Edgar Rice Burroughs builds suspense through different verbal clues. Tarzan falls for a girl named Jane, who is carried away by a brutal gorilla. Then, Jane asks, "How can anyone vanquish such a mighty antagonist?" It is quite a surprising question, which informs readers that the gorilla is a very strong and powerful opponent, and that Jane thinks Tarzan has very little chance of besting him. This situation creates suspense in Tarzan's life, pushing readers to keep reading the story to find out what Tarzan and Jane are going to face in their lives. Example #2: Othello (by William Shakespeare) An author may also use dramatic irony to create suspense in his work. Dramatic irony occurs when readers or audiences know something that characters do not. This is exactly what Shakespeare has done in "Othello" in which malevolent Iago plays the role of a villain who creates jealousy in Othello, to destroy his life and career by convincing him that his wife is deceitful. The readers know that Othello's wife is not guilty, and that Iago has wicked intentions toward Othello. However, Othello is ignorant of this fact. Throughout the play, readers feel curious and worried, because they know that Iago is making a fool of Othello. This creates suspense for readers and members of the audience, encouraging them to continue reading and watching, as they are eager to know if Othello gets out of Iago's trap or not. Example #3: Sharp Objects (by Gillian Flynn) The novel, Sharp Objects, is a chilling story of a Chicago-based journalist, Camille Preaker, who comes from a family with a dead sister, a troubled mother, and an irritable stepsister. The suspense starts when Camille's boss asks her to go to her hometown in Missouri, to cover the story of a local girl who had been brutally murdered. During her trip home, a series of suspicious murders occurs. As the story unravels, Camille discovers the real source of evil is close to her beloved home. Example #4: Twilight (by Stephenie Meyer) Twilight falls under the categories of suspense, romance, and horror. Bella falls in love with a mysterious and handsome boy, Edward Cullen. She learns that Edward is a vampire who, unlike other vampires, does not drink human blood, but that of animal. It is an exquisite fantasy and suspense story in which readers discover these two star-crossed lovers. Edward has a difficult time controlling the blood lust Bella arouses in him, because, after all, he is a vampire. At any time, Edward's blood hunger could drive him to kill Bella. This leaves him in a constant state of anxiety over the danger. While a sadistic vampire, James, draws towards Bella, hunting her down, Edward and his other family members defend her. Looking for protection, Bella leaves for Phoenix, Arizona, but James tricks her, and tries to murder her. Though Edward saves her, Bella is wounded. Function Suspense ensures the interest of readers by putting them on the edges of their seats, waiting for what's next. If an author does this well, suspense continues to increase gradually until the climax, or the turning point, and final confrontation is reached. Writers and authors use suspense to create empathy with their readers, by giving their characters internal struggles with which readers can identify. Readers feel apprehension for their beloved characters whenever they are in danger.

Syllogism

Syllogism is a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general, and from this it draws a conclusion about something more specific. Let us try to understand the concept with the help of an example. We start with a general argument "All men are mortal." We know that John is a man, so John is mortal. It is a deductive approach to reason, and is based on deducing specific conclusions from general facts. We notice in the above example that syllogism is a three-part set of statements: a major statement or premise a minor statement or premise a conclusion that is deduced Therefore, "All men are mortal" is a major statement or premise, which stands as a general fact. "John is a man" is minor statement or premise that is specific, and "John is mortal" is the logical conclusion deduced from the two prior statements. Syllogism and Enthymeme Syllogism takes the form of enthymeme when it is compressed. Enthymeme combines the minor premise and the conclusion, omitting the major statement. For instance, a syllogism "All dogs are canine. Tommy is a dog. Therefore, Tommy is a canine," can be compressed in an enthymeme as "Tommy is a canine because it is a dog." The major premise remains implied or hidden. Syllogism Fallacy Syllogism may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd. For instance, "All crows are black, and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow." This is a false argument, as it implies a conclusion that "all blackbirds are crows," which is incorrect. It is known as "syllogism fallacy." Another example of syllogism fallacy is "Some televisions are black and white, and all penguins are black and white. Therefore, some televisions are penguins." You can easily see that the conclusion is practically impossible, and in fact has a comical outcome. Examples of Syllogism in Literature There are numerous examples of syllogism or coming-of-age novels in English literature. Let us briefly analyze a few: Example #1: Timon of Athens (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare employs this rhetorical device in his play Timon of Athens, Act 4, scene 3: Flavius: "Have you forgot me, sir?" Timon: "Why dost ask that? I have forgot all men; Then, if thou grant'st thou'rt a man, I have forgot thee." Timon uses a witty syllogism to tell Flavius that he must have forgotten him like he has forgotten all other men. It can be expanded in a three-set argument as: "I usually do forget, as I have forgotten everyone. Therefore, I have forgotten you as well." Example #2: To his Coy Mistress (By Andrew Marvell) Poetry is known for its passion and not reason, but we find syllogistic argument in Andrew Marvell's poem To his Coy Mistress. The poet says to his bashful beloved: "Had we but world enough, and time. This coyness, Lady, were no crime." It implies a general truth that life is short and man is mortal. They do not have enough time to love, and cannot waste it in display of coyness. Likewise, he and his darling may separate eternally before their union in this world is established. Therefore, he says: "But at my back I always hear Time's wingèd chariot hurrying near;" and speaks to his beloved, with the conclusion that they should avail themselves of the time they have: "Thy beauty shall no more be found... Now let us sport us while we may," Example #3: Elegy 2 The Anagram (By John Donne) Compressed syllogism is found in famous metaphysical poet John Donne's Elegy 2 The Anagram: "All love is wonder; if we justly do Account her wonderful, why not lovely too?" If we expand the above syllogism, it will have the following organization of statements: All that is lovable is wonderful, and the mistress is wonderful. Therefore, the mistress is lovable. Function of Syllogism In logic, syllogism aims at identifying the general truths in a particular situation. It is a tool in the hands of a speaker or a writer to persuade the audience or the readers, as their belief in a general truth may tempt them to believe in a specific conclusion drawn from those truths. In literature, syllogism can contribute to add wit to the statements. Moreover, syllogism fallacy may give us an opportunity to enjoy nonsensical conclusions.

Symbolism

Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense. Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing another, to give an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more significant. Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word spoken by someone may have a symbolic value. For instance, "smile" is a symbol of friendship. Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you. Symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in. "A chain," for example, may stand for "union" as well as "imprisonment". Thus, symbolic meaning of an object or an action is understood by when, where, and how it is used. It also depends on who reads the work. Common Examples of Symbolism in Everyday Life In our daily life, we can easily identify objects that can be taken as examples of symbolism, such as the following: The dove is a symbol of peace. A red rose, or the color red, stands for love or romance. Black is a symbol that represents evil or death. A ladder may stand as a symbol for a connection between heaven and earth. A broken mirror may symbolize separation. Short Examples of Symbolism in Sentences Ching Chua gave his wife a red rose. (In Chinese culture, the color red symbolizes property and happiness.) David stopped his car at the red signal. (In other cultures, the color red is symbol of blood, passion, and danger.) Rebels raised a white flag to negotiate. (During war, the color white symbolizes making peace with the enemy. Otherwise, it represents purity and life.) The Red Cross is working around the world. (The symbol of the cross represents Christianity, and the red cross in particular represents aid in times of need.) The Muslim forces raised their flag with a crescent on it. (The crescent moon represents Islam.) He turned green when found a wallet. (Green color is often associated with greed, jealousy, and monetary affairs.) They dressed in black to the funeral of their friend. (The color black is associated with death.) The yellow boat turned into the channel, to make the tourists happy. The color yellow color is the symbol of deterioration and infidelity, as well as the symbol of freshness and happiness.) He was disappointed when the mirror broke. (Broken mirror is an symbol of separation.) He gave a red rose to his wife on Valentine Day. (Red rose is a symbol for love.) He, after a long time, saw a silver lining in the shape of the arrival of his brother. (Silver edge/lining of clouds symbolize hope and optimism.) You have a sixth sense like an owl. (Owl symbolizes wisdom.) You work like an ox. (The ox symbolizes hard work and stamina.) When he saw a bat in dream, he grew white with fear. (Bats are the symbol of death.) Examples of Symbolism in Literature To develop symbolism in his work, a writer utilizes other figures of speech, like metaphors, similes, and allegory, as tools. Some symbolism examples in literature are listed below with brief analysis: Example #1: As you Like It (By William Shakespeare) We find symbolic value in Shakespeare's famous monologue in his play As you Like It: "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; they have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts," These lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in the course of their lives, perform different roles. "A stage" here symbolizes the world, and "players" is a symbol for human beings. Example #2: Ah Sunflower (By William Blake) William Blake goes symbolic in his poem Ah Sunflower. He says: "Ah Sunflower, weary of time, Who countest the steps of the sun; Seeking after that sweet golden clime Where the traveler's journey is done;" Blake uses a sunflower as a symbol for human beings, and "the sun" symbolizes life. Therefore, these lines symbolically refer to their life cycle and their yearning for a never-ending life. Example #3: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights presents almost every character, house, surroundings, and events in a symbolic perspective. The word "Wuthering," which means "stormy," represents the wild nature of inhabitants. The following lines allow us to look into the symbolic nature of two characters: "My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I'm well aware, as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but necessary." The phrase "foliage of leaves" for is a symbol for Linton's fertile and civilized nature. On the contrary, Heathcliff is likened to an "eternal rock," which symbolizes his crude and unbendable nature. Example #4: Wild Asters (By Sara Teasdale) Sara Teasdale in her poem Wild Asters develops a number of striking symbols: "In the spring, I asked the daisies If his words were true, And the clever, clear-eyed daisies Always knew. Now the fields are brown and barren, Bitter autumn blows, And of all the stupid asters Not one knows." In the above lines, "spring" and "daisies" are symbols of youth. "Brown and barren" are symbols of transition from youth to old age. Moreover, "Bitter autumn" symbolizes death. Example #5: The Rain (By William H. Davies) "I hear leaves drinking rain; I hear rich leaves on top Giving the poor beneath Drop after drop; Tis a sweet noise to hear These green leaves drinking near." In this beautiful poem, William Davies who has used the symbol of rain to show the different classes of society. He does this by describing the way the upper leaves benefit from the rain first, and then hand down the rest to the lower leaves. The same way, rich people pass on the leftover benefits to the poor people. Example #6: My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold (By William Wordsworth) "My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began; So is it now I am a man; So be it when I shall grow old, ..." In this poem, the poet uses rainbow as a symbol of hope and general wellbeing throughout his life. Example #7: XXIII, Crossing Alone the Nighted Ferry (By A. E. Housman) "Crossing alone the nighted ferry With the one coin for fee, Whom, on the wharf of Lethe waiting, Count you to find? Not me." The poet has used the symbol of a river to represent life and the past memories associated with it. Function of Symbolism Symbolism gives a writer freedom to add double levels of meanings to his work: a literal one that is self-evident, and the symbolic one whose meaning is far more profound than the literal. Symbolism, therefore, gives universality to the characters and the themes of a piece of literature. Symbolism in literature evokes interest in readers as they find an opportunity to get an insight into the writer's mind on how he views the world, and how he thinks of common objects and actions, having broader implications.

Syncope

Syncope is a literary device that can be defined as the contraction or the shortening of a word by omitting sounds, syllables or letters from the middle of the word, such as bos'n for the word "boatswain." Similarly, ne'er for the word "never," and fo'c'sle' for the word "forecastle" are also used. From these examples, syncope can also be defined as the dropping of the unstressed vowels, letters, or syllables, or dropping the consonants from the middle of a word. It can be found in synchronic analysis and diachronic analysis of languages. Uses of Syncope 1. As a Poetic Device Syncope is mainly used in poetry, when poets desperately want to avoid a single syllable from a word to harmonize the meter in each line. However, syncope can be found in drama and in prose as well. 2. Used in Informal Speech Syncope is also used in informal speech. For instance, different kinds of colloquial contractions may also be called syncope. Examples of Syncope in Literature Poetic contractions are often found in English verse, from the Restoration period to the end of the 18th century. Poets and writers use syncope to produce rhetorical effects in literature. Let's take a look at some examples from literary texts to understand syncope. Example #1: The Deserted Village (By Oliver Goldsmith) In the 18th century, contractions were signified typographically by using apostrophes, such as in this example: "For talking age and whisp'ring lovers made! Ill fares the land, to hast'ning ills a prey, And his last falt'ring accents whisper'd praise." Example #2: The World Is Too Much with Us (By William Wordsworth) "The road extended o'er the heath Weary and bleak: no cottager had there Won from the waste a rood of ground, no hearth Of Traveller's half-way house with its turf smoke Scented the air through which the plover wings His solitary flight." Here, Wordsworth necessarily contracts the word over into "o'er," for the sake of rhyme, and to give the lines a colloquial feel. Example #3: A Lover's Complaint (By William Shakespeare) "This said, his wat'ry eyes he did dismount, Whose sights till then were levell'd on my face, Each cheek a river running from a fount, With brinish current downward flowe'd a pace..." The best examples of syncope can be seen in Shakespeare's poetry. Here, Shakespeare made use of syncope in these words: wat'ry for "watery," levell'd for "levelled," and flowe'd for "flowered." The contractions have been used to keep the metrical rhythm the same in each line. Example #4: Cymbeline (By William Shakespeare) "...Thou thy worldly task hast done, Home art gone and ta'en thy wages..." Further he says, "I would thou grew'st unto the shores o' the haven, And question'dst every sail: if he should write And not have it, 'twere a paper lost, As offer'd mercy is. What was the last That he spake to thee?" The words ta'en for "taken," grew'st, question'dst, and offer'd have been used as syncope to rhyme the poem. Function of Syncope The syllables or letters are mostly deleted from the center of words in speech to speed up the conversation, or to balance the rhythmical pattern of the poetic verse. The purpose is to create a rhetorical effect for embellishment and meter. However, in poetry and stylized prose it is generally used to modify the word sound. Either single letters or complete syllables are removed from a word with the insertion of an apostrophe -this makes it easy to read, and perfects the metrical rhythm. Generally, it was a fashion during the Chaucerian age, and more so during the Elizabeth age, when erudite people used it in their writings to embellish the piece, and to create artistic effect in the readers' minds. However, sometimes it comes into view as a rustic style, and is therefore used as a literary device to differentiate simple country folk. Some dialects and languages make more use of syncope than others, such as the Scots.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole, or it may use a whole to represent a part. Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups, or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material it is made of, or it may refer to a thing in a container or packaging by the name of that container or packing. Difference Between Synecdoche and Metonymy Synecdoche examples are often misidentified as metonymy (another literary device). While they resemble one another to some extent, they are not the same. Synecdoche refers to the whole of a thing by the name of any one of its parts. For example, calling a car "wheels" is a synecdoche because a part of the car, its "wheels," stands for the whole car. However, in metonymy, the word used to describe a thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not necessarily a part of it. For example, using the word "crown" to refer to power or authority is a metonymy, used to replace the word "king" or "queen." Synecdoche Examples from Everyday Life It is very common to refer to a thing by the name of its parts. Let us look at some of the examples of synecdoche that we often hear in casual conversations: The word "bread" refers to food or money, as in "Writing is my bread and butter," or "He is the sole breadwinner." The phrase "gray beard" refers to an old man. The word "sails" refers to a whole ship. The word "suit" refers to a businessman. The word "boots" usually refers to soldiers. The term "coke" is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks. "Pentagon" is a synecdoche when it refers to a few decision makers. The word "glasses" refers to spectacles. Examples of Synecdoche in Literature Example #1: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge) "The western wave was all a-flame. The day was well was nigh done! Almost upon the western wave Rested the broad bright Sun" The "western wave" is a synecdoche, as it refers to the sea by the name of one of its parts, a wave. Example #2: Sonnet 116 (By William Shakespeare) "O no! It is an ever-fixed mark That looks on tempests and is never shaken." The phrase "ever-fixed mark" refers to a lighthouse. Example #3: Ozymandias (By Percy Bysshe Shelly) "Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, The hand that mocked them." "The hand" in these lines refers to the sculptor, who carved the "lifeless things" into a grand statue. Example #4: The Secret Sharer (By Joseph Conrad) "At midnight I went on deck, and to my mate's great surprise put the ship round on the other tack. His terrible whiskers flitted round me in silent criticism." The word "whiskers" mentioned in the above lines refers to the whole face of the narrator's mate. Example #5: The Description of the Morning (By Jonathan Swift) "Prepar'd to scrub the entry and the stairs. The youth with broomy stumps began to trace." In the above lines, the phrase "broomy stumps" refers to the whole broom. Example #6: The Lady or the Tiger? (By Frank R. Stockton) "His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces about her." "Faces" refers to people, not just their faces. Function of Synecdoche Literary symbolism is developed by the writers who employ synecdoche in their literary works. By using synecdoche, writers give otherwise common ideas and objects deeper meanings, and thus draw readers' attention. Furthermore, the use of synecdoche helps writers to achieve brevity. For instance, saying "The soldiers were equipped with steel" is more concise than saying "The soldiers were equipped with swords, knives, daggers, and arrows." Like any other literary device, synecdoche when used appropriately adds a distinct color to words, making them appear vivid. To insert this "life" factor to literary works, writers describe simple ordinary things creatively with the aid of this literary device.

Synesis

Synesis is a conventional grammatical term derived from a Greek word that means unification, sense, meeting, or realization. It is a rhetorical device in which the traditional grammatical agreement of syntax is replaced by an agreement in its sense. In other words, synesis is a grammatical construction that is in agreement with the sense instead of the strict syntax. It is used to highlight the words' construction according to the sense not its morphosyntactic form. Such as: "Fat, drunk, and stupid is no way to go through life, son." (Animal House by Harold Ramis, Douglas Kenney, and Chris Miller) Types of Synesis Kinesthetic imagery is further divided into two categories: Notional concord or notional agreement is one type of grammatical agreement in which the agreement is made with the meaning of a noun instead of complying with a strict syntactic requirement. Situational agreement involves the singular and the plural forms of a word being the same. Its singularity or plurality depends upon the interpretation or intentional emphasis of the writer or speaker. Difference Between Synesis and Anacoluthon Synesis is a kind of anacoluthon, which is a syntactic interruption. Though both are anti-grammatical constructions but are different. It is because synesis is used to highlight the word construction according to their sense rather than grammatical form. For example: "Among the growing numbers of men seeking his services, a significant proportion are spurred to do so by female voices..." (Europe's Extraordinary Makeover, by Catherine Mayer) On the other hand, anacoluthon is the disruption in the grammatical flow of the words, by beginning another sentence immediately. Such as: "A plank that was dry was not disturbing the smell of burning and altogether there was the best kind of sitting there could never be all the edging that the largest chair was having...." (A Portrait of Mabel Dodge, by Gertrude Stein) Examples of Synesis in Literature Example #1: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) "What's the use you learning to do right, when it's troublesome to do right and it ain't no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?" In these lines, the writer uses the plural form of "wage," with the auxiliary verb "is," which is syntactically wrong. However, the agreement of the words is made in accordance with the sense, which is to say it is singular in a sense, but plural in form. Example #2: 1984 (By George Orwell) "For, after all, how do we know that two and two make four? Or that the force of gravity works? Or that the past is unchangeable? If both the past and the external world exist only in the mind, and if the mind itself is controllable - what then?" In this excerpt, the grammatical construction of the words "two and two make four," which should be "makes" instead of "make." The arrangement is not made in morphosyntactic form. Instead, the words are arranged according to their logic. Example #3: Wagner's Parsifal (By Charles D. Warner) "Most of the audience were standing, and the house was in a buzz of conversation and expectation." Here, the word "audience" takes the number with the word "was" because with this auxiliary verb, it regularly agrees grammatically. However, it is in harmony with "were," which is correct logically and not grammatically. Example #4: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) "I will have such revenges on you both, That all the world shall-I will do such things, What they are, yet I know not..." In this passage, Shakespeare uses "revenges" in the sentence, which is plural in sense. It is logically true, but syntactically wrong. Function of Synesis Synesis is commonly used in writing as a deliberate effect. Often it is employed in dramatic monologues, prose, and poetry. Synesis is frequently used in the stream of consciousness style of writing, since it is a basic feature of informal thoughts. Apart from that, the most important function of synesis is to draw the attention of readers by allowing them to stop and consider the underlying meaning. Usually, it causes confusion in the minds of readers, and makes them comprehend the purpose of construction of words according to their logic, rather than grammatical form. Synesis is widely used in media and political public speeches.

Syntax

Syntax is a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought. Syntax and Diction Syntax and diction are closely related. Diction refers to the choice of words in a particular situation, while syntax determines how the chosen words are used to form a sentence. More often than not, adopting a complex diction means a complex syntactic structure of sentences, and vice versa. In combination, syntax and diction help writers develop tone, mood, and atmosphere in a text, along with evoking readers' interest. Examples of Syntax in Literature Syntax in Poetry The general word order of an English sentence is Subject+Verb+Object. In poetry, however, the word order may be shifted to achieve certain artistic effects, such as producing rhythm or melody in the lines, achieving emphasis, and heightening connection between two words. The unique syntax used in poetry makes it different from prose. Let us consider the following examples of syntax: Example #1: Beyond Decoration (By P. J. Kavanagh) In casual conversations, we can simply say, "I cannot go out" to convey our inability to go out. P. J. Kavanagh's poem Beyond Decoration does not rely on merely stating a prosaic "I cannot go out." Rather, he shifts the syntax and says "Go out I cannot," which lays a much stronger emphasis on the inability to go out conveyed by the word "cannot." Example #2: Lycidas (By John Milton) Similarly, John Milton shifts words in his poems frequently. Let us analyze lines from his poem Lycidas: "Thee, Shepherd, thee the woods and desert caves, With wild thyme and the gadding vine o'ergrown, And all their echoes mourn" The modified word order in the above lines is Object+Subject+Subject Complement+Verb. Syntax in Prose Syntax affects the nature of a prose text as well. It enhances its meanings, and contributes toward its tone. Quickness, decisiveness, and speed are added to a text by using short phrases, clauses, and sentences. Whereas, in a text where the subject matter is serious, requiring contemplation, long, convoluted sentences are used to slow down the pace of a prose text. The two syntax examples below show a distinct use of syntax: Example #3: The Joy Luck Club (By Amy Tan) "That night I sat on Tyan-yu's bed and waited for him to touch me. But he didn't. I was relieved." Here, Amy Tan uses short sentences to communicate in a powerful and concise manner. Example #4: A Farewell to Arms (By Ernest Hemingway) "They left me alone and I lay in bed and read the papers awhile, the news from the front, and the list of dead officers with their decorations and then reached down and brought up the bottle of Cinzano and held it straight up on my stomach, the cool glass against my stomach, and took little drinks making rings on my stomach from holding the bottle there between drinks, and watched it get dark outside over the roofs of the town." Ernest Hemingway uses long and complex structures to emphasize the laziness of his character. Syntax in Shakespeare Writing all of his plays and sonnets in iambic pentameter, Shakespeare habitually reversed the general order of English sentences by placing verbs at the ends of the sentences. Example #5: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "What light from yonder window breaks?" Instead of using the common expression, "What light breaks from yonder window," Shakespeare emphasized his meaning by using different syntax. Example #6: Richard III (By William Shakespeare) In Richard III, Shakespeare deliberately reverses the word order of a sentence, turning a common description: "And all the clouds that lowered upon our house buried in the deep bosom of the ocean," into: "And all the clouds that lower'd upon our house in the deep bosom of the ocean buried." Function of Syntax To convey meaning is one of the main functions of syntax. In literature, writers utilize syntax and diction to achieve certain artistic effects, like mood, and tone. Like diction, syntax aims to affect the readers as well as express the writer's attitude.

Tautology

Tautology is the repetitive use of phrases or words that have similar meanings. In simple words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea, or saying, two or more times. The word tautology is derived from the Greek word tauto, meaning "the same," and logos, meaning "a word or an idea." A grammatical tautology refers to an idea repeated within a phrase, paragraph, or sentence to give an impression that the writer is providing extra information. Tautologies are very common in the English language due to the large variety of words it has borrowed from other languages. Given the fact that, during its evolution, the English language has been greatly influenced by several other languages - including Germanic and Latin - it is not uncommon to find several exotic tautologies. This is how tautologies can often be found in English poetry and prose. Types of Tautology There are several types of tautology that are commonly used in everyday life, in poetry, in prose, in songs, and in discussions, depending on the requirements of a situation. Some of the common categories include: Repetitive words used due to inadequacies in the language Intentional ambiguities Derision Poetic device Psychological significance Speech by inept speaker or narrator Examples of Tautology in Literature Tautology is often confused with repetition. Some authorities say repetition uses the same words, while tautology uses words with similar meanings. That tautology is the repetition - not of words, but of ideas. Others say there is no clear distinction between the two, that tautology includes the repetition of words. To understand this better, read the following examples of Tautology. Example #1: "Your acting is completely devoid of emotion." Devoid is defined as "completely empty." Thus, completely devoid is an example of tautology. Example #2: "Repeat that again," and "reiterate again." To repeat or reiterate something is to do or say it again. Example #3: Shout It Out Loud! (By Kiss) "Shout it, shout it, shout it out loud!" When a person shouts, it is always aloud. Example #4: (By Yogi Berra) "This is like deja vu all over again" (Yogi Berra) The term déjà vu means to have a feeling of having previously done or experienced something, or to be doing it all over again. "Déjà vu all over again" is an example of tautology. Example #5: The Wasteland (By T. S. Eliot) The emphatic function of tautology reveals itself in the example given below: "To Carthage then I came Burning burning burning burning." Thomas Stern Eliot shows the emphatic function of tautology, using the word "burning" repeatedly in the same line. Example #6: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) In some excerpts, tautology is used intentionally that involves derision inherent in it. Polonious: "What do you read, my lord?" Hamlet: "Words, words, words." Here Hamlet has used words in order to show that he is lost in words that Polonius is famous in using. Example #7: The Bells (By Edgar Allen Poe) "Keeping time, time, time, In a sort of Runic rhyme... From the bells, bells, bells, bells." Example #8: The Wasteland (By T. S. Eliot) "Twit twit twit/ Jug jug jug jug jug jug" Example #9: The Hollow Men (By T. S. Eliot) "This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends This is the way the world ends Not with a bang but a whimper." Here, different types of tautologies have been used in a technical way of repetition, which dominates others, such as figures of speech, imitation, and ornamentation. All of above examples might appear in the daily use of language, and also as poetic devices. Example #10: The Holy Bible (By Various Authors) Unlike the artistic inspiration built into the preceding types of redundancy, here are a couple of tautology examples with psychological implications. The speakers show the acceptance of their destiny in these types of repetition: "If I perish, I perish." (Esther 4:15) "If I be bereaved (of my children), I am bereaved." (Genesis 43:14) Function of Tautology The importance of tautology cannot be denied in modern literary writing. Today, however, writers try to avoid using tautological words and phrases to avoid monotony and repetition. It has almost become a norm to present short and to-the-point language instead of repetitious and redundant phrases. Despite it being counted as a major style error, several writers commonly use tautology as a powerful tool to emphasize a particular idea, or to draw their readers' attention to a certain aspect of life. But it is not always taken as a quality of poor grammar; rather it has been taken as a specific rhetorical device.

Foot

The literary device "foot" is a measuring unit in poetry, which is made up of stressed and unstressed syllables. The stressed syllable is generally indicated by a vertical line ( | ), whereas the unstressed syllable is represented by a cross ( X ). The combination of feet creates meter in poetry. Later, these meters are joined for the composition of a complete poem. Therefore, a foot is the formative unit of the meter. In poetry, there are various types of foot, each of which sounds differently. Some of the basic types of foot are given below: Iamb: Combination of unstressed and stressed syllable - (daDUM) Trochee: Combination of stressed and unstressed syllables - (DUMda) Spondee: Combination of two stressed syllables - (DUMDUM) Anapest: Combination of two unstressed and a stressed syllable - (dadaDUM) Dactyl: Combination of stressed and two unstressed syllables - (DUMdada) Amphibrach: Combination of unstressed, stressed and unstressed syllable - (daDUMda) Pyrrhic: Combination of two unstressed syllables - (dada) There are two types of meter, which are known as rising meter and falling meter. Each type of meter uses a different type of foot. As the rising meters go from unstressed syllables to stressed ones, they mainly use iamb and anapest feet. On the contrary, the falling meters go from stressed syllables to unstressed ones, and mostly use trochee and dactyl feet. Examples of Foot in Literature Example #1: Twelfth Night (By William Shakespeare) "If music be the food of love, play on; Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting, The appetite may sicken, and so die. That strain again! it had a dying fall; O, it came o'er my ear like the sweet sound." This stanza is taken from William Shakespeare's well known play, Twelfth Night. It has been composed in iambic pentameter. To make it easy to understand the unstressed and stressed combination of syllables, the stressed syllables are given in bold font. Example #2: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) "And my poor fool is hang'd! No, no, no life! Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life, And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more, Never, never, never, never, never! Pray you, undo this button: thank you, sir. Do you see this? Look on her, look, her lips, Look there, look there ...!" This is yet another extract from Shakespeare's another great play, King Lear. It is an appropriate example of trochaic pentameter. This has the combination of a stressed and unstressed syllable pattern - a pattern opposite to iambic. Example #3: The Destruction of Sennacherib (By Lord Byron) "The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. Like the leaves of the forest when Summer is green, That host with their banners at sunset were seen: Like the leaves of the forest when Autumn hath blown, ... For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast ... And their hearts but once heaved, and forever grew still!" This is a selection from Lord Byron's poem, The Destruction of Sennacherib. It is one of the best examples of anapestic pattern of foot. In particular, it follows a tetrameter pattern, which consists of four anapests in a line. In this selection, anapests have been made bold. This entire poem follows the similar pattern. In each foot, two syllables are unstressed, while the third syllable is stressed. Example #4: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred, Lord Tennyson) "Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. 'Forward, the Light Brigade! "Charge for the guns!' he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred." These lines have been taken from Lord Alfred Tennyson's well known poem, The Charge of the Light Brigade. It is an excellent example of the of use dactyl pentameter. The dactyl follows a pattern of stressed, unstressed, and again unstressed syllables. As it is an elegiac poem, it uses dactyl pentameter, which suits elegies. The meter in this verse functions like a building block and provides a regular rhythm. Function of Foot The function of foot is to provide the basic structure for the meter in a verse. As it is based on the combination of either two or three syllables, this combination creates musical rhythm. Therefore, it is the use of feet that brings rhythm to poetry - the reason that poetry is differentiated from prose. Without the repetition of a particular foot in a verse, poetry would be no different from prose, as the important elements of rhythm and musical quality will be missing in the absence of feet.

Euphony

The literary device euphony is derived from the Greek word euphonos, which means "sweet-voiced." It can be defined as the use of words and phrases that are distinguished as having a wide range of noteworthy melody or loveliness in the sounds they create. It gives pleasing and soothing effects to the ear due to repeated vowels and smooth consonants. It can be used with other literary devices like alliteration, assonance and rhyme to create more melodic effects. Examples of euphony are commonly found in poetry and literary prose. Features of Euphony All euphony examples share the following features: Euphony involves the use of long vowel sounds, which are more melodious than consonants. Euphony involves the use of harmonious consonants, such as l, m, n, r, and soft f and v sounds. Euphony uses soft consonants or semi-vowels, including w, s, y, and th or wh, extensively to create more pleasant sounds. Examples of Euphony in Literature Example #1: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats) "Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch -eves run; To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees, And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells With a sweet kernel; to set budding more, And still more, later flowers for the bees..." There are many different words and phrases that can create euphony. However, in the given piece, Keats has used euphony in the whole poem, which gives soothing and pleasing effects. Long vowel sounds like mellow, maturing, load, ripeness, and semi-vowel sounds, like s and w, are exquisitely used. Example #2: Success (By Emily Dickinson) "Success is counted sweetest By those who ne'er succeed. To comprehend a nectar Requires sorest need. Not one of all the purple host Who took the flag to-day Can tell the definition, So clear, of victory, As he, defeated, dying, On whose forbidden ear The distant strains of triumph Break, agonized and clear!" In this poem, Emily Dickinson has used soft and harmonious consonants to create euphony. For example, s, v, and f sounds run throughout the poem. Such words are melodic in nature, hence they produce pleasing sounds. Example #3: The Lotos-Eaters (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "'Courage!' he said, and pointed toward the land, 'This mounting wave will roll us shoreward soon.' In the afternoon they came unto a land In which it seemed always afternoon. All round the coast the languid air did swoon, Breathing like one that hath a weary dream. Full-faced above the valley stood the moon; And like a downward smoke, the slender stream Along the cliff to fall and pause and fall did seem." Tennyson is famous for using euphony in most of his poems. He uses long vowels and semi-vowels of soft consonants. The long vowels, such as mounting, soon, languid and slender whereas soft vowels include l, s, f and w sounds that are giving sense of pleasantness. Example #4: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "...Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day To the last syllable of recorded time, And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle! Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more. It is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing." The language of Shakespeare is a great example of euphony. He has used pleasant, harmonious, and musical sounds in the above excerpt from Macbeth. Here, the euphonic words are shown in bold. Function of Euphony The purpose of using euphony is to bring about peaceful and pleasant feelings in a piece of literary work. The readers enjoy reading such pieces of literature or poems. The long vowels create more melodious effect than short vowels and consonants, making the sounds harmonious and soothing. In addition, pronunciation and enunciation become agreeable and easy. Furthermore, euphony is used in poetry and speeches to convey messages effectively to the audience and the readers.

Resolution

The literary device resolution means the unfolding or solution of a complicated issue in a story. Technically, resolution is also known as a "denouement." Most of the instances of resolution are presented in the final parts or chapters of a story. It mostly follows the climax. In certain mystery novels, climax and resolution may occur simultaneously. However, in other forms of literature, resolution takes place at the end of the story. Considering that it ends a story, resolution is an integral part of the conflict of the story. Examples of Resolution in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (by William Shakespeare) Capulet: O brother Montague, give me thy hand. This is my daughter's jointure, for no more Can I demand ... Montague: But I can give thee more, For I will raise her statue in pure gold, That whiles Verona by that name is known, ... As that of true and faithful Juliet ... Capulet: As rich shall Romeo's by his lady's lie, Poor sacrifices of our enmity ... Prince: A glooming peace this morning with it brings. The sun, for sorrow, will not show his head ... This is the final dialogue that takes place between Lord Capulet and Lord Montague. Seeing their beloved children, Romeo and Juliet, committing suicide for love, both the heads of the family regret their long enmity. Now both of them agree to end the dispute between their tribes to avoid future tragedy. Example #2: The Great Gatsby (by F. Scott Fitzgerald) "They're a rotten crowd," I shouted across the lawn. "You're worth the whole damn bunch put together ... " Concluding the story "The Great Gatsby," Nick makes his mind to return to Minnesota as an escape from the rich people. He knows that the rich people are engaged in morally worthless activities. That is why he is convinced that people in Gatsby's circle are unfaithful. Example #3: The Catcher in the Rye (by J.D. Salinger) " ... That's all I'm going to tell about. I could probably tell you what I did after I went home, and how I got sick and all, and what school I'm supposed to go to next fall, after I get out of here, but I don't feel like it. I really don't. That stuff doesn't interest me too much right now ... I mean how do you know what you're going to do till you do it? The answer is, you don't. I think I am, but how do I know? I swear it's a stupid question ... " The resolution in this story takes place in the final part of the novel. Holden, the protagonist, while living in a psychiatric facility, recounts the story. He provides readers with the details of his future plans. He informs us that he will go back home and attend school, meet his parents but only after enjoying the ride of a merry-go-round in Phoebe. Example #4: The Winter's Tale (by William Shakespeare) Gentleman: One that gives out himself Prince Florizel/ Son of Polixenes, with his princess, she/ The fairest I have yet beheld, desires access... Leontes: What with him? he comes not/ Like to his father's greatness: his approach,... Florizel: Most royal sir, from thence; from him, whose daughter His tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thence/ A prosperous south-wind friendly, we have cross'd... Leontes: My lord, Is this the daughter of a king? ... His tears proclaim'd his, parting with her: thence... Leontes: My lord, Is this the daughter of a king..." In these extracted lines from "The Winter's Tale," the resolution occurs when Polixenes follows Florizel and Perdita to Sicily. After he finds out the true identity of Paulina, Polixenes and Leontes reconcile and both the families become happy. Leontes is also reunited with his family and discovers that Hermoin is alive. Function The resolution is the final solution in literature. Almost all the genres of storytelling make use of resolution to end a story. Actually, resolution is required to wrap up a story, and it comes after the climax. Following a heart-racing and anxiety-triggering climax, resolution gives audiences the opportunity to relax. It brings all disturbing conflicts into order, and helps the central theme of the movie or novel to resonate. Its function of resolving the problem has made it highly significant. The story would be a disaster if the resolution is presented poorly.

Verse

The literary device verse denotes a single line of poetry. The term can also be used to refer to a stanza or other parts of poetry. Generally, the device is stated to encompass three possible meanings, namely a line of metrical writing, a stanza, or a piece written in meter. It is important to note here that the term "verse" is often incorrectly used for referring to "poetry" in order to differentiate it from prose. Types of Verse There are generally two types of verse, namely free verse and blank verse. Free Verse A free verse poem has no set meter; that is to say there is no rhyming scheme present, and the poem doesn't follow a set pattern. For some poets this characteristic serves as a handy tool for the purpose of camouflaging their fluctuation of thoughts, whereas others think that it affects the quality of work being presented. Example #1 Free Verse After the Sea-Ship (By Walt Whitman) "After the Sea-Ship—after the whistling winds; After the white-gray sails, taut to their spars and ropes, Below, a myriad, myriad waves, hastening, lifting up their necks, Tending in ceaseless flow toward the track of the ship: Waves of the ocean, bubbling and gurgling, blithely prying, Waves, undulating waves—liquid, uneven, emulous waves, Toward that whirling current, laughing and buoyant, with curves, Where the great Vessel, sailing and tacking, displaced the surface..." As can be seen from the stanza quoted above, there is an absence of rhyming effect and structure in each verse. Example #2 Free Verse Fog (By Carl Sandburg) "The fog comes on little cat feet. It sits looking over harbor and city on silent haunches and then moves on." Here, it can be observed that there is no form or rhyme scheme present in the verse. Blank Verse There is no rhyming effect present in a blank verse poem. However, it has an iambic pentameter. It is usually employed for presenting passionate events, and to create an impact on the reader. Shakespeare was an ardent user of blank verse. Example #1 Blank Verse Furball Friend (Author Unknown) "Sweet pet by day, hunter by night. She sleeps, she eats, she plays. My feet, caught in white paws. She's up the fence, watching her prey - a bird. Poor thing, better run quick, 'cause watch, she'll pounce! She'll sweetly beg for fuss, but don't be fooled. 'Cause one minute she'll purr and smile, then snap! She'll spit and hiss - and oh - surprise! A mouse. He's dead. A gift. Retracts her claws. Miaow! Figure of eight between my legs, looks up at me and purrs. The sound pulls my heartstrings. Her big blue eyes like dinner plates - so cute. Cunning she is, she knows I can't resist. Curling up tight, we sleep entwined as one. Despite her quirks, I would not change a claw of her. Cheeky Sammy: my snow-white queen." The poem quoted above depicts the use of blank verse throughout. Here, it is important to note that there is no rhyming scheme present. Also, it can be seen that there is a presence of iambic pentameter throughout the verses. Short Examples of Verse The difference between ambience and silence, When nature speaks, you are silent. (Blank Verse) Words limit the silence Upsetting the peace Of infinite tranquility... (Blank Verse) Flower in a faraway valley, Wind carries it away as butterflies move around. (Blank Verse) A ship sailor from the West lands on the land between the mountains and the seas. (Blank Verse) Cold cold, Winter sticks to the trees and the seas. (Free Verse) Just off the road to city, Twilight bounds swiftly froth on the plants. (Free Verse) What thought I'd think tonight, for I walk down the street Under thick trees with a self-conscious mind looking at full moon. (Free Verse) The sea is silent to-day, The tides are high, the moon sparks Upon the curved stairs; on the coast The light shines and goes; the cliffs stand, Gleaming and huge, out on a tranquil shore. (Free Verse) A land filled with ice Covered by the arches of sky, Hurls into eternity. (Free Verse) Many stars tonight And their memory. Yet how much room is there for quiet clouds? (Free Verse) Forgetfulness is a melody That frees itself from measure and beat, wanders. (Free Verse) Above the ruffles of surf The sun sparkles on the waves, And the waves carry thunder on the shore. (Free Verse) Standing out vibrantly in the garden A dream flower blossoms. (Free Verse) Beneath the earthly and cosmos sky, Floral butterfly ascends towards showers. (Free Verse) I entered the forest for a walk, I cross by many trees with overhead shades With small beam of light straining through them. (Free verse) Examples of Verse in Literature Example #1: Fairies and Fusiliers (By Robert Graves) "I now delight In spite Of the might And the right Of classic tradition, In writing And reciting Straight ahead, Without let or omission... Because, I've said, My rhymes no longer shall stand arrayed No! No! My rhymes must go Twinkling, frosty, Will-o'-the-wisp-like, misty..." This is an excellent example of a free verse poem, as it's free from artificial expression of poetry. Without any poetic restraints, it gives a natural flow of reading experience. Example #2: Feelings, Now (By Katherine Foreman) "Some kind of attraction that is neither Animal, vegetable, nor mineral, a power not Solar, fusion, or magnetic... And find myself sitting there." This is another instance of free verse poetry that does not follow any rules, nor any rhyme scheme. However, it still gives an artistic and creative expression. Example #3: Thanatopsis (By William Cullen Bryant) "To him who in the love of Nature holds A various language; for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness, and a smile..." The above mentioned poem presents an example of blank verse that adds cadence and a subtle rhythm, mimicking the pattern of the language that is audible in nature. Example #4: Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art (By John Keats) "Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art— Not in lone splendour hung aloft the night And watching, with eternal lids apart, Like nature's patient, sleepless Eremite,..." This is an example of a rhymed verse poem that has used an ABAB rhyme scheme, which means the first and third, and the second and fourth lines rhyme with one another. Example #5 Daffodils (By William Wordsworth) "I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze." The above quoted stanza from William Wordsworth's poem Daffodils presents to the reader various examples of verse. It can be noted here that the use of the tool of verse adds a scenic element to the structure of poetry. Function of Verse The use of verse in a piece of writing has a pleasing effect on the reader's mind. It is usually employed in poetry writing. The poets make use of the tool of verse in order to provide their poetry with a desired structure. It serves as an avenue through which writers project their ideas in the form of a composition having rhyme, rhythm, and deeper meanings. The device provides the writer with a framework for poetry writing.

Refutation

The literary term refutation refers to that part of an argument where a speaker or a writer encounters contradicting points of view. Alternatively, refutation can be described as the negation of an argument, opinion, testimony, doctrine, or theory, through contradicting evidence. It normally constitutes a part of an essay that disproves the opposing arguments. An important distinction to be appreciated is the difference between refutation and counter-argument. In the case of counter-argument, the writer acknowledges that there is substance in the contradicting argument, yet he provides evidence for his alleged stance. On the other hand, refutation goes a bit further by presenting evidence that in turn negates the opposing arguments. In a circumstance in which the writer happens to agree with certain aspects of the opposing argument, he makes a concession. However, writers and speakers rarely employ concession, as it can very easily undermine their own stance. Types of Refutation There are various ways through which the tool of refutation can be employed. The three most common modes used for the purpose of incorporating the device of refutation in an argument are: (1) refutation through evidence, (2) refutation through logic, and (3) refutation through exposing the discrepancies of opposing argument. Refutation through Evidence For an argument to be counted as one of the valid examples of refutation through evidence, it needs to be an argument backed up by some form of evidence. In the absence of clear bases or justifications it cannot be declared valid. Therefore, a writer can refute a contradicting argument if he can provide evidence that conclusively negates it, or by presenting more recent or credible evidence. Refutation through Logic Refutation examples through logic are quite tricky to construct. It involves deconstructing the opposing argument, and presenting it in such a way as to highlight the discrepancies present within the argument. Most skilled writers check the validity of their arguments before publishing them. This makes refutation through logic all the more difficult. There is no denying the fact then that refutation through logic constitutes a difficult task at hand. However, writers have employed this tool in their respective writings. Refutation through Exposing Discrepancies The method involves showing that one of the contradicting arguments lacks the core ingredient of centrality to the issue as the opposition had intended to project. Also, the writer can logically present his argument as being superior to the one presented by the opposition, by showing that the opposition's argument lacks the crucial link to the topic. Further, the writer can highlight the insignificance of the opposition's argument by exposing the deficiencies found within the opposing argument. Examples of Refutation in Literature Example #1: Elements of Rhetoric (By Richard Whately) "If indeed very strong objections have obtained much currency, or have been just stated by an opponent, so that what is asserted is likely to be regarded as paradoxical, it may be advisable to begin with a Refutation." As can be seen from the excerpt quoted above, refutation of an objection should be placed in the midst of an argument. However, the nearer it is to the beginning the more effective it is likely to be. Example #2: Remarks made to the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners, Seattle, Washington (By William Kennard, Chairman of the FCC) "So we may well hear from a whole chorus of naysayers. And to all of them I have only one response: we cannot afford to wait. We cannot afford to let the homes and schools and businesses throughout America wait. Not when we have seen the future. We have seen what high capacity broadband can do for education and for our economy. We must act today to create an environment where all competitors have a fair shot at bringing high capacity bandwidth to consumers—especially residential consumers. And especially residential consumers in rural and underserved areas." This excerpt serves to illustrate the effectiveness of early refutation. The early placement of refutation within the extract has had an enhanced persuasive impact on the audience. Function of Refutation The tool of refutation has a crucial significance in writing. It is important in determining whether the speaker or writer has successfully persuaded his readers or not. Mostly, the device of refutation is employed when one is dealing with a controversial topic. It allows the reader to prefer one argument over another. The use of the device is frequently witnessed in intricate arguments.

Utopia

The literary term utopia denotes an illusionary place that projects the notion of a perfect society to the reader. Here, the "perfect society" refers to ideal conditions achieved within the material world, as opposed to the expected idealism of afterlife in Christianity or other religions. Further, the citizens presiding in such utopias are bearers of a perfect moral code, or at the least, every violator of the moral code is harshly punished. A utopian society is one where all social evils have been cured. Utopia and Heterotopia An important distinction to be appreciated is that between an imaginary utopia and a live heterotopia. However, the terms should not be treated as opposites of one another. They denote a midway experience, with instances that are both real and unreal. Most of the examples that Foucault provides of heterotopias include several utopian aspects. However, the relationship between these two notions has tended to be ignored in the interpretation of heterotopia. Description of Utopian Literature A piece of writing that concerns itself with the description of a perfect society in the physical world, as opposed to the perfection of afterlife, is considered to be utopian literature. The original motives behind utopian novels were political, social, and philosophical. Plato's The Republic, written around 380 BC, is usually considered the first example of Utopia in history. Some traces of utopian elements can be found in Arthurian literature - in the idealization of King Arthur's court at Camelot - but the trend followed by medieval poets involved romanticizing an imaginary past, rather than using hypothetical utopias for the purposes of criticizing political institutions and suggesting alternatives. It was by the time of Sir Thomas More's book Utopia, written in 1516, that the notion of utopia was practically manifested, and his name for the imaginary kingdom became the new name for the writing genre. Utopia examples show common characteristics, including the following: An elaborate description of the geographic landscape, often given by guides native to the region. The narrator or protagonist of the story is an outsider to the utopian society. He is very skeptical of the society's modern political, social, economic, or ethical problems. One of the common misunderstandings about utopian models is that they serve to project a better way of life. To the contrary, the reason behind such literature is to help the reader envision the problems, paradoxes, or faults entrenched within such a political framework. Examples of Utopia in Literature The examples quoted below portray various scenarios of utopia: Description of the Republic of Christianopolis, by Johannes Valentinus Andreae, 1619 The City of the Sun, by Tommaso Campanella, 1602 New Atlantis, by Francis Bacon, 1627 Nova Solyma, the Ideal City, by Samuel Gott, circa 1649 The Law of Freedom in a Platform, by Gerrard Winstanley, 1652 Looking Backward, by Edward Bellamy, 1888 News from Nowhere, by William Morris, 1890 Freeland: a Social Anticipation, by Theodor Hertzka, 1891 A Modern Utopia, by H. G. Wells, 1905 Function of Utopia Over time, the vision encapsulating the notion of utopia has suffered radical transformations. Events such as war, church reform, revolution, and economic change have contributed toward the construction of a new type of utopia. The term utopia formulated new shapes and new prefixes, each type having its own function and its own use. They are generally employed as a means of constructing an organized society in the reader's mind. The writer makes use of the tool to highlight the discrepancies prevalent within an existing political and legal framework. A utopian society is framed in such a manner as to present the idea of an ideal sociopolitical culture to the reader. The writer is presenting his audience with a standard example of a socially and morally fit society with the use of utopia, to make them realize the various deficiencies of their existing societal framework. Utopia is a tool for exposing the flaws prevalent within an existing political structure. Further, the tool has been widely employed by writers who intended to make an impact on the consciences of readers. The writer uses utopia in order to portray a scenic picture in the eyes of the reader, in an attempt to make him fully appreciate the various diverging factors contributing towards the failings of the existing society. It deals with constructing a standard sociopolitical society in the reader's mind, in order to criticize the prevalent legal norms.

Style

The style in writing can be defined as the way a writer writes. It is the technique that an individual author uses in his writing. It varies from author to author, and depends upon one's syntax, word choice, and tone. It can also be described as a "voice" that readers listen to when they read the work of a writer. Types of Style There are four basic literary styles used in writing. These styles distinguish the works of different authors, one from another. Here are four styles of writing: Expository or Argumentative Style Expository writing style is a subject-oriented style. The focus of the writer in this type of writing style is to tell the readers about a specific subject or topic, and in the end the author leaves out his own opinion about that topic. Descriptive Style In descriptive writing style, the author focuses on describing an event, a character or a place in detail. Sometimes, descriptive writing style is poetic in nature in, where the author specifies an event, an object, or a thing rather than merely giving information about an event that has happened. Usually the description incorporates sensory details. Persuasive Style Persuasive style of writing is a category of writing in which the writer tries to give reasons and justification to make the readers believe his point of view. The persuasive style aims to persuade and convince the readers. Narrative Style Narrative writing style is a type of writing wherein the writer narrates a story. It includes short stories, novels, novellas, biographies, and poetry. Short Examples of Style in Sentences If it sounds like I'm writing, then I prefer to rewrite it. (Conversational) "I think it's a good ide,." said Jenny. "You can imagine the outcomes!" retorted Emma, pushing the door open. Reluctantly, Jenny followed. (Narrative) The sunset fills the entire sky with the lovely deep color of rubies, setting the clouds ablaze. (Descriptive) The waves waltz along the seashore, going up and down in a gentle and graceful rhythm, like dancing. (Descriptive) A trip to Switzerland is an excellent experience that you will never forget, offering beautiful nature, fun, and sun. Book your vacation trip today. (Persuasive) She hears a hoarse voice, and sees a shadow moving around the balcony. As it moves closer to her, she screams to see a gigantic wolf standing before her. (Narrative) From the garden, the child plucks a delicate rose, touching and cradling it gently as if it is a precious jewel. (Descriptive) What if you vote for me? I ensure you that your taxes will be very low, the government will provide free education, and there will be equality and justice for all citizens. Cast your vote for me today. (Persuasive) The deep blue color of the cat's eyes is like ocean water on the clearest day you could ever imagine. (Descriptive) The soft hair of my cat feels silky, and her black color sparkles as it reflects sunlight. (Descriptive) This painting has blooming flowers, rich and deep blues on vibrant green stems, begging me to pick them. (Descriptive) Our criminal investigators are famous for recovering clients' assets, as we not only take your cases but represent truly your interests. (Persuasive) Our headache medicines will give you relief for ten hours, with only one pill - and without any side effects. Try it today. (Persuasive) Tax raising strategy is wrong because it will cripple businesses. We should reduce taxes to boost growth. (Persuasive) Examples of Style in Literature Here are some examples of different writing styles from literature: Example #1: The Pleasures of Imagination (By Joseph Addison) "The pleasures of the imagination, taken in their full extent, are not so gross as those of sense. ... A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures ... A man should endeavour, therefore, to make the sphere of his innocent pleasures as wide as possible, that he may retire into them with safety ... Delightful scenes, whether in nature, painting, or poetry, have a kindly influence on the body, as well as the mind, and not only serve to clear and brighten the imagination, but are able to disperse grief and melancholy ..." This is an example of expository writing style, in which the author describes advantages of imagination with facts and logical sequence, and tells his delight of imagination. Then, he discusses its benefits and finally gives opinions in its favor. Example #2: Summer Shower (By Emily Dickinson) "A drop fell on the apple tree, Another on the roof, And made the gables laugh, The breezes brought dejected lutes, And bathed them in the glee; And signed the fete away." This poem gives an example of descriptive style. Ms. Dickinson describes a summer rainstorm in detail, with beautiful images, so that the readers can visualize this storm in their own minds as if it is actually happening. Example #3: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge) "It is an ancient Mariner, And he stoppeth one of three.' By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, Now wherefore stopp'st thou me? The bridegroom's doors are opened wide, ... The guests are met, the feast is set: Mayst hear the merry din." In this poem, Coleridge uses narrative style, as he tells a story about the ancient mariner. He uses dialogues, disputes, actions, and events in a sequence, thus providing a perfect example of the narrative style of writing. Example #4: Dorian Gray (By Oscar Wilde) "The studio was filled with the rich odor of roses, and when the light summer wind stirred amidst the trees of the garden... The sullen murmur of the bees shouldering their way through... or circling with monotonous insistence..." This is a good example of descriptive writing style since the author gives visualizations, feelings, description of a location and details about bees that could be seen and heard. Example #5: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) "Pretty soon it darkened up and begun to thunder and lighten; so the birds was right about it ... and here would come a blast of wind that would bend the trees down and turn up the pale underside of the leaves ..." Here, Twain has demonstrated a narrative style, as well as used colloquial words in presenting this passage, as expressed through the voice of a young Southern-American boy. Example #6: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe) "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary... And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor Shall be lifted - nevermore!" Here, the poet crafts a story of longing and desolation. The poem reads like a tale, containing a proper beginning, middle, and end. It has narrative elements like characterization, symbols, plot elements, and resolution that make it dramatic. Example #7: Smoke (By Henry David Thoreau) "Light-winged Smoke! Icarian bird, Melting thy pinions in thy upward flight; Lark without song, and messenger of dawn, Circling above the hamlets as thy nest; Or else, departing dream, and shadowy form Of midnight vision, gathering up thy skirts; By night star-veiling, and by day Darkening the light and blotting out the sun; Go thou, my incense, upward from this hearth, And ask the gods to pardon this clear flame." Thoreau describes the intensity of the smoke that helps form a colorful image in the minds of the readers. He uses metaphor to compare smoke to "incense," or an "Icarian bird." He also describes "star-veiling" and "shadowy" and let the readers imagine smoke. Function of Style A unique literary style can have great impact on the piece in which it is used, and on the readers. When authors write and put their ideas into words, they have many choices to make, which include: words, sounds, logic, sentence structures. However, different authors use different literary styles that depend on their distinct expression, and their utilization of these choices. And their choices create their niche.

Extended Metaphor

The term "extended metaphor" refers to a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph, or lines in a poem. It is often comprised of more than one sentence, and sometimes consists of a full paragraph. Extended Metaphor Examples in Prose Example #1: Seize the Night (By Dean Koontz) "Bobby Holloway says my imagination is a three-hundred-ring circus. Currently I was in ring two hundred and ninety-nine, with elephants dancing and clowns cart wheeling and tigers leaping through rings of fire. The time had come to step back, leave the main tent, go buy some popcorn and a Coke, bliss out, cool down." (Dean Koontz, Seize the Night. Bantam, 1999) Here, it can be seen that the "circus" has been compared to the author's "imagination." Example #2: The Yiddish Policeman's Union (By Michael Chabon) "It never takes longer than a few minutes, when they get together, for everyone to revert to the state of nature, like a party marooned by a shipwreck. That's what a family is. Also the storm at sea, the ship, and the unknown shore. And the hats and the whiskey stills that you make out of bamboo and coconuts. And the fire that you light to keep away the beasts." (Michael Chabon, The Yiddish Policeman's Union. Harper, 2007) In the excerpt quoted above, the writer has compared "family" with a "shipwreck." Example #3: Life on the Mississippi (By Mark Twain) "One day [Mr. Bixby] turned on me suddenly with this settler — 'What is the shape of Walnut Bend?'" "He might as well have asked me my grandmother's opinion of protoplasm. I reflected respectfully, and then said I didn't know it had any particular shape. My gun powdery chief went off with a bang, of course, and then went on loading and firing until he was out of adjectives." "I had learned long ago that he only carried just so many rounds of ammunition, and was sure to subside into a very placable and even remorseful old smooth-bore as soon as they were all gone." (Mark Twain, Life on the Mississippi. Webster, 1883) Here, it can be seen that the writer makes use of metaphors like "gun powdery," "firing," and "ammunition" to describe the "anger" of Mr. Bixby. Example #4: As You Like It (By William Shakespeare) "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts." Shakespeare has remarkably compared "earth" to a "stage" in the excerpt mentioned above. Example #5: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "But soft! What light through yonder window breaks? It is the East, and Juliet is the sun! Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief." Here again, Shakespeare has made use of extended metaphor by comparing "Juliet" with the "sun." Example of Extended Metaphor in Poetry Example #6: Hope is the Thing with Feathers (By Emily Dickenson) "Hope is the thing with feathers That perches in the soul, And sings the tune - without the words, And never stops at all, "And sweetest in the gale is heard; And sore must be the storm That could abash the little bird That kept so many warm. "I've heard it in the chilliest land, And on the strangest sea; Yet, never, in extremity, It asked a crumb of me." In the poem given above, Emily Dickinson has remarkably made use of the tool of extended metaphor by comparing "hope" with the "little bird." Example of Extended Metaphor in Hip-Hop "But if you was LeBron James then I'd be Dwyane Wade We both graduated at the same time from the same grade He was at the head of the class, on TV with celebrity acts, But that champion ring was one thing you never could grasp, I was slightly rated lower had to fight to gain exposure and that might've made me slower but now I have taken over And I'm down in Miami's Heat, living my boyhood dreams And for you to do what I've done, you'd have to join MY team!" (By Iron Solomon) In the extract quoted above, Iron Solomon makes a comparison between "LeBron James" and "Dwyane Wade." Short Examples of Extended Metaphor Life is like eating a grapefruit. First, one breaks its skin; then one takes a few bites to get used to its taste, and finally one starts enjoying its flavor. The dark is an unknown and scary black blanket, a place of nightmares. It is a deep hole where light cannot reach, and where horror resides. Their heart is icy, blood frosty, its ventricles rich with icicles; and their words have turned into ice cubes that can chill iced tea. Life is a book, lying on a tabletop, its pages outspread like a thousand wings of a bird. I elegantly bloom in July, Clad in a delicate silk, I am a fringed lily. Poetry is melody to mind, It flows and rhymes, It comforts and triggers the thought. The world is a stage, where everyone is a player, and then the curtain falls. The human brain is a computer. It has programs that allow thinking, acting, and making decisions. He is a bright star, shining all the time, and helping and guiding everyone. Maria's eyes are fireflies, sparkling, speaking, and expressing many things. They are pointing guns at the people, who are bullets of their desires. You are an eagle, Soaring higher than the seagull. The café is a forest, Where wild animals scramble for food. Painting is an untamed animal, That a painter is free to show his/her feelings. My room is a dreamland, With fluffy pillows its clouds And Chirping birds its angels. Extended Metaphor Examples in Literature Example #1: The Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost) "Two roads diverged in a yellow wood ... I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference." In this poem, Frost compares life experiences and journeys to roads that a person travels. By using extended metaphor, he explicates that a harder path gives greater rewards in life. Example #2: Mother to Son (By Langston Hughes) "Well, son, I'll tell you: Life for me ain't been no crystal stair ... I'se still climbin', And life for me ain't been no crystal stair." Hughes makes a comparison between life and a crystal stair throughout this poem. A mother in the poem is detailing her struggles and experiences by explaining her staircase is tainted by "splinters" and is "bare." Despite this, she keeps "climbing," which further heightens the staircase metaphor, as a vehicle to get better or higher. Her struggles give inspiration as well as advice to her son. Example #3: Habitation (By Margaret Atwood) "Marriage is not a house or even a tent "it is before that, and colder: ... "this far we are learning to make fire." Atwood has used extended metaphor of a habitation to explain marriage. She believes marriage is not a stable shelter, like a "house or even a tent." She rather describes it as an unstable "edge" of the forest or desert. The poem is a description of a couple "learning to make fire," while trying to survive "painfully." This extended metaphor implies that, though marriage is tough, it makes a person learn new things. Functions of Extended Metaphor Extended metaphor provides the writer with an opportunity to make a larger comparison between two things or notions. The device of extended metaphor is usually employed in prose and poetry to project a specific impression regarding things or notions in the reader's mind. Further, the tool serves to project the comparison intensely in the reader's mind, than is the case when simple metaphors or similes are used.

Persuasive Essay

The term "persuasive" is an adjective derived from verb "persuade," which means "to convince somebody." A persuasive essay is full of all the convincing techniques a writer can employ. It presents a situation, and takes a stand - either in its favor, or against it - to prove to readers whether it is beneficial or harmful for them. Why Persuasion? The question arises why persuasion if the people are already aware of everything. Its answer is that each person's ability of seeing and understanding things depend on his vision. He believes only what he sees or is told about. If another side of the coin is shown, the people do not believe so easily. That is why they are presented with arguments supported with evidences, statistics and facts. Persuasion is done for these reasons: A Better World: To ask the people that if they accept your argument, it will be good for them to take action and make the world a better place. A Worse World: It means that if readers do not do what they are asked to do, the world will become a worse place. Call to Action: It means to persuade or tempt readers to do what the writer wants them to do. Difference Between a Persuasive Essay and an Argumentative Essay A persuasive essay is intended to persuade readers to do certain things, or not to do certain things. It is the sole aim of the writer to coax or tempt readers, and force them to do certain things or take actions. However, an argumentative essay intends to make readers see both sides of the coin. It is up to them to select any of the two. In other words, an argumentative essay presents both arguments; both for and against a thing, and leaves the readers to decide. On the other hand, a persuasive essay intends to make readers do certain things. Therefore, it presents arguments only about one aspect of the issue. Examples of Persuasive Essay in Literature Example #1: Our Unhealthy Obsession and Sickness (by Frank Furedi) "Governments today do two things that I object to in particular. First they encourage introspection, telling us that unless men examine their testicles, unless we keep a check on our cholesterol level, then we are not being responsible citizens. You are letting down yourself, your wife, your kids, everybody. We are encouraged continually to worry about our health. As a consequence, public health initiatives have become, as far as I can tell, a threat to public health. Secondly, governments promote the value of health seeking. We are meant always to be seeking health for this or that condition. The primary effect of this, I believe, is to make us all feel more ill." This is an excerpt from a persuasive essay of Frank Furedi. It encourages people to think about how the government is helping public health. Both the arguments of persuasion start with "First" in the first line and with "Secondly" in the second last line. Example #2: We Are Training Our Kids to Kill (by Dave Grossman) "Our society needs to be informed about these crimes, but when the images of the young killers are broadcast on television, they become role models. The average preschooler in America watches 27 hours of television a week. The average child gets more one-on-one communication from TV than from all her parents and teachers combined. The ultimate achievement for our children is to get their picture on TV. The solution is simple, and it comes straight out of the sociology literature: The media have every right and responsibility to tell the story, but they must be persuaded not to glorify the killers by presenting their images on TV." This is an excerpt from Grossman's essay. He is clearly convincing the public about the violent television programs and their impacts on the kids. See how strong his arguments are in favor of his topic. Example #3: The Real Skinny (by Belinda Luscombe) "And what do we the people say? Do we rise up and say, 'I categorically refuse to buy any article of clothing unless the person promoting it weighs more than she did when she wore knee socks?' Or at least, 'Where do I send the check for the chicken nuggets?' Actually, not so much. Mostly, our responses range from 'I wonder if that would look good on me?' to 'I don't know who that skinny-ass cow is, but I hate her already.' Just check the strength of the argument of Belinda Luscombe about purchasing things. The beauty of her writing is that she has made her readers think by asking rhetorical questions and answering them. Function of a Persuasive Essay The major function of a persuasive essay is to convince readers that, if they take a certain action, the world will be a better place for them. It could be otherwise or it could be a call to an action. The arguments given are either in the favor of the topic or against it. It cannot combine both at once. That is why readers feel it easy to be convinced.

Deus Ex Machina

The term deus ex machina refers to the circumstance where an implausible concept or a divine character is introduced into a storyline, for the purpose of resolving its conflict and procuring an interesting outcome. The use of deus ex machina is discouraged, for the reason that the presence of it within a plot is viewed as a sign of an ill-structured plot. The explanation that the critics provide for this view is that the writer's sudden resort to random, insupportable, and unbelievable twists for the purpose of procuring an ending, highlights the inherent deficiencies of the plot. Hence, deus ex machina is a rather debatable, and often criticized, form of literary device. The term is Latin for "god out of the machine," and has its origins in ancient Greek theatre. It denotes scenes in which a crane (machine) was used to lower actors or statues playing a god or gods (deus) onto the stage to set things right, usually near the end of the play. Requirements of Deus Ex Machina Deus ex machinas are solutions. They are not to be seen as unexpected twists and turns in the storyline that end up making things worse, and not as something that contributes towards changing the understanding of the story. Further, it must be shown that the problem solved by a deus ex machina is one that is unsolvable or otherwise hopeless. It is also that they are sudden or unexpected. This means that the inherent capacity of deus ex machina to solve the mystery is not apparent until the time the device is actually employed to procure a viable ending for the plot. However, if some other type of intervention - like common sense - could have been employed to procure the same result, then no matter how sudden the solution is, it would not be termed as deus ex machina. Euripides was one of the most prominent users of deus ex machina. Some scholars believe that he was the first writer to employ the device in his tragedies. His work is often met with criticism for the way he structured his plots, and for his underlying ideas. Deus Ex Machina Examples Example #1: Medea (By Euripides) When Medea is shown in the chariot of the sun god Helios, the god himself isn't present. From her vantage point in the chariot, she watches the grieving Jason. The argument goes about that this specific scene is an illustration of the employment of the deus ex machina device within the plot of the tragedy. Example #2: Hippolytus (By Euripides) There are three deities present in this play: the jealous Aphrodite, Artemis the object of Hippolytus' affection, and vengeful Poseidon. However, it is only Artemis who appears. She explains to Theseus that Hippolytus was innocent all along, and that it was Aphrodite who had sinned and caused all the grief. Artemis also promises to destroy any man Aphrodite ever loves. Example #3: Andromache (By Euripides) In the end of the play, Thetis the sea goddess appears to Peleus. She comes to take Peleus back with her to her ocean home. The play ends with Peleus going with Thetis his wife, into the ocean. Example #4: Helen (By Euripides) Theoclymenos is furious when Helen and Menelaus trick him and run away together. In consequence, he tries to murder his sister for not telling him that Menelaus was not dead. The demi-gods Castor and Polydeuces - Helen's brothers, and sons of Zeus and Leda - appear astonishingly to interrupt. Example #5: Orestes (By Euripides) Apollo appears on stage to bring things in order. Apollo clears the situation by informing the characters (and the audience) that Helen had been put amongst the stars, and therefore Menelaus should return to Sparta. He also orders Orestes to travel to Athens to stand trial in their court, and ensures him of his subsequent acquittal. Further, Apollo states that Orestes will marry Hermione, and that Pylades and Electra will also marry. Function of Deus Ex Machina The tool of deus ex machina remains a popular one even today, being employed in modern films, novels, and short stories. However the scope of the term has been effectively widened to present it as a multifaceted tool. It can be employed for the purposes of moving a story forward, or when the writer has "painted himself into a corner" and finds no other escape. He uses this to surprise the audience, to bring a happy ending to the tale, or as a comedic device.

Euphemism

The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions that replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite, or which suggest something unpleasant. Euphemism is an idiomatic expression, which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else, in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, "kick the bucket" is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term "downsizing" for the distressing act of "firing" its employees. Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers and writers, where they feel the need to replace certain words that may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or readers in a particular situation. Techniques for Creating Euphemism Euphemism masks a rude or impolite expression, but conveys the concept clearly and politely. Several techniques are employed to create euphemism. It may be in the form of abbreviations, such as O. (body odor), and W.C. (toilet). Foreign words may be used to replace an impolite expression, such as faux (fake), or faux pas (foolish error). Sometimes, they are abstractions, such as before I go (before I die). They may also be indirect expressions replacing direct ones that may sound offensive, such as rear-end (one's back side or buttocks), unmentionables (underwear or lingerie). Using longer words or phrases can also mask unpleasant words, such as flatulence (farting), perspiration (sweat), or mentally challenged (stupid). Using technical terms may reduce the rudeness exhibited by certain words, such as gluteus maximus (backside, butt, or buttocks). Deliberately mispronouncing an offensive word may reduce its severity, such as darn (damn), and shoot (shit). Euphemism Examples in Everyday Life Euphemism is frequently used in everyday life. Let us look at some common euphemism examples: You are becoming a little thin on top (bald). Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant). He is a little tipsy (drunk). We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people. He is a special child (disabled or learning challenged). Examples of Euphemism in Literature Example #1: Othello (By William Shakespeare) Examples of euphemism referring to sex are found in William Shakespeare's Othello. In Act 1, Scene 1, Iago tells Brabantio: "I am one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs." Here, the expression "making the beast with two backs" refers to the act of having sex. Example #2: Antony and Cleopatra (By William Shakespeare) Similarly, we notice Shakespeare using euphemism for sexual intercourse in his play Antony and Cleopatra." In Act 2, Scene 2, Agrippa says about Cleopatra: "Royal wench! She made great Caesar lay his sword to bed. He plowed her, and she cropped." The word "plowed" refers to the act of sexual intercourse, and the word "cropped" is a euphemism for becoming pregnant. Example #3: The Flea (By John Donne) John Donne, in his poem The Flea, employs euphemism. He says: "Mark but this flea, and mark in this, How little that which thou denies me is; It suck'd me first, and now sucks thee, And in this flea our two bloods mingled be. Thou know'st that this cannot be said A sin, nor shame, nor loss of maidenhead; Yet this enjoys before it woo, And pamper'd swells with one blood made of two; And this, alas! is more than we would do." In order to persuade his beloved to sleep with him, the speaker in the poem tells her how a flea bit both of them and their blood got mixed in it. This is a euphemism. Example #4: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) The Squealer, a character in George Orwell's Animal Farm, uses euphemisms to help the pigs achieve their political ends. To announce the reduction of food to the animals of the farm, he says: "For the time being," he explains, "it had been found necessary to make a readjustment of rations." Substituting the word "reduction" for "readjustment" was an attempt to suppress the complaints of other animals about hunger. It works because reduction means "cutting" the food supply, while readjustment implies changing the current amount of food. Function of Euphemism Euphemism helps writers convey those ideas that have become a social taboo, and are too embarrassing to mention directly. Writers skillfully choose appropriate words to refer to and discuss a subject indirectly that otherwise might not published due to strict social censorship, such as for reasons of religious fanaticism, political theories, sexuality, and death. Thus, euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to write figuratively about the difficult issues.

Tragic Hero

The term hero is derived from a Greek word that means a person who faces adversity, or demonstrates courage, in the face of danger. However, sometimes he faces downfall as well. When a hero confronts downfall, he is recognized as a tragic hero or protagonist. Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, characterizes these plays or stories, in which the main character is a tragic hero, as tragedies. Here, the hero confronts his downfall whether due to fate, or by his own mistake, or any other social reason. Aristotle defines a tragic hero as "a person who must evoke a sense of pity and fear in the audience. He is considered a man of misfortune that comes to him through error of judgment." A tragic hero's downfall evokes feelings of pity and fear among the audience. Characteristics of a Tragic Hero Here we have basic characteristics of a tragic hero, as explained by Aristotle: Hamartia - a tragic flaw that causes the downfall of a hero. Hubris - excessive pride and disrespect for the natural order of things. Peripeteia - The reversal of fate that the hero experiences. Anagnorisis - a moment in time when hero makes an important discovery in the story. Nemesis - a punishment that the protagonist cannot avoid, usually occurring as a result of his hubris. Catharsis - feelings of pity and fear felt by the audience, for the inevitable downfall of the protagonist. Examples of Tragic Hero in Literature Example #1: Oedipus, Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) Aristotle has used his character Oedipus as a perfect example of a tragic hero, as he has hubris such that he is blind to the truth. He refuses to listen to wise men, such as Tiresias, who predicts that Oedipus has killed his father, Laius. He is tragic because he struggles against the forces of his fate, and pitiable due to his weakness, which arouses fear in the audience. Thus, Oedipus is an ideal example of the tragic hero, as he caused his own downfall, falling from his own estate and facing undeserved punishment. Example #2: Prince Hamlet, Hamlet (by William Shakespeare) Hamlet is the prince of Denmark, a man of high social status and noble by birth. He is almost driven to madness by his father's tortured ghost, who convinces him that Claudius is responsible for his father's death, and that he has committed treachery. Hamlet then makes a plan to take revenge on his father's killer, but he is blinded by his hamartia, neglecting his relations with other loved ones - Ophelia and his mother Gertrude. Hamlet's hamartia is his constant contemplation and brooding, which causes him to delay, which ultimately results in his destruction. By the end, Hamlet also falls in a bloodbath, touching the hearts of the audience by highlighting the most primal fear, death. Example #3: Romeo, Romeo and Juliet (by William Shakespeare) Romeo is also a very good example of a tragic hero. He is a man of high social standing, who falls in love easily with a girl whose family holds animosity towards his own family. Romeo's tragic flaw is start believing on his fate immediately. Juliet acts like a dead person, and Romeo thinks her actually dead. Therefore, he kills himself. When she wakes up and sees him dead, she also kills herself. Thus, it is not only fate, but also his actions and choices that bring his downfall and death. Example #4: Davy Jones, Pirates of the Caribbean (by Irene Trimble) Davy Jones is a modern example of a typical tragic hero. He is basically a sea captain, who falls in love with the sea goddess, Calypso. However, Calypso breaks Jones' heart, making him enraged, tragic, and bitter. He grows into a mixture of a humanoid and octopus, and leads his savage crew on raids in the entire sea on his ship, the Flying Dutchman. At first, he was not bad, but his beloved breaks his heart that turns him into bad man. Eventually, Will Sparrow kills him. Jones' hamartia is that he is a broken-hearted hero, who suffers at the hands of his beloved, Calypso. Function of Tragic Hero The purpose of a tragic hero is to evoke sad emotions, such as pity and fear, which makes the audience experience catharsis, relieving them of their pent up emotions. The tragic flaw of the hero leads to his demise or downfall that in turn brings tragic end. This gives wisdom to the audience to avoid such things in their everyday lives. The sufferings and fall of a hero, arousing feelings of pity and fear through catharsis, purges the audiences of those emotions, to transform them into good human beings and good citizens.

Idiom

The term idiom refers to a set expression or a phrase comprising two or more words. An interesting fact regarding the device is that the expression is not interpreted literally. The phrase is understood to mean something quite different from what individual words of the phrase would imply. Alternatively, it can be said that the phrase is interpreted in a figurative sense. Further, idioms vary in different cultures and countries. Examples of Idiom in Literature Example #1: "Every cloud has its silver lining but it is sometimes a little difficult to get it to the mint." (By Don Marquis) The statement quoted above uses "silver lining" as an idiom which means some auspicious moment is lurking behind the cloud or the difficult time. Example #2: "American idioms drive me up the hall!" (By character Ziva David, NCIS television series) Here, the word "idioms" is used as an idiom. Example #3: "I worked the graveyard shift with old people, which was really demoralizing, because the old people didn't have a chance in hell of ever getting out." (By Kate Millett) In the extract quoted above, "graveyard shift" is employed as an idiom. Example #4: Kirk: "If we play our cards right, we may be able to find out when those whales are being released." Spock: "How will playing cards help?" (Dialogue between characters Captain James T. Kirk and Spock in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, 1986) Here, "if we play our cards right" means "if we avail our opportunities rightly." Example #5: "Shakespeare is credited with coining more than 2,000 words, infusing thousands more existing ones with electrifying new meanings and forging idioms that would last for centuries. 'A fool's paradise,' 'at one fell swoop,' 'heart's content,' 'in a pickle,' 'send him packing,' 'too much of a good thing,' 'the game is up,' 'good riddance,' 'love is blind,' and 'a sorry sight,' to name a few. (Righting the Mother Tongue: From Olde English to Email, the Tangled Story of English Spelling, by David Wolman) This passage highlights the collection of idioms used by Shakespeare in his works. They are still used in everyday writing. Example #6: "Idioms vary in 'transparency': that is, whether their meaning can be derived from the literal meanings of the individual words. For example, make up [one's] mind is rather transparent in suggesting the meaning 'reach a decision,' while kick the bucket is far from transparent in representing the meaning 'die.'" (Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English, by Douglas Biber,‎ Stig Johansson,‎ Geoffrey Leech,‎ Susan Conrad,‎ and Edward Finegan) The extract quoted above explains that idioms vary in their degree of transparency, which is the extent to which an idiom reveals its true meaning varies. Example #7: "Modal idioms are idiosyncratic verbal formations which consist of more than one word and which have modal meanings that are not predictable from the constituent parts (compare the non‑modal idioms kick the bucket). Under this heading we include have got [to], had better/best, would rather/sooner/as soon, and be [to]." The extract quoted above highlights the use and significance of modal idioms. Function of Idiom Writers and public speakers use idioms generously. The purpose behind this vast use of idioms is to elaborate their language, to make it richer and spicier, and to help them in conveying subtle meanings to their intended audience. Not only do idioms help in making the language beautiful, they also make things better or worse through making the expression good or bad. For example, there are several idioms that convey the death of a person in highly subtle meanings, and some do the same in very offensive terms. They are also said to be exact and more correct than the literal words, and sometimes a few words are enough to replace a full sentence. They help the writer make his sense clearer than it is, so that he could convey maximum meanings through minimum words and also keep the multiplicity of the meanings in the text intact. It has also been seen that idioms not only convey subtle meanings, but also ideas not conveyed through normal and everyday language, and they keep the balance in the communication. Furthermore, they provide textual coherence, so that the reader could be able to piece together a text that he has gone through and extract meanings the writer has conveyed.

Invective

The term invective denotes speech or writing that attacks, insults, or denounces a person, topic, or institution. It involves the use of abusive and negative language. The tool of invective is generally employed in both poetry and prose, to reiterate the significance of the deeply felt emotions of the writer. Invective Examples in Prose Example #1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) An example of the manner of use of invective in prose can be witnessed through Shakespearean writing in The Tragedy of King Lear. In Act 2, Scene II of King Lear, Kent declares that Oswald is: "A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow, beggarly, three-suited, hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking knave ... and art nothing but the composition of a knave, beggar, coward, pandar, and the son and heir of a mongrel bitch ..." Just mark the use of words against a person in quick succession. This is called invective. It is a bit different from abuse, as you can see it yourself. Example #2: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) "I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth." Swift's quote above highlights the use of some fascinating and impressive invective. Invective in Poetry The use of invective in poetry has its origins in Greece. However, it was popularly employed as a tool in poetry in Rome. Historically, poets have made use of the tool of invective so as to denounce or abuse political and public figures in a sardonic or satirical tone. In early times, writers found it convenient to anonymously publish their invectives. However, some Grecians, such as Cicero and Juvenal, owned the use of invectives they wrote. The invectives written by them, especially by Catullus, are quite explicit. Back then, invectives had a rhetorical context, however modern use of the tool of invective emphasizes to create a harsh impression. Some of the well-known invective poems include Invective Against Swans, by Wallace Stevens, An Invective Against Gold, by Anne Kelligrew, and The Moralistic, which was written during the 1600s. One of the most famous invective poems ever written is Invective Against the Bumblebee, by New Jersey poet Diane Lockward. The stanzas written below are taken from Diane Lockward's poem Invective Against the Bumblebee, and serve to illustrate the manner in which the tool of invective is employed in the narration of poems. "Escapee from a tight cell, yellow-streaked sex-deprived sycophant to a queen, you have dug divots in my yard and like a squatter trespassed in my garage. I despise you for you have swooped down on my baby boy, harmless on a blanket of lawn, his belly plumping through his orange stretch suit, yellow hat over the fuzz of his head. Though you mistook him for a sunflower, I do not exonerate you, for he weeps in my arms, trembles, and drools, finger swollen like a breakfast sausage. Now my son knows pain. Now he fears the grass. Fat-assed insect! Perverse pedagogue! Henceforth, may flowers refuse to open for you. May cats chase you in the garden. I want you shellacked by rain, pecked by shrikes, mauled by skunks, paralyzed by early frost. May farmers douse your wings with pesticide. May you never again taste the nectar of purple clover or honeysuckle. May you pass by an oak tree just in time to be pissed on by a dog." Function of Invective Invective is one of the most commonly used devices in the modern poetic framework. The tool of invective can be used in a variety of ways, to highlight the depth of the writer's emotions for the cause at hand. For instance, the use of high invective involves formal language and creative expression, which creates an entirely different impact than that of low invective, which concerns the use of stock words and images. The tool of invective also acts as an opportunity for the speaker to convey his heartfelt bitter emotions toward people in power, or other such annoyances. Invective is not, however, a powerful tool of persuasion as sometimes is thought, but is a device employed to get a sort of reaction from the interlocutor.

Nostalgia

The term nostalgia, or the feeling of homesickness, has been derived from a Homeric term, "nostos," which means homecoming. Homer used this term in his epic Odyssey, to show how homesick Odysseus grew when he freed himself from the war. However, the modern derivative of this term is medical research, as a student by the name of Johannes Hofer coined this term during his study of homesickness of mercenaries, including the associated anxiety and mental pain he observed among them. However, in literature, nostalgia is employed to discuss a general interest in the past, or the personalities of the past, and subsequent feelings of pleasure or pain. The online Merriam-Webster dictionary defines nostalgia as, "pleasure and sadness that is caused by remembering something from the past and wishing that you could experience it again." Therefore, nostalgia is not only sadness or sickness, but also the pleasure of remembering, or taking interest in, the past. That is why the Romantic Movement in English literature has a special association with nostalgia, focusing on the pleasure and pain of remembering the past. Examples of Nostalgia in Literature Example #1: Patriot into Traitor, lines 1-5 (By Robert Browning) "It was roses, roses, all the way, With myrtle mixed in my path like mad. The house-roofs seemed to heave and sway, The church-spires flamed, such flags they had, A year ago on this very day!" These are the opening lines from Robert Browning's famous poem "Patriot into Traitor," which shows how nostalgic the king has become about his past, when he is given a heroic welcome. The people gather everywhere to have his glance. However, after a time span of a year, everything changes. The people, who were happy to welcome him at that time, are now eager to see him going to gallows. That is why he becomes nostalgic about the past. Example #2: Little Dorrit (By Charles Dickens) "For I must now confess to you that I suffer from home-sickness — that I long so ardently and earnestly for home, as sometimes, when no one sees me, to pine for it. ... So dearly do I love the scene of my poverty and your kindness. O so dearly, O so dearly!" These lines are from Charles Dickens' novel, Little Dorrit. This is Amy Dorrit's dialogue, who cannot forget her past. On the other hand, all her family members pretend to have forgotten their past. Amy Dorrit has been so involved with her past that she feels pangs of those happy times, and is compelled to think about them. This is a good example of nostalgia by Charles Dickens. Example #3: The Daffodils, lines 18-24 (By William Wordsworth) "For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils." This stanza is a good example of Romantic nostalgic poetry. This is the last stanza of The Daffodils, by William Wordsworth. The poet, having seen beautiful daffodils somewhere, now often sits alone on his couch, recalling the same scene, which brings him pleasure. This is an apt example of pleasure in nostalgia, because the poet experienced tranquility and peace of mind in the company of the flowers, and he still feels the same afterward, when he is alone at home. Function of Nostalgia Despite changes in its meaning over time, nostalgia has not lost its significance in literature. It is used in poems, novels, and plays to evoke feelings of sadness or pleasure a character experiences when recalling his past. It could be the memory of a past event, a victory, a love, or a relationship. It is usually employed to evoke the same feelings among the readers, so that they also could feel the tinge of pain, or a bit of love for their near or dear ones. It could be used to evoke the feelings of pleasure the readers might feel for some past happenings. Nostalgia has more than one function to perform, such as turning a mood from sadness to pleasure, increasing positive self-respect, and doing away with prejudice about the past events.

Palindrome

The term palindrome is derived from two Greek words, palin, which means "again," and dromos, which means "way," or "direction." It is defined as a number, a word, a sentence, a symbol, or even signs that can be read forward as well as backward, or in reverse order with the same effects and meanings. In English, Ben Jonson was the first writer to introduce this term in the middle of the 17th century. There are two types of palindrome: word-unit palindrome, and one-line palindrome. Some words, such as civic, radar, level, rotor, and noon are word-unit palindromes, while the sentence, "Was it a car or a cat I saw?" is an example of one-line palindrome. Categories of Palindrome Palindromes are of many Categories, depending upon the requirements of the subject. The most commonly used Categories of palindrome are given here: Character by Character Name Palindrome Word Palindrome Number Palindrome Line-unit Palindrome Word-unit Palindrome Examples of Palindrome in Literature There are many examples of Palindrome in prose, poetry, and criticism. Let us take a look at some examples: Example #1: The Funny Side of English (By O. A. Booty) "Lewd did I live & evil I did dwel." This is the first sentence using a palindrome that appeared in the English language, back in 1614. In this sentence, the words read the same forward and backward. Example #2: The Life of a Poet (By W. H. Auden) "T. Eliot, top bard, notes putrid tang emanating, is sad. I'd assign it a name: gnat dirt upset on drab pot-toilet." Palindrome can be seen in this sentence where the same names are given to T. Eliot in the beginning, "putrid tang," and also at the end of the sentence "gnat dirt upset on drab pot-toilet." Example #3: Unknown writing (Credited to W. H. Auden) "Norma is as selfless as I am, Ron." Palindrome is used as the author says that Norma and he both are unselfish. Example #4: Doppelgänger (By James A. Lindon) "Entering the lonely house with my wife I saw him for the first time Peering furtively from behind a bush ... Blackness that moved, A shape amid the shadows, A momentary glimpse of gleaming eyes Revealed in the ragged moon ... A closer look (he seemed to turn) might have Revealed in the ragged moon A momentary glimpse of gleaming eyes A shape amid the shadows, Blackness that moved. Peering furtively from behind a bush, I saw him, for the first time Entering the lonely house with my wife." The above poem gives the perfect example of a palindrome, as it reads in the same manner from the first to the last line, as it does from the last line to the first line. Example #5: Inspiration (By Memory Trace) "Open floodgates, once restrained tightly, suddenly form rippled waters, expressive thoughts flowing freely, by frightful heart attending faithfully INSPIRATION faithfully attending heart frightful by freely flowing expressive thoughts, waters rippled form suddenly, tightly restrained once, floodgates open." This type of poetry is also called "mirrored poetry," where palindrome sentences are used, each of which read backward as well as forward - not by the letter, but by the word. Example #6: Famous Names Some famous names as fine palindromes: Lon Nol was a Prime Minister of Cambodia Nisio Isin was a Japanese novelist Robert Trebor was an actor Stanley Yelnats is a character of the movie Holes Function of Palindrome The purpose of using palindromes in writing, words, numbers, and sentences is to create light entertainment and fun. However, some supporters have taken great initiatives in finding long palindromes that cover many sentences and in poetry. In ancient times palindromes appeared in magic spells, and many have taken this reversibility as a convention. Palindromes can be traced in classical and modern music poetry for rhythmical effect, in acoustics, and in dates as well. Even several religious texts are full of palindromes. It is not just a chance that, biologically, our genes are also palindromes - that their order is the same, forward and backward. A further interesting point is that numbers also fall in order to create palindromes, such as 88, 99, 101, 111, 121, 131, 141, 151, 161, and 171 which can be read backward and forward in the same way.

Paradox

The term paradox is from the Greek word paradoxon, which means "contrary to expectations, existing belief, or perceived opinion." It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly, but which may include a latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way. Examples of Paradox Your enemy's friend is your enemy. I am nobody. "What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young." - George Bernard Shaw Wise fool Truth is honey, which is bitter. "I can resist anything but temptation." - Oscar Wilde From the above examples of paradox, we can say that paradox creates a humorous effect on the readers because of its ridiculousness. Examples of Paradox in Literature In literature, paradox is not just a clever or comical statement or use of words. Paradox has serious implications because it makes statements that often summarize the major themes of the work they are used in. Let us analyze some paradox examples from some famous literary works: Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) In George Orwell's Animal Farm, one part of the cardinal rule is this statement: "All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others." This statement seems to not make any sense. However, on closer examination, it becomes clear that Orwell points out a political truth. The government in the novel claims that everyone is equal, but it has never treated everyone equally. It is the concept of equality stated in this paradox that is opposite to the common belief of equality. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) In William Shakespeare's famous play Hamlet, the protagonist Hamlet says: "I must be cruel to be kind." This announcement does not seem to make sense. How can an individual treat others kindly even when he is cruel? However, Hamlet is talking about his mother, and how he intends to kill Claudius to avenge his father's death. This act of Hamlet will be a tragedy for his mother, who is married to Claudius. Hamlet does not want his mother to be the beloved of his father's murderer any longer, and so he thinks that the murder will be good for his mother. Example #3: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) From William Shakespeare's The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet: "The earth that's nature's mother is her tomb; What is her burying grave, that is Rainbow in her womb..." The contradictory ideas of the earth being the birthplace and a graveyard make these lines paradoxical. Example #4: My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold (By William Wordsworth) In his short lyric My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold, William Wordsworth remembers the joys of his past and says: "The child is father of the man..." This statement has a seemingly incorrect supposition, but when we look deep into its meaning, we see the truth. The poet is saying that the childhood experiences become the basis for all adult occurrences. The childhood of a person shapes his life, and consequently "fathers" or creates the grown-up adult. So, "The child is father of the man." Function of Paradox The above reading may bring out the question, "Why is paradox used when a message can be conveyed in a straightforward and simple manner?" The answer lies in the nature and purpose of literature. One function of literature is to make the readers enjoy reading. Readers enjoy more when they extract the hidden meanings out of the writing rather than something presented to them in an uncomplicated manner. Thus, the chief purpose of a paradox is to give pleasure. In poetry, the use of paradox is not confined to mere wit and pleasure; rather, it becomes an integral part of poetic diction. Poets usually make use of paradox to create a remarkable thought or image out of words. Some types of paradox in poetry are meant to communicate a tone of irony to its readers as well as lead their thoughts to the immediate subject. Paradox in most poems normally strives to create feelings of intrigue and interest in readers' minds, to make them think deeper and harder to enjoy the real message of the poem.

Persona

The term persona has been derived from the Latin word persona, which means "the mask of an actor," and is therefore etymologically linked to the dramatis personae, which refers to the list of characters and cast in a play or a drama. It is also known as a "theatrical mask." It can be defined in a literary work as a voice or an assumed role of a character, which represents the thoughts of a writer, or a specific person the writer wants to present as his mouthpiece. Most of the time, the dramatis personae are identified with the writer, though sometimes a persona can be a character or an unknown narrator. Examples of persona are found, not only in dramas, but in poems and novels too. Examples of Persona in Literature Example #1: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (By T. S. Eliot) "Let us go then, you and I, When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a patient etherized upon a table; Let us go, through certain half-deserted streets, The muttering retreats Of restless nights in one-night cheap hotels And sawdust restaurants with oyster-shells: Streets that follow like a tedious argument Of insidious intent To lead you to an overwhelming question... Oh, do not ask, "What is it?" Let us go and make our visit. In the room the women come and go Talking of Michelangelo." These are the initial fifteen lines of the poem Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. The speaker is a persona of T. S. Eliot that he wants to present to the world, though the poet himself is not suffering from the same mental conflict. Example #2: My Last Duchess (By Robert Browning) "That's my last Duchess painted on the wall, Looking as if she were alive. I call That piece a wonder, now: Fra Pandolf's hands ... "Will't please you sit and look at her? I said 'Fra Pandolf' by design, for never read ... "At starting, is my object. Nay, we'll go Together down, sir. Notice Neptune, though, Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity, Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me!" This poem is a dramatic monologue (uses persona). The poet mainly communicates about the shocking appearance of the "duke" character. In this stanza, the persona is discussing the painting as the monologue opens. Through simple technique the poet describes the superficiality of the duke's character, though it seems to be the voice of the poet put into the mouth of the duke. Example #3: The Old Man and Sea (By Ernest Hemingway) "He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish. In the first forty days a boy had been with him. But after forty days without a fish the boy's parents had told him that the old man was now definitely and finally salao, which is the worst form of unlucky... "The sail was patched with flour sacks and, furled, it looked like the flag of permanent defeat." The first paragraph of this book sounds as if Hemingway himself is Santiago. Through the characterization of Santiago, Hemingway is expressing his belief in the struggle against unconquerable natural forces of the world. However, it is up to the persona (Santiago) to determine whether he wants to change his luck or not. Example #4: Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) "Now when I was a little chap I had a passion for maps. I would look for hours at South America, or Africa, or Australia, and lose myself in all the glories of exploration ... and when I saw one that looked particularly inviting on a map (but they all look that) I would put my finger on it and say, 'When I grow up I will go there ... Well, I haven't been there yet, and shall not try now. The glamour's off ... well, we won't talk about that..." Marlow is probably one of the most famous persona examples in novels. In this novel, Marlow is used as Conrad's mouthpiece. In this extract, Conrad is telling us through Marlow about his own visit to the Congo, his experiences of sailing to distant places, and his boyhood ambition of sailing. Hence, Marlow is used as a persona in this novel. Function of Persona The speaker of a dramatic monologue is also known as a persona. Such a monologue is presented without commentary or analysis. However, emphasis is laid on subjective qualities, and finally left up to the audience to interpret it. In literature, authors use persona to express ideas, beliefs, and voices they are not able to express freely, due to some restrictions, or because they cannot put into words otherwise. Persona is also sometimes a role assumed by a person or a character, in public or in society.

Straw Man

The term straw man refers to a form of informal fallacy used in arguments and debates. A type of rhetorical device, straw man is based on refuting the argument of one's opponent on a view he doesn't share. When the subject wants to prove that his or her perspective or argument is superior to an opposing argument, he uses straw man argumentative fallacy. It is taken literally, misleading the audience into thinking the subject has misunderstood the opposition's argument or position. In England, straw man is also commonly known as "Aunt Sally." Read on to learn more about straw man in literature. Use of Straw man in a Presidential Speech "It was a little cocker spaniel dog in a crate he had sent all the way from Texas. Black and white spotted. And our little girl - Tricia, the six year old - named it Checkers. And you know, the kids, like all kids, love the dog and I just want to say this right now, that regardless of what they say about it, we're going to keep it." (US President Nixon's "Checkers Speech" in 1952) U.S. President Richard Nixon gave this straw man response to his critics, who accused him of taking money illegally from election campaign funds for personal use. They never criticized him for receiving a dog as a gift; however, this argument became successful despite being an informal fallacy. Examples of Straw Man in Literature Example #1: Oedipus Rex (by Sophocles) "OEDIPUS: Monster! thy silence would incense a flint. Will nothing loose thy tongue? Can nothing melt thee, Or shake thy dogged taciturnity? TEIRESIAS: Thou blam'st my mood and seest not thine own Wherewith thou art mated; no, thou taxest me... TEIRESIAS: : Yea, I am free, strong in the strength of truth. OEDIPUS: Who was thy teacher? not methinks thy art. TEIRESIAS: Thou, goading me against my will to speak." Oedipus is a strong-willed character that does not like to be proved wrong. At first, when the wise man does not reveal the truth, Oedipus keeps begging him. He finally uses straw man by saying that a blind man is not wise, particularly when Teiresias points at him as the cause of the tragedy befallen the citizens of Thebes. Example #2: The Crucible (by Arthur Miller) "Procter: I have no love for Mr. Parris. It is no secret. But God I surely love. Cheever: He plow on Sunday, sir. Danforth: Plow on Sunday! Cheever: I think it be evidence, John. I am an official of the court, I cannot keep it. Procter: I - I have once or twice plowed on Sunday. I have 3 children, sir, and until last year my land give little." Cheever and Procter argue over the innocence of Procter in the court. Cheever brings up the issue of religion to overshadow the issue. Cheever's straw man argument appeals to emotions and prejudices, rather than reason and intellect. Example #3: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift) In "Modest Proposal," Swift has used the straw man argument to convince readers. He, in fact, responds to the governmental issue of handling an increasing population, and offers a solution through this informal fallacy. It is a straw man objection, with which the author reminds readers that reducing population is an overall goal anyway. He introduces a good objection that there are a number of ways to fix the problem, as he presents the idea of giving the children of the poor to the elite class as food. Though this idea is not logical, it makes his argument effective, as readers are led to think about real solutions to the actual problem. Example #4: Othello (by William Shakespeare) "DESDEMONA: And have you mercy too! I never did Offend you in my life, never loved Cassio OTHELLO: By heaven, I saw my handkerchief in 's hand. O perjured woman, thou dost stone my heart, I saw the handkerchief." In these lines, Othello does not listen to his faithful wife, instead using straw man fallacy to refute Desdemona's argument. He just talks out of emotions and anger, rather than using his intellectual reasoning. Function The use of the straw man device is very common in literature, history, political debates, advertising, and all those fields of life where arguments about highly charged emotional issues arise. Since it is an attempt to undermine the argument of an opponent, writers and speakers use it to belittle or weaken the opponent's position, to make it vulnerable to an argumentative attack. It could be annoyingly effective as, in response to this, the opponent may be lured into expressing something contradictory.

Surrealism

The term surrealism indicates a specific thought and movement in literature, the arts, and theatre, which tries to integrate the confused realms of imagination and reality. The proponents of surrealism endeavor to mix up the differences of conscious and unconscious thought through writing and painting by using irrational juxtaposition of images. Initiated by André Breton (1896-1966), surrealism is a kind of artistic movement started in the French capital, Paris, during the 1920s. This movement lasted until the 1940s. Breton, a famous writer as well as a philosopher, boosted this movement further by publishing his manifesto, "The Manifesto of Surrealism." Although it gave new dimensions to art, it was not a political manifesto. The manifesto states that, horrified by the destruction caused by the world wars and subsequent confusion, art and literature faced numerous political challenges in resolving those confusions, the reaction of which emerged in the shape of surrealism. This movement rather aimed at preventing bloody revolutions by breaking the limitations placed on arts and literature by the politics of that time. Examples of Surrealism in Literature Example #1: Freedom Of Love (By Andre Breton) "My wife with the hair of a wood fire With the thoughts of heat lightning With the waist of an hourglass With the waist of an otter in the teeth of a tiger My wife with the lips of a cockade and of a bunch of stars of the last magnitude With the teeth of tracks of white mice on the white earth With the tongue of rubbed amber and glass My wife with the tongue of a stabbed host." (Lines 1-8) This is one of the best examples of surrealist poetry by Andre Breton. These lines have been taken from his poem "Freedom of Love." See the irrationality in images about his wife and a wood fire, an hourglass, and teeth of a tiger. None of these images have any relation. They have been just irrationally put together to demonstrate the mind of the poet, and a situation of the reality in which he is living. Example #2: Dark Poet (by Antonin Artaud) "Dark Poet, a maid's breast Haunts you, Embittered poet, life seethes And life burns, And the sky reabsorbs itself in rain, Your pen scratches at the heart of life." (Lines 1-6) These lines have been taken from poem "Dark Poet" by Antonin Artaud. This poem juxtaposes the poet with the breasts that is quite irrational and hence surreal. Example #3: A Season in Hell (by Arthur Rimbaud) "A while back, if I remember right, my life was one long party where all hearts were open wide, where all wines kept flowing. One night, I sat Beauty down on my lap.—And I found her galling.—And I roughed her up. I armed myself against justice. I ran away. O witches, O misery, O hatred, my treasure's been turned over to you! (Lines 1-5) Just check the images presented in the first few lines of this poem by Arthur Rimbaud. These are contradictory and irrational images. That is why "A Season in Hell" is one of the best surreal poems. Example #4: Hidden Faces (by Salvador Dali, translated by Chevalier) "Then an unheard-of being, unheard-of beings, will be seen to rise, their brains compressed by sonorous helmets, their temples pierced by the whistling of air waves, their bodies naked, turned yellow by fever, pocked by deep vegetal stigmata swarming with insects and filled to the brim with the slimy juices of venom, overflowing and running down a skin tiger-striped and leopard-spotted by the gangrene of wounds and the leprosy of camouflage, their swollen bellies plugged to death by electric umbilical chords [sic] tangling with the ignominiousness of torn intestines and bits of flesh, roasting in the burning steel carapaces of the punitive tortures of gutted tanks. That is man! Backs of lead, sexual organs of fire, fears of mica, chemical hearts of the televisions of blood, hidden faces and wings — always wings, the north and south of our being!" This excerpt has been taken from "Hidden Faces," a novel by Salvador Dali. it uses irrational images to describe a person. Function of Surrealism Life became topsy-turvy after two world wars. Literature and art faced the dilemma of presenting this topsy-turvy state of mind in words or colors. The artists and writers of that time tried to resolve this situation by presenting strange and shocking images in their writings and paintings. This technique of presenting images helps the readers and the audiences connect with the confused state of mind of that time, and of the people living after the two world wars. Surrealism is a representation of this confusion. It makes people aware of bizarre reality around them. They connect themselves with this reality and become familiar with it.

Epic

The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, "epikos", which means a poetic story. In literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery. In order to depict this bravery and courage, the epic uses grandiose style. The hero is usually the representative of the values of a certain culture, race, nation or a religious group on whose victor of failure the destiny of the whole nation or group depends. Therefore, certain supernatural forces, deus ex machina, help the hero, who comes out victor at the end. An epic usually starts with an invocation to muse, but then picks up the threads of the story from the middle and moves on to the end. Difference Between an Epic and a Ballad A ballad and an epic both are poems, which narrate stories. However, a ballad is shorter in length than an epic, while it is composed to be sung on some occasions, and not narrated. They are also known as folk ballads as well as popular ballads. Most of the ballads have unknown origin and source and usually pass on orally from generations to generations. On the other hand, an epic poem tells a story, but about the heroic ideals of a specific society. The actual difference between the two is the length and the fact that one is usually meant to be sung, while the other is to be narrated. Both differ in style where a ballad is composed in a simple language, while an epic demonstrates mastery in style such as Paradise Lost. Examples of Epic from Literature The Epic of Gilgamesh (~2000 BCE) Perhaps, the Epic of Gilgamesh is the first example of an epic. It tells the story of the life of an Assyrian king, Gilgamesh. Like all other epics, the narrative of this epic revolves around the themes related to gods, human beings, mortality, legacy and seduction. Like other epics, it is also composed in a grand style. Gilgamesh is a young arrogant king due to his being half-god and half-human. His strength and masculine beauty becomes a constant source of trouble for others. Therefore, gods grow sick of Gilgamesh's arrogant and troublesome attitude and decide to teach him a lesson. He is made to fight his antagonist, Enkidu, and then go on a long journey to bring the plant of life — a journey on which he learns the lessons of life. Although the epic is written nearly 4,000 years ago, critics are unanimous that it is a human work. The Iliad (800 BCE) Iliad is another example of an epic. It was written by the popular Greek poet, Homer. It relates the story of the Trojan wars, involving themes of courage, boldness, love for one's country and nostalgia of family. However, it describes many legends related to the siege of Troy, the events took place before the siege, the gathering of the warriors prior to the siege and the causes of the war. Later, the epic foretold the looming death of Achilles and the destruction of Troy. The style of narration is grand, and suits an epic poem — the reason that it is still one the most celebrated work of antiquity. Paradise Lost (1667) Written on the same traditions but on a different subject, Paradise Lost, is an English epic by yet another blind poet of English origin, John Milton. It also is known colloquially as the Protestant Epic. In this epic, Milton argues Satan's fall from the heaven as well as Adam and Eve's fall from the Garden of Eden. Despite his blindness, Milton did not stop from explaining "the ways of God to men." He has depicted Satan as a highly complex character, who is at war with God. Despite his different subject, Milton has used several epic devices introduced by Homer such as invocation to the muse, extended similes and grand style. Function of Epic As the epic poem is the earliest form of poetry, it is the earliest form of entertainment as well. Epics were written to commemorate the struggles and adventures of kings and warriors. The main function of epic poetry was to elevate the status of the hero among the audiences to inspire them to be ready to perform heroic actions. Epic obtained most of its themes from the exploits performed by legendary characters and their illustrious ancestors. That is why these exploits became examples for others to follow, and still lived in books. It is through epics, models of ideal heroic behavior were supplied to the common people. Moreover, epics also were collections of historical events not recorded in common history books — the reason that they are read today to be enjoyed and be informed regarding the past.

Fable

The word fable is derived from the Latin word fibula, which means "a story," and a derivative of the word fari, which means "to speak." Fable is a literary device that can be defined as a concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end. In literature, it is described as a didactic lesson given through some sort of animal story. In prose and verse, a fable is described through plants, animals, forces, of nature, and inanimate objects by giving them human attributes wherein they demonstrate a moral lesson at the end. Features of a Fable A fable is intended to provide a moral story. Fables often use animals as the main characters. They are presented with anthropomorphic characteristics, such as the ability to speak and to reason. Fables personify the animal characters. Examples of Fable in Literature Example #1: The Fox and the Crow (By Aesop's Fables) "A crow was sitting on a branch of a tree with a piece of cheese in her beak when a fox observed her and set his wits to work to discover some way of getting the cheese. Coming and standing under the tree he looked up and said, 'What a noble bird I see above me! Her beauty is without equal...' Down came the cheese, of course, and the Fox, snatching it up, said, 'You have a voice, madam, I see: what you want is wits.'" Aesop is probably the most notable author of famous examples of fable. Aesopian fables put emphasis on the social communications of human beings, and hence the morals he draws deal with realities of life. In this excerpt, Aesop gives a moral lesson that flatterers must not be trusted. Example #2: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) "Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies ... and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end ... No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery ..." Here, old Major is speaking to other animals. It is presented as the story of the development and emergence of Soviet communism, through an animal fable. He advises the animals to struggle against the humans, telling them that rebellion is the only feasible way out of their miserable situation. Example #3: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S.T. Coleridge) First Voice "But tell me, tell me! speak again, Thy soft response renewing — What makes that ship drive on so fast? What is the ocean doing?" Second Voice "Still as a slave before his lord, The ocean hath no blast... Up to the moon is cast —... See! see! (I cried) she tacks no more... "Without a breeze, without a tide, She steadies with upright keel!" The voices in this poem explain the moving ship without waves and wind. There is a supernatural force at work. This literary piece is one of the well-written fable examples that teach about penance, redemption, and sin. The killing of a bird symbolizes the original sin. Example #4: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) "I attempted to rise, but was not able to stir: for, as I happened to lie on my back, I found my arms and legs were strongly fastened on each side to the ground; and my hair, which was long and thick, tied down in the same manner ... In a little time I felt something alive moving on my left leg, which advancing gently forward over my breast, came almost up to my chin..." Gulliver's Travels is a mixture of political allegory, moral fable, mock utopia, and social anatomy. In this excerpt, Captain Gulliver reaches an unknown place among strange creatures who speak a strange language. This is a type of modern fable intended to satirize political vices. Function of Fable The purpose of writing fables is to convey a moral lesson and message. Fables also give readers a chance to laugh at the follies of human beings, and they can be employed for the objective of satire and criticism. They are very helpful in teaching children good lessons based on examples. However, in literature, fables are used for didactic purposes at a much broader level.

Homograph

The word homograph originated from the Greek word "homos," which means "the same," and graph, which means "to write," and it is used extensively in language. It can be defined as words that are used in such a manner as to give two or more different meanings, where the words have the same spelling, but different meanings, and sometimes different pronunciations as well. For instance, the word "bear" (verb) means "to endure," and "bear" (noun) is the name of an animal. This can be considered one example of homograph. This literary device is one of the types of pun (paronomasia). Similarity with Homonym Homonym is a bigger category of which homographs are a part. All homograph examples are also identified as homonym examples, since a homograph is a specific term, but a homonym is a generalized term. Homographs are words with different meanings but the same spelling, such as tire (fatigue), and tire (wheel tire). Difference Between Homograph and Homophone The basic difference between homophone and homograph is that homographs are words that have the same spelling, such as "He is my close relative," and "Please close the door." Homophones, on the other hand, are words that sound the same and are spelled differently, such as "That speech was read," and "That dress was red." Examples of Homograph in Literature Example #1: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens) "They seemed to think the opportunity lost, if they failed to point the conversation to me, every now and then, and stick the point into me" Here, in this excerpt, both words in bold are identical in spelling, but they have different meanings. The first "point" means direction, and second "point" means the idea. Example #2: When Words Don't Fit - A Multiple Meaning Words Poem (By Unknown) "I have such a fit (tantrum) When these words don't fit (match)! Like when all through the spring (season) All the deer jump and spring (bounce), And the lions feel they might (perhaps) Want to show I have such a fit (tantrum) When these words don't fit (match)! Like when all through the spring (season) All the deer jump and spring (bounce), And the lions feel they their strength and might (power), When the monkeys swing (sway) From a vine like a swing(hanging seat), And the roar of the bear (animal) Is too loud for me to bear (endure), And I can't try to pet (stroke) One, since it's not a pet (domesticated animal)! I'm not trying to be mean (cruel), But what do these words mean (imply)?" This poem is probably the best piece to use if you are teaching Homographs 101, as the words used are very familiar. Using context clues, the meanings (enclosed in parentheses) of the homographs are easy to decipher. Example #3: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov) Vladimir Nabokov has used multilingual and unique homographs in his novel Lolita. For instance, a character's name, "Humbert," is used as a pun in different languages. In Spanish, its meaning is "man," and in French its meaning is "shadow." Similarly, the name of the character "Lolita" is changed to "Dolores." In Latin its meaning is "pain," and the meaning of her nickname "Dolly" is a toy in English. Example #4: A Hymn to God the Father (By John Donne) "When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more. That at my death Thy Son Shall shine as he shines now, and heretofore And having done that, Thou hast done; I fear no more..." Donne has played on both his and his wife's last names, "Donne," and "More," with the words "done" and "more." These are homographs that have the same pronunciations. Donne has used it for wry effect. Example #5: Much Ado About Nothing (By William Shakespeare) Beatrice: "The count is neither sad, nor sick, nor merry, nor well: but civil, count; civil as an orange, and something of that jealous complexion..." Here, Beatrice is mocking Claudio, saying he is "civil" like a bitter orange, which describes the bitter feelings of Claudio. This is a pun on the name "Seville," which is pronounced as "ci-VIL," and is the place from where these oranges had come. Function of Homograph Homographs are used as a word play to create humorous and comic effects in literary writings, in theater, and in limerick form of poetry. Frequently, in literary works, these make readers think and laugh, and increase the clarity of text by playing with specific words. Generally, it is done voluntarily to create humor and wryness. It also increases the vocabulary of readers by introducing secondary or multiple meanings of the terms.

Meiosis

The word meiosis originated from the Greek word meioo, which means "to diminish," or "to make smaller." Meiosis can be defined as a witty understatement that belittles or dismisses something or somebody; particularly by making use of terms that give an impression that something is less important than it is or it should be. Meiosis examples are sometimes used in the sense of a synonym of litotes. In literature, however, meiosis describes the use of understatement to highlight a point, or explain a situation, or to understate a response used to enhance the effect of a dramatic moment. For example, when Mercutio is wounded mortally and says, "ay, ay, a scratch, a scratch..." (Romeo and Juliet, by William Shakespeare) it is a form of meiosis. Features of Meiosis It is intentional understatement. It is used to belittle a person or an event. It is opposite to hyperbole or exaggeration. It often makes use of litotes as synonyms to give ironic effect. Examples of Meiosis in Literature There are several examples of meiosis in literature, where the persons and events are understated, depending on the situations. Here are some of them: Example #1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) "I am a very foolish fond old man, Fourscore and upward, not an hour more or less; And, to deal plainly, I fear I am not in my perfect mind..." Shakespeare has used meiosis in these lines to create humor. Although it is undoubtedly clear that the king has gone mad, his reaction that "I fear I am not in my perfect mind" is an example of an understatement. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) "...A little month, or ere those shoes were old With which she followed my poor father's body... O God, a beast that wants discourse of reason Would have mourned longer... O, most wicked speed, to post With such dexterity to incestuous sheets! It is not nor it cannot come to good: But break, my heart; for I must hold my tongue." In this speech, Hamlet uses understatement or meiosis to conclude his soliloquy, where he states that all this cannot come to good. This is a gentle statement compared to the rest of his speech, in which he has lashed out at his mother. The best and the most effective use of meiosis can be seen in tragic plays like this one. Example #3: Fire and Ice (By Robert Frost) "Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice. From what I've tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if it had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great And would suffice." The understatement of the entire poem is given in the last word which is suffice, which means "adequate." In this poem, ice symbolizes hatred, and fire passion that could consume relations quickly. Therefore, both would be more than enough to destroy the world. Example #4: Monty Python and the Holy Grail, 1975 (By Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Terry Gilliam, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin) King Arthur: "The Lady of the Lake, her arm clad in the purest shimmering samite held aloft Excalibur from the bosom of the water." Peasant: "Listen, strange women lying in ponds distributing swords is no basis for a system of government. Power derives from the masses not from some farcical aquatic ceremony." King Arthur: "Be quiet!" Peasant: "You can't expect to wield supreme power because some watery tart threw a sword at you." King Arthur: "Shut up!" Peasant: "If I went around saying I was an emperor because some moistened bint had lobbed a scimitar at me..." Just check the use of the words moistened bint the peasant says to King Arthur. This is the best use of meiosis which belittles the king himself. Function of Meiosis Meiosis, in fact, illustrates tone and mannerism, such as quiet and brooding, where protagonists are often understated in tone and action. Meiosis is very common everywhere in our daily lives, old and modern literature, and media. We can distinguish understatement in modesty, in humor, in composed and calm characters, and in personalities, where it gives rhetorical effects to the speech delivered by them. Since it is a method used to give information that diminishes the response of an overemotional occurrence, the basic function of meiosis is to reduce the significance of someone or something in order to heighten something else simultaneously.

Tone

Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter. The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is the tone. The tone can be formal, informal, serious, comic, sarcastic, sad, or cheerful, or it may be any other existing attitude. Consider the following examples of tone: "I want to ask the authorities what is the big deal? Why do they not control the epidemic? It is eating up lives like a monster." "I want to draw the attention of the appropriate authorities toward damage caused by the epidemic. If steps are not taken to curb it, it will further injure our community." The theme of both tone examples is the same. The only way we can differentiate between them is their separate tone. The tone in the first example is casual or informal while, it is more formal in the second. Tone Examples in Common Speech We adopt a variety of tones in our day-to-day speech. This intonation of our speech determines what message we desire to convey. Read a few examples below: Example #1 Father: "We are going on a vacation." Son: "That's great!!!" - The tone of son's response is very cheerful. Example #2 Father: "We can't go on vacation this summer." Son: "Yeah, great! That's what I expected." - The son's tone is sarcastic. Example #3 "Yeah, your grades on this exam will be as good as the previous exams." - The tone is pessimistic in this example. Example #4 "Can someone tell me what the hell is going on here?" - This has an aggressive tone. Short Examples of Tone Though the starry sky was beautiful, his mood was so melancholic that he took no interest in it. The old man took the handful of dust from his farm and sniffed it with great pleasure. The sweet smell of spring roses made overjoyed him. The old man's face looked so peaceful after death that he seemed in deep sleep. The spectacle of sunset was so astounding that people stood watching breathlessly. The scorching heat of the desert sun burned his skin black, and he could see death hovering over his head. The singing of birds was deemed a messenger for approaching spring. His stinking breath kept listeners at a considerable distance from him. The muffled church bell sounded as thought it came from an unfathomably deep well. The kind touch of her mother's hand comforted her in her pain. He was on his way to home when he saw a boy of ten, who moved his heart as he stood weeping. The negotiations between the two states came to a halt after terms of reference could not be agreed upon. The harsh gusts of cruel cold wind battered her body. He went into the restaurant and ordered a hot coffee, the cozy atmosphere inside reminded him of the past. Examples of Tone in Literature Tone has a significant place in literature as it manifests writers' attitudes toward different subjects. Example #1: Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger) Holden Caulfield, in J. D. Salinger's Catcher in the Rye, unfolds his personality through the tone he adopts throughout the novel. Let us have a look at some of his remarks: "All morons hate it when you call them a moron." "If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she's late? Nobody." "******* money. It always ends up making you blue as hell." "Catholics are always trying to find out if you're Catholic." Holden's tone is bitterly sarcastic as he criticizes the nature of things in real life. His character may reveal the attitude of the writer towards life, as it is common for writers to use their characters as their mouthpieces. Example #2: The School (By Donald Barthelme) Observe the tone of a short story, The School, by Donald Barthelme: "And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing." The use of the adjectives "dead" and "depressing" sets a gloomy tone in the passage. As trees signify life here, their unexpected "death" from an unknown cause gives the above passage an unhappy and pessimistic tone. Example #3: The Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost) Robert Frost, in the last stanza of his poem The Road Not Taken, gives us an insight into the effect of tone: "I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference." Frost tells us about his past with a "sigh," this gives the above lines an unhappy tone. This tone leads us into thinking that the speaker in the poem had to make a difficult choice. Example #4: A River Runs Through It (By Norman Maclean) "This was the last fish we were ever to see Paul catch. My father and I talked about this moment several times later, and whatever our other feelings, we always felt it fitting that, when we saw him catch his last fish, we never saw the fish but only the artistry of the fisherman." The extract contains tones of loss and nostalgia; however, the characters look quite satisfied with the way things are moving forward. Example #5: The Tell-Tale Heart (By Edgar Allen Poe) "It was A LOW, DULL, QUICK SOUND - MUCH SUCH A SOUND AS A WATCH MAKES WHEN ENVELOPED IN COTTON. I gasped for breath, and yet the officers heard it not. I talked more quickly, more vehemently but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued about trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why WOULD they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited to fury by the observations of the men, but the noise steadily increased. O God! What COULD I do?" This short story by Poe contains the tones of insanity, nervousness, and guilt. The character suffers from all these feelings, which the writer has translated into a story. Example #6: A Clean, Well-Lighted Place (By Ernest Hemingway) "It was very late and everyone had left the cafe except an old man who sat in the shadow the leaves of the tree made against the electric light. In the day time the street was dusty, but at night the dew settled the dust and the old man liked to sit late because he was deaf and now at night it was quiet and he felt the difference." In this short excerpt, the culminating tone of the writer is that of peace and serenity, though he talks of the day time in a bit different tone. Function of Tone Tone, in a piece of literature, decides how the readers read a literary piece, and how they should feel while they are reading it. It stimulates the readers to read a piece of literature as a serious, comical, spectacular, or distressing manner. In addition, tone lends shape and life to a piece of literature because it creates a mood. Moreover, tone bestows voice to characters, and throws light on the personalities and dispositions of characters that readers understand better.

Tragedy

Tragedy is a type of drama that presents a serious subject matter about human suffering and corresponding terrible events in a dignified manner. Greek Tragedy The term is Greek in origin, dating back to the 5th century BC, when it was assigned by the Greeks to a specific form of plays performed at festivals in Greece. The local governments supported such plays, and the mood surrounding the presentation of these plays was that of a religious ceremony, as the entire community, along with the grand priest, attended the performances. The subject matter of Greek tragedies was derived chiefly from Homer's Iliad, and Odyssey, which included misfortunes of heroes of history and religious mythology. The three prominent Greek dramatists were Aeschylus (525-456 BC), Sophocles (496-406 BC), and Euripides (480-406 BC). Aristotle's Definition of Tragedy Aristotle defines Tragedy in his famous work Poetics as: "Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete (composed of an introduction, a middle part and an ending), and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotions." From the above definition, we can understand the objective of the Greek tragedies, which is the "...purification of such emotions," also called "catharsis." Catharsis is a release of emotional tension, after an overwhelming experience, that restores or refreshes the spirit. English Tragedy Shaped on the models of Seneca, the first English tragedy appeared in 1561, written by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville. The play chose the story of a British king and his sufferings at the hand of his two disobedient sons as a subject matter. The importance of the play lies in the fact that it transformed the style of English drama, from morality and mystery plays, to the writing of tragedies in the Elizabethan era. Tragedy Examples Below is the list of prominent English tragedy writers and their famous works: A. Christopher Marlowe Marlowe was the first English dramatist worthy of the tradition of Greek tragedy. The characters of his tragedies are the great men of history, who became victims of their own fate. Tamburlaine Doctor Faustus The Jew of Malta Edward III B. William Shakespeare Shakespeare, the most popular of all playwrights, knew the Greek tragedy style well and he used several Greek themes but modified them to his own purpose. He intentionally violates the unity of action and mixes tragic actions with comical. Examples of tragedy written by Shakespeare include: Hamlet Othello King Lear Macbeth Antony and Cleopatra Troilus and Cressida C. John Webster Webster was a Jacobean dramatist who modeled his tragedies on the Shakespearean model. Among his famous works are the following tragedy examples: Titus Andronicus The White Devil The Duchess of Malfi D. Henrick Ibsen He is known as "the father of realism". He was the creator of some of the well-known tragedies also called "problem plays". His famous works are: A Doll's House Hedda Gabler The Wild Duck Emperor and Galilean E. Arthur Miller He is a famous American playwright and essayist. His famous works are: All My Sons Death of a Salesman The Crucible A View from the Bridge The misfits The Difference Between Greek and English Tragedies We notice the following differences between the tragedies by the Greek playwrights, and those written by English playwrights: Device Greek Tragedies English Tragedies Theme/Plot Focused on a single theme and plot Have several story lines developing at the same time into plots and sub-plots Character Origins "great" characters were mortals who were equal to gods in their significance Heroes come from all walks of life Subject Matter Serious, treated in a dignified manner Mixed tragic with comic (Modern playwrights argue that such depiction is nearer to life as our life is a mixture of good and bad fortunes.) Purpose/Objective Religious teaching Instructive of a religious or ethical issue, though their primary objective is to entertain.

Tragic Flaw

Tragic flaw is a literary device that can be defined as a trait in a character leading to his downfall, and the character is often the hero of the literary piece. This trait could be the lack of self-knowledge, lack of judgment, and often it is hubris (pride). The Greek word for Tragic flaw is hamaratia or hamartanein, which means "to err." It was Aristotle who introduced this term first in his book Poetics, and his idea was that it is an "error of judgment" on the part of a hero that brings his downfall. A tragic flaw is also called a "fatal flaw" in literature and films. This is taken as a defective trait in the character of the hero. Examples of Tragic Flaw in Literature Example #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) OEDIPUS: "Aye, and on thee in all humility I lay this charge: let her who lies within Receive such burial as thou shalt ordain... But for myself, O never let my Thebes... The burden of my presence while I live... God speed thee! and as meed for bringing them May Providence deal with thee kindlier Than it has dealt with me ... His will was set forth fully — to destroy The parricide, the scoundrel; and I am he... But I am the gods' abhorrence." Tragic flaw examples are found in tragedies - and Oedipus Rex is the major play that is set as a yardstick. Oedipus is a perfect example of having a tragic flaw in this famous Greek tragedy. The cause of his downfall was his inadvertent wrongdoings. The hubris of Oedipus is the cause which made him disobey the prophecy of the gods. Ironically, he ended up doing what he was scared of the most, such that he became an abhorrence to the gods, in his own words. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) HAMLET: "To be, or not to be-that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep... No more; and by a sleep to say we end The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep..." In Hamlet, the tragic flaw determines his downfall in the play. And his tragic flaw is his indecisiveness, which is due to grave thinking on the topic of whether vengeance is wrong or right, and whether to kill his father's murderer or not. In the course of time, his relationship with his mother is spoiled, and Ophelia commits suicide. He reveals this indecisiveness in this excerpt. Example #3: Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) Faustus: "But Faustus' offense can ne'er be pardoned; The serpent that tempted Eve may be saved, But not Faustus ... God forbade it indeed but Faustus hath done it. For the vain pleasure of four and twenty years hath Faustus lost eternal joy and felicity ... Fair nature's eye, rise, rise again and make Perpetual day. Or let this hour be but a year, A month, a week, a natural day, That Faustus may repent and save his soul O mercy, heaven! Look not so fierce on me ... I'll burn my books." The character of Dr. Faustus is also one of the best examples of tragic flaw. The tragic flaw of Dr. Faustus is his ambitious nature to learn. He made a contract with Lucifer and sold his soul in this connection. Finally, his soul is taken to hell, and then he realizes his sin and repents but it was too late. Function of Tragic Flaw Tragic flaw is used for moral purposes, in order to encourage the audience to improve their characters and remove the flaws which could bring their downfall in life. The readers and the audience can identify themselves with the tragic hero, since it imparts feelings of pity and fear among them, thereby completing their catharsis - or in other words, they are purged of bad emotions. Therefore, they can learn a moral lesson so that they might not indulge in similar actions in future.

Tragicomedy

Tragicomedy is a literary device used in fictional works. It contains both tragedy and comedy. Mostly, the characters in tragicomedy are exaggerated, and sometimes there might be a happy ending after a series of unfortunate events. It is incorporated with jokes throughout the story, just to lighten the tone. Examples of Tragicomedy in Literature Example #1: The Merchant of Venice (By William Shakespeare) The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare is considered one of the most popular traditional tragicomedy examples. Though it has a comedic structure, there are tragic characters, such as Shylock (who is a central character), and tragic events, such as Antonio's "loss" of life (because he is not really dead). Although the play ends on a happy note with the union of the lovers in the story, and Antonio is saved from a tragic incident, readers are left with a taste of Shylock's sufferings. Hence, the feeling and mood of the play at the end is neither happy nor gloomy. Though, this play definitely has a comic structure, it also has a strong tragic story. Therefore, it can be classified as a tragicomedy. Example #2: The Cherry Orchard (By Anton Chekhov) Anton Chekhov's play, The Cherry Orchard, turned out to be his final play that has a combination of comedy and tragedy. It is the story of an elite family that is on the verge of losing its inherited estate. As this play is based on an inevitable social change, which came with the dawn of the 20th century, it presents the end of an aristocratic era, blended with tragic and comic elements. The comic elements can be seen in the behavior, humorous aspects, and lack of responsibility of the characters. Example #3: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot can also be considered one of the great examples of tragicomedy. There are many gestures, dialogues, actions, and situations that are filled with pure comedy. All types of musical devices have been used to create laughter. The overall atmosphere is that of a dark-comedy. For example, Vladimir is determined not to listen to Estragon's nightmare. However, the latter keeps pleading with him to listen. Similarly, Estragon takes off and puts on his shoes several times while Vladimir plays with his hat again and again. On the other hand, comedy turns into a tragedy due to the haplessness of these tramps. Vladimir and Estragon wait for somebody who does not come, which makes them disappointed. During the course of time, they indulge themselves in meaningless activities. Example #4: The Winter's Tale (By William Shakespeare) Shakespearean tragicomedies have complex and dubious plots. One of his perfect tragicomedies is The Winter's Tale. The first three acts are both tragic and serious, while the final two acts are based on pastoral romance, roguery, songs, humor, and reunion. A sheep-shearing celebration with the elegant, innocent Perdita serving as a hostess, dancing and singing with shepherds, is suggestive of rural life in England. The blend of suffering, sorrows, humor, romance, forgiveness, and reunion in the play confirms its label as a tragicomedy. There are different aspects of the tragicomedy in the play that include: tragic elements, comic elements, romantic elements, and a happy ending. Example #5: The Caretaker (By Harold Pinteris) The Caretaker, written by Harold Pinteris, is mixed with two modes, tragedy and comedy, and is a fine modern example of tragicomedy. The comic elements come out in the monologues of Mick and Davies, and even the interactions between characters sometimes approach farce. Davies' repetition, confusion, and deceit of the brothers makes the play comedic. However, the tragic element appears in the climatic monologue of Anton, regarding his shock treatments, at the end of the play and in "that place," although its ending is somewhat ambiguous. Example #6: Marriage à la Mode (By John Dryden) John Dryden's Marriage à la Mode is a successful comedy that merges two different plots of restoration comedy of manners and romantic tragicomedy. The double plot encompasses the idea that marriage both creates hope and brings regrets, it both opens possibilities and denies opportunities. Function of Tragicomedy The main purpose of tragicomedy is to describe the dual nature of reality, where both modes can coexist, perhaps simultaneously. Therefore, the interweaving of both aspects gives both a comic and tragic view of life. Tragicomedy is mainly used in dramas and theater. Since tragic plays focus exclusively on protagonists, while comic plays are devoid of focus and concern, therefore plays that fell between these two categories were developed. These types of plays present both modes of life through absurdity and seriousness.

Transition

Transitions are words and phrases that provide a connection between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs. Transitions help to make a piece of writing flow better. They can turn disconnected pieces of ideas into a unified whole, and prevent a reader from getting lost in the storyline. Since the goal of a writer is to convey information clearly and concisely, transitions help achieve that aim by providing a logical connection between one or more sections of a piece of writing. Transitions usually work best when used to link one paragraph to the next, and are usually found at the beginning of the paragraph, although they can be used anywhere when needed. Some examples of transition words or phrases include: another key point indeed in fact first thing to remember on the negative side on the positive side A piece of writing usually contains two elements: (1) the order in which different parts of a discussion or argument are provided to the readers; and (2) the relationship the writer has used to link these parts together. Transitions cannot be used as a substitute for good organization, but they do aid in making the writing easier and clearer to follow by keeping a constant, consistent flow from one paragraph to the next. Some clues that a writer needs to use transitions include: The written work is choppy, abrupt and jumpy. The writer has moved from one point to the next abruptly and quickly, without a visible connection between the two ideas. The readers have trouble following the writer's train of thought, or organization of ideas. Following is an example of a disjointed paragraph can be made to flow smoothly by the use of transitions: Disjointed Sentence: "We will be here for a few more days so we can finish up some leftover work. We are staying longer because we do not want to miss the Tech Info conference taking place next week." Revised with Transition: "We will be here for a few more days so we can finish up some leftover work. Another reason we are staying longer is because we do not want to miss the Tech Info Conference taking place next week. In the first sentence, the two ideas are abruptly linked without a transition present to connect the two together. In the revised version, the sentences are linked by a transition to connect the two ideas for smoother flow, giving the reader a better understanding of what the writer wanted them to know. Common Locations of Transitions 1. Between Sections In longer pieces of writing, transitional paragraphs summarize the information for readers, and specify the relevance of the information in the sections to come. 2. Between Paragraphs Transitions form a relationship between paragraphs by connecting them with phrases, words, or sentences that can be placed at the end of the first paragraph, the start of the second paragraph, or in both places. 3. Within Paragraphs These help the reader anticipate what is to come by serving as cues. Within paragraphs, transitions are usually short phrases or single words. Examples of Transition Example #1: To show contrast between ideas: on the contrary, however, notwithstanding Example #2: To denote time: after, at last, before Example #3: To add to the previous point in the essay: furthermore, besides, moreover Example #4: To show similarity or comparison between ideas: likewise, similarly, in like fashion Example #5: To concede a point in the essay: although, at least, at any rate Example #6: To emphasize a point: indeed, above all, truly Example #7: To bring attention to detail: especially, specifically, in particular Example #8: To show consequence or a result: with the result that, so that, consequently Example #9: To illustrate a point or provide examples: for instance, for example, to illustrate Example #10: To make a suggestion in the essay: to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind Example #11: To sum up the points: finally, therefore, consequently Function of Transition Transitions can be used in diverse circumstances. A transition can be a word, a phrase, or even an entire paragraph. The function of a transition is the same in each case: it summarizes the content of the preceding paragraph or section, and it helps the reader anticipate what's to come in the next paragraph. However, the major function is not just to embellish one's writing by making it read or sound better; these are words which serve the function of presenting the ideas in such a way that help readers react in particular ways to the ideas presented. They play a very important part in helping readers see the logical sequence of the idea.

Tricolon

Tricolon is a rhetorical term that consists of three parallel clauses, phrases, or words, which happen to come in quick succession without any interruption. The origin of this rhetorical device is traced to the Greek word tricolon, meaning "section of a sentence." These three parallel words, phrases, or clauses have almost the same length, though this condition is not strictly followed. It also refers to a collection of three lines, paragraphs, chapters, or stanzas. For instance, William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar uses it in his famous speech in ascending order as, "Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, [and] I conquered.") The purpose of tricolon is to give a greater sense of roundness, completeness, and wholeness, whereas the third part brings in a surprising effect in the sentence. Popular Examples of Tricolon in Presidential Speeches Example #1: Barack Obama speaks in Memorial Service for Nelson Mandela, December, 10, 2013 "After this great liberator is laid to rest, and when we have returned to our cities and villages and rejoined our daily routines, let us search for his strength. Let us search for his largeness of spirit somewhere inside of ourselves. And when the night grows dark, when injustice weighs heavy on our hearts, when our best-laid plans seem beyond our reach, let us think of Madiba and the words that brought him comfort within the four walls of his cell ..." Example #2: President Dwight Eisenhower, "The Chance for Peace." Speech delivered to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, April, 1953 "Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies, in the final sense, a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed. This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of its scientists, the hopes of its children." The lines above, highlighted in bold, present examples of tricolon. First is presented by the incumbent President Obama in his 2013 speech, while the second one was given by President Eisenhower in his speech delivered in 1953. Examples of Tricolon in Literature Example #1: The Wizard in The Wizard of Oz (By L. Frank Baum) "You are talking to a man who has laughed in the face of death, sneered at doom, and chuckled at catastrophe." The use of three phrases makes the speaker - or the author - appear knowledgeable, simple, and catchy. It combines clauses to create a powerful impression, emphasizing the point in a memorable and pithy way. Example #2: Pirates of Caribbean (by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio) "I actually feel rather good about this. I think we've all arrived at a very special place, eh? Spiritually, ecumenically, grammatically." Here the last three words present the use of tricolon. This serves as a powerful rhetorical device, also creating a little humor. The first two clauses make the readers think they are going in one direction, while the third part introduces a surprising twist in it. Example #3: The Naked Civil Servant (by Quentin Crisp) "If you describe things as better than they are, you are considered to be a romantic; if you describe things as worse than they are, you will be called a realist; and if you describe things exactly as they are, you will be thought of as a satirist." The use of tricolon has made this example interesting, funnier, satisfying, and memorable by emphasizing the lines. Example #4: Call for the Dead (by John le Carré) "They liked his diffidence when he apologized for the company he kept, his insincerity when he defended the vagaries of his subordinates, his flexibilities when formulating new commitments." This is another excellent example of tricolon. The use of three equal structures makes it rhythmic and appealing, while also making it more likely the readers will remember the given information. Function of Tricolon Tricolon is not only found in poetry, novels, and short stories, but also in oral storytelling, advertising, films, and photography. In writing, it helps readers absorb the idea, and remember it more effectively. Sometimes, writers use tricolon for creating a humorous effect. In comedy, it is known as a "comic triple," where it creates a surprising effect for the audience. Besides, many public information slogans and advertising campaigns use it to create a memorable and captivating display of information. However, the most useful aspect of this literary device is its effectiveness in making the idea memorable.

Trimeter

Trimeter is a poetic device that is defined as a meter or a line that consists of three iambic feet. It is one of the five main types of iamb. An iamb is a foot that contains an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable. Let us take these lines to understand: "Is like a pleasant sleep,/ Wherein I rest and heed/ The dreams that by me sweep." (The Idle Life I Lead, by Robert Bridges) Apart from poetry, one can also find examples of trimeter in the dialogues of comedic and tragic plays. Types of Iamb Meter Trimeter is one of the five types of iamb meter, which are: Iambic dimeter (contains two iambs in each line) "The way a crow Shook down on me..." (Dust of Snow, by Robert Frost) Iambic trimeter (contains three iambs in each line) "I love the jocund dance, The softly breathing song..." (I Love the Jocund Dance, by William Blake) Iambic tetrameter (contains four iambs in each line) "Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not travel both..." (The Road Not Taken, by Robert Frost) Iambic pentameter (contains five iambs in each line) "Her vestal livery is but sick and green And none but fools do wear it; cast it off." (Romeo and Juliet, by William Shakespeare) Iambic hexameter (contains six iambs in each line) "He had adorned and hid the coming bulk of death..." (Adonais, by Percy Bysshe Shelly) Examples of Trimeter in Literature Example #1: The Only News I Know (By Emily Dickinson) "The only news I know Is bulletins all day From Immortality. The only shows I see, Tomorrow and Today, Perchance Eternity." This excerpt is a good example of iambic trimeter, in which the lines have three iambs or three metrical feet. Normally, the extract contains six syllables in each line, with the pattern of iambic trimeter. Here, the trimeter pattern is in bold. Example #2: When I Was One-and-Twenty (By E. Housman) "When I was one-and-twenty I heard a wise man say, 'Give crowns and pounds and guineas But not your heart away; Give pearls away and rubies But keep your fancy free." But I was one-and-twenty, No use to talk to me." Among the poems that can be considered as good trimeter examples is E. Housman's When I Was One-and-Twenty. Houseman follows a perfect pattern of trimeter in this poem. The pattern lends regular beats and rhythm to the poem. Example #3: My Papa's Waltz (By Theodore Roethke) "We romped until the pans Slid from the kitchen shelf; My mother's countenance Could not unfrown itself." This whole excerpt is following the pattern of trimeter. The lines are very short. With iamb trimeter, it has a regular pattern and rhythmical sense. Example #4: Verses Supposed to be Written (By Alexander Selkirkby William Cowper) "From the centre all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. Oh, solitude! where are the charms... Better dwell in the midst of alarms... I am out of humanity's reach, I must finish my journey alone, Never hear the sweet music of speech... They are so unacquainted with man, Their tameness is shocking to me..." This poem is a fine example of a combination of iambic trimeter and anapestic meter. At different places trimeter is replaced by anapestic trimeter. Example #5: The Divine Image (By William Blake) "To Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love, All pray in their distress: And to these virtues of delight Return their thankfulness." This poem follows an alternating trimeter and iambic tetrameter pattern. The first and third lines represent iambic tetrameter, whereas the second and fourth lines are written in trimeter pattern. Function of Trimeter The main function of trimeter is to create regular beats and rhythm in a literary text. However, it is also useful to achieve heightened formality in dramas when used as normal speech. Since trimeter creates a regular rhythm, it lends formality and high drama to a text. Hence, the basic purpose of using this pattern is to create a beautiful poetic work, and produce a greatly emotional experience. In addition, it helps to make a piece of art more artistic by producing a regular rhythm. Poetry, comedies, and Greek tragedies often use this device.

Trochaic

Trochaic an adjective of trochee is a metrical foot composed of two syllables; stressed followed by an unstressed syllable. This rhythmic unit is used to make up the lines of poetry. However, it is deliberately inserted to make the text sound different. The material pattern of trochee is composed of "falling rhythm" as the stress is at the beginning of the foot. It, however, plays a great role when writing about dark subjects like madness and death. Etymologically, trochee is derived from a Greek word, "trokhaios" which means 'to run.' Types of Trochaic Meter Trochaic Tetrameter: It is a type of meter consisting of four stressed syllables per line. For example, "By the shores of Gitche Gu". Trochaic Heptamer: It is a type of meter consisting of seven stressed syllables per line. Such as, "Now Sam McGee was from Tennessee, where the cotton blooms and". Trochaic Pentameter: It is a type of meter consisting of five stressed syllables per line. "And the lamp-light o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor". Iambic Trimeter: It is a type of meter consisting of three stressed syllables per line. For example, "This has neither wax nor". Catalexis: The absence of a syllable in the final foot in a line is called catalexis. Examples of Trochaic from Literature Example #1 The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting On the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door; And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming, And the lamp-light o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor; And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor Shall be lifted—nevermore!" Written by Edgar Allan Poe, a famous American poet, this poem is a superb composition of a mystery of the arrival of a raven. The poem shows fear, uncertainty, and loneliness of a person, who is a victim of unfortunate circumstances. At the same time, "The Raven" is one of the most well-known trochaic poems ever written. Its lines two, four, five and six end on stressed syllables that break the conventional stressed-unstressed pattern of the trochaic meter. Poe has used catalexis strategy in which he has deliberately dropped the final syllable of a line to create a pause or a rhyme. Example #2 Song of the Witches by William Shakespeare "Double, double toil and trouble; Fire burn, and caldron bubble. Scale of dragon; tooth of wolf; Witches' mummy; maw and gulf..." This extract has taken from one of the famous plays of William Shakespeare, Macbeth. The witches sing this song as they intend to curse Macbeth. Though most of Shakespeare's works are written in iambic pentameter, where he has used a trochaic meter to give a strange feeling to the charm, he presents for the witches in this play. This backward stress pattern of the trochaic meter is highly effective to create the blank rhythm widely used in magic words. Example #3 In Memory of W.B. Yeats by W. H. Auden Earth, receive an honoured guest; William Yeats is laid to rest: Let this Irish vessel lie Emptied of its poetry." The poet has expressed his profound sadness over his friend's death. He has skillfully inserted trochaic trimeter in the poem to express his feelings. It is due to the melancholy tone created by the downward emphasis of the trochee that the poet has expressed his grief. However, the unstressed syllable at the end of each line is dropped to create end rhyme in the poem. Also, the dropping of a syllable has created a pause that completes the line in itself. Example #4 Sorrow by Edna St. Vincent Millay, Sorrow like a ceaseless rain Beats upon my heart. People twist and scream in pain, — Dawn will find them still again; This has neither wax nor wane, Neither stop nor start." The poem deals with the subject of sorrow. The poet has presented his version of sorrow in contrast with others. However, the poet has used trochaic diameter, emphasizing the conspicuous downward beat of the poet's pensive mood. He has also used catalexis technique to make the rhyme scheme possible. In other words, he has deliberately omitted the last unstressed syllable of each line. Example #5 The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow "Should you ask me, whence these stories? Whence these legends and traditions, With the odors of the forest, With the dew and damp of meadows, With the curling smoke of wigwams, With the rushing of great rivers, With their frequent repetitions, And their wild reverberations, As of thunder in the mountains?" The Song of Hiawatha is a famous epic of English literature and comprises the brave and magical deeds of its hero performed in the pristine American land. It is about his visits with members of the Ojibwe, Black Hawk and other American tribes. However, this poem uses the trochee as a primary metrical foot. Henry has also skillfully used trochaic tetrameter line after line. Trochaic Meter Meaning and Function The trochee is the pause for the audience. It gives them a chance to enjoy a different type of poetry. It also allows them to understand the mood and tone of the poem. Although it is not frequently used in poetry, yet trochaic meter helps elucidate the rolling effect of the verses. Also, the trochaic meter has a powerful forward momentum that usually makes the meter feel incessant. However, its unusual metrical pattern makes it difficult to use.

Trope

Trope is a figure of speech through which speakers or writers intend to express meanings of words differently than their literal meanings. In other words, it is a metaphorical or figurative use of words in which writers shift from the literal meanings of words to their non-literal meanings. The trope, in fact, could be a phrase, a word, or an image used to create artistic effect. We may find its use almost anywhere, such as in literature, political rhetoric, and everyday speech. Types of Trope Depending upon the meanings and understanding of trope, it has been classified into several types. Some of its types include, irony, hyperbole, metaphor, allegory, litotes, pun, personification, simile, metonymy, and synecdoche. Here are some examples of the types of trope: Example #1: Romeo & Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Irony Irony is used to imply an opposite meaning to the literal meaning of an idea, such as in the opening lines of Romeo & Juliet: "Two households, both alike in dignity..." Shakespeare leads the audience to believe that Montague and Capulet are both respectful families. However, as the narrative proceeds, we realize that both families were not noble. Many of their actions were not worthy of their good positions in society. Hence, Shakespeare has used irony to develop this situation. Example #2: A Red, Red Rose (By Robert Burns) Hyperbole This type of trope uses exaggerated statement for effect or emphasis. It is contrary to understatement and, like metaphor and simile, is overstated and ridiculous. We usually find its usage in oral communication and literature, such as: "As fair art thou, my bonnie lass, So deep in luve am I; And I will love thee still, my dear, Till a' the seas gang dry. Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear, And the rocks melt wi' the sun: O I will love thee still, my dear, While the sands o' life shall run." In this poem, the poet uses hyperbole by overstating his love for his beloved, that he would love her until the seas dry, and rocks melt with the sun. In fact, the poet has used exaggeration to emphasize the power of his love. Example #3: To His Coy Mistress (By Andrew Marvell) Litotes This type of trope is opposite to hyperbole in that it is an understatement that negates its opposite. "The grave's a fine a private place, But none, I think, do there embrace." In these lines, the poet tries to understate the idea that he is unable to have sex with his beloved in this world, and suggests the opposite idea of having it in coffins where they could have privacy. However, there would be no hugging at all. Example #4: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Metonymy Metonymy is a type of trope in which an alternative name takes the place of the name of an original idea, while both are closely associated. As in William Shakespeare's Hamlet, we can find use of metonymy many times, such as the ghost of Hamlet's father referring to his assassin: "The serpent that did sting thy father's life." In another case, we see when Polonius advises his son Laertes to "Give every man thy ear, but few they voice." This means to imply that he should pay attention to what others say, speaking little. Example #5: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (By T. S. Eliot) Synecdoche Synecdoche is a type of trope in which a part of a thing or idea represents the whole thing. T. S. Eliot uses this figure of speech several times in his poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. The poet uses faces as a synecdoche in this line: "To prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet ..." Here, the "face" represents the entire person. Again, he use eyes as a synecdoche in these lines: "And I have known the eyes already, known them all — The eyes that fix you in a formulated phrase ..." Where, the eyes are a small part that represent the whole person. Then, he makes use of arms as a synecdoche to represent a whole woman as: "And I have known the arms already ... Arms that lie along a table, or wrap about a shawl." Function of Trope Since trope is a figurative expression, its major function is to give additional meaning to the texts, and allow readers to think profoundly, to understand the idea or a character. Also, it creates images that produce artistic effects on the audience's senses. Through trope, writers intensify normal human feelings into extraordinary emotions, where they feel that those emotions are not ordinary. Additionally, most types of trope present comparisons that make the understanding of the text easier for readers.

Truism

Truism is a literary device defined as a statement that is based on self-evidence or factual evidence. and is accepted as an obvious truth in a way that further proof is not considered necessary. It is also that a contradicting statement would be considered as illogical, since truism is agreed to be truth. It is mostly used as a rhetorical device in philosophy, specifically in logic. Several statements and aphorisms are also examples of truism when they present a universally accepted opinion, and when a majority of the people agree with them. Platitudes, clichés, and bromides are some truism examples. Examples of Truism in Literature Example #1: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) Jocasta: "(The oracle) told him that it was his fate that he should die a victim at the hands of his own son, a son to be born of Laius and me ..." Oedipus: "That I was fated to lie with my mother, and show to daylight an accursed breed which men would not endure, and I was doomed to be murderer of the father that begot me ..." In this excerpt, Jocasta recollects the prophecy that the oracle mentioned to King Laius before the birth of Oedipus. In the second paragraph, Oedipus also reveals that prophecy, and hence leaves Corinth. These statements are the perfect examples of truism, where the fact is obvious and nobody can deny it. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) "O, that this too too solid flesh would melt Thaw and resolve itself into a dew! Or that the Everlasting had not fix'd His cannon 'gainst self-slaughter! O God! God! How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable, ... Hyperion to a satyr; so loving to my mother That he might not beteem the winds of heaven Visit her face too roughly. Heaven and earth! Must I remember? why, she would hang on him..." This is Hamlet's famous soliloquy, and it is a good example of truism. Hamlet was enraged at his mother for marrying his uncle after the death of the king a month previous. He is expressing his feelings of dejection for his mother's greed. Example #3: Mourning Becomes Electra (By Eugene O'Neil) Mannon: "He pushes his back up against the head of the bed in a half sitting position. His face, with the flickering candle light... You like the dark where you can't see your old man of a husband, is that it ... I don't know... This house is not my house. This is not my room nor my bed. They are empty... And you are not my wife! You are waiting for something ... You made me appear a lustful beast in my own eyes... I would feel cleaner now if I had gone to a brothel! I would feel more honor between myself and life..." In this extract, Mannon is talking to his wife Christine, and gives self-evident statements. He talks about his wife's unfaithfulness to him. This is a truism based on accepted truth that his wife has had an affair. Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) Prince: "Let Romeo hence in haste, Else, when he's found, that hour is his last. Bear hence this body and attend our will. Mercy but murders, pardoning those that kill." In this excerpt, Prince is angry due to Romeo's killing of Tybalt, and says that he must leave the city. Here the statement of truism is used as he later says: "Showing mercy to murderers would create more killers or murderers." Example #5: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." Here, the double meanings of the "best of times" and the "worst of times" indicate the theme of resurrection, and also indicate the conflict between England and France. These statements are expressing truism. Function of Truism Truism is a specific category of truth, platitude, or cliché, and is used as evidence. It is used as an agreed or intuitive truth about life, since the majority of people accept it, and arguments are so perfect that readers do not ask questions. It is also used in literature and philosophical writings where it serves an ironic purpose.

Undertone

Undertone is an attitude that lies under the ostensible tone of a literary work. In simple words, it is an implied meaning that usually points towards the underlying theme of a work. It is because mostly writers do not express it directly as their attitude or theme; rather, they do it by using images or symbols. Therefore, sometimes it becomes difficult to identify undertones. Examples of Undertone in Literature Example #1: Cherry Orchard (by Anton Chekhov) In Anton Chekhov's "Cherry Orchard," there are several undertones, including time, contrasting regions, morality, and love. Although it is a tragic-comedy, it is full of love triangles, unrequited love, physical love, spiritual love, platonic love, maternal love, and master and servant love. Also, there is a very prominent undertone of mortality. For instance, the memory of her dead husband and son haunts, Lubov. The departing family depicts its beloved home as "at the end of its life." Example #2: The Lord of the Rings (by J.R.R. Tolkien) The undertone in The Lord of the Rings is fundamentally Catholic and religious, unconsciously at first, and consciously in revision, because by design, it is about Catholic and Christian truths. For instance, the protagonists in the novel pursue absolutes, rejecting willingness to relativize or compromise. There is an absoluteness of right and wrong in Middle-earth. We do not see any moral clue of relativism that separates different races, people, and creators of free lands. The protagonists also embrace suffering as an essential element of their salvation. They must sacrifice to get freedom from tyranny of evil. Example #3: Hamlet (by William Shakespeare) The deceptive undertone in "Hamlet" is a fear of being deceived. After two consistent appearances of the Ghost, Horatio joins Bernado, Marcellus, and Francisco on an evening watch on the third night. Horatio mocks their stories about the appearances of the Ghost by saying, "Tush tush, 'twill not appear." He is a sensible and intelligent person who wants to see things himself before accepting them. Therefore, at the appearance of the Ghost, he immediately changes his point of view. He informs Prince Hamlet of the Ghost's resemblance to King Hamlet and warns him of its origin. Thus, Hamlet fears that this Ghost might be just a deception and appears to push Hamlet to go for a wicked action. Example #4: The Great Gatsby (by F. Scott Fitzgerald) "...I was standing beside his bed and he was sitting up between the sheets, clad in his underwear, with a great portfolio in his hands. 'Beauty and the beast... Loneliness... Old Grocery Horse... Brook'n Bridge' Then I was lying half asleep in the cold lower level of the Pennsylvania Station, staring at the morning 'Tribune' and waiting for the four o'clock train." With Nick Caraway, Fitzgerald has portrayed an undertone of homosexuality. This scene is the period of four hours between Nick's departure from the party and waiting for the train. Nick sees Mackee as a feminine man, feels attraction towards him, and follows him to his bed room while Mackee sleeps. Example #5: The Tyger (by William Blake) In his poem, "The Tyger," Blake has used religious undertones. In his days, religious institutions and individuals held a great influence over people. He has questioned absolute supremacy of God and dabbled into the religious arena through this poem, by employing the image of a tiger. Blake is not afraid to challenge the religious assumptions. In the first two lines, he praises this animal a work of art, which is strikingly beautiful, "Tyger Tyger, burning bright ..." But the tiger also symbolizes horror. That is in the third and the fourth lines he questions, "What immortal hand or eye / Could frame thy fearful symmetry?" which means what kind of God could design a beautiful yet terrifying and horrible beast, a Tyger. Function Undertone adds depth to a literary work. Not only does it enhance writing, but it also develops interest of the readers to get an insight into the mind of a writer. Failing to convince their readers of their themes, writers and poets substitute direct persuasion with skeptical undertone of teaching. Just like tone, it could be cheery, fearful, threatening, or optimistic, etc. Besides that, it gives the readers an understanding of the characters, their emotions, and conflicts in a literary piece.

Verbal Irony

Verbal irony occurs when a speaker speaks something contradictory to what he intends to say. It is an intentional product of the speaker, and is contradictory to his/her emotions and actions. To define it simply, it occurs when a character uses a statement with underlying meanings that contrast with its literal meaning; it shows that the writer has used verbal irony. Writers rely on the audience's intelligence for discerning the hidden meanings they intend to convey. Writers also use ironic similes to convey exactly the opposite of what they intend to say, such as "soft as concrete." Types of Verbal Irony Sarcasm Exaggeration or Overstatement Understatement Examples of Verbal Irony from Literature Example #1: Romeo & Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "Again and again he tried after the tempting morsel, but at last had to give it up, and walked away with his nose in the air, saying: 'I am sure they are sour.' " "I will not marry yet; and, when I do, I swear it shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate, rather than Paris." Juliet does not like the decision of her father to marry with Paris, whom she dislikes and instead adores Romeo. Hence, she makes a decision to marry Romeo and tells her mother about it ironically that whenever she would marry, it would be Romeo - whom she dislikes - and not Paris, thus confusing her mother. Example #2: Pride & Prejudice (By Jane Austen) "She is tolerable but not handsome enough to tempt me." We can find many fine examples of verbal irony in Pride and Prejudice. In this example, we relish ironic flavor of Darcy's statement, as we later find out that the woman he found unsuitable to dance with, ends up taking a place in his heart. Example #3: The Unknown Citizen (By W. H. Auden) The title of the poem, The Unknown Citizen, employs verbal irony, as the poet describes a person whom everyone knows, yet he is still unknown. Also, by deliberately capitalizing common words, the speaker makes them sound meaningless, ironic, and sarcastic: "the Greater Community," "Social Psychology," "Union," "Public Opinion," and "High Grade Living." All of these terms sound formal, pompous, bureaucratic, and arrogant. Simply, through verbal irony, the poet shows how governmental agencies, which should serve human beings, have rather enslaved them. Example #4: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles) TIRESIAS: "You are all ignorant. I will not reveal the troubling things inside me, which I can call your grief as well." OEDIPUS: "Do you intend to betray me and destroy the city?" All types of ironies are prevalent throughout the entire play, Oedipus Rex. One fine example of verbal irony occurs when Tiresias refuses to reveal the prophecy to Oedipus. In fact, Oedipus has misunderstood Tiresias' statement, "... which I can call your grief as well." By this, Tiresias means that, if he reveals the truth, it would become Oedipus' grief that he is the murderer of his king, Laius. This is a verbal irony which Oedipus fails to realize that this "grief" is going to be an impending fate for him. Example #5: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift) "I rather recommend buying the children alive and dressing them hot from the knife, as we do roasting pigs." Verbal irony is a dominant literary device in this novel by Swift. For instance, in the above statement the author intends to point out that the government should not treat Irish people like animals. In irony, he compares the Irish to animals. Example #6: Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography (By Lemony Snicket) "Today was a very cold and bitter day, as cold and bitter as a cup of hot chocolate; if the cup of hot chocolate had vinegar added to it and were placed in a refrigerator for several hours." Snicket uses verbal irony by employing ironic simile. Then, he proceeds to break down this simile, by overturning its meaning. By making a complex structure, the author creates verbal irony to let readers enjoy. Functions of Verbal Irony Verbal irony is very common in everyday speech, plays, novels, and poetry, and usually occurs in the form of sarcasm. It depends upon timing and suitable circumstances to achieve its effect. Verbal irony develops funny and dramatic situations. Through verbal irony, writers and poets can convey their bitter messages indirectly, in a less bitter and more effective way. It makes a literary piece more effective by provoking readers into analyzing and thinking harder about a situation. By contrasting and comparing suppositions with reality, the readers can better understand the writer's intent.

Vernacular

Vernacular is a literary genre that uses daily-used language in writing and speaking. It is different from written works, as they normally follow the formal variety of language. The word "vernacular" refers to writing or speaking of the public. We find the origin of vernacular literature during the Middle Ages, in various countries of Europe. In fact, Latin was the language of historical documents and religion, and ordinary people would not even speak it in Medieval Europe, like that of the Sanskrit language in India. However, the writers of vernacular language, such as Dante, Geoffrey Chaucer and Mark Twain. Dante Alighieri, diverged from this tendency by writing in the language of ordinary people. Vernacular vs. Dialect Vernacular is the use of ordinary, everyday, and plain language in speaking or writing, such as corn is a common name of a plant, and its scientific name is "maize," or "zea mays." Dialect is related to a particular region, geographical area, a particular social class, or an occupational group. Also, it uses a distinguished pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. For instance, people in Shanghai have a different pronunciation or dialect than those in Yunnan. Examples of Vernacular in Literature Example #1: The Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "Whan that Aprille, with hise shoures soote, The droghte of March hath perced to the roote And bathed every veyne in swich licour, Of which vertu engendred is the flour;" In these opening lines, Chaucer has used words from the Middle English, which is a very different language. The poet has employed a vernacular style in the words such as "whan," "Aprille," "soote," "droghte," "roote," "veyne," "licour," and "flour." Example #2: A Clockwork Orange (By Anthony Burgess) Anthony Burgess uses vernacular language in his novel, A Clockwork Orange. Although Burgess has made the base of his novel with English, he used vernacular words from Russian, Arabic, Gypsy, and English. He formed a different language style of its own that managed to portray the state of mind of the character Alex, as well as cruelty of the world around him in which he lived. Burgess uses words such as "eggiweg," which means "eggs" in English, describes the childlike nature of Alex, who often exhibits it. Another word is, "moloko," which means "milk blended with drugs," which shows a dark side of Alex, characterized by demonic and criminal overtones. Other terms include "baboochka," which means "old woman," and "Bog," which means "God." Example #3: Boxy an Star (By Daren King) "We me an Star are waitin for Boxy his head. Waitin standin in the fone box in the station of Wolfer Humpton holdin the letter what we have tapped in the number from. Tappin the number what Boxy had typed on the letter. Tappin it in on the fone pad. Tappin it makin Boxy come on the screen of the fone makin on the screen of the fone his head." This novel is a perfect example of using futuristic vernacular. Its language is hypnotic and disturbing, unrefined and vernacular, yet effective and proper. Here the author's words are expressing brevity, directness, childlike effect, and honesty. Example #4: Trainspotting (By Irvine Welsh) "Suppose that ah ken aw the pros and cons, know that ah'm gaunnae huv a short life...but still want tae use smack? They won't let ye dae it. They won't let ye dae it, because it's seen as a sign ay thir ain failure. The fact that ye jist simply choose tae reject whut they huv tae offer. Choose us. Choose life. Choose mortgage payments; choose washing machines; choose cars; choose sitting oan a couch watching mind-numbing and spirit-crushing game shows..." It takes time to know the rhythm of this book, as it is rich with Scottish vernacular, and slang words, which make its tone lilting. Function of Vernacular The use of vernacular is everywhere - in schools, university courses, at home, offices, in law terms, medicine, and the media. In fact, language is a starting point for any literary work, and if it is ineffective, then readers cannot get anything from the work. Vernacular is one of the literary techniques that can strike a chord with the majority of the people, makes a strong connection with them because it is closer to their everyday conversation. Also, the dialogues and phrases often reinforce the setting of a narrative, and add depth by creating a sense of realism, allowing readers to relate their real lives with a literary piece.

Vignette

Vignette is a small impressionistic scene, an illustration, a descriptive passage, a short essay, a fiction or nonfiction work focusing on one particular moment; or giving an impression about an idea, character, setting, mood, aspect, or object. Vignette is neither a plot nor a full narrative description, but a carefully crafted verbal sketch that might be part of some larger work, or a complete description in itself. Literally, vignette is a French word that means "little vine." The printers, during the nineteenth-century, would decorate their title pages with drawings of looping vines. Hence, the derivation of this term is that source of drawings. Contemporary ideas from the scenes shown in television and film scripts also have influenced vignettes. Examples of Vignette in Literature Example #1: In Our Time (By Ernest Hemingway) "Maera lay still, his head on his arms, his face in the sand. He felt warm and sticky from the bleeding. Each time he felt the horn coming. Sometimes the bull only bumped him with his head. Once the horn went all the way through him and he felt it go into the sand ... Maera felt everything getting larger and larger and then smaller and smaller. Then it got larger and larger and larger and then smaller and smaller. Then everything commenced to run faster and faster as when they speed up a cinematograph film. Then he was dead." In this impressionistic sketch, the author gives an illustration of the character Maera, who is a bullfighter that dies from injures inflicted by a bull. Example #2: An American Childhood (By Annie Dillard) "Some boys taught me to play football. This was fine sport. You thought up a new strategy for every play and whispered it to the others. You went out for a pass, fooling everyone. Best, you got to throw yourself mightily at someone's running legs ... In winter, in the snow, there was neither baseball nor football, so the boys and I threw snowballs at passing cars. I got in trouble throwing snowballs, and have seldom been happier since." In this excerpt, Dillard has used her personal experiences while growing up in Pittsburgh, and describes the nature of American life. In this particular scene, she tells us how she learned to play football with the boys, and offering this incident of her teenage years. Example #3: Railroads (By E. B. White) "The strong streak of insanity in railroads, which accounts for a child's instinctive feeling for them and for a man's unashamed devotion to them, is congenital; there seems to be no reason to fear that any disturbing improvement in the railroads' condition will set in ... He gravely wrote 'Providence' in the proper space, and we experienced anew the reassurance that rail travel is unchanged and unchanging, and that it suits our temperament perfectly - a dash of lunacy, a sense of detachment, not much speed, and no altitude whatsoever." In this descriptive passage, White laments the bad condition of the passenger train industry in the state of Main, his home state, and worries for the future. He softens his complaints by going into past memories when he would ride as an adult. Example #4: House on Mango Street (By Sandra Cisneros) "Then Uncle Nacho is pulling and pulling my arm and it doesn't matter how new the dress Mama bought is because my feet are ugly until my uncle who is a liar says, "You are the prettiest girl here, will you dance ... My uncle and me bow and he walks me back in my thick shoes to my mother who is proud to be my mother. All night the boy who is a man watches me dance. He watched me dance." This whole story provides us a collection of vignettes. There are several passages with detailed descriptions about particular ideas or characters, such as this extract illustrating a dancing scene. Function of Vignette We often find vignettes in creative writing, as it provides description to achieve an artistic effect. However, we also see its usage in prose and poetry. Writers use this device to explore a character, and describe the setting of a scene. Vignettes give deeper understanding of texts, as writers densely pack them with imagery and symbolism. Besides, it increases writers' language proficiency, as they use their language to its fullest by employing imagery to set a certain color and mood. Hence, the nature of vignettes is evocative and puts an impact on the senses of readers.

Epitaph

When somebody from our family, or a friend dies, we want to commemorate his or her memory. For this, we use an epitaph, which is a brief writing or saying inscribed on a grave. Generally, it is a brief composition, having figurative sense in a verse or in prose form, written to pay tribute to a deceased person, or to remember a past event. Strictly speaking, an epitaph is a short text on a plaque or tombstone, honoring a dead person. It is derived from the Greek word epitaphios, which means "funeral oration." Many poets and authors, such as William Shakespeare, Sylvia Plath, Oscar Wilde, and John Keats have written their own epitaphs prior to their deaths. Epitaph and Eulogy An epitaph and a eulogy have a similar function, which is to pay tribute to the dead. However, they are also different, as an epitaph is a brief and concise commemorative inscription engraved on the tombstone of a dead person; while a eulogy is a spoken or piece written in praise of a dead person, usually given at the funeral. A eulogy may also be used for a living person, as it incorporates stories, anecdotes, and memories of the individual. An epitaph, on the other hand, is just an honoring poem or an inscription written on the tombstone. Examples of Epitaph in Literature The use of epitaph flourished during the seventeenth century when writers struggled over the cultural significance of their dead ones. However, later in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many ways were adopted to validate its importance and, therefore, renowned writers wrote their epitaphs before their death. Here we have a list of some good epitaphs: Example #1: Oscar Wilde's Epitaph Wilde's epitaph is inscribed on his gravestone in a very sentimental verse. It reads: "And alien tears will fill for him, Pity's long-broken urn, For his mourners will be outcast men, And outcasts always mourn." This epitaph is from his popular poem The Ballad of Reading Gaol. The poem describes that death is also like a prison sentence. Further, he adds a witty statement that in the grave "the food in here is awful." Example #2: Robert Frost's Epitaph Robert Frost wrote his epitaph a few years prior to his death. He took the last lines from the poem The Lesson for Today, which read as: "And were an epitaph to be my story I'd have a short one ready for my own. I would have written of me on my stone: I had a lover's quarrel with the world." Unfortunately, most of lovers cannot make up their love. However, Frost was nearly close to being done with his love, when he passed away at the age of 88. This quote gives an apt presentation by the poet. Example #3: William Butler Yeats' Epitaph Yeats in penned his epitaph, which reads: "Cast a cold Eye On Life, on Death. Horseman, pass by!" It seems that he is giving advice to his readers to not hang back over his corpse for a very long time, nevertheless the words have rather deep meaning. He had taken these lines from the poem Under Ben Bulben. This is one of the most popular modern epitaphs. Example #4: William Shakespeare's Epitaph "Good friend for Jesus' sake forebeare, To dig the dust enclosed here. Blessed be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones." Shakespeare had given a prediction that somebody might dig up his grave and, due to this fear, he composed his epitaph in verse form before his death. This poem is chiseled on his gravestone. Example #5: Sylvia Plath's Epitaph Sylvia Plath's husband, Ted Hughes, had chosen her epitaph, which is engraved on her gravestone. It reads: "Even amidst fierce flames, the golden lotus can be planted." Function of Epitaph The major function of writing an epitaph is to praise and pay tribute to a deceased person. It is used to provide an example of virtue and goodness, how a tomb of the good people could serve to provide a sense of their presence. In addition, a veneration of a dead person's memories could produce similar effects, as we would see in his or her presence. Another function is to let the audience know and warn them that their lives are also mortal like their predecessors. Finally, it preserves history, as it shows ancestral relationships, dates of birth and death, and accomplishments of the deceased persons.

Perspective

While reading a fiction or non-fiction book, readers see and experience the events and feelings about the characters through a certain point of view, which is called a "perspective." A perspective is a literary tool, which serves as a lens through which readers observe characters, events, and happenings. A writer may narrate the story from his perspective, or from a character's perspective. Its purpose is to make the voice of a writer distinctive from other writers. Types of Perspective First Person Perspective First person perspective means writing from the perspective of the author or main character. Such types of perspectives are mostly found in narratives and autobiographical writings. In these writings, the main character narrates his/her story, and uses first person pronouns, such as "I" and "we." The readers see everything through this person's eyes. Examples of First Person Perspective in Literature Example #1: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee) "It was times like these when I thought my father, who hated guns and had never been to any wars, was the bravest man who ever lived." Example #2: Jane Eyre (By Charlotte Bronte) "I could not unlove him now, merely because I found that he had ceased to notice me." Example #3: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) "I cannot but conclude that the Bulk of your Natives, to be the most pernicious Race of little odious Vermin that Nature ever suffered to crawl upon the Surface of the Earth." In these examples, the authors have used first person personal pronouns to express themselves. This perspective shows the inner feelings and thinking of the individuals. Second Person Perspective Second person perspective uses "you" perspective or a writer tells the story by using second person personal pronouns, like "you" and "your." Examples of Second Person Perspective in Literature Example #4: Pilgrim at Tinker Creek (By Annie Dillard) "You are a sculptor. You climb a great ladder; you pour grease all over a growing longleaf pine. Next, you build a hollow cylinder like a cofferdam around the entire pine, and grease its inside walls. You climb your ladder and spend the next week pouring wet plaster into the cofferdam... Now open the walls of the dam, split the plaster, saw down the tree, remove it, discard, and your intricate sculpture is ready: this is the shape of part of the air." This expression is not very common in writing. However, here you can see how the "you" perspective captures readers' attention right from the beginning of the excerpt, giving an impression of a dialogue between the speaker and readers. Third Person Perspective The third person perspective uses he, she, it and they personal pronouns. It is a very common method of narration. Examples of Third Person Perspective in Literature Example #5: 1984 (By Annie Dillard) "It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen." Example #6: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) "He is just what a young man ought to be," said she, "sensible, good humored, lively; and I never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect good breeding! Example #7: Paul Clifford (By Edward George Bulwer-Lytton) "It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrents, except at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets." In each of these examples, readers can only know what is happening but cannot know the feelings and thoughts of the characters. Types of Third Person Perspective Third Person Perspective has three major types, including: Third Person Objective - An impersonal recorder or neutral observer narrates the facts or details to the readers. Third Person Omniscient - In third person omniscient, a narrator reports the facts, as well as interpreting and relating the thoughts of a character. It is a very popular technique of storytelling, such as in George Eliot's Middle March, and E. B. White's Charlotte's Web. Third Person Limited - In this type of perspective, a narrator reports and interprets the facts and events from a single character's perspective. For instance, Katherine Mansfield has used the same perspective in her short story Miss Brill. Function of Perspective Perspective is the most important literary tool for writers. Choosing an effective perspective helps them create the right voice for their narratives. When readers can identify with their narrators, they can get detailed information about everything. Perspective also adds dimension to literary works. Furthermore, the writers often mix different viewpoints between alternating characters, scenes and events.

Digression

While reading a narrative, a reader comes across several sudden interruptions in the main action of the story, which provides him background information, establish his interest, describes a character's motivation, and builds suspense. These interruptions are called "digressions." A digression is a stylistic device authors employ to create a temporary departure from the main subject of the narrative, to focus on apparently unrelated topics, explaining background details. However, after this temporary shift, authors return to the main topic at the end of the narrative. Examples of Digression in Literature Example #1: Iliad (By Homer) Homer is one of the earliest users of digression during the Grecian Era. He uses digressions in Iliad to provide the readers with a break from the main narrative, offering background information and enhancing verisimilitudes of the story. For instance, in Book 11, Homer uses a small digression when Agamemnon encounters the brothers Hippolokhos and Peisandros in a battle. When they come to Agamemnon as suppliants, he reminds them that their father once denied emissaries of Menelaos. Homer employs it as a short interlude that provides the readers a serious note on the nature of rivalries and the beginnings of war. Example #2: The Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger) J. D. Salinger's novel The Catcher in the Rye is rich with digression. Many thought patterns of Holden Caulfield in the novel seem to be straying from the main topic, and hence unrelated. However, these digressions are relevant and important for the main topic, as they allow readers to gain insight into this character. For instance, his statements about the intelligence of his sister, followed by a description of how carefully she listens, reveals Holding's concerns. Another example of digression is his tension about the nuns. Although he enjoyed discussion, he was worried about being asked whether he is a Catholic or not. This shows his tension for being judged morally and ethically, and his associations with moralists, who look down upon those who hide such realities from them. Example #3: Oliver Twist (By Charles Dickens) "If it did not come strictly within the scope and bearing of my long-considered intentions and plans regarding this prose epic ... to leave the two old gentlemen sitting with the watch between them long after it grew too dark to see it ... I shall not enter into any such digression in this place: and, if this be not a sufficient reason for this determination, I have a better, and indeed, a wholly unanswerable on, already stated; which is, that it forms no part of my original intention to do so." Dickens launches a lengthy discussion to show how the plot is progressing. This excerpt is a perfect instance of breaks and digressions in the story, reminding the readers this is not a real story but a novel, which keeps a distance between readers and characters. Example #4: Odyssey (By Homer) Homer's Odyssey also contains several interludes and digressions, which take readers away from the main action of the story. Despite that, these digressions are thematically connected to the main narrative, namely Odysseus' journey to home and his several encounters during this journey. The poem's style ranges from comic and conversational, to pithy, compact, and abstruse. For instance, the poem uses similes, comparing one event or action to another situation or happening in an elaborate or extended manner. For instance, the poet compares a squid clinging to a rock to Odysseus holding to his boat. Function of Digression The main function of digression is to provide a description of characters, give background information, establish interest, and create suspense for the readers. However, these functions vary from author to author. Some use it to provide scholarly background, while others use it to prevent confusion of illusions in a narrative. Another function is to emphasize or illustrate an idea through anecdotes or examples, and establish a channel through which authors satirize a person or place. Besides these, many authors fear that if they do not digress from the main topic, naïve readers might not be able to differentiate between the reality and fiction. The reason is that some topics are close to reality, such as poverty, strained relationships, and crime. Hence, they use it to put a check on their audience's sympathetic identification with certain characters.

Wit

Wit has originated from an old English term wit, which means "to know." It is a literary device used to make the readers laugh. Over the years, its meanings have kept changing. Today, it is associated with laughter and comedy. It is, in fact, a clever expression of thought; whether harmless or aggressive, with or without any disparaging intent toward something or someone. Wit has paradoxical and mocking quality, and evokes laughter through apt phrasing. It is a cleverly woven expression and idea that evokes pleasure and amusement when used appropriately. Wit has historically been a specific sign of a cultivated intellect and mind. It was often found in poetry, but stage plays were also full of wit, specifically during the Restoration Period. In modern times, wit is a hallmark of political and social writings. Examples of Wit in Literature Example #1: The Good Morrow (by John Donne) "My face in thine eye, thine in mine appears, And true plain hearts do in the faces rest; Where can we find two better hemispheres, Without sharp north, without declining west? Whatever dies, was not mixed equally; If our two loves be one, or, thou and I Love so alike, that none do slacken, none can die." John Donne has used plenty of wit and conceit in this poem. He has presented a comparison between his beloved and two hemispheres which form the earth. This unusual comparison between the speaker and his beloved makes the reader feel pleased, making it a good example of the use of wit in a poem. Example #2: Canto-I, The Rape of the Lock (by Alexander Pope) "The Rape of the Lock" has an abundance of scintillating and sparkling wit. In fact, through his wit, Alexander Pope has made a comic assault on a society preoccupied with superficialities. It is a witty satire that ridicules idleness, laziness, follies, frivolities, shallowness, hypocrisy, and vanities of aristocratic ladies of the eighteenth century. He gives his readers an amusing picture of the ladies of his time. "Say what strange motive, goddess! could compel A well-bred lord to assault a gentle belle? O say what stranger cause, yet unexplored, Could make a gentle belle reject a lord? In tasks so bold, can little men engage? And in soft bosoms dwells such mighty rage?" In this example, Pope brings into question whether "little men" can engage the boldness of women - in whose bosoms is found great anger. Only Pope could have coined this wit. Example #3: The Importance of Being Earnest (by Oscar Wilde) The dialogues in Oscar Wilde's play, The Importance of Being Earnest, are full of wit, paradoxical twists, epigrams, and humor. For instance, the character Algernon Moncrieff delivers a witty statement that "Divorces are made in heaven," which is an amendment of another statement, "Marriages are made in heaven." A saying that "Two is company and three is none" flows into another naughty implication, "In married life three is company and two is none." The character, John "Jack" Worthing, also uses witty statements in speaking to Algernon, saying that "Some aunts are tall, some aunts are not tall. You seem to think that every aunt should be exactly like your aunt." Example #4: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift) A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift is another good example of sharp wit and biting sarcasm. His proposal is brief, in that the government of Ireland can resolve its economic problems by allowing poor families to sell their children as a source of food for the wealthy. By doing this, Swift suggests, the impoverished families could be useful to society. Swift delivers sarcastic and witty statements against landlords by saying, "I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for the landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title to the children." Function Wit is frequently used in literature, public speeches, media, politics, everyday conversation, and many other fields of life. An inferior form of wit lies in the use of word play, oxymorons, puns, and paradoxes, whereas higher wit appears in the use of conceits, metaphors, and arguments. By intelligent wit, writers mock the social foibles and follies of society; often using paradoxical expressions, which appear to appreciate those foibles, but, in fact, they are disparaging.

Slang

Words that are not a part of standard vocabulary or language, and which are used informally, are called "slang." These words are more commonly used in speech than in writing. Every culture and every region across the globe has its own slang. Some of these include American slang, Costa Rican slang, Spanish slang and South African slang. European English regions, such as Wales, Ireland, and Scotland also have their own slang. Examples of Slang in Literature Example #1: They all sat wondering how they were going to attack the enemy with the water balloon. One of the little boys finally suggested, "I can run up on him from behind that tree, jump right on him, and Bob's your uncle - mission accomplished!" The slang term used in this sentence is "Bob's your uncle," which means "there you have it." This phrase found its origin when, in 1887, British Prime Minister Robert Gascoyne-Cecil appointed his nephew, Arthur Balfour, to the seat of Minister for Ireland. Balfour referred to his uncle as "Uncle Bob," and the people decided it was a simple matter to be proclaimed Prime Minister if "Bob's your uncle." This slang is mostly used by British citizens. Example #2: "Last night was flop. I was supposed to go to a party with my friends, but they flopped on me. They are all such floppers." Here the slang term being used is "flop," which means a planned event does not happen. A "flopper" is someone who cancels the plans at the last minute. Example #3: "I'm so upset about my birthday party pictures. My brother is making faces behind me in every picture, what a photo bomb!" In the sentence above, "photo bomb" is the slang term. This is when a person or an object accidentally or intentionally appears in the background of a photo and as a result, ruins it. Example #4: "I got a job promotion even though I don't go to work half the time. I'm so sick." Here, the slang term used is "sick," which literally means "ill." However, in slang it refers to something being awesome or cool. This type of slang terminology is mostly used by teenagers. Example #5: "I can't believe she went and told my father about everything just to get me in trouble, what a hater." The slang term used here is "hater," which refers to someone who is jealous or angry towards another person because of their success. Example #6: "The students caught cheating on the test were given the third-degree by the principal." The slang used in the sentence above is "third-degree," which means "to be interrogated." Example #7: "I can't believe my life has passed so quickly. Now that I am in the hospital, I'll probably just kick the bucket here." The slang being used here is "kick the bucket," which means to die. Some people believe that this term is derived from the historical practice of having a person sentenced to hanging stand on a bucket - rope tied around his neck. The bucket was then kicked out from under his feet, leaving him hanging by the neck. Example #8: "The kids were ready to bite my arm off just because I promised to take them to the candy store." The slang phrase being used here is "bite my arm off," which means to "get overexcited." Function of Slang Slang allows a person to become creative in the use of language. Some people use slang in order to communicate with each other informally. Similarly, people using slang are able to identify other members of their subculture easily. There is a special Slang Dictionary that contains such words and their meanings. When a new word is created in the slang language, and a majority of people start using it, then it is added into the language. If it does not gain enough popularity, it is forgotten. One of the reasons slang is around is that people believe that, by using slang, they will be able to set themselves apart from others and be unique. However, others believe that this is an improper way of speaking or writing, and strongly criticize its use. Children who use slang while speaking end up using it while writing in school, which is discouraged in the academic world.

Zeugma

Zeugma, from Greek meaning "yoking" or "bonding," is a figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas. For instance, in the sentence, "John lost his coat and his temper," the verb "lost" applies to both the nouns "coat" and "temper." Losing a coat and losing temper are logically and grammatically different ideas, which are brought together in this sentence. Zeugma, when used skillfully, produces a unique artistic effect, making the literary works more interesting and effective as it serves to adorn expressions, and to add emphasis to ideas in impressive style. Zeugma and Syllepsis The Zeugma is sometimes differentiated from "syllepsis." Like zeugma, syllepsis also employs the technique of using a single verb for more than one part in a sentence, but where that single verb applies grammatically and logically to only one. For example, in the sentence, "They saw lots of thunder and lightning," the verb "saw" is logically correct only for the lightning, as thunder is "heard." Similarly, Tennyson's line from Ulysses, "He works his work, I mine" is an example of syllepsis, as the verb "works" is grammatically correct with the first person pronoun "he," but it is incorrect grammar to say "I works mine." Despite this distinction, syllepsis is often considered a kind of zeugma. Bryan A. Garner gives his views about the distinction between zeugma and syllepsis in The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style: "Although commentators have historically tried to distinguish between zeugma and syllepsis, the distinctions have been confusing and contradictory. We're better off using zeugma in its broadest sense and not confusing matters by introducing syllepsis, a little-known term the meaning of which even the experts can't agree on." Zeugma Examples from Literature Example #1: The Holy Bible, Exodus 20:18 (By the Prophet Moses) "And all the people saw the thundering, and the lightning, and the noise of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking: and when the people saw it, they removed, and stood afar off." Example #2: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears." Example #3: Of Studies (By Francis Bacon) "Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend." Example #4: The Rape of the Lock, Canto III (By Alexander Pope) "Here Thou, great Anna! whom three Realms obey, Dost sometimes Counsel take - and sometimes Tea." Example #5: The Rape of the Lock (By Alexander Pope) "Whether the nymph shall break Diana's law, Or some frail China-jar receive a flaw, Or stain her honour, or her new brocade." Example #6: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (By Mark Twain) "[They] covered themselves with dust and glory." Example #7: The Pickwick Papers (By Charles Dickens) "Miss Bolo [...] went straight home, in a flood of tears and a sedan-chair." Example #8: Oliver Twist (By Charles Dickens) "[H]e was alternately cudgelling his brains and his donkey when, passing the workhouse, his eyes encountered the bill on the gate." Example #9: Essay on Man (By Alexander Pope) "Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, A hero perish, or a sparrow fall, Atoms or systems into ruin hurled, And now a bubble burst, and now a world." Example #10: The Hundred Secret Senses (By Amy Tan) "We were partners, not soul mates, two separate people who happened to be sharing a menu and a life." Example #11: Have Some Madeira, M'Dear (By Flanders and Swann) "She lowered her standards by raising her glass, Her courage, her eyes and his hopes." Example #12: The Things They Carried (By Tim O'Brien) "But Ted Lavender, who was scared, carried 34 rounds when he was shot and killed outside Than Khe, and he went down under an exceptional burden, more than 20 pounds of ammunition, plus the flak jacket and helmet and rations and water and toilet paper and tranquilizers and all the rest, plus an unweighed fear." Function of Zeugma The above examples of Zeugma show that this literary device may create confusing or dangling sentences. However, if used correctly, it adds flavor to literary texts as it helps produce a dramatic effect, which could possibly be shocking in its result. Zeugma examples are also in literary works of famous writers and poets from several centuries ago, to add vividness and conciseness to their texts.

Zoomorphism

Zoomorphism is a derivative of the Greek words zōon, which means "animal," and morphē, which means "form," or "shape." It is a literary technique in which animal attributes are imposed upon non-animal objects, humans, and events; and animal features are ascribed to humans, gods, and other objects. Like in this instance, "A couple of customers that had been heading for my slot began to knock against each other, like scared pigs in a chute." (A&P, by John Updike). Here pigs are meant to be intelligent animals, and have been used as a simile to show how people were behaving. Opposite of Anthropomorphism Zoomorphism means assigning a person, event, or a deity with animalistic characteristics. Anthropomorphism, on the other hand, is ascribing human qualities to other objects, animals, and inhuman creatures in order to give an insight into their functions. Examples of Zoomorphism in Literature One can find zoomorphism examples in literary pieces written during the time of the Romans and ancient Greeks. However, modern literature has used it extensively as well. Example #1: Barn Burning (By William Faulkner) "The two sisters got down, big, bovine, in a flutter of cheap ribbons; one of them drew from the jumbled wagon bed a battered lantern, the other a worn broom. His father handed the reins to the older son and began to climb stiffly over the wheels ... There was something about his wolf-like independence and even courage when the advantage was at least neutral which impressed strangers, as if they got from his latent ravening ferocity not so much a sense of dependability, as a feeling that his ferocious conviction in the rightness of his own actions would be of advantage to all whose interest lay with his ..." Bovines are cows. They are perceived often as slow, stupid, and lazy animals that do not question their masters. On the other hand, wolves are ferocious predators. In the above excerpt, the girls are represented as cows - having a lack independence, following their father without questioning. The father is compared to a wolf, which has "ferocious conviction in the rightness of his own actions." Example #2: A&P (By John Updike) "You never know for sure how girls' minds work (do you really think it's a mind in there or just a little buzz like a bee in a glass jar?) but you got the idea she had talked the other two into coming in here with here, and now she was showing them how to do it, walk slow and hold yourself straight ... The sheep pushing their carts down the aisle - the girls were walking against the usual traffic (not that we have one-way signs or anything) - were pretty hilarious..." In this case, buzzing like a bee is supposed to imply that there is really nothing important in the girls' minds. While the customers are compared to sheep, who wander in groups mindlessly down the aisles. Example #3: The Holy Bible, Psalms (By Multiple Authors) "For you have been my help. I will rejoice in the shadow of your wings. (Psalm 63:7, English Version) "If I take the wings of the dawn, and settle in the remotest part of the sea..." (Psalm 139:9, English Version) Here, God is represented as a bird. The bird's/God's wings are compared to the comfort and shelter that God gives to His people. Example #4: A Midsummer Night's Dream (By William Shakespeare) "I have had a dream, past the wit of man to say what dream it was: man is but an ass, if he go about to expound this dream ..." This excerpt is the speech of Bottom in the play, who had a dream in which he was an ass-headed monster adored by a gorgeous fairy queen. He describes that humans cannot comprehend his dream; it is beyond their approach. Function of Zoomorphism Zoomorphism is a literary technique. Examples of zoomorphism are often found in short stories (used to effectively provide detailed descriptions about the characters in stories). Records show that it has been used as a literary device since the times of the ancient Romans and Greeks. It is a very helpful tool for the effective description of different characters. The purpose of using this technique is to create a figurative language and provide a comparison.

Haiku

A haiku poem has three lines, where the first and last lines have five moras, and the middle line has seven. The pattern in this Japanese genre is 5-7-5. The mora is another name for a sound unit, which is like a syllable, though there is a difference. As the moras cannot be translated into English, they are modified, and syllables are used instead. The lines of such poems rarely rhyme with each other. Haiku became popular as tanka poems in Japan during the 9th and 12th centuries. Initially, it was called "hokku" and Basho, Buson, and Issa were the first three masters of the haiku genre. Haiku poetry is also full of metaphors and personifications. However, this has often been argued against, since haikus are supposed to be written on objective experiences, rather than subjective ones. In English, several experiments were made in this genre as given below. "Autumn moonlight— a worm digs silently into the chestnut." (Autumn Moonlight, by Basho) Features of Haiku It contains three lines. It has five moras (syllables) in the first line, seven in the second, and five in the last line. It contains 17 syllables in total. A Haiku poem does not rhyme. Haiku poems frequently have a kigo, or seasonal reference. Haiku poems are usually about nature or natural phenomena. The poem has two juxtaposed subjects that are divided into two contrasting parts. In English, this division between two parts can be shown by a colon or a dash. Examples of Haiku in Literature Example #1: Old Pond (By Basho) Old pond a frog jumps the sound of water In this example, we can clearly see two contrasting parts of the poem; one is about a frog that is jumping, and second is about the sound of water. The syllable pattern is also following a 5-7-5 format. Example #2: Book of Haikus (By Jack Kerouac) Snow in my shoe— Abandoned Sparrow's nest This haiku is presenting an image in the first part of "snow in my shoe." In addition, there are two contrasting ideas that mingle with one another as the second part is about nature. The pattern of syllables is 5-7-5. The poet has tried to present a little story in this haiku. Example #3: Dust of Summers (By Multiple Poets) Calling home— the color of mother's voice before her words (By Hilary Tann) Twilight... his voice deep purple (By Ludmila Balabanova) In these haikus, figurative device such as metaphors have been used to present an insight of the world. Through this technique, multiple senses are used to gather sensory information. Example #4: Thirds (By Jeffrey Winke) Song birds at the train yard's edge two cars coupling Personification is also a definite trait of haiku poetry. This is to assign a human quality or qualities to nonhuman things, though this is less prevalent in haiku as compared to metaphors. In this poem, personification is very well done, hence allowing the poem to speak for itself. Example #5: To a Leg of Heron (By Basho) To a leg of a heron Adding a long shank Of a pheasant. The theme of this poem is to laugh at ones self. This is a perfect example of haiku poetry, as it is perfectly following the pattern of syllable counts. It is also giving an amusing and ironic touch, since reality is the major aspect of this form of poetry. Example #6: Selected Haiku (By Nick Virgilio) Lily: out of the water... out of itself Bass Picking bugs off the moon Nick Virgilio is an American poet who is a great supporter of Japanese haiku. He has written 5-7-5 syllable-style poems when translated in Japanese. These examples of haiku poems are natural, mystical, and refined. Function of Haiku Haikus are short poems written on topics and things that the readers can identify with easily. For example, seasons and animals are readily recognizable topics to readers. Generally, haiku is written for realistic and objective reasons; however, haikus are also written for children. Sometimes it presents two juxtaposed ideas to express meanings through internal comparison.

Cumulative Sentence

A cumulative sentence is known as a "loose sentence," that starts with an independent clause or main clause, which is simple and straight, provides main idea, and then adds subordinate elements or modifiers. It adds subordinate or modifying elements after the subject and the predicate. Writers use these types of sentences when they want to put forth the main idea first, and provide details to elucidate the idea further thereafter. They use these details in the form of dependent or subordinate phrases or clauses. These types of sentences work better in various forms of writing, specifically in explaining theories, by giving the main idea at the beginning, and then adding more information to build up the idea further. For instance, in the sentence, "Llanblethian hangs pleasantly, with its white cottages, and orchard and other trees..." (The Life of John Sterling, by Thomas Carlyle), the main clause is short, independent, and straightforward, while the subordinate elements clarify the idea further. Examples of Cumulative Sentence in Literature Example #1: More Die of Heartbreak (by Saul Bellow) "The radiators put out lots of heat, too much, in fact, and old-fashioned sounds and smells came with it, exhalations of the matter that composes our own mortality, and reminiscent of the intimate gases we all diffuse." In these lines, the main idea is simply the heat of radiators. After that, comes additional information, telling how dangerous the smell of these radiators could be for the humans. Example #2: Some Dreamers of the Golden Dream (by Joan Didion) "The San Bernardino Valley lies only an hour east of Los Angeles by the San Bernardino Freeway but is in certain ways an alien place: not the coastal California of the subtropical twilights and the soft westerlies off the Pacific but a harsher California, haunted by the Mojave just beyond the mountains, devastated by the hot dry Santa Ana wind that comes down through the passes at 100 miles an hour and whines through the eucalyptus windbreaks and works on the nerves." In this example, the main clause is independent, setting a scene for this essay, and describing the location of San Bernardino Valley. The modifying elements further enhance this description. Example #3: Life and Times of Chaucer (by John Gardner) "The unwieldy provision carts, draught horses, and heavily armed knights kept the advance down to nine miles a day, the huge horde moving in three parallel columns, cutting broad highways of litter and devastation through an already abandoned countryside, many of the adventurers now traveling on foot, having sold their horses for bread or having slaughtered them for meat." This is a perfect description of a cumulative sentence. The main clause is about carts, and then there are further details that explain how carts move down the road. Example #4: Gentlemen of the Road: A Tale of Adventure (by Michael Chabon) "He wept silently, after the custom of shamed and angry men, so that when the pursuit party came tumbling, pounding, scrabbling down the trail, past the fold in which he and Hillel stood concealed, he could hear the creak and rattle of their leather armor with its scales of horn; and when the Arsiyah returned, just before daybreak, at the very hour when all of creation seemed to fall silent as if fighting off tears, Zelikman could hear the rumbling of the men's bellies and the grit in their eyelids and the hollowness of failure sounding in their chests." This is another very good example of cumulative sentence. The main clause is very short and straight, telling someone has wept; thereafter, the author has given a detailed description of why someone, mentioned in the main clause, wept silently. Function of Cumulative Sentence Cumulative sentences are easier to understand, straightforward, and simple. The additional details in these sentences become relatively important, as they elucidate the main idea, given in a few words at the beginning. They are useful when the goal of a writer is clarity rather than suspense. Cumulative sentences give an informal, conversational, and relaxed feeling to a work of art. Besides, one must be judicious while explaining a main clause through subordinate and modifying phrases or clauses. At times, readers might not read full details in the entire sentence, as they have already read the main idea. Moreover, if a sentence becomes too long, they might lose interest, or forget the main idea at the end of a sentence.

Static Character

A static character is one that does not undergo inner changes, or undergoes a little change. It is a character that does not develop or grow, such as Sherlock Holmes and James Bond. In fact, this character does not develop the inner understanding to know how his environment is affecting him, or he does not understand that his actions have positive or negative impacts on others. The personality of this character remains the same at the end of the story as it appeared in the beginning. All his actions stay true and unchanged to his personality in-between the scenes. Difference Between Static and Flat Characters Static characters should not be confused or mixed up with flat, one-dimensional characters. Though neither changes as the story progresses, if a character remains unchanged, it does not mean that he is one-dimensional like a flat character. A static character can be perfectly interesting, like Sherlock Holmes, who is completely ingenious, eccentric, and sometimes jerky. He never changes, but the audience still loves him. Thus, a static character could be the protagonist too, and a flat character, on the other hand, only plays a side role in the story. Examples of Static Characters in Literature Example #1: Mr. Collins, Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) The first example of a static character is Mr. Collins from Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. He plays a vital role in the novel by making efforts to get Darcy and Elizabeth together, and contributes comedy to the story; however, his character does not change. Thus, he is a perfect example of a static character. Example #2: Scar, The Lion King (by Don Ferguson) Scar is another excellent example of a static character. Scar is a sly and clever brother of the Lion King. This cunning character plots to kill Simba and his father. As the film goes on, we notice that Scar does not go through any changes, keeping his personality traits until the end. By the end of the story, he does not survive and dies due to his wicked deeds. Example #3: Draco, Harry Potter (by J. K. Rowling) Draco Malfoy is another good example of a static character. Although he gets many opportunities to grow and transform for the better, he prefers not to change. He also dimly senses that Lord Voldemort and the Death Eaters are evil, even though he continues to believe that only purebloods are worthy, and "Mudbloods" and "Muggles" are to be disdained. Example #4: Loisel, The Necklace (by Guy de Maupassant) In his short story, The Necklace, Guy de Maupassant introduces M. Loisel as a static character that does not care much to develop himself. He basically appreciates little things in life, seems happy with his life, and plays as a foil to his perpetually dissatisfied wife. He exists because his wife needs an escort, as she cannot attend the balls by herself. Also, Mathilde could not find any way to pay back the diamond necklace herself. Therefore, all she does to help him pay for necklace is to save money in every possible way by doing all laundry work and other household labor. Example #5: Atticus Finch, To Kill a Mockingbird (by Harper Lee) Atticus Finch is another good example of a static character in the novel, To Kill a Mocking Bird. Though his attitude about his father changes, he shows the same fortitude in the courtroom, as he explains that he shot the dog earlier in the story. Finch exercises the same principle of seeing things from other people's perspectives throughout the narrative. For instance, in the beginning, he gives a warning to the children to give respect to Boo's privacy and eccentric ways. Then, towards the end, he again recognizes the value of giving respect to Boo's privacy by agreeing with judgment of Heck Tate regarding Bob Ewell's death. Function of a Static Character The function of the static character is not less than the hero with whom he is often found at every critical juncture in the narrative. It happens that, whenever the protagonist is in some quandary, the static character is there to help him out. It is because the main character or the protagonist cannot get there on his own. He needs other characters to serve some purpose to add to the plot or help outright. This is the static character who helps the protagonist and also serves as a foil to a character. Moreover, the foil helps reveal the differences between the two characters.

Asyndeton

Asyndeton is derived from the Greek word asyndeton, which means "unconnected." It is a stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases, and in the sentence, yet maintain grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps in reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase, and presents it in a concise form. It was first used in Greek and Latin literature. Types of Asyndeton Asyndeton examples may be classified into two types: Used between words and phrases within a sentence For example: "Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, Shrunk to this little measure?" (Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1, by William Shakespeare) Used between sentences or clauses For example: "Without looking, without making a sound, without talking" (Oedipus at Colonus, by Sophecles) Difference Between Syndeton and Asyndeton Syndeton and asyndeton are opposite to one another. Syndeton includes the addition of multiple conjunctions, such as in this example: "He eats and sleeps and drinks." On the other hand, asyndeton is the elimination, or leaving out, of conjunctions, such as in this example: "He eats, sleeps, drinks." Each creates a completely different effect. Syndeton slows down the rhythm of speech, and makes it moderate, whereas asyndeton speeds up the rhythm of the speech. Examples of Asyndeton in Literature Example #1: Othello (By William Shakespeare) IAGO "Call up her father. Rouse him. Make after him, Poison his delight, Proclaim him in the streets. Incense her kinsmen, And, though he in a fertile climate dwell..." In this excerpt, Shakespeare has eliminated conjunctions deliberately. There is a shortage of the conjunctions and, for, or, and but, which are required to join the sentences. Due to this, the words have been emphasized, and feelings of anger and jealousy are articulated explicitly. Example #2: The Scholar-Gipsy (By Matthew Arnold) "Go, shepherd, and untie the wattled cotes! No longer leave thy wistful flock unfed, Nor let thy bawling fellows rack their throats, Nor the cropp'd herbage shoot another head... Thou hast not lived, why should'st thou perish, so? Thou hadst one aim, one business, one desire; Else wert thou long since numbered with the dead..." This is a good example of asyndeton. The conjunctions are missing in the sentences, such as the second and sixth lines are not connected with adjoining words. However, it produces speed in the poem. Example #3: The Winter's Tale (By William Shakespeare) "Is whispering nothing? Is leaning cheek to cheek? is meeting noses? Kissing with inside lip? stopping the career Of laughter with a sigh? (a note infallible Of breaking honesty!) horsing foot on foot? " In this excerpt, we can observe both types of asyndeton. The first type (between the words) such as "from" is removed between the words "leaning" and "cheek" and similarly the second type (between the sentences) with the sentences not being joined by conjunctions. Example #4: Rhetoric (By Aristotle) "This is the villain among you who deceived you, who cheated you, who meant to betray you completely..." The word "and" is not featured in the given lines, which could have functioned as a conjunction here. Aristotle believed that asyndeton could be effective if used in the ending of the texts. Here he himself employed this device. Example #5: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) "Consciousness of place came ebbing back to him slowly over a vast tract of time unlit, unfelt, unlived..." Joyce has also used this device, omitting the conjunctions in order to give rhythm and pace to the text. Here, we can see the elimination of conjunctions, which could have joined the words unlit, unfelt, and unlived. This creates are creating a frantic and hurried effect. Function of Asyndeton Asyndeton helps in speeding up the rhythm of words. Mostly this technique is employed in speech but can be used in written works too. It helps in attracting readers to collaborate with the writers, since it suggests that words, phrases, and sentences are incomplete, and the readers would have to do some work to deduce meanings. This version creates immediate impact, and the readers are attuned to what the author is trying to convey. Asyndeton is often applied intentionally in order to give a unique emphasis to the text, thereby drawing the attention of readers towards a particular idea the author wants to convey.

Fiction

Etymologically, the word fiction has been derived from Latin word "fictus," which means "to form." However, in literature, Merriam Webster defines it as, "literature in the form of prose, especially novels, that describes imaginary events and people." In fact, it is one of the two branches of literature, the other being non-fiction. This particular branch of literature consists of stories, novels, and dramas based on made-up and fabricated stories and characters. Fiction contains certain symbolic and thematic features known as "literary merits." In other words, fiction narrates a story, which aims at something bigger than merely a story. In this attempt, it comments on something significant related to social, political, or human related issues. Fiction may be based on stories of actual historical events. Although fictitious characters are presented in a fictitious setting in stories and novels, they may have some resemblance to real life events and characters. Writers alter their characters very skillfully when they take them from actual life. Examples of Fiction in Literature Example #1: Alice in Wonderland (By Lewis Carrol) Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll is a good example of fiction. The story narrates various adventures of the main character, Alice, in a fictitious land full of incredible creatures and events. Alice has to go through certain magical experiences in the wonderland. According to the story, one day, while reading book, Alice grows bored, and notices a white rabbit. She follows the rabbit when it goes into a hole in the ground. When peeping through the hole, Alice loses her balance and falls in. She floats down slowly into the hole, and observes everything around her. Then Alice enters Wonderland, where she witnesses a number of weird things. This entire magical tale is fabricated and imaginary, which makes it a good fiction to enjoy. Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (by Jane Austen) Another ample example to portray fiction is, Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. It is one of the most famous English novels. Unlike the previous example, this story is set in a real-life-like setting. All characters are humans, and no magical or strange events take place in this novel. All of the characters, and the entire story is a made-up narrative, each element the product of Jane Austen's imagination. She not only presents the issues of the contemporary life faced by middle class families, but also daily preoccupations of the common people. The novel presents a good fiction of actual life of nineteenth century. Example #3: Hamlet (by William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare's Hamlet is another apt example of fiction. The story of the play moves around the main character, Prince Hamlet. He is informed by the Ghost of his father that his uncle murdered his father, King Hamlet, and married his wife and Hamlet's mother, Queen Gertrude. The Ghost elicits a promise from Hamlet that he will avenge his murder by killing the murderer. This becomes Hamlet's dilemma. He vows to kill his uncle, but delays it on one pretext or another. Overall, the story is all about the intrigues and plots of the royal castle of Elsinore in Denmark. The story may have some connection with the real life events and characters, yet it is completely a fabricated story created by Shakespeare to entertain the Elizabeth audience of that time. Function of Fiction The function of fiction is to entertain, educate, and inspire the readers and the audience. Literature in general, and fiction in particular, is capable enough to sweep our emotions. Therefore, fiction gives the audience an experience beyond their daily lives. It provides them an insight into the life of the characters, their manners, vicissitudes, and events related to them. It also is used to point out the flaws and drawbacks of a society, race, and nation in a manner that it does not touch the boundary of stricture or criticism. Rather, fiction points out drawbacks, and then suggests solutions for the individuals and the nations alike. To sum up, fiction can also provide a vent to our pent-up emotions such as hatred, anger and dislike but in a very light manner without pointing out specific individuals or groups.

Motivation

In literature, "motivation" is defined as a reason behind a character's specific action or behavior. This type of behavior is characterized by the character's own consent and willingness to do something. There are two types of motivation: one is intrinsic, while the other one is extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is linked to personal pleasure, enjoyment and interest, while extrinsic motivation is linked to numerous other possibilities. Extrinsic motivation comes from some physical reward such as money, power, or lust. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is inspired by some internal reward such as knowledge, pride, or spiritual or emotional peace or wellbeing, etc. Characters have some motivation for every action, as do people in real life. Therefore, the implicit or explicit reference to a motivation of a character makes the piece of literature seem closer to life and reality. Examples of Motivation in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) All actions that Hamlet commits in the play are the result of his motivation, such as revenge, justification, and integrity of his character. Throughout the play, revenge remains a constant motivation for Hamlet. He is extremely grieved over his father's death. His sorrow and grief are aggravated when the Ghost of his father tells him that the murderer has not only taken the throne, but has taken his mother as his bride. This becomes a motivation for Hamlet to justify his actions and exact revenge for "murder most foul," in the words of the Ghost. This motivation is further escalated when he sees his mother married to his uncle, the murderer. In fact, Hamlet finds an opportunity to kill his uncle, but he does not, as King Claudius was praying at the time. Hamlet does not want to send the murderer's soul to heaven. This motivation stops him from taking action. Example #2: Doctor Faustus (by Christopher Marlow) In his introductory soliloquy, Dr. Faustus reveals his motivation very clearly. The chorus already confirms whatever he states in the soliloquy. The chorus informs the audiences of the play that Faustus received his academic degree of doctorate in theology (religion). He earned a doctoral degree only to become "overinflated and conceited" for his own satisfaction. His self-centered thinking brings up his moral and spiritual downfall. He desires to know more and more even something, which is beyond his capabilities. His motivation is pride in himself, which ultimately destroys him. Example #3: Lady Macbeth from "Macbeth" (by William Shakespeare) According to many literary critics about Shakespeare's characters, the most evil of all his female characters is Lady Macbeth, who happens to have the worst motivation behind her actions. She is highly cunning, skillfully manipulative, and much more ambitious than her husband, Macbeth. When she receives a letter from her husband revealing the prophecy of the witches that foretells that Macbeth will be the future king, she at once begins to plan the murder of Duncan. Then, when Macbeth withdraws from taking action, she motivates and urges him to move forward. Therefore, not only are greed and lust her motivations, but she transfers these motivations to her husband, giving him reason to kill the king. Function of Motivation In literature, motivation is used to connect the behavior and actions of a character with the events of the story. Motivation serves as the logical explanation for what a character does, which is necessary for the readers and audiences to understand the causes of a character's actions. The core desires of characters lead the way to all actions in storytelling. Sometimes motivations of characters change with the development of the story. With a change in the motivation, the character changes too. For effective characterization, unified and dominant motivation is inevitable. Great characters have great motivations. These characters teach some good or bad moral lessons to the readers and the audiences. The readers and audiences get more interested in motivated characters and understand those motivations, which make or break societies.

Foil

In literature, a foil is a character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of another character. The objective is to highlight the traits of the other character. The term foil, though generally being applied to a contrasting character, may also be used for any comparison that is drawn to portray a difference between two things. What we observe in literature very often is that a foil is a secondary character who contrasts with the major character to enhance the importance of the major character. The etymology of the term foil testifies the aforementioned assertion as the word is taken from the practice of backing gems with foil (tool), so that they shine more brightly. Examples of Foil in Literature Example #1: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) Milton's Paradise Lost, Book I, is based on the comparison of two contrasting characters: God and Satan. Satan, in the entire work, appears as a foil to God. The negative traits of Satan and the positive traits of God are frequently compared, which consequently brings to the surface not only the contrast between the two characters, but also "justify the ways of God..." We reach a conclusion that it is only just for Satan to be expelled from the paradise because of his refusal to give in to the will of God. Example #2: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) In Wuthering Heights, Emily Bronte depicts two contrasting settings that are foils to each other. The entire action of the narrative takes place in two neighboring houses: Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. While describing Wuthering Heights in chapter 12, the narrator says: "There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness: not a light gleamed from any house, far or near all had been extinguished long ago: and those at Wuthering Heights were never visible..." The description of Thrushcross Grange, in contrast to the Wuthering Heights, creates a calm and peaceful atmosphere. "Gimmerton chapel bells were still ringing; and the full, mellow flow of the beck in the valley came soothingly on the ear. It was a sweet substitute for the yet absent murmur of the summer foliage, which drowned that music about the Grange when the trees were in leaf." The foils in these settings also help in the development of the foils in the characters, as the people from Wuthering Heights are unsophisticated, and are foils to those from Thrushcross Grange, who have a refined disposition. Example #3: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (By Robert Louis Stevenson) In his novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in which Hyde is not only an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll, but also qualifies as his foil. Dr. Jekyll creates Hyde through a series of scientific experiments, in order to prove his statement: "Man is not truly one, but truly two." He means that the human soul is a mixture of evil and good. In other words, every man's foil exists in himself. Hyde is the manifestation of the evil that existed in otherwise honorable Dr. Jekyll. Being a respectable Victorian gentleman, Jekyll can never fulfill his evil desires. Therefore, he separates his "evil-self," giving him a separate identity, and thus invents his own foil. Example #4: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) Foil examples are also found in plays. We notice in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar a twofold foil. Cassius is a foil to Brutus, and Brutus is a foil to Antony. Both Cassius and Brutus conspire to kill Caesar, but Cassius is more prone to treachery than Brutus is, and thus easily gives in to his evil ambition. Brutus, on the other hand, hesitates to join the plot without careful analysis of the whole scenario. Cassius even goes to the extent that he does not shy away from writing phony letters to convince Brutus to join the plot. Brutus, in contrast, is bent on relying on his own reason, and his awareness of his dignified obligations as a Roman, to do the inevitable. Moreover, Brutus is a foil to Antony because Brutus's honesty and simplicity are in clear contrast to Antony's qualities of deception and over-ambition. Function of Foil In fiction, a foil is important in the development of the story's characters. The comparison of the contrasting traits of the characters helps the readers to not only understand their personalities, but also to comprehend the importance of their roles in a work of literature.

Limerick

Limerick is a comic verse, containing five anapestic (unstressed/unstressed/stressed) lines, in which the first, second, and fifth lines are longer, rhyme together, and follow three metrical feet. The third and fourth lines rhyme together, are shorter, and follow two metrical feet. However, sometimes it may vary, and amphibrachic (unstressed/stressed/unstressed) form can replace anapestic. In fact, it is a bawdy, humorous, or nonsensical verse written in the form of five anapests, with an aabba rhyme scheme. Since it has a special structure and format, it is called fixed or closed form of poetry. Limerick and Villanelle Though both of these are types of poem having fixed structures, both are different in their forms. Villanelle consists of 19 lines with refraining rhyming sounds appearing in the first and the third lines, while the final quatrain has a closing couplet. A limerick has five lines, having anapestic form with the first, second, and fifth lines rhyming together, but the third and fourth lines are different and rhyme together. Examples of limerick in Literature We can find the use of limericks in eighteenth century verse. They are associated with Edward Lear, who first published this verse form in his book A Book of Nonsense in the year 1846. Later, this form became popular, and many poets, including Alfred Lord Tennyson, Shakespeare, Rudyard Kipling, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ogden Nash, H. G. Wells, W. H. Auden, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Lewis Carroll, tried their hands in this form of poetry. Here we have a few examples of limerick from literature: Example #1: To Miss Vera Beringer (By Lewis Carroll) "There was a young lady of station 'I love man' was her sole exclamation; But when men cried: 'You flatter,' She replied, 'Oh! no matter Isle of Man is the true explanation.'" This limerick contains five lines with a rhyme scheme of aabba. Here we can notice the first, second, and fifth lines rhyme together, with three feet; whereas the third and fourth lines contain two feet and rhyme together. Example #2: There was an Old Man with a Beard (By Edward Lear) "There was an Old Man with a beard, Who said, 'It is just as I feared! Two Owls and a Hen, Four Larks and a Wren, Have all built their nests in my beard!" Edward Lear was considered to be the father of limericks. This is one of the very good examples of limerick poems, following its typical format with the first, second, and fifth lines rhyming together, and longer in length; while the remaining two are shorter, and give a faster read. Lear has referred to this form as nonsense. Example #3: There was a small boy of Quebec (By Rudyard Kipling) "There was a small boy of Quebec Who was buried in snow to his neck When they said, 'Are you friz?' He replied, 'Yes, I is — But we don't call this cold in Quebec.'" Notice Kipling has penned a good limerick with irrelevant zaniness and weirdness. The first four lines look funny, while the final line creates a curious and special mood in this poem. Example #4: Othello (By William Shakespeare) "And let me the canakin clink, clink; And let me the canakin clink A soldier's a man; A life's but a span; Why, then, let a soldier drink." It is quite interesting that the earliest written limericks were linked with drinking. We can guess that people would have drinks and sang bawdy, funny songs or poems. Similarly, William Shakespeare has employed this form in a drinking song of Stephano to create nonsensical and humorous effects. Example #5: A Man Hired by John Smith & Co (By Mark Twain) "A man hired by John Smith and Co. Loudly declared that he'd tho. Men that he saw Dumping dirt near his door The drivers, therefore, didn't do." As we know, Mark Twain is also popular for writing limericks. Here, he has used a funny and whimsical limerick poem, with a concluding punch line. Function of Limerick Poets use limericks as literary or poetic forms to convey and create funny and humorous images. The purpose of using this form is to replace everyday expression with unusual alternative to express emotion and a particular mood by adding eccentricity and weirdness. We can find its usage in literature to describe humor or light subject matter, as the first four lines create a joke, and it ends on a punch line. It also is used frequently in nursery rhymes to make kids love reading.

Procatalepsis

Procatalepsis is a figure of speech that is also known as "prebuttal," or a "prolepsis," in which the speaker or writer gives response to the objection of an opponent in his speech by repeating his objection. It could also be that he responds to his own objection, in order to strengthen his argument, by using counterarguments. Once the speakers bring attention to a possible rebuttal, they immediately refute or discredit it, for the fear that people may get confused. Examples of Procatalepsis in Literature Example #1: The Captives (by Hugh Walpole) " 'I know what you're going to say' ... 'That if they look at it properly they'll see that it wasn't our fault. But will they look at it properly? Of course they won't. You know what cats they are ...' " This example is a perfect description of procatalepsis. First, the speaker says that, if the reader looks at the matter carefully, he will realize and know the truth. Then he quickly objects to his own argument and asks a question instead. Example #2: Apology (by Plato) "Someone will say: 'Yes, Socrates, but cannot you hold your tongue, and then you may go into a foreign city, and no one will interfere with you?' Now I have great difficulty in making you understand my answer to this ... and that the life which is unexamined is not worth living - that you are still less likely to believe. And yet what I say is true, although a thing of which it is hard for me to persuade you." In this example, the speaker is persuading the listeners. He knows that the other person would not believe him, and that he is unable to convince him despite the fact that he is telling the truth. Thus, the speaker is objecting to his own argument to strengthen it. Example #3: The Scorpio Illusion (by Robert Ludlum) " 'He knows every harbor, every cove and inlet throughout the chain; he has to.' " 'Those are fine credentials, Geoffrey, but hardly the sort —' " 'Please,' interrupted Cooke. 'I haven't finished. To anticipate your objection, he's a retired officer of US Naval Intelligence. He's relatively young, early to mid-forties, I'd say, and I've no real knowledge of why he left the service, but I gather the circumstances weren't very pleasant. Still, he could be an asset on this assignment.' " In this excerpt, the speaker uses procatalepsis by describing the efforts and expertise of the U.S. naval officer. First, he raises a question about why he left his job, then immediately objects to his own argument, responding that, due to unpleasant circumstances, he had left the job. Example #4: A Modest Proposal (by Jonathan Swift) "I can think of no one objection that will possibly be raised against this proposal, unless it should be urged that the number of people will be thereby much lessened in the kingdom. This I freely own, and it was indeed the principal design in offering it to the world." Here, Swift brings an argument that he can't think of a single objection to his proposal; then he gives a quick argument that an objection might be raised about the decrease in the kingdom's population. Example #5: Amores 1.3 (by Ovid) "Accept (me), one who knows [how] to love you with spotless faith. Nor is my field renewed by countless plows, Act on my side, and Love, who gives me to you And loyalty [which] will yield to no-one, morals without fault ... and that I die with you grieving (for me). Offer yourself to me as worthy material for poems: ..." In this poem, Ovid is using procatalepsis to persuade Corinna that he loves her more than anyone; and though he is not rich, and does not have too much money, social status, or possessions, he knows that his poetry could make his beloved immortal. Function This rhetorical device, procatalepsis, allows a writer to remain in control of a discourse by using counterargument. It is also helpful to writers or speakers, if they do not have a complete answer to an objection, which they attain by remaining honest about reality that their arguments have problems. This is how they show their audience that they are grounded in the reality. Since it is a very effective tactic in arguments, its benefits are twofold: the speaker replies successfully to the objection of the audience or opposing arguments, and also builds trust with his audience. Its usage is common in literary writings, advertisements, specifically in the political arena, where it serves as a playground.

Romanticism

Romanticism is one of the recurring themes that are linked to either imagination, idealism, inspiration, intuition, or individualism. The theme often criticizes the past, stresses upon sensibility, isolation of the writer and pays homage to nature. Preceded by Enlightenment, Romanticism brought not only fresh poetry but also great novels in English Literature. Started from England and spread throughout Europe including the United States, the Romantic movement includes famous writers such as William Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Lord Byron, Shelley, Chatterton, and Hawthorne. Etymologically, romantic has been modified from the French word romaunt that means a tale of chivalry. After two German writers Schlegel brothers used this word for poetry, it transformed into a movement like an epidemic and spread throughout Europe. Examples of Romanticism in Literature Example #1 To Autumn by John Keats "Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run; To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees, And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core; To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells With a sweet kernel; to set budding more, And still more, later flowers for the bees, Until they think warm days will never cease, For summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells." This is one of the best romantic poems of its time. Keats composed this phenomenal romantic poem during one of his evenings in Winchester. It describes the autumn and its features through imagination, intuition, and idealism. Keats describes three stages of autumn as it progresses from early autumn to mid-autumn and the onset of winter and compares it to the cycle of life in general. Example #2 To a Skylark by Percy Bysshe Shelley "We look before and after, And pine for what is not: Our sincerest laughter With some pain is fraught; Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. Yet if we could scorn Hate, and pride, and fear; If we were things born Not to shed a tear, I know not how thy joy we ever should come near." The above lines show a strong inclination to the expression of subjectivity or individuality of the poet in his poetry. Although Shelley is writing about the skylark, he expressed his personal feelings of sorrow in the poem and related them to the song of the bird. This romantic trait runs throughout the poem. Example #3 Frankenstein by Mary Shelley Frankenstein is one of the best examples of romantic novels. It shows the idea of how supernatural works in an environment where the pursuit of knowledge and discovery of Victor Frankenstein overpowers him so much so that he forgets the moral aspects of life and creation. He rather becomes a godlike human being and creates a monster instead of a human. Moreover, the novel has also stressed upon feelings of love and romance. The monster's intense desire to have a mate points to the theme of romanticism. Example #4 Daffodils by William Wordsworth "I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the milky way, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of a bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance." In this poem, Wordsworth has elaborated his personal feelings as he sees daffodils and everything else around him. He continues to describe the beauty of nature not only in the flowers but also trees, stars, and the milky way galaxy. Example #5 The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge "It is an ancient Mariner, And he stoppeth one of three. 'By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, Now wherefore stopp'st thou me? The Bridegroom's doors are opened wide, And I am next of kin; The guests are met, the feast is set: May'st hear the merry din.' He holds him with his skinny hand, 'There was a ship,' quoth he. 'Hold off! unhand me, grey-beard loon!' Eftsoons his hand dropt he." These three stanzas tell a mysterious tale which contains elements of surprise and dream-like situation. The entire poem has these romantic elements in the story of the ancient marine which has transformed it into a representative poem of the romantic movement. Romanticism Meaning and Function Romanticism, as a movement in literature, has also led the writers and poets to create masterpieces having romantic elements. Romanticism as theme celebrates freedom and breaking conventional rules. Romanticism is also considered an active power with functions to present our imagination.

Ballad

The word ballad is of French provenance. It is a type of poetry or verse which was basically used in dance songs in ancient France. Later on, during the late 16th and 17th centuries, it spread over the majority of European nations. Owing to its popularity and emotional appeal, it remained a powerful tool for poets and lyricists to prepare music in the form of lyrical ballads, and earn a handsome income from it. The art of lyrical ballad, as well as ballad poetry, lost popularity during the latter half of the 19th century. However, it is still read and listened to with interest in most European countries, including the British Isles. Evolution of Ballad Two schools of thought, namely the communal school of thought, and the individualist school of thought, have dominated the world of ballad throughout its development. Communalists believe that the evolution of the ballad was a result of the joined and shared literary endeavors of many people. Individualists negate this approach to the extent that they consider the later development as a modification of the archetype. Most of the ballad examples in ancient times used to be passed from generation to generation through oral traditions. This is because there was no language in which to write them down. However, in the modern world, the preservation and transmission of such literary treasures has become easier. The availability of advanced technology and common languages has improved not only the documentation, but the accessibility of these resources for people in every part of the world. Distinguishing Features of Ballads Ballads, no matter which category they fall into, mostly rely on simple and easy-to-understand language, or dialect from its origin. Stories about hardships, tragedies, love, and romance are standard ingredients of the ballad. This is irrespective of geographical origins. Another conspicuous element of any ballad is the recurrence of certain lines at regular intervals. Ballads can also be in interrogative form, with appropriate answers to every question asked. Ballads seldom offer a direct message about a certain event, character, or situation. It is left to the audience to deduce the moral of the story from the whole narration. Categories of Ballad Following is a broad list of categories of ballad: Stall ballad Lyrical ballad Popular ballad Blue ballad Bush ballad Fusion ballad (pop and rock) Modern ballad All these categories are primarily meant to convey popular messages, stories, or historical events to audiences in the form of songs and poetry. Examples of Ballad Example #1: Tam Lin (Unknown) Scottish traditional ballad " 'O I forbid you, maiden all, That wears gold in your hair, To come or go by Carterhaugh For young Tam Lin is there." Example #2: Rime of an Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge) Lyrical ballad "Day after day, day after day We stuck nor breathe, nor motion; As idle as a painted ship Upon a painted ocean." Example #3: Stagolee (By John Hurt) Blue ballad with roots in American folk music "Stagolee was a bad man They go down in a coal mine one night Robbed a coal mine They's gambling down there" Example #4: Drover (By Elton John) Bush ballad "From the sunburnt plains of far off North Australia Came a fella born to ride the wide brown land Oh he grew up running wil But soon by all was styled As the country's greatest-ever droving man" Example #5: The Ballad of Billy the Kid (By Billy Joel) Modern ballad "From a town known Wheeling, Wes Virginia Rode a boy with six gun in his hands And his daring life crime Made him a legend in his time East and west of Rio Grande" Function of Ballad: Dramatic Uses Ballads, as stage performances, enjoyed the status of being one of the main sources of entertainment in ancient times. Legends and historical events were narrated in the form of a ballads, which would comprise song and dance. Ballad was a perfect substitute for our current day technology-based entertainment, albeit with more emotional appeal. In the 18th century, the ballad-based stage entertainment came to be known as "ballad opera." According to ballad aficionados, the first formal ballad opera was staged in the first half of the 18th century, with the theme of "The Beggar's Opera."

Anecdote

Anecdote is defined as a short and interesting story, or an amusing event, often proposed to support or demonstrate some point, and to make the audience laugh. Anecdotes can include an extensive range of tales and stories. In fact, it is a short description or an account of any event that makes the readers laugh or brood over the topic presented for the purpose. Types of Anecdote There are several types of anecdotes. Amusing anecdotes are often used in literature, or at such events as family reunions, wedding receptions, and other get-togethers. Teachers tell anecdotes to their students in classrooms about eminent people and celebrities. Writers and poets use them in their literary works. Examples of Anecdote in Literature Example #1: The Crucible (By Arthur Miller) Parris: "(It is very hard to say): Aye, a dress. And I thought - someone naked running through the trees!" Abigail: (In terror) "No one was naked! You mistake yourself, uncle!" Parris: (With anger) "I saw it! (Her moves from her, then, resolved.) Now tell me true, Abigail. And I pray you feel the weight of truth upon you, for now my ministry's at stake, my ministry and perhaps your cousin's life. Whatever abomination you have done, give me all of it now, for I dare not be taken unaware when I go before them down there." Abigail: "There is nothin' more. I swear it, uncle." Parris: (Studies her, then nods, half convinced) "Abigail, I have fought here three long years to bend there stiff-necked people to me, and now, just now when some good respect is rising for me in the parish, you compromise my very character. I have given you a home, child, I have put clothes upon your back - now give me upright answer. Your name in the town - it is entirely white, is it not?" Abigail: (With an edge of resentment) "Why, I am sure it is, sir. There is no blush about my name." Parris: (To the point) "Abigail is there any other cause that you have told me, for you being discharged from Goody Proctor's service? I have heard it said, and I tell you as I heard it, that she comes so rarely to church this year for she will not sit so close to something soiled. What signified that remark?" Abigail: "She hates me, uncle; she must, for I would not be her slave. It's a bitter woman, a lying; cold, sniveling, woman, and I will not work for such a woman!" Parris: "She may be. And yet it has troubled me that you are now seven month out of their house, and in all this time no other family has ever called for your service." Abigail: "They want slaves, not such as me. Let them send to Barbados for that. I will not black my face for any of them! (With ill-concealed resentment at him.) Do you begrudge my bed, uncle?" Parris: "No - no." Abigail: (in a temper) "My name is good in the village! I will not have it said my name is soiled! Goody Proctor is a gossiping liar!" Here in this literary text, Reverend Parris finds her niece Abigail Williams chanting and dancing in the woods, along with the native village girls. He suspects them of magic and witchcraft. However, she does not accept any of the accusations of Parris and starts narrating whimsical stories to justify her actions. Abigail makes an account that Goody Proctor is a liar. The stories of Abigail are perfect examples of anecdotes. Example #2: Death in the Arctic (By Robert W. Service) is that? Bells, dogs again! Is it a dream? I sob and cry. See! The door opens, fur-clad men Rush to my rescue; frail am I; Feeble and dying, dazed and glad. There is the pistol where it dropped. "Boys, it was hard - but I'm not mad ... Look at the clock - it stopped, it stopped. Carry me out. The heavens smile. See! There's an arch of gold above. Now, let me rest a little while - Looking to God and Love ... and Love..." In this poem, the speaker is freezing slowly in the Arctic. He recollects the memories of his life and tells the whole story to the readers, but sees flashes of his life before he dies. In fact, he is using anecdotes to tell his life story. Function of Anecdote Anecdotes and humorous pieces are not only jokes, but exquisite literary devices as well. Their primary purpose is to stir up laughter, to disclose a truth in a general way, or to describe a feature of a character in such a way that it becomes humorous, and at the same time gives us a better understanding of the character. Anecdotes may also serve as cautions. Writers tell their readers about the possibilities of future happenings, in case they do not follow particular processes and techniques.

Antanaclasis

Antanaclasis is a rhetorical device in which a phrase or word is repeatedly used, though the meaning of the word changes in each case. It is the repetition of a similar word in a sentence with different meanings, or a word is repeated in two or more different senses. Many of Shakespeare's literary pieces contain examples of antanaclasis. Like in these lines, "Put out the light, then put out the light..." (Othello). The first meaning is that Othello would extinguish the candle, and in the second reference its meaning is that he would end Desdemona's life. Difference Between Epizeuxis and Antanaclasis There is a slight difference between epizeuxis and antanaclasis, though both mean the repetition of words. In epizeuxis, the words or phrases are repeated in a succession in the same sentence or line. Such as in this passage, "Alone, alone, all all alone, /Alone on a wide, wide sea..."(The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, by Samuel Coleridge). The words or phrases are repeated in a sentence or passage with different meanings. Such as, "I will dissemble myself in't; and I would I were the first that ever dissembled in such a gown." (Twelfth Night, by William Shakespeare). In this case, the first meaning of dissemble is disguised, and the second meaning is to act hypocritically. Examples of Antanaclasis in Literature Example #1: Twelfth Night (By William Shakespeare) Viola: "Save thee, friend, and thy music! Dost thou live by thy tabour?" Clown: "No, sir, I live by the church." Viola: "Art thou a churchman?" Clown: "No such matter, sir: I do live by the church; for I do live at my house, and my house doth stand by the church." In this example, the word "live" is repeatedly used. Viola is Cesario in disguise, and conversing with Feste (Fool). In the first sentence, it means that he makes his living by playing the drum, and in the later lines it means he lives near the church. Example #2: Walter Savage Landor (By Walter Savage Landor) "Death, tho I see him not, is near And grudges me my eightieth year. Now I would give him all these last For one that fifty have run past. Ah! He strikes all things, all alike, But bargains: those he will not strike..." Landor has used, in the final two lines of the poem, the word "strike," with contrasting meanings. In the first instance, it means killing everyone and everything, while in the second reference it means the opposite. Example #3: Stopping By Woods on Snowy Evening (By Robert Frost) "The woods are lovely, dark, and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." Here, the poet uses antanaclasis in the last two lines of the poem. The first use of the word "sleep" means nocturnal rest, and in the last line it has the meaning of death. This device is helping to draw the readers' attention. Example #4: Henry V (By William Shakespeare) KingHenry: "And tell the pleasant prince this mock of his Hath turned his balls to gun-stones, and his soul Shall stand sore chargèd for the wasteful vengeance That shall fly with them; for many a thousand widows Shall this his mock mock out of their dear husbands, Mock mothers from their sons, mock castles down, And some are yet ungotten and unborn That shall have cause to curse the Dauphin's scorn..." Henry V, as one can see in the above excerpt, is one of Shakespeare's works which contains examples of antanaclasis. The word "mock," repeatedly used in this excerpt, has two meanings - "to cheat," and "to taunt." Function of Antanaclasis Antanaclasis helps in giving an exciting contrast with different meanings of the same word. It enhances the dramatic and persuasive impact of a piece of writing or speech. Antanaclasis creates comic effect when used in the form of irony and pun. Apart from that, it makes the literary text memorable due to repetition. It is used as a rhetorical device in poetry, prose, and political speeches. Political leaders make use of this technique in order to persuade and draw the attention of their audiences.

Antecedent

Antecedent is an earlier clause, phrase, or word to which a pronoun, noun, or another word refers. Broadly speaking, antecedent is a literary device in which a word or pronoun in a line or sentence refers to an earlier word. For instance, "While giving treats to children or friends offer them whatever they like." In this line, children and friends are antecedents, while they is a pronoun that refers to friends and children. It is a typical linguistic term and originates from grammar. Often antecedents and their respective pronouns agree in number, which means if an antecedent is singular, the pronoun that replaces it will also be singular. However, sometimes writers might not follow this rule, and we see singular antecedents are replaced with plural pronouns. Likewise, antecedents and their following pronouns have the same gender. Difference Between Antecedent and Postcedent These terms are opposite to one another, as antecedent refers to in front of or before. It is an expression that gives meaning to a proform (a noun, pronoun, pro-adverb or pro-verb). Hence, proforms follow their respective antecedents such as "Elizabeth says, she likes coffee." Sometimes these proforms or pronouns precede them that are called postcedents, meaning behind or after such as, "when it gets ready, I shall definitely get my cup of tea." Common Examples of Antecedent David plays football in the courtyard. All the children have gathered there. My uncle likes candies. He asks everyone to give him candies as gifts. When children are happy, they clap to express their pleasure. The leaves have turned yellow; even then they are on the tree. The bird ate the fish quickly, and immediately it A good story must have a quality about it; it must have characters, a setting, narration, and dialogues. Examples of Antecedent in Literature Example #1: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats) "And still more, later flowers for the bees, Until they think warm days will never cease, For Summer has o'er-brimmed their clammy cell." In the above lines, bees are used as antecedent, and the pronouns "they" and "their" refer to this noun used earlier. See that the antecedent and its pronouns are italicized. If we remove the pronouns, these lines will have an entirely different and confusing impression, and the meaning will change. Example #2: A Comedy of Errors (By William Shakespeare) "There's not a man I meet but doth salute me As if I were their well-acquainted friend And every one doth call me by my name. Some tender money to me; some invite me ..." Here, Shakespeare uses pronouns of vague reference by employing a singular antecedent, "a man," with the plural pronoun "their." However, the noun everyone is singular, and both agree in their numbers. The speaker tries to explain he did not meet a single person, but everyone knew his name, and hence refers to everyone as "their." Example #3: A Poison Tree (By William Blake) "... I was angry with my foe: I told it not, my wrath did grow. And I watered it in fears, Night and morning with my tears; And I sunned it with smiles ..." This poem presents a very good example of antecedent, in which the speaker uses the noun "foe" as antecedent, and replaces it with the pronoun "it" in the very next line. Similarly, he again makes use of "wrath" as an antecedent, and replaces it with "it." Example #4: Othello (By William Shakespeare) "Me thinks the wind has spoke aloud at land, A fuller blast ne'er shook our battlements If it hath ruffianed so upon the sea What ribs of oak, when mountains melt on them ..." In this excerpt, the antecedent is "wind," and the pronoun "it" is its denotation, replacing it in the third line. Antecedent makes these lines clear and easy to understand for the readers. Function of Antecedent Antecedent is a very important and useful literary device, as it makes the sense of a sentence clear to the readers. By using references such as they, their, them, it, he, and she without any antecedent subject would become confusing. Hence, antecedent makes the composition words, grammar, and the expression of the writers clear and precise, as without it, a sentence remains vague and cannot convey exact meaning. It is a tricky concept, though a worthwhile rule to grasp, because it helps writers improve their writing style too.

Anthimeria

Anthimeria has originated from the Greek word anti-meros, which means "one part for another." It is a rhetorical device that uses a word in a new grammatical shape, often as a noun or a verb. Simply, it replaces one part of speech with another. For instance, Shakespeare converts a noun "peace" into verb in this line: "The thunder would not peace at my bidding" (King Lear). Using nouns as verbs has become such a common practice that now many nouns are often used as verbs. In grammar studies, anthimeria has another name, "functional shift," or "conversion." In fact, language is always fluid, and is in constant transformation. Therefore, use of a verb as a noun or vice versa is not a surprise for linguists. Use of Anthimeria in Songs Example #1: These Boots Are Made for Walking (by Nancy Sinatra) "Yeah, you keep lyin' when you oughta be truthin' And you keep losing when you oughta not bet You keep samin' when you oughta be a changin' Now, what's right is right but you ain't been right yet." This song by Nancy Sinatra shows two nouns used as verbs, which are "truthing" and "saming." Types of Anthimeria Depending upon its usage, anthimeria has two types: Temporary Anthimeria This type may be trendy or popular; however, it does not make its appearance permanent in language. For instance, these days a temporary anthimeria is "hashtagging;" since it has emerged recently, but it may not last long. Permanent Anthimeria This type has become a permanent part of language after its emergence. For instance, "texting" has become a permanent part of language. Another one is "typing." Examples of Anthimeria in Literature Example #1: Under the Greenwood Tree (by Thomas Hardy) "The parishioners about here," continued Mrs. Day, not looking at any living being, but snatching up the brown delf tea-things, "are the laziest, gossipest, poachest, jailest set of any ever I came among. And they'll talk about my teapot and tea-things next, I suppose!" Hardy was popular for his creativity, inventiveness, and coining completely weird and new words such as, "gossipest," "poaches," and "jailest" in this excerpt taken from Under the Greenwood Tree. Example #2: Letter to F. Scott Fitzgerald (by Thomas Wolfe) "Flaubert me no Flauberts. Bovary me no Bovarys. Zola me no Zolas. And exuberance me no exuberances. Leave this stuff for those who huckster in it and give me, I pray you, the benefits of your fine intelligence and your high creative faculties, all of which I so genuinely and profoundly admire." In these lines, the names of the writers are changed into plural forms, which we have never seen before. This is another good example of anthimeria. Example #3: In the Marvelous Dimension (by Kate Daniels) "Until then, I'd never liked petunias, their heavy stems, the peculiar spittooning sound of their name. Now I loved a petunia for all it was worth —a purplish blue bloom waving in a red clay pot outside an office window." In this poem, Kate has changed the noun "spittoon" into a verb "spittooning," and changed the color purple into an adjective. Example #4: More Die of Heartbreak (by Saul Bellow) "I've often got the kid in my mind's eye. She's a dolichocephalic Trachtenberg, with her daddy's narrow face and Jesusy look." In this example, "Jesus" is transformed into a new form of adjective "Jesusy." It gives a complete new expression to a noun. Example #5: Emma (by Jane Austen) "Let me not suppose that she dares go about, Emma Woodhouse-ing me!" Austen has invented a verb "woodhouse-ing" from an existing noun "woodhouse," giving a new shape to an old noun. Function of Anthimeria Anthimeria is very common in novels, short stories, and particularly in poetry, where such replacement evokes mild emotions of confusion. However, the proposed meaning is not difficult to recognize from the ways and methods of expression commonly used in literature. It happens in advertisements, because the culture of this world is constantly changing, language must also grow, improve, and develop. Anthimeria, in fact, provides writers a method to describe ideas in a unique way that makes the readers think. Sometimes, writers use a new word to create images and imagery. Besides this, it is a method through which we transform and change our language over time.

Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism is a literary device that can be defined as a technique in which a writer ascribes human traits, ambitions, emotions, or entire behaviors to animals, non-human beings, natural phenomena, or objects. Difference Between Anthropomorphism and Personification Anthropomorphism is also a type of personification that gives human characteristics to non-humans or objects, especially animals. However, there is a slight difference between these two. Personification is an act of giving human characteristics to animals or objects to create imagery, while anthropomorphism aims to make an animal or object behave and appear like it is a human being. Pinocchio, the famous wooden doll, was anthropomorphized when he was given the ability to talk, walk, think, and feel like real boy. Fables and fairy tales usually have characters that can serve as anthropomorphism examples. Examples of Anthropomorphism in Literature Example #1: The Jaguar (By Ted Hughes) "But who runs like the rest past these arrives At a cage where the crowd stands, stares, mesmerized, As a child at a dream, at a dream, at a jaguar hurrying enraged Through prison darkness after the drills of his eyes On a short fierce fuse. Not in boredom - The eye satisfied to be blind in fire, By the bang of blood in the brain deaf the ear - He spins from the bars, but there's no cage to him More than to the visionary his cell: His stride is wildernesses of freedom: The world rolls under the long thrust of his heel. Over the cage floor the horizons come." This poem is based on a jaguar, a fierce animal. Hughes is showing the world to his readers through the eyes of a jaguar that is thinking like a human. Example #2: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) "Comrades, you have heard already about the strange dream that I had last night. But I will come to the dream later. I have something else to say first. I do not think, comrades, that I shall be with you for many months longer, and before I die, I feel it my duty to pass on to you such wisdom as I have acquired. I have had a long life, I have had much time for thought as I lay alone in my stall, and I think I may say that I understand the nature of life on this earth as well as any animal now living. It is about this that I wish to speak to you ... Man is the only creature that consumes without producing. He does not give milk, he does not lay eggs, he is too weak to pull the plough." Animal Farm is one of the perfect examples of anthropomorphism. In this excerpt, one of the pigs named Old Major is delivering a political speech to his fellows against the evils imposed by the human rulers. Here, Old Major is instigating them to rise to rebellion against a tyrant human. This entire use is a good example of anthropomorphism. Example #3: A Dog's Tale (By Mark Twain) "My father was a St. Bernard, my mother was a collie, but I am a Presbyterian. This is what my mother told me, I do not know these nice distinctions myself. To me they are only fine large words meaning nothing. My mother had a fondness for such; she liked to say them, and see other dogs look surprised and envious, as wondering how she got so much education ... When I was well grown, at last, I was sold and taken away, and I never saw her again. She was broken-hearted, and so was I, and we cried; but she comforted me as well as she could ..." The protagonist of this story is a dog, which is describing his life as a puppy. The story is told from the loyal pet's perspective. The dog possesses human traits like emotions, shame, fear, anguish, happiness, and hopelessness. Function of Anthropomorphism There are various reasons for using anthropomorphism. The primary one is to make a wider appeal to the readers. With the use of objects or animals, the story can become visually appealing and non-threatening to readers. Hence, it could attract the attention of a wide audience (including children) by presenting animated characters in tales and animated movies. In literature, it serves as an effective tool for creating political and social satires. Hence, it has a wider scope than merely to entertain children.

Anti-Climax

Anti-climax is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a disappointing situation, or a sudden transition in discourse from an important idea to a ludicrous or trivial one. It is when, at a specific point, expectations are raised, everything is built-up, and then suddenly something boring or disappointing happens — this is an anti-climax. Besides that, the order of statements gradually descend in anti-climax. Types of Anti-Climax There are two types of anti-climax. The first is used in narrations, such as the anti-climax about the overall plot of the story. The second one is a figure of speech, which might occur anywhere in the story. Examples of Anti-Climax in Literature In literature, there are lots of examples of anti-climax, whether narrative or as a figure of speech. Let us consider a few of them: Example #1: The Rape of the Lock (By Alexander Pope) "Here thou, great Anna, whom three realms obey, Dost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes tea..." In the extract, it is used as a figure of speech. Pope is drawing the attention of readers to the falseness. Anna is Queen of England, who holds meetings, and indulges also in afternoon tea customs. Ludicrous effect is created by using the anti-climax. Example #2: The Deserted House (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "Come away: for Life and Thought Here no longer dwell; But in a city glorious— A great and distant city—have bought A mansion incorruptible. Would they could have stayed with us." Here, the last line of poem presents anti-climax, as the poet is describing issues associated with life on Earth. Here, heaven is referred as "city glorious." He asks whether people could come and live in heaven, which is a change in discourse from an important note to trivial. Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare) OTHELLO: "Well, hurry up and confess. Be quick about it. I'll wait over here. I don't want to kill you before you've readied your soul. No, I don't want to send your soul to hell when I kill you..." DESDEMONA: "Send me away, my lord, but don't kill me..." OTHELLO: "It's too late..." This is one of the narrative anti-climax examples from Shakespeare's works. Here, a sudden transformation can be seen, when Othello stabs Desdemona. It is creating a disappointing and thrilling effect in the end. Example #4: Much Ado About Nothing (By William Shakespeare) DON PEDRO: "Why, then are you no maiden.— Leonato, I am sorry you must hear. Upon mine honor, Myself, my brother, and this grievèd count Did see her, hear her, at that hour last night Talk with a ruffian at her chamber window Who hath indeed, most like a liberal villain, Confessed the vile encounters they have had A thousand times in secret." This is a good example of anti-climax, when Hero is publicly denounced and humiliated at her wedding. Her chastity is challenged by her fiancé Claudio. Here climax turns into anti-climax. Example #5: Dr.Fautus (By Christopher Marlowe) Faustus: "Nay! Let me have one book more, and then I have done, wherein I might see all plants, herbs, and trees that grow upon the earth." Meph: "Here they be." Faustus: "O thou art deceived..." This is an example of anti-climax as a figure of speech, which has taken place in the final line of this excerpt. Marlowe uses it as a warning to the audience not to follow the ways of Faustus, because it could bring shallow reward and superficial happiness only. Example #6: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) "In a moment, the whole company was on their feet. That somebody was assassinated by somebody vindicating a difference of opinion was the likeliest occurrence. Everybody looked to see somebody fall, but only saw a man and a woman standing staring at each other; the man with all the outward aspect of a Frenchman and a thorough Republican; the woman, evidently English." In this excerpt, everybody is expecting that somebody has been killed, or someone has fallen down dead. However, there is only a man and woman standing there, staring at each other. This is a disappointing anti-climax. Function of Anti-Climax Generally ludicrous or comic effect is produced by anti-climax. When employed intentionally, it devalues the subject. Therefore, it is frequently used for satirical and humorous composition in literature and movies. However, sometimes it is used unintentionally - then it is known as "bathos."

Anti-Hero

Anti-hero is a literary device used by writers for a prominent character in a play or book that has characteristics opposite to that of a conventional hero. The protagonist is generally admired for his bravery, strength, charm, or ingenuity, while an anti-hero is typically clumsy, unsolicited, unskilled, and has both good and bad qualities. The origin of this literary device is marked in the 18th century, but there have been literary figures who believe that the concept of an anti-hero existed well before that. Recently, the usage of anti-hero in television and books has increased and became bolder than ever. Nowadays, there are thousands of shows, books, and movies that portray such characters, who are widely admired by audiences. Common Anti-Hero Examples Tylor Durden from Fight Club by Chuck Palahniuk Don Draper from Mad Men, role played by Jon Hamm Edward Rochester from Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte Examples of Anti-Hero The majority of television shows these days portray dark characters. The most celebrated TV shows have anti-heroes who seem to possess both positive and negative traits. Many have successfully explored and impressively depicted the darkest aspects of a human life, fantasies and psyches. Particular characters from these shows are discussed below: Example #1: Dexter (By Jeff Lindsay) Dexter Morgan - the primary character of the celebrated TV series Dexter - is one of the most celebrated anti-heroes of recent times. He is a blood spatter analyst for the Miami Police Department. He is a kind and loving father, friend, and husband who has an anti-social personality that makes him murder criminals. The idea of killing only the guilty people does not seem such a bad thing to do at first. Rather, to some extent, it sounds rational but it is not. Dexter did not become a serial killer to rid society of crime. He did so because he took pleasure in it, while the social cleansing part came in as a spinoff. The show depicts that he is slowly moving towards redemption, and that is what keeps the audience glued. This is a good case of a modern anti-hero. Example #2: Lord of the Rings (By J. R. R. Tolkien) There is a wide array of opinions on whether or not Tolkien's character Gollum should be considered an anti-hero. He does not really have any good or useful characteristics, but his character is a perfect example of the struggle that we go through in our daily lives when choosing between good and evil. Gollum is portrayed as a swamp creature who warns those who want the ring. The good side of him that occasionally surfaces makes him a loyal servant. The dark side of him that is infected by the greed to have the ring makes him do evil things, which eventually leads to his death. Thus, Gollum can justly be called an anti-hero of the novel. Function of Anti-Hero Anti-hero can serve a great purpose if used skillfully. An anti-hero brings the spice and flavor to a script that an ordinary hero-villain format cannot. The more secular approach to the idea of using anti-hero shows that it has much more potential as compared to the conventional style. It can be used to represent many things at the same time, such as social flaws, human frailties, and political culture. An anti-hero is usually given the most prominent role after the protagonist, and is represented as an amalgamation of both good and evil. Instead of having two different people to represent two extremes, an anti-hero combines both into one person, and thus shows the real nature of humanity. This is why people associate themselves with some stories better than others. Gulliver of Jonathan Swift's Guliver's Travels, and Jean Valjean of Victor Hugo's Les Misérables are two such characters. They have been portrayed to have flaws, but still they held fast to their natures. These two characters can exemplify anyone who has suffered all through their lives, but they are not the kind of characters one can look up to. Moreover, in modern society when we are presented with a character that is overly righteous and upright, we find it too good to be true. The social turmoil that the entire world as a community has been facing recently has disposed us to be skeptical of almost everything. The greatness that a conventional antagonist shows is something we do not witness in society, which is why we find it far from reality. Suffering and sorrow are a part of human life. So, we relate better to a character that has suffered through life, and who has both good and bad sides, than a character that is only seen doing good.

Antiphrasis

Antiphrasis originated from the Greek word antiphrasis, which means "opposite word." Antiphrasis is a figurative speech in which a phrase or word is employed in a way that is opposite to its literal meaning, in order to create an ironic or comic effect. In simple words, it is the use of phrases or words in their opposite sense from the real meaning. The following is an example of antiphrasis: "Yes, I killed him. I killed him for money-and a woman-and I didn't get the money and I didn't get the woman. Pretty, isn't it..." (Double Indemnity, by Billy Wilder and Raymond Chandler). Here, the speaker is making an ironic statement by using the opposite sense of the word "pretty." He has committed murder, yet he describes his act "pretty." Examples of Antiphrasis in Literature Example #1: Home to Harmony (By Philip Gulley) "Owen would just smile and eat his eggs, and maybe reach over and slap Ernie's back and say, 'That's real funny, Ernie. You're pretty clever.' All the while thinking to himself, you moron. What do you know? ... Which, of course, he couldn't say out loud. He could think it, but he couldn't say it. When you're a public figure in a small town, you have to treat people with dignity, even Ernie Matthews ..." In this example, Owen is mocking Ernie Matthews. He comments that Ernie is "pretty clever," but what he really thinks deep inside him is the complete opposite to the literal meaning of the phrase. Example #2: Filthy Rich (By Dorothy Samuels) "I was awakened by the dulcet tones of Frank, the morning doorman, alternately yelling my name, ringing my doorbell, and pounding on my apartment door ..." Here, the real meaning of the phrase "dulcet tones" means melodious tones. In this particular situation, it is used in its opposite meaning. The speaker is trying to use irony to indicate that the doorman irritates him early in the morning by yelling, ringing the bell, and knocking on his door. Example #3: Oyster Blues (By Michael McClelland) "He looked like a Vulcan fresh emerged from his forge, a misshapen giant not quite sure of how to maneuver in this bright new world ... His real name, the name given to him by his youthful mother before she abandoned him in a Brooklyn orphanage, was Thomas Theodore Puglowski, but his friends all called him Tiny ... At least, Tiny supposed, they would if he had any friends ..." In this excerpt, the writer first describes a character named Thomas Theodore Puglowski, as "a misshapen giant," and then uses the word "tiny." Antiphrasis examples like this are meant to convey sarcasm and create humorous effect. Example #4: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) CASSIUS: "I did mark how he did shake ... tis true this god did shake ... His coward lips did from their color fly ..." In these lines, Cassius, in spite of knowing the worldly flaws of Caesar, makes an ironic remark and calls him "this god" for comic and ironic effect. Example #5: The Unknown Citizen (By W. H. Auden) "Our researchers into Public Opinion are content That he held the proper opinions for the time of year; When there was peace, he was for peace; when there was war, he went. He was married and added five children to the population, Which our Eugenist says was the right number for a parent of his generation. And our teachers report that he never interfered with their education. Was he free? Was he happy? The question is absurd: Had anything been wrong, we should certainly have heard ..." This is an ironic poem based upon the modern form of government, which appreciates those citizens who conform to its rules, without considering whether an individual citizen is happy and free or not. Function of Antiphrasis Like other rhetorical devices, antiphrasis also brings about additional meanings to a text and situation. The use of opposite meanings of situations and statements in literature draws readers' interest. Besides, it makes the literary piece of writing more captivating, and helps the readers make use of their own thoughts, and understand the underlying meaning of the words and phrases. It is also frequently employed in everyday situations and expressions. Furthermore, it brings the literary piece of writing closer to real life.

Antistrophe

Antistrophe is a derivative of a Greek word that means "turning back." It is a rhetorical device that involves the repetition of the same words at the end of consecutive phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs. Like in the following excerpt, the phrase "but it is not this day" comes repeatedly at the end: "A day may come when the courage of men fails, when we forsake our friends and break all bonds of fellowship. But it is not this day. An hour of wolves and shattered shields, when the age of men comes crashing down! But it is not this day! This day we fight! " (The Return of the King, by J. R. R. Tolkien) Similarity with Epistrophe Antistrophe is similar to epistrophe, which also involves the repetition of words at the ends of successive clauses or sentences. However, it is opposite to anaphora, which is a repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or clauses. Examples of Antistrophe in Literature Example #1: The Holy Bible, 1 Corinthians 13:11 (By the Apostle Paul) "When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child; but when I became a man, I put away childish things..." This excerpt is one of the examples of antistrophe found in the Holy Bible. The phrase "as a child" is repeated several times at the ends of phrases. This creates rhythm in the literary piece. Example #2: The Soul of Man and Prison Writings (By Oscar Wilde) "Selfishness is not living as one wishes to live. It is asking others to live as one wishes to live ..." In this example, the recurring phrase "as one wishes to live" creates rhythm and cadence in the text, and hence appeals to the readers' emotions. Example #3: The Grapes of Wrath (By John Steinbeck) "Then I'll be all aroun' in the dark. I'll be ever'where - wherever you look. Wherever they's a fight so hungry people can eat, I'll be there. Wherever they's a cop beatin' up a guy, I'll be there ... An' when our folk eat the stuff they raise an' live in the houses they build - why, I'll be there ..." The repeated use of "I'll be there" lays emphasis and draws the attention of readers to the phrase. Example #4: The Tempest (By William Shakespeare) "Hourly joys be still upon you! Juno sings her blessings on you ... Scarcity and want shall shun you, Ceres' blessing so is on you ..." Shakespeare has used this device frequently in his works, which can be noticed clearly here as well. Example #5: The Holy Bible, Deuteronomy 32:10 (By the prophet Moses) "In a desert land he found him, in a barren and howling waste. He shielded him and cared for him; he guarded him as the apple of his eye ..." Again, in this instance from the Bible, a word is repeated at the end of the sentences to create a pattern and emphasize it. Example #6: Gift from the Sea (By Anne Morrow Lindbergh) "Perhaps this is the most important thing for me to take back from beach-living: simply the memory that each cycle of the tide is valid, each cycle of the wave is valid, each cycle of a relationship is valid ... Relationships must be like islands, one must accept them for what they are here and now, within their limits - islands, surrounded and interrupted by the sea ..." Antistrophe examples like the above excerpt draw readers to focus on the repeated words and their meanings. Function of Antistrophe The main function of this rhetorical device is to place emphasis on a particular thought or idea. The repetition of words helps in making the text pleasurable to read. Besides poetry, this is a rhetorical device found in a range of works, such as music, literature, political speeches, and sacred texts like the Bible to highlight a point or idea. The pattern and rhythm created with the use of antistrophe enables writers to appeal to readers' emotions, and helps them appreciate a text better.

Antithesis

Antithesis, which literally means "opposite," is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses. The structures of phrases and clauses are similar, in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For example: "Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind." The use of contrasting ideas, "a small step" and "a giant step," in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of one of the biggest landmarks of human history. Common Antithesis Examples Some famous antithetical statements have become part of our everyday speech, and are frequently used in arguments and discussions. Below is a list of some common antithetical statements: Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. Man proposes, God disposes. Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing. Speech is silver, but silence is gold. Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit. Money is the root of all evil: poverty is the fruit of all goodness. You are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart. Examples of Antithesis in Literature In literature, writers employ antithesis not only in sentences, but also in characters and events. Thus, its use is extensive. Below are a few examples of antithesis in literature: Example #1: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) The opening lines of Charles Dickens' novel A Tale of Two Cities provides an unforgettable antithesis example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way." The contrasting ideas, set in parallel structures, markedly highlight the conflict that existed in the time discussed in the novel. Example #2: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) In William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, we notice antithesis in the characters of Mark Antony and Marcus Brutus. Brutus is portrayed as the "noblest of Romans," close to Caesar, and a person who loved Rome and Caesar. Antony, on the contrary, is shown as a man with the evil intentions of harming Caesar, and taking charge of Rome. These antithetical characters highlight the conflict in the play. Example #3: An Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope) Alexander Pope, in his An Essay on Criticism, says: "To err is human; to forgive divine." Fallibility is a trait of humans, and God - the Creator - is most forgiving. Through these antithetical ideas, Pope reveals the basic nature of human beings. He wants to say that God is forgiving because his creation is erring. Example #4: Community (By John Donne) We find antithesis in John Donne's poem Community: "Good we must love, and must hate ill, For ill is ill, and good good still; But there are things indifferent, Which we may neither hate, nor love, But one, and then another prove, As we shall find our fancy bent." Two contrasting words "love" and "hate" are combined in the above lines. It emphasizes that we love good because it is always good, and we hate bad because it is always bad. It is a matter of choice to love or hate things which are neither good nor bad. Example #5: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) John Milton, in Paradise Lost, says: "Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heav'n." The contrasting ideas of reign/serve, and Hell/Heav'n are placed in this sentence to achieve an antithetical effect. Function of Antithesis A literary device, like antithesis, uses words to convey ideas in different ways from the common words and expressions of daily life. Thus, it conveys meaning more vividly than ordinary speech. When contrasting ideas are brought together, the idea is expressed more emphatically. As a literary device, antithesis makes contrasts in order to examine pros and cons of a subject under discussion, and helps to bring forth judgment on that particular subject.

Aphorism

Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The term is often applied to philosophical, moral, and literary principles. To qualify as an aphorism, it is necessary for a statement to contain a truth revealed in a terse manner. Aphoristic statements are quoted in writings, as well as in our daily speech. The fact that they contain a truth gives them a universal acceptance. Scores of philosophers, politicians, writers, artists, sportsmen, and other individuals are remembered for their famous aphoristic statements. Aphorisms often come with a pinch of humor, which makes them more appealing to the masses. Proverbs, maxims, adages, and clichés are different forms of aphoristic statements that gain prevalence from generation to generation and frequently appear in our day-to-day speech. Common Aphorism Examples Let us look at some common aphorism examples: Youth is a blunder; Manhood a struggle; Old age regret. [Benjamin Disraeli] Pride goeth before a fall. [Proverb] The man who removes a mountain begins by carrying away small stones. [William Faulkner] Life's tragedy is that we get old too soon and wise too late. [Benjamin Franklin] Yesterday is but today's memory, and tomorrow is today's dream. [Khalil Gibran] The simplest questions are the hardest to answer. [Northrop Frye] ...even a proverb is no proverb until your life has illustrated it. [John Keats] Words are, of course, the most powerful drug used by mankind. [Rudyard Kipling] Examples of Aphorism in Literature Many pieces of literature are appreciated for the aphorisms they contain, which are often cited by scholars as well as laymen. Below are some examples of aphorisms in literature: Example #1: Various Works (By Sir Francis Bacon) Sir Francis Bacon excels in the aphoristic style of writing. Possibly, his sayings are the most quoted of all. Consider the following examples: "Studies serve for delight, for ornament and for ability." (Of Studies) "To use too many circumstances, ere one come to the matter, is wearisome, to use none at all, is Blunt." (Of Discourse) "Praise is the reflection of the virtue. But it is the reflection glass or body which giveth the reflection." (Of Praise) Example #2: Various Works (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare does not fall behind any writer in the use of aphorisms in his plays. The use of abundant aphorisms testifies to his keen insight and judgment. Below are some examples: "Having nothing, nothing can he lose." (Henry VI) "Life is a tale told by an idiot - full of sound and fury, signifying nothing." (Macbeth) "Lord, what fools these mortals be!" (A Midsummer Night's Dream) Example #3: To Kill a Mocking Bird (By Harper Lee) An example of aphorism can be seen in To Kill a Mocking Bird, by Harper Lee. Atticus Finch tells her daughter: "You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view - until you climb into his skin and walk around in it." The above statement holds truth, as we cannot claim to judge a person unless we understand the way he views the world and its affairs. Example #4: The Writing on My Forehead (By Nafisa Haji) Nafisa Haji provides us an example of aphorism in her novel The Writing on My Forehead. Big Namina, a wise character, says: "If? There is no if. There is only what is. What was? What will be." We can perceive the truth in the above statement because it gives a message to always live in the moment. It tells us that it is useless to have regrets about the past, and we should move on with our lives for a better present and future. Example #5: Various Works (By Alexander Pope) Alexander Pope was a great aphorist of the 18th century. Following are some memorable quotes from his works: "'Tis education forms the common mind; just as the twig is bent, the tree's inclined." (Golden Treasury of the Familiar) "To err is human, to forgive divine." (An Essay on Criticism) "What Reason weaves, by Passion is undone." (Essay on Man and Other Poems) "Act well your part; there all the honour lies." (An Essay on Man) Function of Aphorism As already mentioned in the above discussion, making use of aphorisms allows a writer to teach a philosophical or moral truth. The revealed truths prove relevant to human experiences of real life. Therefore, readers relate the piece of literature to real life, and become more fascinated and vigilant in their reading. Moreover, as truths are universal, revealing general truths in literature adds to their universal commendation. Motivational speeches quote aphorisms from such sources to inspire motivation among individuals.

Aphorismus

Aphorismus is borrowed from a Greek word that means "marking off," "banishment," or "rejection." It is a figure of speech that brings into question the meaning of words, in case the words are used inappropriately. Aphorismus often appears as a rhetorical question used to create a difference between the current situation being discussed and the general idea of the subject. Aphorismus examples are found both in casual conversations and in literary pieces. Difference Between Aphorismus and Aphorism Aphorismus should not be confused with "aphorism," because aphorismus is challenging the meaning of words by pointing out a question such as, "I am Pozzo! (Silence.) Pozzo! (Silence.) Does that name mean nothing to you? (Silence.) I say does that name mean nothing to you?" (Waiting for Godot, by Samuel Beckett). However, aphorism is a totally different figure of speech, which is a brief statement containing personal truth, or a phrase that conveys a principle of thought. In these lines, Francis Bacon has said: "Praise is the reflection of the virtue. But it is the reflection glass or body which giveth the reflection." (Of Praise, by Francis Bacon). Examples of Aphorismus in Literature Example #1: Broken Love (By William Blake) "He scents thy footsteps in the snow Wheresoever thou dost go, Thro' the wintry hail and rain. When wilt thou return again? Dost thou not in pride and scorn Fill with tempests all my morn, And with jealousies and fears Fill my pleasant nights with tears? 'O'er my sins thou sit and moan: Hast thou no sins of thy own? O'er my sins thou sit and weep, And lull thy own sins fast asleep." Blake uses different lines that appear as rhetorical questions at the ends of each stanza. Here, the speaker expresses his feelings to his lover, who finally repudiates his love. Hence, he asks questions like, "Is she not the cause of his mourning?" This calls into question the meaning of the ideas or words. Example #2: A Dream (By Edgar Allan Poe) "Ah! what is not a dream by day To him whose eyes are cast On things around him with a ray Turned back upon the past? That holy dream - that holy dream, While all the world were chiding, Hath cheered me as a lovely beam A lonely spirit guiding. What though that light, thro' storm and night, So trembled from afar- What could there be more purely bright In Truth's day-star?" Poe also uses aphorismus in this poem. At the end of the first and third stanzas, there is a rhetorical question that is about the meaning of the ideas discussed before these lines, and the two questions are shown in bold. Example #3: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) "If such astonishment as this can seize Eternal spirits; or have ye chos'n this place After the toyl of Battel to repose Your wearied vertue, for the ease you find To slumber here, as in the Vales of Heav'n? Or in this abject posture have ye sworn To adore the Conquerour?" Milton makes a difference between the current situation, "To slumber here, as in the Vales of Heav'n," and about the general idea of the subject, by calling into question its meaning. It helps in laying emphasis on the meaning. Example #4: Richard II (By William Shakespeare) "For you have but mistook me all this while. I live with bread like you, feel want, Taste grief, need friends: subjected thus, How can you say to me I am a king?" This is among the perfect examples of aphorismus. The speaker explains his living standard, then raises a question about how he can be called a king because he lives like a common man. The comparison is made between the two situations by challenging the meaning of phrase "I am a king." Function of Aphorismus The role of aphorismus is to emphasize the meanings of a sentence or phrase by challenging or raising questions about it. It brings into question the underlying meanings words and phrases, since the meaning of words can have a variety of connotations that help extend and enrich the language. Therefore, the role of aphorismus is important in literary texts, to challenge meanings by questioning one of its forms. Also, it makes a phrase memorable and arouses emotions by raising questions.

Aporia

Aporia is a figure of speech wherein a speaker purports or expresses doubt or perplexity regarding a question (often feigned), and asks the audience how he ought to proceed. The doubts may appear as rhetorical questions, often in the beginning of the text. Aporia is a logical paradox in which the speaker sows seeds of doubt on a subject. This rhetorical strategy can make the audience feel sympathetic toward the speaker regarding the dilemma he is in. Features of Aporia Aporia is used as a rhetorical device in literature. It is also called "dubitation," which means that the uncertainty is always untruthful. It could be a question or a statement. It is often used in philosophy. It relates to philosophical questions and subjects which have no obvious answers. Plato and Socrates were well-known for using aporia. Examples of Aporia in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) "To be, or not to be: that is the question. Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them? To die: to sleep; Than fly to others that we know not of? Thus conscience does make cowards of us all..." This is a prominent example of aporia available in English literature. This is an opening soliloquy, spoken by Hamlet in the famous play. Here, the statement, "To be or not to be" introduces uncertainty that characterizes the paragraph. Example #2: The Unnamable (By Samuel Beckett) "Where now? Who now? When now? Unquestioning. I, say I. Unbelieving. Questions, hypotheses, call them that. Keep going, going on, call that going, call that on." "...or by affirmations and negations invalidated as uttered, or sooner or later?" "...There must be other shifts. Otherwise it would be quite hopeless. I should mention before going any further..." "Can one be aphetic otherwise than unawares? I don't know." "What am I to do, what shall I do, what should I do, in my situation, how proceed? By aporia pure and simple..." "It will be I? It will be the silence, where I am, I don't know, I'll never know, in the silence you don't know, you must go on, I can't go on, I'll go on." Beckett's entire work is characterized by the use of aporia. These passages have a lot of questioning and doubts, and deferral of meaning. For Beckett, aporia can never be considered as an invariable condition of unknowing. Example #3: American Buffalo (By David Mamet) Don: "We have a deal with the man." Teach: "With Fletcher." Don: "Yes. " Teach: "We had a deal with Bobby." Don: "What does that mean?" Teach: "Nothing." Don: "It don't?" Teach: "No. " Don: "What did you mean by that?" Teach: "I didn't mean a thing." Don: "You didn't." Teach: "No?" The above excerpt is an example of aporia that illustrates a great deal of doubt in the speech. There is uncertainty, and due questioning, but it is expressed in a lighter tone. Example #4: The Road not Taken (By Robert Frost) "Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not travel both And be one traveler, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could To where it bent in the undergrowth; Two roads diverged in a wood, and I— I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference." In the last two lines in the given poem, the poet uses aporia, which is a self-contradictory deadlock that cannot be resolved in the text. Similarly, in the poem the readers find themselves at an impasse, while the final evidence falls into a paradox. Function of Aporia Aporia is an expression of doubt or uncertainty. When uncertainty and doubt are genuine, it can indicate a real impasse, and stimulate the audience to consider different options for resolution. It could show the humbleness of a speaker if the doubt he expresses is genuine. However, it functions to provide guidance to the audience as to what the speaker wants to say if the doubt is insincere. Aporia causes uncertainty, and makes the audience discover the certainty through subsequent statements of the speaker. The main objective is to provide the audience a chance to analyze and judge the situation.

Concession

Concession is a literary device used in argumentative writing, where one acknowledges a point made by one's opponent. It allows for different opinions and approaches toward an issue, indicating an understanding of what causes the actual debate or controversy. It demonstrates that the writer is a mature thinker, and has considered the issue from all angles. Concession writing style also shows that the writer is a logical and fair-minded person, able to realize that every argument has several sides to consider before it is presented. This type of writing can be considered strong as it finds common ground between the writer and his opponent. Concession Examples Example #1: "Dad, I know taking a trip to another country with my friends may be expensive and unsafe, but I have studied so hard the past year and I think I deserve a vacation. You already know how responsible I have been all my life; I don't think there will be any problem." The above statement is an example of concession writing. It demonstrates the negative aspects of traveling as a young group of boys, but argues against this with the fact that this particular boy has always been a responsible person and is not likely to get into trouble. Example #2: "I agree that many students act and lie about being sick, so that they can avoid school for whatever reason. However, most students who do not come to school are actually sick. Being sick, they should be focusing on getting better, not worrying about school and grades just because some students take advantage of the absentee policy." This statement also shows the concession form of writing where the writer agrees that some students do lie about being sick, and that the writer is able to understand this issue. At the same time, the writer argues as to why students who are actually sick suffer because of those irresponsible students. Example #3: "An individual does have his own right to freedom, but medical evidence proves that second-hand smoke is harmful. Nobody has the right to harm the health of another, and smoking does just that." Using concession, the writer has noted that everybody has freedom rights, but argues about the fact that nobody has the right to harm another person's health, no matter what the case is. Example #4: "It is true that issues may sometimes become polarized and debated heatedly. Certainly, there is a need for matters of public concern to be discussed rationally. But that does not mean that such concerns should not be expressed and investigated. After all, improper interference with academic freedom was found to have taken place. And the allegations raised by doctors are ones which deserve further inquiry." The above statement demonstrates the concession writing technique, where the writer agrees that debating on issues can turn into a heated argument, but that does not mean the issues should stop being discussed and investigated. Using concession, the writer has considered the different viewpoints of the issue, and then stated his argument. Example #5: Politics and the English Language (By George Orwell) "I said earlier that the decadence of our language is probably curable. Those who deny this would argue, if they produced an argument at all, that language merely reflects existing social conditions, and that we cannot influence its development by any direct tinkering with words or constructions. So far as the general tone or spirit of language goes, this may be true, but it is not true in detail." This is another example of concession writing showing that the writer is a fair person who has thought about the issue before giving his opinion. The writer agrees with the fact that we cannot do anything to develop the language. However it is not true if we go into details, Orwell says, because writers influence it too. Function of Concession Concession writing acknowledges that there are many different views to a story. This type of writing allows for different opinions that can or could be made toward an issue. It also shows that all points, positive as well as negative, have been considered before an argument is put forward. Presenting the other side and then arguing against it with valid points can make it a very strong piece of writing. Acknowledging the other side demonstrates respect for the other opinion. The concession writing technique is also known used as a method of persuasion and reasoning.

Connotation

Connotation refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings, in addition to their literal meanings or denotations. For instance, "Wall Street" literally means a street situated in Lower Manhattan, but connotatively it refers to wealth and power. Positive and Negative Connotations Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon the social, cultural, and personal experiences of individuals. For example, the words childish, childlike and youthful have the same denotative, but different connotative, meanings. Childish and childlike have a negative connotation, as they refer to immature behavior of a person. Whereas, youthful implies that a person is lively and energetic. Common Connotation Examples Below are a few connotation examples. Their suggested meanings are shaped by cultural and emotional associations: "He's such a dog." - In this sense, the word dog connotes shamelessness, or ugliness. "That woman is a dove at heart." - Here, the dove implies peace or gentility. "There's no place like home." - While home may refer to the actual building someone lives in, connotatively, it most often refers to family, comfort, and security. "What do you expect from a politician?" - Politician has a negative connotation of wickedness and insincerity. To imply sincerity, the word statesperson might be used. "That woman is so pushy!" - Pushy refers to someone who is loud-mouthed, insisting, and irritating. "My mom and dad worked hard to put me through college." - The words Mom and Dad, when used in place of mother and father, connote loving parents, rather than simply biological parents. Examples of Connotation in Literature In literature, it is a common practice among writers to deviate from the literal meanings of words in order to create novel ideas. Figures of speech frequently employed by writers are examples of such deviations. Example #1: Sonnet 18 (By William Shakespeare) Metaphors are words that connote meanings that go beyond their literal meanings. Shakespeare, in his Sonnet 18, says: "Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day..." Here, the phrase "a Summer's Day" implies the fairness of his beloved. Example #2: The Sun Rising (By John Donne) Similarly, John Donne says in his poem The Sun Rising says: "She is all states, and all princes, I." This line suggests the speaker's belief that he and his beloved are wealthier than all the states, kingdoms, and rulers in the whole world because of their love. Example #3: The Merchant of Venice (By William Shakespeare) Irony and satire exhibit connotative meanings, as the intended meanings of words are opposite to their literal meanings. For example, we see a sarcastic remark made by Antonio to Shylock, the Jew, in William Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice: "Hie thee, gentle Jew. The Hebrew will turn Christian: he grows kind." The word "Jew" generally had a negative connotation of wickedness, while "Christian" demonstrated positive connotations of kindness. Example #4: The Animal Farm (By George Orwell) George Orwell's allegorical novel Animal Farm is packed with examples of connotation. The actions of the animals on the farm illustrate the greed and corruption that arose after the Communist Revolution of Russia. The pigs in the novel connote wicked and powerful people who can change the ideology of a society. In addition, Mr. Jones (the owner of the farm), represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; and Boxer, the horse, represents the laborer class. Example #5: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare) Metonymy is another figure of speech that makes use of connotative or suggested meanings, as it describes a thing by mentioning something else with which it is closely connected. For example, Mark Anthony, in Act III of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, says: "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears." Here, the word "ear" connotes the idea of people listening to him attentively. Example #6: Out, Out (By Robert Frost) Read the following lines from Robert Frost's poem Out, Out: "As he swung toward them holding up the hand Half in appeal, but half as if to keep The life from spilling" In the line "The life from spilling," the word "life" connotes "blood." It does make sense as well because loss of blood may cause loss of life. Example #7: As you Like It (By William Shakespeare) Connotation provides the basis for symbolic meanings of words because symbolic meanings of objects are different from their literal sense. Look at the following lines from Shakespeare's play As you Like It: "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts ..." Here, a stage connotes the world; players suggests human beings; and parts implies different stages of their lives. Function of Connotation In literature, connotation paves way for creativity by using figures of speech like metaphor, simile, symbolism, and personification. Had writers contented themselves with only the literal meanings, there would have been no way to compare abstract ideas to concrete concepts, in order to give readers a better understanding. Therefore, connotative meanings of words allow writers to add to their works dimensions that are broader, more vivid, and fresher.

Consonance

Consonance refers to repetitive sounds produced by consonants within a sentence or phrase. This repetition often takes place in quick succession, such as in "pitter, patter." It is classified as a literary device used in both poetry as well as prose. For instance, the words chuckle, fickle, and kick are consonant with one another, due to the existence of common interior consonant sounds (/ck/). The literary device of consonance is inherently different from assonance, which involves the repetition of similar vowel sounds within a word, sentence, or phrase. Another distinction to be appreciated is that between consonance and rhyme. In the case of rhyme, consonant sounds can be present at the beginning, middle, or end of several successive words, rather than merely at the ends of words. Further, the device of consonance needs to be distinguished from alliteration. In contrast to alliteration, consonance involves repetition of consonant sounds only. William Harmon, his book A Handbook on Literature, notes that "most so-called eye rhymes (such as 'word' and 'lord,' or 'blood,' 'food,' and 'good') are the most common examples. Common Consonance Examples The ship has sailed to the far off sh She ate seven sandwiches on a sunny Sunday last year. Shelley sells shells by the seash Examples of Consonance in Literature Example #1: Zealots (By Fugees) The following lines from a song also show how consonant sounds have been used repeatedly. "Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile Whether Jew or gentile, I rank top percentile Many styles, more powerful than gamma rays My grammar pays, like Carlos Santana plays." Example #2: T was later when the summer went (By Emily Dickson) " 'T was later when the summer went Than when the cricket came, And yet we knew that gentle clock Meant nought but going home. 'T was sooner when the cricket went Than when the winter came, Yet that pathetic pendulum Keeps esoteric time." It can be seen from these lines that Emily Dickinson has made use of the consonant "m" frequently in the italicized words. Example #3: Shall I Wasting in Despair (By George Wither) "Great, or good, or kind, or fair, I will ne'er the more despair; If she love me, this believe, I will die ere she shall grieve; If she slight me when I woo, I can scorn and let her go; For if she be not for me, What care I for whom she be?" Here, the use of consonance can be seen through in the letters r, d, and f. Example #4: As imperceptibly as Grief (By Emily Dickinson) This poem by Dickinson makes good use of consonance: "A Quietness distilled As Twilight long begun, Or Nature spending with herself Sequestered Afternoon— Here, Emily Dickinson has relied on the consonant "n" to create the intended effect. Function of Consonance Consonance is commonly employed in a range of situations, from poetry to prose writing. However, as the examples given above highlight the use of consonance is significantly greater in poetry writing than in the prose form. The use of consonance provides the structure of poetry with a rhyming effect. A writer normally employs the tool of consonance for the purpose of reiterating the significance of an idea or theme. Further, the use of the device makes the structure of poetry or prose appealing for the reader. The poet generally makes use of consonance in an attempt to underscore the emotions behind their words that simple words cannot convey. Furthermore, the use of consonance adds a lyrical feeling to the poetry that otherwise cannot be added. The significance of the use of consonance in poetry is enhanced by the fact that it is often used to make the imagery clearer. It acts as a tool that enables the poet to formulate a fine and powerful structure for his poetry, and to create a background for the themes underlying the poetry.

Context

Context is the background, environment, setting, framework, or surroundings of events or occurrences. Simply, context means circumstances forming a background of an event, idea or statement, in such a way as to enable readers to understand the narrative or a literary piece. It is necessary in writing to provide information, new concepts, and words to develop thoughts. Whenever writers use a quote or a fact from some source, it becomes necessary to provide their readers some information about the source, to give context to its use. This piece of information is called context. Context illuminates the meaning and relevance of the text, and may be something cultural, historical, social, or political. Examples of Context in Literature Example #1: A Tale of Two Cities (by Charles Dickens) Dickens begins his novel, A Tale of Two Cities, in 1770, by describing the release of Doctor Manette from Bastille, before taking the story to 1793 and early 1794. In this time span, the narrative covers a broad story. In a larger view, this novel begins in 1757, while its final scene looks forward to the situation of the post-revolutionary Paris. This story has a historical context, which Dickens has organized around various events that occurred during the French Revolution. He has drawn historical features from major events, including the fall of Bastille, the September Massacres, and the Reign of Terror. This backdrop is the story's context. Example #2: Animal Farm (by George Orwell) George Orwell felt disillusioned by Soviet Communism, and its revolution during his time. In the phenomenal novel, Animal Farm, Orwell has expressed himself by using satire through the allegorical characters of Old Major and Boxer; relating them to the Russian Revolution and its characters. Orwell uses animals to explain history and context of Soviet Communism, some of which relate to party leaders. For instance, the pig Napoleon represents Joseph Stalin, and Snowball represents Leon Trotsky. In fact, Orwell uses this fable for political and aesthetic reasons, following the Russian Revolution as its context. Example #3: Dr. Faustus (by Christopher Marlowe) Historical context of Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus is religious, as it hints at cultural changes taking place during Marlowe's time. In 16th century Europe, there was a conflict between Roman Catholicism and the Protestant English Church. During this entire period, Calvinism was popular within the English churches; however, it was controversial. According to Calvinistic doctrine, the status of the people was predestined as saved or damned. Scholars and readers have debated on the stance that Marlowe's play takes regarding the Calvinist doctrine, in whether Faustus is predestined to hell or not. The Renaissance period provides context for this play by Marlowe. Example #4: Oedipus Rex (by Sophocles) There is a popular saying that stories indicate values and cultures of the societies in which their authors live. In Oedipus Rex, Sophocles presents his protagonist, Oedipus, struggling to implement his will against the destiny set forth by the Greek gods. During this process Sophocles reveals Greek values of the period during which he wrote the play. He has illustrated the context of this play through the words and actions of Oedipus and other characters; as their Greek ideals concerning their governance, fate, and human relationships with the gods. These were some of the more popular themes of that era, and so form context of the Oedipus Rex. Example #5: Lord of the Flies (by William Golding) "While stranded on a deserted island, a group of boys believe there is a dangerous creature lurking in the underbrush; Simon is the first to identify this menace, suggesting to the boys that 'maybe,' he said hesitantly, 'maybe there is a beast'." This excerpt provides an excellent example of context, as it narrates an incident involving a group of young men on a deserted island. Context describes why they were afraid, giving a clear picture of the situation and setting. Function Context is all about providing a background or picture of the situation, and of who is involved. Context is an essential part of a literary text, which helps to engage the audience. If writers ignore context, they may overlook a critical aspect of the story's intent. Without context, readers may not see the true picture of a literary work. Context helps readers understand the cultural, social, philosophical, and political ideas and movements prevalent in society at the time of the writing.

Critical Essay

Contrary to the literal name of "critical," this type of essay is not only an interpretation, but also an evaluation of a literary piece. It is written for a specific audience, who are academically mature enough to understand the points raised in such essays. A literary essay could revolve around major motifs, themes, literary devices and terms, directions, meanings, and above all - structure of a literary piece. Evolution of the Critical Essay Critical essays in English started with Samuel Johnson. He kept the critical essays limited to his personal opinion, comprising praise, admiration, and censure of the merits and demerits of literary pieces discussed in them. It was, however, Matthew Arnold, who laid down the canons of literary critical essays. He claimed that critical essays should be interpretative, and that there should not be any bias or sympathy in criticism. Examples of Critical Essay in Literature Example #1: Jack and Gill: A Mock Criticism (by Joseph Dennie) "The personages being now seen, their situation is next to be discovered. Of this we are immediately informed in the subsequent line, when we are told, Jack and Gill Went up a hill. Here the imagery is distinct, yet the description concise. We instantly figure to ourselves the two persons traveling up an ascent, which we may accommodate to our own ideas of declivity, barrenness, rockiness, sandiness, etc. all which, as they exercise the imagination, are beauties of a high order. The reader will pardon my presumption, if I here attempt to broach a new principle which no critic, with whom I am acquainted, has ever mentioned. It is this, that poetic beauties may be divided into negative and positive, the former consisting of mere absence of fault, the latter in the presence of excellence; the first of an inferior order, but requiring considerable critical acumen to discover them, the latter of a higher rank, but obvious to the meanest capacity." This is an excerpt from the critical essay of Joseph Dennie. It is an interpretative type of essay in which Dennie has interpreted the structure and content of Jack and Jill. Example #2: On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth (by Thomas De Quincey) "But to return from this digression, my understanding could furnish no reason why the knocking at the gate in Macbeth should produce any effect, direct or reflected. In fact, my understanding said positively that it could not produce any effect. But I knew better; I felt that it did; and I waited and clung to the problem until further knowledge should enable me to solve it. At length, in 1812, Mr. Williams made his debut on the stage of Ratcliffe Highway, and executed those unparalleled murders which have procured for him such a brilliant and undying reputation. On which murders, by the way, I must observe, that in one respect they have had an ill effect, by making the connoisseur in murder very fastidious in his taste, and dissatisfied by anything that has been since done in that line." This is an excerpt from Thomas De Quincey about his criticism of Macbeth, a play by William Shakespeare. This essay sheds light on Macbeth and Lady Macbeth and their thinking. This is an interpretative type of essay. Example #3: A Sample Critical Essay on Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises (by Richard Nordquist) "To keep Jake Barnes drunk, fed, clean, mobile, and distracted in The Sun Also Rises, Ernest Hemingway employs a large retinue of minor functionaries: maids, cab drivers, bartenders, porters, tailors, bootblacks, barbers, policemen, and one village idiot. But of all the retainers seen working quietly in the background of the novel, the most familiar figure by far is the waiter. In cafés from Paris to Madrid, from one sunrise to the next, over two dozen waiters deliver drinks and relay messages to Barnes and his compatriots. As frequently in attendance and as indistinguishable from one another as they are, these various waiters seem to merge into a single emblematic figure as the novel progresses. A detached observer of human vanity, this figure does more than serve food and drink: he serves to illuminate the character of Jake Barnes." This is an excerpt from an essay written about Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises. This paragraph mentions all the characters of the novel in an interpretative way. It also highlights the major motif of the essay. Functions of a Critical Essay A critical essay intends to convey specific meanings of a literary text to specific audiences. These specific audiences are knowledgeable people. They not only learn the merits and demerits of the literary texts, but also learn different shades and nuances of meanings. The major function of a literary essay is to convince people to read a literary text for reasons described.

Contrast

Contrast is a rhetorical device through which writers identify differences between two subjects, places, persons, things, or ideas. Simply, it is a type of opposition between two objects, highlighted to emphasize their differences. Contrast comes from the Latin word, contra stare, meaning to stand against. Usually, though not always, writers use phrases and words to indicate a contrast such as but, yet, however, instead, in contrast, nevertheless, on the contrary, and unlike. for instance, E. B. White, in his novel Stuart Little, brings a contrast between Stuart and other babies, using the word unlike: "Unlike most babies, Stuart could walk as soon as he was born." Types of Contrast Point-by-point Contrast - In this type of contrast, writers deal with a series of features of two subjects, and then present their contrast, discussing all points successively. Subject-by-subject Contrast - In this type of contrast, a writer first discusses one subject thoroughly, and then moves on to another. Examples of Contrast in Literature Example #1: Eminent Men I Have Known, Unpopular Essays (By Bertrand Russell) "To begin with the differences: Lenin was cruel, which Gladstone was not; Lenin had no respect for tradition, whereas Gladstone had a great deal; Lenin considered all means legitimate for securing the victory of his party, whereas for Gladstone politics was a game with certain rules that must be observed. All these differences, to my mind, are to the advantage of Gladstone, and accordingly Gladstone on the whole had beneficent effects, while Lenin's effects were disastrous." In this example, Russell presents a point-by-point contrast between two persons, Vladimir Lenin - a Russian communist revolutionary, and William Gladstone - a British Liberal politician. By the end, the author expresses his favor for Gladstone over Lenin. Example #2: Sonnet 130 (By William Shakespeare) "My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips' red; If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head. I have seen roses damasked, red and white, But no such roses see I in her cheeks ..." In the first five lines of this poem, Shakespeare employs a number of contrasts to lay emphasis on his beloved's qualities. He contrasts her with the sun, coral, snow, and wire. Simply, he wants to convey the idea that, while his woman is not extraordinary, she is substantial. Example #3: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens, in the very first chapter of his novel A Tale of Two Cities, presents a sweeping background of events and forces, which shape the characters' lives later on. In the first paragraph, he begins to share a dual theme, as he compares and contrasts the ideas of "best" and "worst" of times, "light" and "darkness," and then "hope" and "despair." These contrasting ideas reflect images of good and bad that would recur in situations and characters throughout the novel. Dickens makes contrast between two countries, England and France. Both countries experience very different and very similar situations simultaneously. The differences he compares are concepts of justice and spirituality in each country. Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet is about contrasts of love and hate. This tragic play embodies these emotions in different ways, as we see a romance between two young lovers, Romeo and Juliet, whereas their families are at war and hate each other. However, their love forbids this war. Characters in this play also contrast each other. Romeo and Juliet, though both are lovers, are different too. Romeo is impulsive and dependent, while Juliet is organized, brave and practical. Montague's marriage is successful, while Capulet's is not. Along with a steady contrast in characters, we notice contrasts in mood, theme, and action of the play as well. Function of Contrast Writers address a number of features and characteristics of two subjects, persons, places, and events by contrasting them from one point to another. While the major purpose of contrast is to elucidate ideas and clear their meanings, readers can easily understand through this device what is going to happen next. Through opposite and contrasting ideas, writers make their arguments stronger, thus making them more memorable for readers due to emphasis placed on them. In addition, contrasting ideas shock the audience, heighten drama, and produce balanced structures in literary works.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is defined as a way of building an argument from general premises to a conclusion. If the principle selected is correct and clear, the rules of deductive reasoning are prepared. It is also called a top to down thinking or taking general statements to specific one sand then to a conclusion. For example, if B = C and C = D, then obviously B = D. First two premises are general while the third conclusion is specific. Deductive reasoning is a rhetorical device rather than a literary device. However, it is used in literature as well as philosophy to build arguments. Rules for Deductive Reasoning There are three major rules in deductive reasoning. The first is modus ponens, which means "law of detachment." This is inference rule in which conclusion is deduced from the first premise that is condition and second premise that is antecedent. The second rule is modus tollens, which is called "law of contrapositive". It is based on the first premise as conditional with the second premise as a negation of the result followed by conclusion deduced from them. The third law is that of the syllogism, which takes two conditionals and then forms a conclusion. Rule-Based Examples Premise 1: Johnson is a student. Premise 2: All students are young men. Conclusion: Johnson is a young man. Premise 1: If it rains, it means that the sky is cloudy. Premise 2: There is not any cloud in the sky. Conclusion: Therefore, it means that it is raining. Premise 1: If it is a York, it means it is a dog. Premise 2: If it is a dog, it is also a mammal. Conclusion: If the animal is a York, it means that it is a mammal, too. Common Examples If you want to find peace of mind, you need to identify what you can control and what you cannot. However, if others think what is not under your control is, it is their thinking. Therefore, you need not worry about what others think about you. When there are two people in this room; Jonny and his brother and you know that both do not wear spectacles, it means that Jonny also does not wear spectacles. Therefore, both have good eyesight. If there is an after two prime number and seven is also a prime number, it means that all odd numbers between two to eight are prime numbers. (Adopted from Patrick Hurley's Concise Introduction to Logic) Examples from Literature Example #1 Animal Farm by George Orwell "A bird's wing, comrades," he said, "is an organ of propulsion and not of manipulation. It should therefore be regarded as a leg. The distinguishing mark of man is the HAND, the instrument with which he does all his mischief." The birds did not understand Snowball's long words, but they accepted his explanation, and all the humbler animals set to work to learn the new maxim by heart. FOUR LEGS GOOD, TWO LEGS BAD, was inscribed on the end wall of the barn, above the Seven Commandments and in bigger letters. When they had once got it by heart, the sheep developed a great liking for this maxim, and often as they lay in the field they would all start bleating "Four legs good, two legs bad! Four legs good, two legs bad!" and keep it up for hours on end, never growing tired of it." This paragraph from Animal Farm is an excellent example of deductive reasoning. Snowball is trying to prove that if wings are like legs, it means they are not hands. If they are not hands, it means that birds have four legs. Therefore, they have not two legs but four legs. Through this deductive reasoning, Snowball has proven that birds are actually animals and not human beings. Example #2 The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway "They sat on the Terrace, and many of the fishermen made fun of the old man, and he was not angry. Others, of the older fishermen, looked at him and were sad. But they did not show it, and they spoke politely about the current and the depths they had drifted their lines at and the steady good weather and of what they had seen." This paragraph from The Old Man and the Sea is also one of the best examples of deductive reasoning. It shows the logic that as the fishermen make fun of the old man, and yet the old man is not angry. It means Santiago is not angry as he is also a man. Conversely, it also shows that as the older men do not show their anger and they are very patient. Example #3 The Raven by Thomas Hardy Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door - Only this, and nothing more." This stanza from "The Raven" also shows an example of deductive reasoning used in literature. It shows that when there is tapping on the door, and it is also gentle, it means that there is only one visitor. It also means that there is no other source of tapping except that visitor. Functions of Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning proves highly useful during discussions, speeches, writings, and literary pieces. They are also included in logical and argumentative novels or plays. The written pieces often become very persuasive and convincing when constructed with deductive reasoning. The use of deductive reasoning makes it easy to convince the audiences, using general examples to reach a specific point. Moreover, deductive reasoning allows the writing and speaking clear, rhetorical, and effective. It removes ambiguities and confusions in the arguments and helps a person become a fluent and eloquent speaker and flawless writer.

Comparatives

Every day, people compare things, places, and people. They compare things and objects using specific words such as than, more, or less, etc. This comparison is called "comparative form." In grammar, a comparative is an adjective or adverb form used to make a comparison between two nouns, such as people, places, or things, to describe actions (verbs), or the words describing verbs (other adverbs). For instance, in the excerpt " 'Take some more tea,' the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly. 'I've had nothing yet,' Alice replied in an offended tone, 'so I can't take more.' 'You mean you can't take less,' said the Hatter: 'it's very easy to take more than nothing.' " (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass, by Lewis Carroll) See that all underlined words in the above lines are comparatives. Characteristics of Comparatives One Syllable Comparatives/Adjectives One syllable comparatives are made by adding "-er" to the base form of the adjective, or one-syllable adverb. For instance: This dress is brighter than that dress. They may reach higher than us. Two Syllables Comparatives/Adjectives Two syllables comparatives/adjectives are made by replacing "-y" with "-ier," if the base form of a two-syllable comparative ends in"-y." For instance: She is funnier than you. Two, three, or more Syllables Comparatives/Adjectives These comparatives are made by adding "more" or "less" before three-syllable adjectives, or adverbs ending in "-ly." For instance: This book is more expensive than that book. He plays more beautifully now that he is grown. Common Use of Comparatives This house is better than that one. They are looking happier Today the shops are more crowded than yesterday. English lessons are more enjoyable than mathematics lessons. She is taller than her sister. Examples of Comparatives in Literature Example #1: Right Ho, Jeeves (By P.G. Wodehouse) "He had been looking like a dead fish. He now looked like a deader fish, one of last year's, cast up on some lonely beach and left there at the mercy of the wind and tides." In this example, the comparative is shown underlined as "deader." This presents a single syllable adjective or comparative, to which "-er" has been added at the end. Example #2: I'll Mature When I'm Dead (by Dave Barry) "[W]e did learn some important life lessons from sports. I learned, for example, that even though I was not as big, or fast, or strong, or coordinated as the other kids, if I worked really hard-if I gave 100 percent and never quit-I would still be smaller, slower, weaker, and less coordinated than the other kids." This is another good instance of single syllable and two or more syllable comparatives. The single syllable adjectives are "small," "slow," and "weak." The example of a two or more syllable comparative is "less coordinated." Example #3: Lost Worlds (by Michael Bywater) "Keg beer ... poured at random, got everywhere, and always ran out. But in its benign gleam, the music sounded better, the lights were softer, the girls more beautiful and potentially yielding, oneself manlier, one's friends friendlier, the night darker, the stars brighter, the moon fuller, the air warmer, the hour later, the future brighter, the present aching with that particular adolescent promise which does not need to be fulfilled to make it miraculous." This excerpt presents an excellent example of all types of comparatives, the single-syllable comparatives include "better," "softer," "darker," "brighter," "fuller," "warmer," and "later." The two-syllable comparatives are "manlier" and "friendlier. Two or more than two syllables comparative include "more beautiful." Example #4: The Sacred and Profane Love Machine (by Iris Murdoch) "After a second of shock he had recognized Edgar Demarnay. They had not met for several years. An Edgar grown fatter and grosser and older, but Edgar still, with his big pink boy's face and his fat lips and his copious short fluffy hair now pale grey instead of pale gold." There are three comparatives in this example: "fatter," "grosser," and "older." Through the given comparatives, the author has described the physical features of a character, Edgar. Function of Comparatives The basic function of comparatives is to a make comparison between two people or things. They help define and describe people, things, and actions. By comparing two things, in fact, comparatives highlight the good or bad qualities of the two things being compared, and let the audience see it. Also, they give a better understanding of the things and people.

Bathos

Bathos is a literary term derived from a Greek word meaning "depth." Bathos is the act of a writer or a poet falling into inconsequential and absurd metaphors, descriptions, or ideas in an effort to be increasingly emotional or passionate. Some confuse bathos with "pathos." The term was used by Alexander Pope to explain the blunders committed inadvertently by unskilled writers or poets. However, later on, comic writers used it intentionally to create humorous effects. The most commonly used bathos involves a sequence of items that descend from worthiness to silliness. Examples of Bathos in Literature Example #1: The Mary Tyler Moore Show (By James L. Brooks and Allan Burns) The Mary Tyler Moore Show had an episode that involved the death of the clown Chuckles, who was killed very brutally by a stampeding elephant. Everyone on the station keeps making jokes about it that Mary does not approve of. Later on, when she attends the funeral, she starts laughing hysterically while the rest of the people stare at her exasperated. Example #2: The Naked Gun (By David Zucker, Jim Abrahams, Jerry Zucker, Pat Proft) Absurd styles of humor can use the bathos method. Such is the television series Police Squad!, which uses bathos very often. Excerpts from The Naked Gun show numerous points where a serious scenario is built up only to knock it down subsequently with Frank Drebin's silly comments. For example: FRANK: "A good cop - pointlessly cut down by some spineless hoodlums." ED: "That's no way for a man to die." FRANK: "No ... you're right, Ed. A parachute not opening ... that's a way to die, getting caught in the gears of a combine ... having your nuts bit off by a Laplander, that's the way I want to go!" WILMA NORDBERG: "Oh ... Frank. This is terrible!" ED: "Don't you worry, Wilma. Your husband is going to be alright. Don't you worry about anything! Just think positive. Never let a doubt enter your mind." FRANK: "He's right, Wilma. But I wouldn't wait until the last minute to fill out those organ donor cards." (The Naked Gun, 1988) Example #3: Northanger Abbey (By Jane Austen) Jane Austen is among the few serious writers who used this tool. It helped her give a sense of merriness to her novel Northanger Abbey. In this novel, Austen highlights the ingenuous and imaginative nature of the leading character, Catherine Morland. She uses Catherine's increasingly active imagination to work like bathos in order to parody the plot used in Ann Radcliffe's Gothic novels, and the likes of her. In Radcliff's The Romance of the Forest, a character finds a human skeleton in the chest. In Northanger Abbey, Austen uses a mysterious chest in her story as a prop to build on, and to successfully satirize the extremes of the Gothic fiction of the 18th century. Catherine became skeptical when she saw the enormous chest in her room during her stay at the Abbey. Certain questions arose in her mind about that chest, and about what it held, and why it was placed in her room. Catherine, who seemed to be very naïve, went on investigating the chest. You can see that the novel at this particular point adopts a very gothic tone. It starts using short clauses that consist of many inauspicious words, for instance "trembling hands," "alarming violence," and "fearful curiosity." The selection of words at this point aids in building up the suspense in the readers' and audience's minds, only to discover consequently that the chest holds only a folded bed sheet. Example #4: I'm Sorry I'll Read That Again (BBC Radio Comedy) The British radio series I'm Sorry I'll Read That Again also provides us with many bathos examples. John Cleese and Jo Kendall appeared in the roles of a couple whose relationship is on the brink of failure. MARY: "John - once we had something that was pure, and wonderful, and good. What's happened to it?" JOHN: "You spent it all." When Mary says "something pure and wonderful," she is actually referring to the deep, sacred, noble form of love. However, the description is vague enough for John to manipulate. Function of Bathos Bathos is a device which, if used skillfully, can really build up a nice comic scene. Bathos brings a certain degree of wit to a scene by highlighting the contrast in tone. Initially, it is used to create a serious and powerful dramatic situation. This might be slightly hard to create for comedy writers. Thus, comedy writers must be very careful when they insert jokes here and there in the middle of a serious scene. There is a great danger that their jokes will break the tempo of a serious scene in a prose.

Evidence

Evidence is a type of literary device that appears in different categories of essays and theses, in the form of paraphrase and quotations. It is presented to persuade readers, and used with powerful arguments in the texts or essays. It is factual information that helps the reader reach a conclusion and form an opinion about something. Evidence is given in research work, or is quoted in essays and thesis statements, but is paraphrased by the writer. If it is given as it is, then it is quoted properly within quotation marks. In rhetoric, when a person makes a claim or presents an argument, he needs to present evidence in support of his claim or argument, in order to establish the veracity of his statements. If there is no evidence, the claim stands quashed. The same is true with a case in law, where a case or litigation is quashed if there is no evidence to support the claim. However, literary evidence is only used in literature, essays, and research papers for persuasion and convincing purposes. Examples of Evidence in Literature Example #1: The Bluest Eye (By Tony Morrison) "I talk about how I did not plant the seeds too deeply, how it was the fault of the earth, our land, our town. I even think now that the land of the entire country was hostile to marigolds that year. This soil is bad for certain kinds of flowers. Certain seeds it will not nurture, certain fruit it will not bear, and when the land kills of its own volition, we acquiesce and say the victim had no right to live." Morrison evidently analyzes the environment, as it has powerful effects on people. She provides strong evidence that that the Earth itself is not fertile for the marigold seeds. Likewise, people also cannot survive in an unfriendly environment. Example #2: The Color of Water Juliet (By James McBride) " '...while she weebled and wobbled and leaned, she did not fall. She responded with speed and motion. She would not stop moving.' As she biked, walked, rode the bus all over the city, 'she kept moving as if her life depended on it, which in some ways it did. She ran, as she had done most of her life, but this time she was running for her own sanity.' " McBride supports his arguments and understanding of a mother as an individual who keeps moving in her life and does not stop to think about what is happening and why something is happening. Since the movement offers a solution, which though temporary, preserves her sanity. Example #3: Educational Paragraph (By Anonymous) An effective use of evidence in a quotation: "Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down meals are time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity." This is a best example of evidence, since the evidence is effectively incorporated into the text, as the author makes the link between her claim (question) and the evidence (logic), which is powerful. Function of Evidence When writing something about literature, or writing about a particular text, a writer needs to strengthen his discussion by providing powerful answers from the text as evidence of the questions he raises. It is not enough to just simply drop in quotations around the text and expect their relevance and importance of his arguments to be self-evident. The fact is that simply making a claim and making an argument does nothing to convince the audience. The audience will only believe what the writer or the speaker has to say if he proffers strong evidence to back up his arguments. Therefore, evidence not only helps the writer convince his readers, but also persuades them to feel sympathy, or to support his argument. Mostly political speakers, research writers, and editorial writers use evidence extensively to turn public opinion for or against some issue.

Exact Rhyme

Exact rhyme is a poetic device used to repeat the same stressed vowel sounds as well as consonant sounds that follow the vowel. It is used in poems and texts to create musical and pointed effects. Hence, the writers intentionally stress some syllables to emphasize some sounds that appeal to the readers. In this way, a powerful rhythm is created and makes the text enjoyable giving it a unique flow. Examples of Exact Rhyme from Literature Example #1 Song of the Witches From Macbeth by William Shakespeare Double, double toil and trouble; Fire burn and caldron bubble. Fillet of a fenny snake, In the caldron boil and bake; Eye of newt and toe of frog, Wool of bat and tongue of dog, Adder's fork and blind-worm's sting, Lizard's leg and howlet's wing, Macbeth is one of the most popular compositions in English literature. The song is sung by three witches who are casting a spell on Macbeth. The whole text revolves around their foul play and prophecies. However, Shakespeare has used exact rhyme in the poem to make it appealing to the readers. In the words such as, "Trouble/bubble" and "snake/ bake," one can quickly identify the stressed consonant and vowels sounds at the end of each verse such as the use of /d/ and /b/ sounds in the very first line and again /b/ sound in the second line. Example #2 Little Bo-Peep by Mother Goose Little Bo-Peep has lost her sheep, And can't tell where to find them; Leave them alone, and they'll come home, Bringing their tails behind them. Little Bo-Peep fell fast asleep, And dreamt she heard them bleating; But when she awoke, she found it a joke, For they were still all fleeting. Then up she took her little crook, Determined for to find them; She found them indeed, but it made her heart bleed, For they'd left their tails behind them. Little Bo-Peep, a famous nursery rhyme, comprises the agony and guilt of a young girl who loses her flock of sheep and never meets them again. She finds the tails of her sheep hanging from a tree. This heart-wrenching incident snatches all her joys and leaves her mourning for her beloved flock. There are many examples of exact rhyme in this poem such as 'Bleating/fleeting', 'should/could' and 'peep/sleep'. It is due to the exact rhyme the poet has given a soft and a lyrical touch to the poem. The use of /b/ and /t/ sounds in the first and then last lines also show the use of consonant sounds to create musical quality. Example #3 How Do I Love Thee? Let me count the ways by Elizabeth Barrett Browning How do I love thee? Let me count the ways. I love thee to the depth and breadth and height My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight For the ends of being and ideal grace. I love thee to the level of every day's Most quiet need, by sun and candle-light. I love thee freely, as men strive for right; I love thee purely, as they turn from praise. The poem deals with the subject of love and affection. The poet counts how she expresses her love for her beloved. She describes the depth of her love and explains how her love will eventually get better and stronger with time. Also, she believes that the power of love will not vanish but will grow deeper after their death. Elizabeth has used exact rhyme in this poem to give her poetry a more conventional format. For example, "height/right", "light/right" and "ways/days" where the use of vowel sounds is very much prominent and add musical quality to all the lines. Example #4 Hush little baby, don't say a word by Mother Goose Hush little baby, don't say a word, Papa's gonna buy you a mockingbird. And if that mockingbird won't sing, Papa's gonna buy you a diamond ring. And if that diamond ring turns to brass, Papa's gonna buy you a looking glass. And if that looking glass gets broke, Papa's gonna buy you a billy goat. And if that billy goat won't pull, Papa's gonna buy you a cart and bull. This famous poem is also a lullaby. It deals with love and attachment of the parents with their children. It is written from the perspective of a mother who tries to console her child and promises that his/her daddy will buy a lot of presents. However, the use of exact rhyme in the text makes it appealing and enjoyable. Also, it allows easy memorization and creates a soothing and musical sound effect when reading out loud. Functions of Exact Rhyme Exact rhyme works as a tool that allows the writers to connect certain words in the poem. Its appropriate use gives uniqueness to the text. This conventional style of poetry is widely exercised in children's literature to make learning fun for them. It also acts as a mnemonic device that can quicken up the memorization process. Additionally, the repetition of the identical sounds strengthens the importance of the ideas presented.

Exemplum

Exemplum is a rhetorical device that is defined as a short tale, narrative, or anecdote used in literary pieces and speeches to explain a doctrine, or emphasize a moral point. They are generally in the forms of legends, folktales, and fables. An exemplum clarifies and proves a point. The best examples of exemplum are found in stories of medieval times, such as The Two City Dwellers and the Country Man, The King and His Wife, and The Cursed Dancers of Colbeck. Characteristics of Exemplum The plural form of exemplum, also called "exemplification," is "exempla." Its subject matters are usually based on folktales, legends, fables, and real life history; in which a moral point is raised by emphasizing the good or bad characteristics of a character. The moral teaching in exemplum comes at the beginning, while a parable will have it at the end. Types of Exemplum Aristotle has divided exemplum into two categories: Real Exemplum - This is from mythology or actual history. Fictional Exemplum - These are from invented facts expressed in the form of parables, fables, and brief comparisons. Examples of Exemplum in Literature Example #1: The Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "A FRERE ther was, a wantown and a merye, A limitour, a ful solempne man. In alle the ordres foure is noon that can So muche of daliaunce and fair langage. He hadde maad ful many a mariage Of yonge wommen, at his owne cost ... As doon the sterres in the frosty night. This worthy limitour was cleped Huberd." This story is a direct attack on the corruption in the Catholic Church during the 14th century in Europe. Two of the characters, "The Summoner" and "The Friar," are criticized severely because of their evil acts and their greed. The exemplum is those who engage themselves in greed and extortion will be thrown into hell. Example #2: Democracy (By Joan Didion) "In Flaundres whylom was a companye Of yonge folk, that haunteden folye, As ryot, hasard, stewes, and tavernes, Wher-as, with harpes, lutes, and giternes ... O cursed sinne, ful of cursednesse! Thou blasphemour of Crist with vileinye And with his precious herte-blood thee boghte, Thou art so fals and so unkinde, allas!" This is the Pardoners Tale from Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. It is among the exemplum examples that talk about how greed can destroy everything, and that it is the cause of all evil. In this story, nobody got to claim the most coveted treasure, since the characters involved ended up killing each other. Example #3: Parallel Lives (By Plutarch) "It being my purpose to write the lives of Alexander the king, and of Cesar, by whom Pompey was destroyed, the multitude of their great actions affords so large a field that I were to blame ... When once Alexander had given way to fears of super natural influence, his mind grew so disturbed and so easily alarmed ... But a diseased habit of body, caused by drugs which Olympias gave him, had ruined not only his health, but his understanding." The excerpt is about an exemplum of the legendary Alexander the Great. The moral point of this narrative is that an individual can change a person's, as well as a whole nation's, destiny. Plutarch shows how, in history, characters like Alexander the Great have shaped the destinies of states and individuals. Example #4: The Legend of Cleopatra (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "After the death of Ptolemy the king, Who of all Egypt had the governing, There reigned his queen, Cleopatra; And, truth to tell, Antonius was his name ... Now, where to find a man as reliable, Who will for love his death so freely take, I pray God may never our heads so ache!" This story is about Cleopatra, and how many wicked men betrayed her. Function of Exemplum Exemplum is one of the most widely used rhetorical devices in written works and oratory. Initially, it was employed by preachers in Christian homiletic writings, and stories in their sermons to guide audiences. Preachers used historical figures as good and bad examples in order to encourage listeners to do good deeds and avoid committing sin. Moreover, it is used as a basic method of argument and employed in everyday life.

Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophy that focuses on the existence of mankind. It deals with their efforts of finding a way in this hostile universe. The writers apply existentialist philosophy in their texts to underpin the efforts of dejected, tormented and alienated humans, how they find themselves facing certain choices in the world. It is based on the concept that humans should choose their paths of life independently, and, try to make rational decisions in the irrational universe. In this sense, it liberates them from the clutches of moral values, social norms, and religious beliefs. Several literary pieces of the modern age demonstrate this philosophy in one or the other way. Etymologically, the word existence is derived from the Latin word "existere" which means "to stand out." Existentialism Examples from Literature Example #1 Why you? Why us for that matter? Why anything? Because this moment simply is. Have you ever seen bugs trapped in amber? Well, here we are, Mr. Pilgrim, trapped in the amber of this moment. There is no why." (Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut, Chapter 4) This quote is taken from chapter four of Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut. Billy is trapped by the strange creatures, Tralfamadorians and, is kept in a zoo at their planet, Tralfamadore. When Billy asks them why did they choose him, he does not get a satisfactory answer. As a Tralfamadorian state, there is no reason why Billy is chosen. There is no meaning and philosophy behind it. It is his fate that has dragged him into this situation. Billy's curiosity shows that humans beings, as a whole, tend to find greater meaning if anything happens. However, most of the times things happen in life without any reason. This quote proves existentialism as Billy is trying to figure out the purpose of his existence in an unknown planet. Example #2 "Vladimir: Let's wait and see what he says. Estragon: Who? Vladimir: Godot. Estragon: Good idea. Vladimir: Let's wait till we know exactly how we stand. Estragon: On the other hand, it might be bettering to strike the iron before it freezes." (Waiting for Godot by Samuel Becket, Act I) These lines occur in a play, Waiting for Godot written by Samuel Becket. Two Characters, Estragon and Vladimir, are waiting for Godot. Here Vladimir seems to be spiritual and religious about the arrival of Godot to come and direct them. However, Estragon suggests that they should not wait and move on. The writer uses the metaphor of "freezing," implying human beings do not have time to wait for their spiritual guidance to come and enlighten their souls. Instead, they should avail the chance in hand and make decisions without depending upon someone. Thus, the philosophy of existentialism shines in the suggestion of Estragon who is of the view that they should take their own path before it is too late. Example #3 She said, "If you go slowly, you risk getting sunstroke. But if you go too fast, you work up a sweat and then catch a chill inside the church." She was right. There was no way out." (Albert Camus, The Stranger) A character, the nurse, speaks these words when addressing Meursault during the funeral procession. The nurse puts Meursault in a serious dilemma. Meursault's words that there is really no way out points to the frustration he is going through. He realizes that he is forced or condemned to choose one or the other options and that there is no escape. This is entirely an absurd situation that points to the existential situation. Example #4 "As Gregor Samsa awoke one morning from uneasy dreams he found himself transformed in his bed into a gigantic insect." (Franz Kafka, The Metamorphosis) These are the opening lines of The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka. The protagonist, Gregor wakes up in the morning and finds himself transformed into a gigantic bug. The quote suggests that the transformation of Gregor was just an ordinary event, implying that the world around Gregor was inheritably purposeless, rather than rational so these type of incidents are considered normal. These lines exemplify the idea of existentialism that Gregor is living in an irrational, chaotic and meaningless world, where his miserable plight drags him into an existentialist crisis. Existentialism Meaning and Functions Existentialist philosophy serves as a pause for the audience. It gives them a chance to think and ponder upon the nature of their existence. It also gives them a chance to see things from a different perspective. Although it seems illogical to the people belonging to different schools of thoughts, it offers them a new dimension to magnify their existence to see its significance. However, by liberating humans from the chains of religion and moral belief system, it empowers them to make their own choices. Also, it proves a moment of action for the characters.

Expletive

Expletive is a grammatical construction that starts with words like it, here, and there. This rhetorical device usually interrupts normal speech and lays emphasis on certain words. It originates from the Latin word explore, which means "to fill." It plays a syntactic role, but does not contribute to the meaning of a sentence or line. It is also known as empty words, such as in this sentence, "There are some guests waiting for you," in which there are is an expletive phrase. Common Use of Expletive There are seven chairs around that dining table. It is the director of a company, who maintains the discipline. There's a time bomb hidden in the conference hall. It is extreme bliss that has Samuel reaching for another cup of tea. Examples of Expletive in Literature Example #1: Pride & Prejudice (By Jane Austen) "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife." See, the use of it is was not necessary at the beginning of the sentence, however, it emphasizes the overall impact of this sentence. You can see the expletive words in italics. Example #2: The Nightingale and the Rose (By Oscar Wilde) "'Here indeed is the true lover,' said the Nightingale. 'What I sing of, he suffers - what is joy to me, to him is pain. Surely Love is a wonderful thing. It is more precious than emeralds, and dearer than fine opals. Pearls and pomegranates cannot buy it, nor is it set forth in the marketplace. It may not be purchased of the merchants, nor can it be weighed out in the balance for gold.'" Look in this excerpt where Oscar Wilde has used the expletive word here, and the phrase it is at the beginning of their respective sentences. Example #3: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness ... There were a king with a large jaw and a queen with a plain face, on the throne of England ... It was the year of Our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five. Spiritual revelations were conceded to England at that favoured period, as at this." Dickens recurrently used expletive phrases, it was, and there were, in the introduction of his famous novel A Tale of Two Cities. Though these phrases have no semantic purpose to serve, they allow him to express the importance of the ideas, with emphasis on each one. Example #4: Jane Eyre (By Charlotte Bronte) "There was no possibility of taking a walk that day. We had been wandering, indeed, in the leafless shrubbery an hour in the morning ... '... It is well I drew the curtain,' thought I; and I wished fervently he might not discover my hiding-place." Again, in this example, look carefully at the italicized phrase, there was, at the opening of this extract. The use of this phrase draws the readers' attention, to the emphasis and absence of it on other words. Example #5: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S. T. Coleridge) "There passed a weary time. Each throat Was parched, and glazed each eye." In this case, Coleridge uses the expletive word there, to highlight the idea of weary time, and allows readers to focus on it, and the subject follows the verb, rather than preceding the verb. Example #6: La Belle Dame sans Merci (By John Keats) "There are four seasons in the mind of man: He has his lusty Spring, when fancy clear Takes in all beauty with an easy span..." Here, the use of the expletive phrase there are, makes readers notice an object—the spring season. Function of Expletive An expletive word acts as an operator that allows writers to manipulate their sentences in many ways. We see its usage in novels, poetry, prose, journalism, advertisement, and many other forms of communication. Expletives also serve as filler words through which writers shift other words to different places for emphasis. Hence, they serve a purpose. However, if you use expletives recurrently in a text, they will weaken the quality of the writing. Another purpose in using this construction is to help writers express something in a different way than a straight and simple recitation would do.

Explication

Explication is a literary technique in criticism and research, used for a close analysis of an excerpt or text taken from a lengthy piece of work. It originates from the French word, "explication de texte," meaning explanation of a text. It is neither a summary, nor a rewording, nor a paraphrase, but a commentary that reveals the meanings of a literary work. It usually tells about figures of speech, tone, setting, connotations, points of view, themes, contrasts, and anything else that could add to the meaning of a text. Example #1: The Scarlet Letter (by Nathaniel Hawthorne) Nathaniel Hawthorne opens his novel, The Scarlet Letter, with a paragraph that depicts a crowd assembled in front of a prison door. The people are waiting for Hester Prynne to show up with her scarlet letter "A." The author describes the crowd as a "throng," suggesting a mob-like and densely packed group. The mood is not pleasant, but somber - displayed by their "sad-colored" garments, hoods, and gray hats. Another interesting description about the men's hats is that they were "steeple-crowned," which suggests that the people of the town are associated with the church that had punished Hester. The author's description of women as "intermixed" with men, alludes to the people in town lacking individuality. The use of passive voice "was assembled" further implies lack of individuality. Example #2: Traveling Through the Dark (by William Stafford) In the opening stanza of his blank verse poem "Traveling through the Dark," William Stafford ponders over the connection between the nature and technology, without giving any judgment. However, inviting the readers to think carefully about what would be the consequences of such a world human beings are creating. This stanza sets tone and setting of the scene. The tone is direct, simple and conversational as it is always in telling a story. In the first and the second lines, the speaker describes how he comes across a dead deer at night while driving. In the third and fourth lines, the speaker describes setting by telling about the narrow road along with a running river nearby. He suggests how to get rid of its dead body from narrow road by pushing it into the canyon. The poet introduces the metaphor of the journey by comparing the road with life and journey. We also get a lot about the speaker who is not going for the first time on the dark country road. Example #3: A Tale of Cities (by Charles Dickens) In his very first paragraph of A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens demonstrates both similarity and contrast existed between the two countries, England and France during the French Revolution. This passage presents an image of chaos and turmoil, which ensue due to a clash between extreme ideas between the two different countries and their people. The tone of this story is both chaotic and melancholic, presenting a theme of duality. In fact, Dickens has used paradoxes to establish the plot and theme of this novel. The rich were enjoying lives of abundance, while, on the other hand, the poor were suffering from deprivation. In England, there was a lack of security, and in France, the clergymen practiced inhuman activities against the masses. In other words, this passage emphasizes the issue of juxtaposition of these two countries, and sets up the basis for upcoming events in the novel. Example #4: The Road Not Taken (by Robert Frost) In the final stanza of his poem The Road Not Taken, Frost talks about his dilemma of coming upon two diverging paths, and not knowing which one to choose. The third line is very important, as it delivers an idea of choosing between the two divergent paths. The tone in this stanza shifts from regretful to optimistic. The two roads symbolically represent individual choices. The mood is neither depressed nor unhappy, but the poet sighs because he knows what the complexities our life may have for him. Whether he has chosen a right or a wrong path, it has a compelling impact on his life. The phrase "less traveled" suggests the theme of individualism. Function Explication not only illuminates a piece of literature, but also serves to remind the readers about its historical setting and formal properties of style and language. It does not give deeper level meanings, but explores an explicit view of a piece of writing. In fact, it brings clarity to certain meanings of a work. It is also very helpful for the students to evaluate the books and articles they read during their academic career.

Eye Rhyme

Eye rhyme is a poetic device in which two words are spelled similarly but pronounced differently. It also called a visual rhyme or a sight rhyme. For example, the pair "rough and bough look similar and should rhyme keeping in mind the visual aspect, but when they are spoken, they are not similar. So, the eye rhyme is a visual phenomenon on the page, and they are appealing to the sense of sight and not to the sense of hearing. Eye Rhyme plays a significant role in enhancing the poem's musical quality. Examples of Eye Rhyme from Literature Example #1 Sonnet 18 by William Shakespeare "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date." The writer is comparing his beloved with lovely summer days. To him, summer is the season of disappointments. This extract highlights the use of eye rhyme in the second line as the last word of the starting line links directly to the ending word of line four. By using Eye Rhyme, the writer has created a rhythm using "date" and "temperate" which give soothing effects to the poem. Example #2 Tis The Last Rose of Summer by Thomas Moore "...Left blooming alone; All her lovely companions ...Are faded and gone; No flower of her kindred, ...No rosebud is nigh, To reflect back her blushes, ...Or give sigh for sigh!" This poem is about summer that is fading away with a single rose blooming, while other roses are gone. The poet talks about the departure of summer in a very sad tone. However, the final words of the second and fourth contain Eye Rhymes. The words, "alone", "gone" do not rhyme and are spelled almost the same except the first letters. Example #3 Sonnet 19 by William Shakespeare "Devouring time, blunt thou the lion's paws, And make the earth devour her own sweet brood; Pluck the keen teeth from the fierce tiger's jaws, And burn the long-lived phoenix in her blood." The poem talks about the time and its normal effects on nature. In this extract, the writer talks about the destructive nature of time that allows it to perform destructive acts. However, the ending words of this extract fall in the category of Eye Rhyme. The words such as, "blood" and "brood" are not similar in pronunciation but they look identical to the eyes. Thus, their usage allows the writers to create a flow in the poem that makes it more vibrant and musical. Example #4 The Tyger by William Blake "Tyger Tyger, burning bright, In the forests of the night; What immortal hand or eye, Could frame thy fearful symmetry?" The poet describes the fearsome features of the tiger and wonders why a beautiful creature can also be a deadly creature. The words 'eye' and 'symmetry' are eye rhymes as they look similar to the sight but are pronounced differently. Example #5 Ode to the West Wind By Percy Bysshe Shelley Scatter, as from an unextinguish'd hearth Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind! Be through my lips to unawaken'd earth The trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? This lyric poem is a beautiful description of the wind, and it's effect on the earth, atmosphere, and ocean. The final stanza of the poem is an example of Eye Rhyme, as 'Wind' and 'behind' look same but are pronounced differently. Eye Rhyme Meaning and Function Eye rhyme is a treat for the audience. It provides them an opportunity to enjoy their reading by seeing it. The presence of repetitive patterns enables them to memorize the text at a fast pace. It also gives writers a chance to fill their texts with pleasant words that look good to the eyes. It acts as a mnemonic device which not only provides musical quality for the text but also soothes the process of memorization. However, in literature, it is a convenient device that provides poets a tool to insert delightful words in the texts and make their expressions enjoyable in reading and seeing.

Falling Action

Falling action occurs right after the climax, when the main problem of the story resolves. It is one of the elements of the plot of the story, the other elements being exposition, rising action, climax, and resolution. Falling action wraps up the narrative, resolves its loose ends, and leads toward the closure. Examples of Falling Action in Literature Example #1: Star Wars (by George Lucas) Falling action in Star Wars occurs after the rebels and Luke Skywalker discover a vulnerable section in the Death Star. It is up to Luke Skywalker to destroy the space ship following several failed attempts. Darth Vader virtually hits Luke's ship; however, Han Solo saves his ship by shooting at Vader. Then, Luke uses The Force and destroys the Death Star against all odds, saving the rebels. Yet the story does not end here. The audience then sees the return of Han and Luke to the rebels, who receive congratulations for their heroic efforts. Then the falling action takes place, when these two characters win rewards and medals from Princess Leia for saving the day. Example #2: The Necklace (by Guy de Maupassant) In Maupassant's story, The Necklace, the rising action happens when Mathilda Loisel and her husband get invited to a fancy ball. She then borrows a beautiful necklace from Madame Forestier, her friend. The story reaches its climax when Mathilda sees herself in full glory and realizes that she is not having it anymore. The falling action takes place when this couple is forced to live a poor life to pay the debt of the fake necklace they borrowed earlier. Example #3: The Cask of Amontillado (by Edgar Allan Poe) Another good example is in the famous story of Poe, The Cask of Amontillado. Following his wicked plan, Montresor invites Fortunato to his vault to taste the rare flavor of Amontillado, a type of wine. He makes a plan to keep Fortunato inebriated, ensuring that his glass remains full. When Fortunato starts coughing, Montresor asks him if he wants to go back, but intoxicated Fortunato insists on tasting more. The climax of the story occurs when Montresor chains him and buries him alive in a brick wall. Then the falling action follows this climax, where Fortunato regains consciousness and struggles to get free of chains to call for help. Before sealing the wall, Montresor throws a torch to see if Fortunato is alive to end the story. Example #4: The Fault in Our Stars (by John Green) Another example of falling action is from The Fault in Our Stars, a novel by John Green. The story revolves around two teenage lovers, Hazel Grace Lancaster and Augustus Waters, who are cancer patients. The rising action takes place, when they start liking each other, and the climax occurs with their tour to Amsterdam, where they express their feelings and consequently their love blossoms. Nevertheless, their whirling romance comes to a halt, because Augustus' health worsens, and he sees very few chances of his survival. The falling action follows with their return to Indianapolis, where Hazel decides to be with him to take good care of him. But, deep down she is aware of this reality that he has not much time to live. Augustus, on the other hand, remembers that he had planned to would write Hazel's eulogy, but the situation reverses instead. Example #5: Romeo and Juliet (by William Shakespeare) The falling action of Romeo and Juliet begins following rising action and climax, which is reached when the lovers are killed. Then the parents and Prince discover the bodies of two lovers, and they agree to put aside their animosity in the best interest of peace. Function of Falling Action Audiences expect a low ebb after every great tide in order to give themselves a feeling of relief. This happens with falling action of the story or the play. In fact, it is the desire of the audiences to see the fruits of the labor of a hero or protagonist that satisfies them. If this does not happen, the audience stays unsatisfied, and the story seems incomplete. Thus, falling action serves as a rewarding element in a story or movie. In addition, it is like a road from climax to resolution, and if the road is vacant, the story may end abruptly.

Anacoluthon

Anacoluthon is derived from the Greek word anakolouthos, which means "lacking sequence." It is a stylistic device defined as a syntactic deviation, and interruption within a sentence from one structure to another. In this interruption, the expected sequence of grammar is absent. The grammatical flow of sentences is interrupted in order to begin more sentences. Characteristics of Anacoluthon It is employed intentionally, unintentionally, or as a rhetorical device. In rhetoric, anacoluthon is also known as a figure of disorder in which the syntax of a sentence does not correlate with whatever is expected. However, it should not to be mixed-up with hyperbaton, which also involves a change in the normal position of words, phrases, and sentences. Anacoluthon is the interruption within a sentence from one construction to another against the expected logical order of the sentence. This change can occur within a sentence or in the form of tense. Examples of Anacoluthon in Literature Example #1: Ulysses (By James Joyce) "... I could have brought him in his breakfast in bed with a bit of toast so long as I didnt do it on the knife for bad luck or if the woman was going her rounds with the watercress and something nice and tasty there are a few olives in the kitchen he might like I never could bear the look of them in Abrines I could do the criada the room looks all right since I changed it the other way you see something was telling me all the time I'd have to introduce myself not knowing me from Adam very funny wouldn't it ..." This is one example of anacoluthon where stream of consciousness makes its use easy. Since the thoughts are not coherent, and lack grammatical sequence, it makes readers stop and think about sentence order. Example #2: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) "I will have such revenges on you both, That all the world shall—I will do such things, What they are, yet I know not..." In the above example, King Lear talks about exacting revenge. However, he himself does not know how he will exact revenge because he is in a confused state of mind. This excerpt can be considered as a good anacoluthon example, as there is interruption from one sentence to another, and such interruption is done to attract the readers' attention. Example #3: A Portrait of Mabel Dodge (By Gertrude Stein) "A plank that was dry was not disturbing the smell of burning and altogether there was the best kind of sitting there could never be all the edging that the largest chair was having..." In this case, Gertrude has deviated from one sentence to another. In the beginning, he talks about a plank and its smell. Then more sentences are added, and the result is that the grammatical order is changed. Example #4: The Walrus and the Carpenter (By Lewis Carroll) "'The time has come,' the Walrus said, 'To talk of many things: Of shoes—and ships—and sealing-wax— And cabbages—and kings— And why the sea is boiling hot— And whether pigs have wings.'" Here, Walrus proclaims to all listening oysters that the time has come to speak about many things. Following his statement that "the sea is boiling hot," there is an interruption in the grammatical flow of the sentences through a sudden change and insertion of conjunctions. Function of Anacoluthon The common use of anacoluthon is to imitate a thought or speech, and then shift the necessary information towards the start of the sentence. It is frequently used in literary writings and in casual speeches. In casual conversation, it is used in such a way that the sentence would not be considered correct grammatically. In written works, however, it is employed to imitate ungrammatical, confused, and informal speech, and to draw the attention of readers. Anacoluthon is used extensively in poetry, plays, and dramatic monologues. In addition, this technique is well-suited to the stream of consciousness writing style that is planned to signify thoughts in proximity to one another, because thoughts are not always consistent and hardly grammatically correct.

Anagnorisis

Anagnorisis is a moment in a plot or story, specifically a tragedy, wherein the main character either recognizes or identifies his/her true nature, recognizes the other character's true identity, discovers the true nature of his situation, or that of the others - leading to the resolution of the story. Aristotle discussed anagnorisis in his Poetics in detail. He defines it as "a change [that] occurs from ignorance to knowledge, creating love or hate between the individuals doomed by the poet for bad or good fortune." Simply, it is a startling discovery, which brings a change from ignorance to knowledge. For instance, in William Shakespeare's "The Winter's Tale," a recognition scene occurs in the final act, which reveals that Perdita is the daughter of the king, and not a shepherdess - the reason that she is suitable for a royal lover. Examples of Anagnorisis in Literature Example #1: Oedipus Rex (by Sophocles) In "Oedipus Rex," anagnorisis occurs when a messenger comes and reveals to King Oedipus his true birth. Oedipus then recognizes his queen, Jocasta, as his real mother, and the man whom he has killed at crossroads as his real father, as well as himself as an unnatural sinner, who has caused the disaster in the city of Thebes. Oedipus' recognition is artistically satisfying, as peripeteia (reversal of fortune) accompanies it. Here peripeteia is a reversal of fortune from good to bad, moving to a tragic catastrophe. Example #2: The Choephoroi (by Aeschylus) Another famous example of anagnorisis is found in Aeschylus' Greek "The Choephoroi." It happens when Electra identifies Orestes, her brother, who returns after exile at Agamemnon on their father's grave, whom their mother, Clytemnestra has murdered. Electra recognizes Orestes as her brother by finding three evidences: a lock of hair belonging to Orestes on their father's grave, his footprints near the grave, and a weaving piece that she has embroidered for him. She finds that hair and footprints are similar to hers. Electra's awareness of her brother' presence gives her support to avenge the murder of their father. Example #3: Macbeth (by William Shakespeare) One such moment in "Macbeth" occurs in the final scene when Macbeth, on the battlefield, encounters vengeful Macduff, who declares that he is not "of woman born," but instead "untimely ripped" from the womb of his mother - which is now called a C-Section. This is the moment when Macbeth learns that the prophecy of witches is about to come true, and that Macduff would kill him. Though Macbeth realizes that he is destined, he continues to fight with Macduff, who eventually kills him. Example #4: Othello (by William Shakespeare) There is another example in another play "Othello." Othello believes only what others tell him, especially those who come to see him first. He believes in the story of deceit of Iago, though it is based on words and a handkerchief, yet he does not trust Desdemona, his wife. The moment of recognition occurs when he realizes that he has wrongly killed his beloved wife. Therefore, he kills himself too. Example #5: Cherry Orchard (by Anton Chekhov) Still another example occurs in Act-III of Cherry Orchard, by Anthon Chekhov. During a party, Lyubov Andreyevna makes a critical realization that her cherry orchard, the place she has grown up, having created beautiful childhood memories, is bought by Lophakhin. Anagnorisis occurs exactly when Lopakhin enters and proudly declares, "It is sold ... I bought it ... I bought it! ... The cherry orchard is mine now, Mine! ... I've bought the estate where my father and grandfather were slaves, where they weren't even allowed into the kitchen." Lyubov starts weeping, and Varya leaves the party angrily. This is the anagnorisis of both Lyubov and Lopakhin. Lyubov discovers who has finally bought her Orchard, and Lophakhin realizes that he eventually has bought the estate where his ancestors worked as slaves. Function of Anagnorisis The use of this literary device is very common in plays and novels. It is a very important part of the plot in a tragedy, in which the protagonist recognizes his tragic flaw. This happens at the climax, leading to his eventual downfall. The end of anagnorisis leads to catharsis in the readers. The ideal moment for this device to happen is the moment of peripeteia, a reversal of fortune, where the protagonist realizes some important insight or fact, human nature, his own situation, or a truth about himself. It, in fact, unravels all the major complexities of the plot.

Anagram

Anagram is a form of word play in which letters of a word or phrase are rearranged in such a way that a new word or phrase is formed. An anagram is formed by using exactly the same letters of the original word, but with a different arrangement. For example, the letters in the word "Shakespeare" can be rearranged to form a word, "keshareapes." However, an anagram in literature is not a nonsensical arrangement of words, as in the previous example. Rather, it aims at parodying, criticizing, or praising its subject - the original word. For instance, a famous anagram for "William Shakespeare" is "I am a weakish speller." Common Anagram Examples We play with words in our everyday, life to create anagrams that are funny and witty. Usually, anagrams are most interesting when they are relevant to each other. Some hilarious anagram examples are given below: Mother-in-law = Hitler woman Debit card = Bad credit Dormitory = Dirty room The earthquakes = The queer shakes Astronomer = Moon starrer Punishments = Nine thumps School master = The classroom Anagrams to create Pseudonyms In literature, the use of anagrams is most commonly connected to pseudonyms, where the writers jumble the letters of their original names to create interesting pennames for themselves. Below are some famous examples: Jim Morrison = Mr. Mojo Risin Edward Gorey = Ogdred Weary Dave Barrey = Ray Adverb Glen Duncen = Declan Gunn Damon Albarn = Dan Abnormal Anagrams in Naming Characters We see anagrams being employed by several writers in titles of their works, and in naming their characters, giving them a touch of wit and mystery. Look at the examples below: William Shakespeare's "Hamlet" is an anagram of "Amleth," a Danish prince. Vladamir Nabakov, in his novel Lolita, presents the character "Vivian Darkbloom," which is an anagram of his own name. K. Rowling, in her Harry Potter series, uses an anagram "I am Lord Voldemort" for her character "Tom Marvolo Riddle," to reveal the two different identities of the villain. The two main characters of Libba Bray's fantasy novel The Rebel Angels, use anagrams to give themselves different names: Claire McCleethy - "They Call Me Circe"; Hester Asa Moore - "Sarah Rees-Toome." Examples of Anagram in Literature Depending on the topics at hand, writers tend to vary their use of anagrams. Let us see some examples of anagrams in literature: Example #1: Da Vinci Code (By Dan Brown) In Dan Brown's novel Da Vinci Code, the curator of the museum - Jacques Saunière - wrote the following inscription with his blood: "O, Draconian devil! Oh, lame saint! So dark the con of Man" These were actually the clues related to Leonardo Da Vinci, and were decoded as: "O, Draconian devil!" = Leonardo Da Vinci "Oh, lame saint!" = The Mona Lisa "So dark the con of Man" = Madonna of the Rocks In the same novel, we see a character, Leigh Teabing, who is the Holy Grail expert, inventing an apt name for himself by anagramming the names of the authors of The Holy Blood and The Holy Grail, Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln. Example #2: Gulliver's Travels (By Jonathan Swift) Jonathan Swift had an uncanny skill of inventing new and unusual names for his fictitious characters and places by using the anagrammatic method. We find interesting examples of anagrams in Jonathan Swift's novel "Gulliver's Travels". For instance, "Brobdingnag," a land occupied by giants, is an anagram of three words: big, grand, and noble (excluding the syllable -le). Similarly, "Tribinia" and "Langden," the two other kingdoms traveled by Gulliver during his voyage, are anagrams of Britain and England respectively. Function of Anagram The above discussion reveals that anagrams are commonly used in both everyday life and literature. They often provide instances of wit and humor. Additionally, this word play presents itself as a recreational activity in the form of word puzzles (cross words, upwords, scrabble, etc.) to sharpen the deciphering skills of kids, as well as adults. In literature, authors may use anagrams to hide their identity, by coining pseudonyms for themselves, but still giving interesting clues to keen observers. Similarly, the anagrammatic names of characters and places in a literary piece add layers of meaning to the otherwise nonsense names, and therefore further motivate and develop readers' interest. In mystery or detective novels and short stories, anagrams play a vital role in proving clues to unfold a mystery.

Black Humor

Black humor is a literary device used in novels and plays to discuss taboo subjects while adding an element of comedy. Cambridge dictionary defines it as a non-serious way of treating or dealing with serious subjects. It is often used to present any serious, gruesome or painful incidents lightly. The writers use it as a tool to explore serious issues, inciting serious thoughts and discomfort in the audience. In literature, this term is often associated with tragedies and is sometimes equated with tragic farce. In this sense, it makes the serious incident or event bit lighter in intensity. Although it is often inserted to induce laughter, it plays a significant role in advancing the action of the play or novel. Etymologically, black humor is a phrase of two words black and humor. The meanings are clear that it is a humorous way of treating something that is serious. It is also called black comedy, dark comedy or gallows humor. Examples of Black Humor from Literature Example #1 "Billy is spastic in time, has no control over where he is going next, and the trips aren't necessarily fun. He is in a constant state of stage fright, he says, because he never knows what part of his life he is going to have to act in next." (Kurt Vonnegut, Slaughterhouse-Five, Chapter 2) These lines are taken from the second Two of Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut. The writer explains that the protagonist of the novel, Billy Pilgrim never had control over his life. He illustrates the war-torn mentality of Billy that has disturbed the normal pace of his life. Billy thinks that he has already visited all the events of his life. His planetary movements and theories about life and death have left a profound impact on his real life. This description proves black humor as it contributes to the novel's anti-war message. Example #2 "They're trying to kill me," Yossarian told him calmly. No one's trying to kill you," Clevinger cried. Then why are they shooting at me?" Yossarian asked. They're shooting at everyone," Clevinger answered. "They're trying to kill everyone." And what difference does that make?" (Catch-22 by Joseph Heller, Chapter- 22) These lines occur in chapter twenty-two of Catch-22 by Joseph Heller. The protagonist, Yossarian, is expressing his fears to his friend. Yossarian thinks that everyone intends to kill him, while Clevenger takes it in a very light way, implying death is something normal on the war-front. To him, death is an accepted reality during wars, so it should not be taken seriously. Therefore, he suggests that they are not specifically trying to kill Yossarian but everyone. This is a sort of humor for the readers when the tragedies become too heavy for them. Example #3 "Since she happened to be clutching the long broom, she tried to tickle him from the door way. This had no effect, and so she grew annoyed and began poking Gregor. It was only upon shoving him from his place but meeting no resistance that she became alert. When the true state of affairs now dawned on the charwomen, her eyes bulged with amazement and she whistled to herself. But instead of dawdling there, she yanked the bedroom door open and hollered into the darkness; "Go and look it's croaked; it's lying there absolutely crooked." (The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka) These lines occur toward the end of the text, Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka. These lines show the attitude of the woman hired by the family to clean Gregor's room. After the gruesome incident, the demise of Gregor. Here the word "crooked" refers to Gregor's death, which adds the element of black humor in the situation. The miserable plight of Gregor is narrated absurdly. Ironically, his death provides solace to his family and also illustrates that his metamorphosis was a must to alter the circumstances of his family. This incident presents black humor as it provides the audience to see the way the death of a family member has been described as if he is really an insect. Example #4 "ESTRAGON Let's go. VLADIMIR We can't. ESTRAGON Why not? VLADIMIR We're waiting for Godot." (Waiting for Godot by Samuel Becket, Act- I Scene-II, Lines 91-94) This is another example of black humor from the play, Waiting for Godot by Samuel Becket. There are two characters in the scene. They are talking about the Godot, whom they are waiting for. These lines show that this wait never allows them to go for independent choices. Vladimir is so promising that he does not want to move until he meets Godot. This black humor shows the audience a chance to see their sufferings with a wry smile on their faces. Functions of Black Humour Black humor is a type of hiatus or pause for the audience after a heavy dose of tragic or serious incidents and similar to comic relief. It also gives them a chance to experience laughter and discomfort at the same time. As black humor means to end the tragic seriousness of the previous scenes or incidents, it often makes the same subject or topic or incident a bit lighter than it is. For example, it could be the discussion about the death as in Catch-22, or silliness of the very serious situation in which the fate of people is in someone's hand but it is made a common absurd situation such as in Waiting for Godot.

Cliché

Cliché refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning or novelty. A cliché may also refer to actions and events that are predictable because of some previous events. All examples of cliché are expressions that were once new and fresh. They won popularity in the public and hence have been used so extensively that such expressions now sound boring and at times irritating, due to the fact that they have lost their original color. For instance, the phrase "as red as a rose" must have been a fresh and innovative expression at some point in time, but today it is considered universally as a cliché, and does not make such an impact when used in everyday or formal writing. Expressions that are not Clichés It is important to keep in mind that constant reuse of expressions does not necessarily create a cliché. Typical expressions that are used almost at all times in formal ceremonies, festivals, courts, etc. are not considered cliché examples; rather they befit such occasions, and are regarded as more appropriate. Following are a few examples: "I second the motion" (Board or council meeting) "I now pronounce you man and wife" (Wedding Ceremony) "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." (Oath-taking ceremony) "Happy Birthday!" Similarly, certain epithets like "reverend" and "father" are attached to the names of church officials. Besides, people of the royal family are addressed with epithets "Your Grace," "Your Highness," or "Your Royal Highness." Such expressions are part of proper etiquette, and do not fall under the category of cliché. Common Cliché Examples Example #1 In describing time, the following expressions have turned into cliché: in the nick of time - to happen just in time only time will tell - to become clear over time a matter of time - to happen sooner or later at the speed of light - to do something very quickly lasted an eternity - to last for a very long time lost track of time - to stop paying attention to time Example #2 In describing people, these expressions have turned into cliché: as brave as a lion - describes a very brave person as clever as a fox - describes a very clever person as old as the hills - describes an old person or idea a diamond in the rough - describes someone with a brilliant future fit as a fiddle - describes a person in a good shape as meek as a lamb - describes a person who is too weak and humble Example #3 In describing various sentiments, a number of expressions have turned into cliché: frightened to death - to be too frightened scared out of one's wits - to be too frightened all is fair in love and war - to go to any extent to claim somebody's love all is well that ends well - a happy ending reduces the severity of problems that come in one's way every cloud has a silver lining - problems also have something good in them the writing on the wall - something clear and already understood time heals all wounds - pain and miseries get will heal, with the passage of time haste makes waste - people make mistakes when rushing Example #4 Below is a list of some more common clichés: They all lived happily ever after Read between the lines Fall head over heals Waking up on the wrong side of the bed The quiet before the storm Between the devil and the deep blue sea Function of Cliché Anton C. Zijderveld, a Dutch sociologist, throws light on the function of cliché in the following excerpt, taken from his treatise On Clichés: "A cliché is a traditional form of human expression (in words, thoughts, emotions, gestures, acts) which - due to repetitive use in social life - has lost its original, often ingenious heuristic power. Although it thus fails positively to contribute meaning to social interactions and communication, it does function socially, since it manages to stimulate behavior (cognition, emotion, volition, action), while it avoids reflection on meanings."

Comic Relief

Comic relief is a literary device used in plays and novels to introduce light entertainment between tragic scenes. It is often used in the shape of a humorous incident, a funny incident, a tricky remark or a laughing commentary. It is deliberately inserted to make the audiences feel relief. In this sense, it makes the tragedy seem less intense. Although it is often considered a diversion, it plays a significant role in advancing the action of the play or the novel. Etymologically, comic relief is a phrase of two words comic and relief. The meanings are clear that it is a relief provided through comic incidents or remarks. Examples from Literature Example #1 PORTER: "Here's a knocking indeed! If a man were porter of hell-gate, he should have old turning the key. Knock Knock, knock, knock, knock! Who's there, i' the name of Belzebub? Here's a farmer that hanged himself on th' expectation of plenty. Come in time! Have napkins enow about you; here you'll sweat for't. Knock Knock, knock! Who's there, in th' other devil's name?" (Macbeth by William Shakespeare, Act-II, Scene-III, Lines 1-8) These lines occur in the third scene of the second act of Macbeth by Shakespeare. Porter is delivering these lines between two gruesome incidents; the murder of King Duncan and the discovery of his dead body. Porter thinks that he seems to be on guard of the gate of the hell. He is hallucinating and delving inappropriate jokes and abuses. This scene brings a brief comic relief after the tragic death of King Duncan. Example #2 THE FOOL: "Fathers that wear rags Do make their children blind; But fathers that bear bags Shall see their children kind." (King Lear by William Shakespeare, Act-II, Scene-II, Lines 55-58). It is very interesting that King Lear, was indeed a powerful and a beloved father, enjoying the love of his daughters. When he was a wealthy king, they used to flatter him. However, when he is a poor man after dividing property, every daughter becomes blind toward him. The joking and mocking behavior of the court jester provide this comic relief at several other places in the play. These lines bring relief for the readers when the tragedy is overwhelming. Example #3 FIRST CLOWN "Give me leave. Here lies the water; good: here stands the man; good; if the man go to this water, and drown himself, it is, will he, nill he, he goes,-mark you that; but if the water come to him and drown him, he drowns not himself: argal, he that is not guilty of his own death shortens not his own life." (Hamlet by William Shakespeare, Act-V, Scene-I, Lines 14-20) This is another great example of comic relief from Hamlet by William Shakespeare. The two clownish gravediggers in this scene are talking about the drowning of Ophelia and her burial in the graveyard. These lines show how jestingly this first gravedigger is exampling the suicide in a way that it does not seem that he is accusing the dead; rather, he is accusing the water. This is comic relief as it provides the audience a chance to smile after going through heavy sorrows of the death of Hamlet's father and melancholy of the young Hamlet. Example #4 HORSE-C: "Well, sir.—Now I am made man for ever. I'll not leave my horse for forty. If he had but the quality of hey-ding-ding, hey-ding-ding, I'd made a brave living on him: he has a buttock as slick as an eel. [Aside.] Well, God b' wi' ye, sir, your boy will deliver him me: but hark you, sir; if my horse be sick or ill at ease, if I bring his water to you, you'll tell me what it is." (Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlow, Scene-XI, Lines 20-24). Horse courser is a character in Dr. Faustus, who wants to buy Faustus' horse when they are in the emperor's court. Faustus warns him not to ride his horse in water. At first, he displays his seriousness in understanding his instructions. Later he begins to cut jokes over this issue saying that the horse's behind is "slick as an eel" making others laugh over the argument. However, it is interesting that when he rides on it through water, it vanishes, leaving him on the grass. This comic scene occurs when the situation becomes profoundly serious and intense in the play. Functions of Comic Relief Comic relief is a pause for the audience. It provides them with an opportunity to feel light-hearted and enjoy something new. It also gives them a chance to smile at something different. Although it sometimes seems awkward, it happens in real time, too, that humor is the spice of life where tragedy becomes too heavy to tolerate. Also, it proves a moment of reflection for the characters.

Comparison

Comparison is a rhetorical or literary device in which a writer compares or contrasts two people, places, things, or ideas. In our everyday life, we compare people and things to express ourselves vividly. So when we say, someone is "as lazy as a snail," you compare two different entities to show similarity i.e. someone's laziness to the slow pace of a snail. Comparisons occur in literary works frequently. Writers and poets use comparison in order to link their feelings about a thing to something readers can understand. There are numerous devices in literature that compare two different things to show the similarity between them, such as simile, metaphor, and analogy. Examples of Comparison in Literature In the following comparison examples, we will try to analyze literary devices used to show comparisons. Metaphor A metaphor makes a hidden comparison between two things or objects that are dissimilar to each other, but have some characteristics common between them. Unlike simile, we do not use "like" or "as" to develop a comparison in a metaphor. Consider the following examples: Example #1: When I Have Fears (By John Keats) These lines are from When I Have Fears, by John Keats. "Before high-pil'd books, in charact'ry Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain," John Keats compares writing poetry with reaping and sowing, and both these acts stand for the insignificance of a life and dissatisfied creativity. Example #2: As You Like It (By William Shakespeare) This line is from As You Like It, by William Shakespeare. "All the world's a stage and men and women merely players..." Shakespeare uses a metaphor of a stage to describe the world, and compares men and women living in the world with players (actors). Simile A simile is an open comparison between two things or objects to show similarities between them. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of words "like" or "as." Example #3: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov) This line is from the short story Lolita, by Vladimir Nabokov. "Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa." In this line, Vladimir Nabokov compares old women leaning on their sticks to the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Here the comparison made between two contrasting things creates a hilarious effect. Analogy An analogy aims at explaining an unfamiliar idea or thing, by comparing it to something that is familiar. Example #4: The Noiseless Patient Spider (By Walt Whitman) These lines are from Walt Whitman's poem The Noiseless Patient Spider": "And you O my soul where you stand, Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space, Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing, seeking the spheres to connect them, Till the bridge you will need be form'd, till the ductile anchor hold, Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul." Walt Whitman uses an analogy to show similarity between a spider spinning a web and his soul. Example #5: Night Clouds (By Amy Lowell) These lines are from Night Clouds, written by Amy Lowell: "The white mares of the moon rush along the sky Beating their golden hoofs upon the glass Heavens." Amy constructs an analogy between clouds and mares. She compares the movement of the white clouds in the sky at night with the movement of white mares on the ground. Allegory An allegory uses symbols to compare persons or things, to represent abstract ideas or events. The comparison in allegory is implicit. Example #6: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that compares animals on a farm to the Communist Revolution in Russia before WW II. The actions of the animals on the farm can be compared with the greed and corruption after the revolution. The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution. For instance, "Pigs" can be compared to those who became the authority after the revolution;"Mr. Jones," the owner of the farm, is likened to the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; and "Boxer," the horse, stands for the laborer class. Example #7: Faerie Queen (By Edmund Spenser) Faerie Queen is an allegory by Edmund Spenser, in which the good characters of the book can be compared to the various virtues, while the bad characters can be compared to vices. For example, "The Red-Cross Knight" represents Holiness, and "Lady Una" Truth, Wisdom, and Goodness. Her parents symbolize the Human Race, and the "Dragon," which has imprisoned them, stands for Evil. Function of Comparison The above examples of comparison help us realize that, in general, writers utilize different kinds of comparison to link an unfamiliar or a new idea to common and familiar objects. It helps readers to comprehend a new idea, which may have been difficult for them to understand otherwise. The understanding of a new idea turns out to be simpler when viewed with a comparison to something that is familiar to them. In addition, by making use of various literary tools for comparison, writers increase their chances of catching the attention and interest of their readers, as comparisons help them identify what they are reading to their lives.

Conceit

Conceit is a figure of speech in which two vastly different objects are likened together with the help of similes or metaphors. Conceit develops a comparison which is exceedingly unlikely but is, nonetheless, intellectually imaginative. A comparison turns into a conceit when the writer tries to make us admit a similarity between two things of whose unlikeness we are strongly conscious. For this reason, conceits are often surprising. For example, it will not surprise us to hear someone saying, "You are a snail," or "You are as slow as a snail," as we understand that the similarity is drawn on a common quality of slowness. However, we will definitely be surprised to hear someone comparing "two lovers with the legs of a draftsman's compass." Thus, conceit examples have a surprising or shocking effect on the readers because they are novel comparisons, unlike the conventional comparisons made in similes and metaphors. Conceits in Everyday Life In everyday life, we can surprise and amuse others by using conceits like "Love is like an oil change," or "The broken heart is a damaged china pot." In these examples, the attempt to compare two noticeably unrelated objects makes the comparisons conceits. Conceits in real life may give complex ideas and emotions an air of simplicity, by comparing them to simple day-to-day objects, as in "My life is like a free online game, people seem to be playing with it." Examples of Conceit in Literature Let us analyze a few examples of conceit in literature: Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare makes use of a conceit in Act 3, Scene 5 of his play Romeo and Juliet. Here, Capulet comes to Juliet's room after Romeo has left. He finds her weeping and says: "Thou counterfeit'st a bark, a sea, a wind; For still thy eyes, which I may call the sea, Do ebb and flow with tears; the bark thy body is, Sailing in this salt flood; the winds, thy sighs; Who, raging with thy tears, and they with them, Without a sudden calm, will overset Thy tempest-tossed body." He compares Juliet to a boat in a storm. The comparison is an extended metaphor in which he compares her eyes to a sea, her tears to a storm, her sighs to the stormy winds, and her body to a boat in a storm. Example #2: A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning (By John Donne) The term conceit usually brings to mind certain examples from metaphysical poets of the 17th century. Of these, John Donne stands out as the best exponent of the use of metaphysical conceits. John Donne, in his poem A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning, says: "If they be two, they are two so As stiff Twin compasses are two; Thy soul, the fix'd foot, makes no show To move, but doth, if th' other do. And though it in the center sit, Yet, when the other far doth roam, It leans, and hearkens after it, And grows erect, as that comes home." This is one of Donne's most ingenious conceits. He compares his and his beloved's souls with the two legs of a drafting compass. He compares her soul to the fixed foot, and his to the other foot. He says the bodies of lovers may be separate like the two legs of a compass, but are always joined at the top that reminds us of the spiritual union of the two lovers. Example #3: The Flea (By John Donne) We find another striking example of conceit in John Donne's poem, The Flea: "Oh stay! three lives in one flea spare Where we almost, yea more than married are. This flea is you and I, and this Our marriage-bed and marriage-temple is..." In the above lines, the poet tells his darling that she has no reason to deny him sexually, as the flea has sucked blood from both of them, and their blood has mingled in its gut, so the flea has become their "marriage bed," though they are not married yet. Function of Conceit Because conceits make unusual and unlikely comparisons between two things, they allow readers to look at things in a new way. Similes and metaphors may explain things vibrantly, but they tend to become boring at times because of their predictable nature. Conceits, on the other hand, surprise and shock readers by making farfetched comparisons. Hence, conceit is used as a tool in literature to develop interest in readers.

Caesura

Everyone speaks, and everyone breathes while speaking. For instance, when you say, "Maria has taken a break," you take breath before further saying, "But Adam did not." Then again you take a little breath and say, "He fell on his ankle." Such pauses come from natural rhythm of your speech. Poetry also uses pauses in its lines. One such pause is known as "caesura," which is a rhythmical pause in a poetic line or a sentence. It often occurs in the middle of a line, or sometimes at the beginning and the end. At times, it occurs with punctuation; at other times it does not. Poets indicate such a pause with a parallel symbol thus: ||. Caesura can be medial (occurring in the middle of line), initial (occurring at the beginning of poetic line), or terminal (occurring at the end of a poetic line). Types of Caesura Caesural breaks, or caesura, are of two types in poetry: Feminine Caesura A feminine caesural pause occurs after a non-stressed and short syllable in a poetic line. This is softer and less abrupt than the masculine version. For instance: "I hear lake water lapping || with low sounds by the shore..." (The Lake Isle of Innisfree by William Butler Yeats) It has two subdivisions: Epic Caesura Lyric Caesura Masculine Caesura Masculine pause occurs after a long or accented syllable in a line. It creates a staccato effect in the poem, such as: "of reeds and stalk-crickets, || fiddling the dank air, lacing his boots with vines, || steering glazed beetles" (The Bounty by Derek Walcott) Short Examples of Caesura The headphone explodes, || breaking the mold Roses, roses! || Two bucks a bunch! They say The boys in the street, || ready to sell you. Lilac, || locust, || and roses, || perfuming East End, || West End, || wondrously blooming From mother earth. You're nobody! ||Are you? No, ||You are somebody, ||are you? My candle burns It may last till mid night; Oh but, ||my friends, ||and ah, || my foes- It gives me a shiny light. I saw a red cow, I assure you, ||anyhow, I'd again see that one! The day is dark and dreary; It's raining, ||and the clouds are not weary; Often in summer, || the wild bees turn tigers, || their wings gathering black in a hole Of a rotten tree. Tonight the moon rises In my window. || Its glazing light scattered around the room. From my balcony, || I see the stars Blistering in the river water much brighter. Love the rain, ||the seagull dives Love the rain, ||it will bring more rain. The rain, || falls in my backyard where I see it, Coming down slowly at different rates. I saw you, || she says- But whom she saw? ||-is it That right-handed schoolboy? Meow, || meow in my ears, A little cat follows me everywhere. We gather, || we shout, Then we gossip together on festivities. Examples of Caesura in Literature Example #1: The Winter Tales (William Shakespeare) It is for you we speak, || not for ourselves: You are abused || and by some putter-on That will be damn'd for't; || would I knew the villain, I would land-damn him. || Be she honour-flaw'd, I have three daughters; || the eldest is eleven This passage is an instance of feminine caesura, which occurs immediately after an unstressed syllable like "speak," the second syllable "bused," in abused, "him," and "ters" in word daughters. Example #2: Mother and Poet (By Elizabeth Barrett) Dead ! One of them shot by the sea in the east... What art can a woman be good at? || Oh, vain ! What art is she good at, || but hurting her breast With the milk-teeth of babes, || and a smile at the pain ? Ah boys, // how you hurt! || you were strong as you pressed, And I proud, || by that test. This poem presents a perfect example of masculine caesura. Look at the pauses occurring after stressed syllables including "at," "babes," "boys," "hurt," and "proud." You can see the first line uses initial caesura, at "Dead," followed by a pause at the beginning of line. Example #3: Eloisa to Abelard (By Alexander Pope) Alas, how chang'd! || what sudden horrors rise! A naked lover || bound and bleeding lies! Where, where was Eloise? || her voice, her hand, Her poniard, || had oppos'd the dire command. Barbarian, stay! || that bloody stroke restrain;... Death, || only death, can break the lasting chain; Pope has frequently used caesural pauses in his poems to bring depth. Mostly he has used masculine caesura happening in the middle of the lines. However, sometimes initial caesura occurs, such as in the sixth line, it comes after "Death." This variation clears the meaning of the text. Example #4: I'm Nobody! Who Are You? (By Emily Dickinson) I'm nobody! || Who are you? Are you nobody, too? Then there's a pair of us || - don't tell! They'd banish || - you know! Dickinson has used masculine caesural pauses in the middle of verses. These breaks create a staccato effect, an uneven rhythm in the flow of sound, conveying the depth of an idea. Example #5: Walking Wounded (By Vernon Scannell) The mud and leaves in the mauled lane smelled sweet, || like blood. || Birds had died or flown... Their heads were weighted down by last night's lead And eyes still drank the dark. || They trail the night Along the morning road. || Some limped on sticks; This couplet uses both caesura and enjambment. Enjambment appears in the first line. In the second, fourth, and fifth lines, the periods cause readers to pause for a while and create a caesura. Example #6: My Last Duchess (By My Last Duchess) E'en then would be some stooping; || and I choose Never to stoop. || Oh sir, she smiled, no doubt, Whene'er I passed her; || but who passed without Much the same smile? || This grew; || I gave commands Then all smiles stopped together. || There she stands As if alive. || Will't please you rise? || We'll meet The company below, || then... The caesuras in this example tell readers that the speaker is hiding something and stopping to think. Through these pauses, the Duke is trying to distract the attention of his readers from his own persona. Example #7: Ozymandias (By Percy Bysshe Shelley) Who said—"Two vast and trunkless legs of stone Stand in the desert ... || Near them, || on the sand ... My name is Ozymandias, || King of Kings; || Look on my Works, || ye Mighty, || and despair! Nothing beside remains. || Round the decay ... The poet has broken up all the lines rhythmically by using punctuation. The use of multiple caesuras serves to make lines more interesting. In the third and fourth lines, they emphasize the pride of Ozymandias' works, while the fourth line has used initial and medial caesuras. Function of Caesura A caesural break creates various effects, depending upon the way it is used. Sometimes it breaks the monotonous rhythm of a line and forces readers to focus on the meaning of the phrase preceding the caesura. In some other cases, it might create a dramatic or ominous effect. Normally, it happens in the middle of a sentence, or phrase in poetry. It also adds an emotional and theatrical touch to a line, and helps convey depth of the sentiments.

Fantasy

Fantasy is a form of literary genre in which a plot cannot occur in the real world. Its plot usually involves witchcraft or magic, taking place on an undiscovered planet of an unknown world. Its overall theme and setting involve a combination of technology, architecture, and language, which sometimes resemble European medieval ages. The most interesting thing about fantasies is that their plot involves witches, sorcerers, mythical and animal creatures talking like humans, and other things that never happen in real life. Types of Fantasy Modern Folktales Modern folktales are types of fantasy that narrators tell in a traditional tale accompanying some typical elements, such as strong conflict, little description of characters, fast-moving plot with a quick resolution, and sometimes magical elements and vague settings. However, these tales are popular, as authors throughout history have written them. Hans Christian Andersen has written several fairy tales of this category including: The Nightingale The Emperor's New Clothes Thumbelina The Ugly Duckling Animal Fantasy Animal fantasy tells tales about animals, behaving like human beings, speaking, experiencing emotions, and having the ability to reason. Nevertheless, animals in animal fantasies retain their various animal characteristics too. Often, such fantasies have simple plots, and constitute literary symbolism by presenting symbolic expression of human counterparts. Popular examples of animal fantasy include: The Wind in the Willows, by Kenneth Grahame Charlotte's Web, by E. B. White The Tale of Peter Rabbit, by Beatrix Potter Toy Fantasy In toy fantasy stories, narrators bring their beloved toys to life, and transform them into animated beings that can live, talk, think, breathe, love, and behave like human beings. You would see modern toy fantasies in picture book format. Examples include: Winnie the Pooh, by A. A. Milne The Adventures of Pinocchio, by Carlo Collodi Magical Fantasy In a magical fantasy, you see a character having magical powers, or a strange magical object becomes the subject of the narrative. Such fantasies include Charlie and Chocolate Factory, by Roald Dahl Sylvester and the Magic Pebble, by William Steig Alternative Worlds & Enchanted Journeys In these fantasies, you see leading character undertaking a journey to an alternative world, or a fantasy world. Though realistic tales also employ journeys, you would only see magical things happen in fantasy journeys. Examples include: Alice Adventures in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, by K. Rowling Gulliver's Travels, by Jonathan Swift Quest or Heroic Fantasy (High Fantasy) These fantasies involve adventures with a search, quest, and motif. While this quest could be a pursuit for a higher purpose, like justice and love, or for getting a reward like hidden treasure, or a magical power; the conflict of heroic fantasies focuses on struggle between evil and good. The protagonist struggles with internal weakness and temptations, such as you may observe in these stories: The Lord of the Rings trilogy / Hobbit, by J. R. R. Tolkien The Hero and the Crown, by Robin McKinley The Book of Three, by Lloyd Alexander. Mystery and Supernatural Fantasy One of the most common forms of supernatural fantasy is known as a "ghost story." Ghosts could be either helpful protectors, or fearsome adversaries. However, in a mystery, the solution is always a supernatural one, or through supernatural assistance such as witchcraft. Its best example is: The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, by Washington Irving Science Fiction Science fiction is a type of imaginative literature. It provides a mental picture of something that may happen on realistic scientific principles and facts. This fiction might portray, for instance, a world where young people are living on Mars. Hence, it is known as "futuristic fiction." It dramatizes the wonders of technology, and resembles heroic fantasy where magic is substituted with technology. You can find this type of imaginative fiction in these stories: Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley Rocket Ship Galileo, by Robert Heinlein The White Mountains, by John Christopher Cyberpunk is a sub-genre of science fiction. Function of Fantasy We all like fantasy stories, and grow up reading and listening to fantasies. These tales serve to fuel our imaginations, and satisfy our longings for adventure. Thus, fantasy directly relates to our deepest desires and dreams. That is why they are important for increasing power of imagination in growing minds, especially in children. In addition, exposing our minds to lots of romance and magic, the seeking for ideal heroes and beauty queens, adventure, and even deception, captures the attention and imagination of every age group. Also, fantasy has a distinguished writing style, with freedom of expression - the reason that authors can experiment and employ elements of narrative to strengthen their tales.

Feminine Rhyme

Feminine rhyme is an unstressed two syllable rhyme followed by another unstressed syllable rhyme. They are used between the stressed rhyme to create a rhythm. In other words, feminine rhyme is also a double rhyme. For example, in the rhyming words fashion and passion the first syllables are stressed rhyming while -'sion' sound similar and are unstressed. It always, or in most cases, uses a dactylic meter or stressed and unstressed metrical pattern. It is unclear why such a rhyming pattern has been named as feminine rhyme. Perhaps it is because the female voice is unstressed or unaccented and this unstressed rhyming pattern creates a mute rhythm. Examples of Feminine Rhyme from Literature Example #1 Desire by Philip Sydney "But yet in vain thou hast my ruin sought, In vain thou mad'st me to vain things aspire, In vain thou kindlist all thy smoky fire. For virtue hath this better lesson taught, Within myself to seek my only hire, Desiring naught but how to kill desire." The above stanza is the second part or sestet of Sydney's sonnet "Desire." Although the subject matter of the poem and the overall thematic strand is quite different from its rhyming pattern, sestet shows the use of feminine rhyme. All the final syllables of the last words of the lines are unstressed or unaccented. This is one of the best examples of a feminine rhyme. Just note the pattern of the rhyme scheme where "fire and aspire," "sought and taught," and "hire and desire" rhyme in such a way that the final unstressed syllable rhyme with the following words which are written in the same pattern. Example #2 London, 1802 by William Wordsworth "Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee: she is a fen Of stagnant waters: altar, sword, and pen, Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower, Have forfeited their ancient English dower Of inward happiness. We are selfish men; Oh! raise us up, return to us again; And give us manners, virtue, freedom, power." This extract is the first part of Wordsworth's sonnet "London, 1802." This is one of the best sonnets that open with an apostrophe, calling Milton to see the country at the time when the sonnet was written. Almost all the rhyming words in this part of the sonnet have the final syllables unstressed such as in "hour, bower, dower" and "power" and then in "fen, pen" and "men." Example #3 On a Certain Lady at Court by Alexander Pope "Not warp'd by passion, awed by rumour; Not grave through pride, nor gay through folly; An equal mixture of good-humour And sensible soft melancholy." There is a notion that feminine rhyme suits dismissive or humorous poetry or the poems where the theme is indifferent. The word "rumor" and "humor" and "folly" and "melancholy" have unstressed syllables at the end. Therefore, this is another good example of feminine rhyme pattern. Example #4 The Day of Wrath by Ambrose Bierce "Day of Satan's painful duty! Earth shall vanish, hot and sooty; So says Virtue, so says Beauty. Ah! what terror shall be shaping When the Judge the truth's undraping— Cats from every bag escaping! Now the trumpet's invocation Calls the dead to condemnation; All receive an invitation." The rhyming scheme of this poem by Bierce also shows perfect use of feminine rhyme. The words "duty, sooty" and "beauty" show the use of feminine rhyme scheme as the last syllables in all the three words are unstressed. The same is the case of the other two stanzas where the final words have last unstressed syllables such as in "invocation, condemnation" and "invitation." Example #5 Yankee Doodle Song "Yankee Doodle went to town A-riding on a pony He stuck a feather in his hat And called it macaroni Chorus: Yankee Doodle, keep it up Yankee Doodle Dandy Mind the music and the step and with the girls be handy!" These are the first two stanzas of the song. As you read the song or sing along, you will find the last rhyming words are feminine rhymes. They have the unstressed syllables in the ending such as in "pony" and "macaroni" and in "dandy" and "handy." Feminine Rhyme Meaning and Function The fundamental feature of the feminine rhyme scheme is to suppress the high-pitched voice of the first stressed syllables. This brings a new type of musical quality in the rhyming pattern that makes the person recite such poetry with full force but let the reader exhale slowly by the end of the line.

Figurative Language

Figurative language uses figures of speech to be more effective, persuasive, and impactful. Figures of speech such as metaphors, similes, and allusions go beyond the literal meanings of the words to give readers new insights. On the other hand, alliterations, imageries, or onomatopoeias are figurative devices that appeal to the senses of the readers. Figurative language can appear in multiple forms with the use of different literary and rhetorical devices. According to Merriam Webster's Encyclopedia, the definition of figurative language has five different forms: Understatement or Emphasis Relationship or Resemblance Figures of Sound Errors and Verbal Games Types of Figurative Language The term figurative language covers a wide range of literary devices and techniques, a few of which include: Simile Metaphor Personification Onomatopoeia Oxymoron Hyperbole Allusion Idiom Imagery Symbolism Alliteration Assonance Consonance Metonymy Synecdoche Irony Sarcasm Litotes Pun Anaphora Tautology Understatement Short Examples of Figurative Language Similes His friend is as black as coal. He has learned gymnastics, and is as agile as a monkey. When attacked in his home, he will fight like a caged tiger. Can you dance like a monkey? Even when he was told everything, he was acting like a donkey. Metaphor My friend is a Shakespeare when in English class. He was a roaring lion in anger, though now he is silent. They seem like jackals when running in fear. Kisses are roses in the spring. This world is a sea of anonymous faces. Images The house stood half-demolished and abandoned. He left with his haunted and spell-bound face. He did not like the odorless and colorless shape of water. His friend was looking at spooky glissando twangs. Zigzag fissures in the land made him look for snakes. Assonance The light on the site did not let him see the sight. He heard the sound of the fire, like wire striking the air. This artificial stream is going to flow to the downtown of the town. Please set the kite right. Might of the fright seems greater than the actual fear. Consonance He lets the pink ball fall with a tall man. They have not learned how to catch the cat. Get a seat with a treat in our local hall. Calling the cow an ox is like putting the cart before the horse. He saw the pink kite floating past the tall trees. Paradox He is dying with his untrustworthy belief. Sharply blunt razor cannot do anything to you. Kindly cruel treatment made him flabbergasted. Please, watch with closed eyes and you will see the heaven. Creatively dull person cannot do anything in his life. Metonymy The Pentagon is located in Washington in the United States. The Hollywood is a home of English movies. 10 Downing Street is located in London. Buckingham Palace is world's oldest symbol of democracy. The White House. Synecdoche He does not know how to behave with the special people. He is looking at his own grey hair and his agility. They saw a fleet of fifty. At this time, he owns nine head of cattle. The new generation is addicted to the use of plastic money. Examples of Figurative Language from Literature Example #1: The Base Stealer (By Robert Francis) Simile Poised between going on and back, pulled Both ways taut like a tight-rope walker, Now bouncing tiptoe like a dropped ball, Or a kid skipping rope, come on, come on! ... Taunts them, hovers like an ecstatic bird, He's only flirting, crowd him, crowd him, The similes and word choice of this poem makes it a masterpiece. The poet use similes between the lines to depict his scattered thoughts before taking action, and makes comparison as, "like a tight-rope," "like a dropped ball," and "hovers like an ecstatic bird." Example #2: I Know Why the Cage Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou) Metaphor But a BIRD that stalks down his narrow cage Can seldom see through his bars of rage His wings are clipped and his feet are tied The caged bird sings with a fearful trill ... And his tune is heard on the distant hill for The caged bird sings of freedom. The entire poem is rich with metaphor as a bird in a cage represents a group of people who are oppressed and cannot get freedom. The cage represents physical barriers, fear, addiction, or society; while the song of the bird represents true self yearning for something greater in life. Example #3: She Sweeps with Many-Colored Brooms (By Emily Dickinson) Personification She sweeps with many-colored Brooms And leaves the Shreds behind Oh Housewife in the Evening West Come back, and dust the Pond! Dickinson uses personification of a housewife to describe the sunset in the very first line of this poem. She is using a sweeping housewife who does her daily work, likewise the rays of the setting sun sweep away beneath the horizon. Example #4: The Raven (By Edgar Allen Poe) Alliteration Once upon a midnight dreary while I pondered weak and weary; rare and radiant maiden; And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain ... Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before. Poe uses alliteration by repeating the /w/ sound to emphasize the weariness of the narrator, and then /r/ and /s/ sounds in the second and third lines respectively. In the last two lines, the /d/ sound highlights the narrator's hopelessness. Example #5: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge) Symbolism Ah ! well a-day ! what evil looks Had I from old and young ! Instead of the cross, the Albatross About my neck was hung. In these lines, the albatross symbolizes a big mistake, or a burden of sin, just like the cross on which Christ was crucified. Therefore, all people on the ship agreed to slay that bird. Example #6: The Bluest Eyes (By Toni Morrison) Personification, Consonance, and Simile She ran down the street, the green knee socks making her legs look like wild dandelion of stems that had somehow lost their heads. The weight of her remark stunned us. This excerpt uses different devices that make language figurative. There is a good use of simile, "legs look like wild dandelion;" and personification, "lost their heads;" and use of consonance in "stunned us," where the /s/ is a consonant sound. Example #7: The Week of Diana (By Maya Angelou) Metaphor, Consonance, Personification "The dark lantern of world sadness has cast its shadow upon the land. We stumble into our misery on leaden feet." In just these two lines, Maya Angelou has used a metaphor of the dark lantern, consonance of the /s/ sounds, and personification of misery. Example #8: The Negro Speaks of River (By Langston Hughes) Consonance, Simile "I've known rivers: I've known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human veins. My soul has grown deep like the rivers." This prince of the Harlem Renaissance has beautifully used a different type of consonance with the /l/ sound and a simile of "my soul." Example #9: Musée des Beaux Arts (By W. H. Auden) Personification, Consonance That even the dreadful martyrdom must run its course Anyhow in a corner, some untidy spot Where the dogs go on with their doggy W. H. Auden life and the torturer's horse Scratches its innocent behind on a tree. W. H. Auden has used a personification of the "dreadful martyrdom," and consonances of "some untidy spot," with the /s/ sound, and "dogs go on with their doggy life," with the /d/ and /g/ sounds. Function of Figurative Language The primary function of figurative language is to force readers to imagine what a writer wants to express. Figurative language is not meant to convey literal meanings, and often it compares one concept with another in order to make the first concept easier to understand. However, it links the two ideas or concepts with the goal of influencing the audience to understand the link, even if it does not exist. Poets and prose writers use this technique to bring out emotions and help their readers form images in their minds. Thus, figurative language is a useful way of conveying an idea that readers cannot understand otherwise, due to its complex and abstract nature. In addition, it helps in analyzing a literary text.

Flash-Forward

Flash-forward, or "prolepsis," is a literary device in which the plot goes ahead of time; meaning a scene that interrupts and takes the narrative forward in time from the current time in the story. Generally, a flash-forward represents expected or imagined events in the future, interjected into the main plot, revealing important information to the story that has yet to be brought to light. It is the opposite of a flashback, or "analepsis," which reveals past events. Difference Between Flash-Forward and Foreshadowing Flash-forward is similar to foreshadowing. However, foreshadowing hints at the possible outcome in the future, without any interruption. Instead, it uses events or character dialogue in the current time. It may also be present in the titles of narratives or chapters. Flash-forward, on the other hand, is an interjected scene in a narrative, which takes the narrative forward in time. The events presented in a flash-forward are bound to happen in the story. Foreshadowing predicts the future events, but the events do not necessarily take place in the future. Examples of Flash-Forward in Literature Flash-forward is essentially a postmodern narrative device, but there are a few flash-forward examples in early literature. Let us look at some famous examples of flash-forward in literature below: Example #1: A Christmas Carol (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol depicts the character Scrooge in a flash-forward scene. The tightfisted and ill-tempered Scrooge is visited by the "Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come," who shows him his future. Scrooge sees himself dead, and people finding comfort and happiness in his death. No one mourns his death, and the people he ruined in his life steal his wealth. Scrooge sees Mrs. Dilber, his housekeeper, selling his property to junkmen and friends. The only ones touched by his death are a young, poor couple. His only legacy is a cheap tombstone in a graveyard. He weeps on his own grave, and asks the third ghost of Christmas to give him a chance to change himself. He wakes up and finds that he is back on Christmas morning of the present. Scrooge repents, and becomes kind and generous. Example #2: Isabella (By John Keats) "So the two brothers and their murder'd man Rode past fair Florence ..." These lines show a future event as if it has already happened. Lorenzo, who is called their murdered man, takes the character to a time in the future when the two brothers of his beloved Isabella will assassinate him. Example #3: The Dead Zone (By Stephen King) In Stephen King's novel The Dead Zone, the hero receives a special power of predicting the future after a car crash. Through physical contact, he sees the future of a person. After some time, he feels cursed with the gift. Like when he shakes hands with a politician and flash-forwards to the future, seeing a nuclear war. He says: "If you knew Hitler was going to do what he did to the Jews, would you kill him before he had the chance?" At this moment, the hero suffers from a moral conflict between what he knows about the future, and what he might do to save people. Example #4: The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (By Muriel Spark) The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, by Muriel Spark, makes extensive use of the narrative technique of flash-forward. The story takes place at Marcia Blaine School, where six girls are handed over to Miss Brodie. In the very beginning of the novel, Spark tells us that Miss Brodie is betrayed. He then gradually reveals the betrayer and, finally, reveals all the details related to the event. Similarly, he introduces Joyce Emily, as the rejected girl from the "Brodie set," and later tells readers the reasons. Function of Flash-Forward Flash-forward enables a writer to give logical explanations to the actions of the characters in a narrative. The character's actions make more sense to the readers after having developed a greater understanding of the character and the his or her personality. Moreover, flash-forward grabs the readers' interest in the current events of the narrative, to see how the story develops towards the future that has already been shown to them.

Flashback

Flashback Definition Merriam Webster defines the word flashback as "an interruption of the chronological sequence (as of a film or literary work) of an event of earlier occurrence." Flashbacks are interruptions that writers do to insert past events, in order to provide background or context to the current events of a narrative. By using flashbacks, writers allow their readers to gain insight into a character's motivations, and provide a background to a current conflict. Dream sequences and memories are methods used to present flashbacks. When I went out of the drawing room, the first thing that came into view in the open corridor was the picture of my brother. [I just got the point why my mother used to see that portrait hours after he was killed in WWII, and she left only when she saw any one of us coming to her.] I just heard steps, and when I looked back, there was nothing that I could see. It was just a feeling of the past. The sentence enclosed in brackets is a flashback. It has interrupted the current event in the form of a sudden thought, giving us an insight into the past of the narrator. Examples of Flashback in Literature Example #1: The Holy Bible (By Various Contributors) The Bible is a good source of flashback examples. In the Book of Matthew, we see a flashback has been used when Joseph, governor of Egypt, sees his brothers after several years. Joseph "remembered his dreams" about his brothers, and how they sold him into slavery in the past. Example #2: Death of a Salesman (By Arthur Miller) Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman uses flashback to narrate Willy Loman's memories of the past. At one moment, Willy talks with his dead brother while playing cards with Charley. He relives a past conversation in the present. This demonstrates a character that is physically living in the present, but mentally living in the memories and events of the past. Example #3: The Cruel Mother (By Anonymous) Another example of flashback is the ballad of The Cruel Mother, in which a mother remembers her murdered child. While going to church, she remembers her child's birth, growing up, and death. Later, she thinks back further to a distant time in her past to remember how her own mother was ruthless to her. Example #4: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) Emily Bronte's famous novel Wuthering Heights starts off with Cathy, one of the main characters, dead. Mr. Lockwood sees Cathy's name written all over the windowsill, and then has a vexing dream about her. When he talks about the dream to Heathcliff, Heathcliff becomes distressed, and Mr. Lockwood wants to know why the mention of Cathy upsets him. The flashbacks are means to bring Cathy back to life, so Mr. Lockwood has a better perception of why Heathcliff was so upset. The flashbacks show the development of the love that Heathcliff and Cathy had for each other, and how their poor decisions separated them. It would not have the same effect, if Ellen had only told Mr. Lockwood that Cathy was a person that Heathcliff loved and that she died. Example #5: Birches (By Robert Frost) Robert Frost, in his poem Birches, employs flashback. In this poem, a character sees swaying birch trees and says: "So was I once myself a swinger of birches. And so I dream of going back to be." He goes back to the days of his childhood, and then returns to the present and says: "I'd like to get away from earth awhile, and then come back to it and begin over." The narrator remembers and desires for the freedom and joy he experienced as a child, swinging on birch trees, and wishes to return to that moment of his childhood. Function of Flashback The use of a flashback is to convey to the readers information regarding the character's background, and give them an idea of the character's motives for doing certain things later in the story. Therefore, a flashback in the story deepens inner conflict. It provides stimulus for the conflict, deepens the touching effects, and allows the reader to sympathize even with the villain. Another function of flashbacks in a narrative is to increase tension. A mere mention of a past event makes readers wish to know the secrets. So, he reads on to find out what the secret is, and how terrible it is that it provides the motivation for the conflict in the story. Often, the function of flashback in poetry is to convey an idea of the happiness that the poet enjoyed in the past, but presently does not enjoy those pleasures. Poets use flashback to contrast a character's unhappy circumstances in the present to the happy days of his past.

Frame Story

Frame story is a story set within a story, narrative, or movie, told by the main or the supporting character. A character starts telling a story to other characters, or he sits down to write a story, telling the details to the audience. This technique is also called a "frame narrative," and is a very popular form of literary technique employed in storytelling and narration. Frame story usually is found in novels, plays, poems, television, films, musicals, and opera. It is a unifying tale within which one or more related stories appear. For instance, in Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus tells about his wandering experience in the court of King Alcinous, or his visit to the island of a sorcerer. Examples of Frame Story in Literature Example #1: Frankenstein (by Marry Shelley) There are several examples of this technique used by Marry Shelley in her novel, Frankenstein. She has given multiple framed stories in this novel. For example, Robert Walton describes a story - told by Frankenstein, - in his letters that he writes to his sister. Frankenstein's story contains the tale of a creature, and the creature's story briefly contains the story of the family with which he has been living. Example #2: Inception (by Christopher Nolan) In the film, Inception, Leonardo DiCaprio enters into a dream of Cillian Murphy to embed an idea into his subconscious. Leonardo puts him to sleep in a dream, following him to a second layer of dream that soon gives way to another dream. In the innermost dream, Leonardo is blown out and enters into an endless dream - "limbo" - which could last for eternity, but only a few seconds pass in a real world. Leonardo, eventually wakes up through layers of dreams, feeling as though years have passed away, returning to his waking life. Example #3: Titanic (by James Cameron) In the movie, Titanic, an elderly woman Rose begins the movie by telling a story of her voyage in the Atlantic Ocean. When the reader gets into her narrative, he finds himself in the year 1912, where the story begins. Only a few times do readers return to the elderly Rose to get in touch with her experience; however, the movie ends as it begins. This is called framing technique in which the writer tells a story within a story. Example #4: The Canterbury Tales (by Geoffrey Chaucer) In Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer has used frame narrative, bringing different characters, each of whom tells a story. This pilgrimage frame story brings together a number of storytellers, who appear with vivid personality traits, and build up dramatic relationships with one another and with the tales they tell. General Prologue is the section of this poem that deals with frame narrative. Example #5: (Wuthering Heights (by Emily Bronte) Wuthering Heights, like Frankenstein, also has frame stories. Emily Bronte introduces Mr. Lockwood as the first narrator, who depicts his visit to the Wuthering Heights, and the narration switches to the perspective of Mr. Dean, who describes the estate's history. Readers are introduced to all the major characters. This switching in narration is very helpful, as it connects the present with the past. Mr. Lockwood tries to find out what could have happened in the past that made the current dwellers of the estate depressed and stubborn. Mrs. Dean, however, provides information about the past, which caused the characters to transform in this way. Example #6: Heart of Darkness (by Joseph Conrad) In Conrad's novel, Heart of Darkness, there are two narrators: (1) the anonymous passenger traveling on a pleasure ship, listening to the story of Marlowe; and (2) Marlowe himself. The first narrator, on the behalf of four other passengers, uses the first person plural. Marlowe, on the other hand, narrates his story in first person, describing whatever he has seen and experienced. This provides a commentary on the entire story, acting as a frame story. Function of Frame Story This literary technique uses embedded narratives, which provide readers with a context about the main narrative. Frame story leads the readers from the first story to the other one. This is a sort of guidance, which establishes the context for an embedded narrative, helping the writer to create a context for interpreting a narrative. It also offers multiple perspectives to the readers within a story, as well as about the story. These multiple perspectives give the readers more information about the characters regarding their feelings, thoughts, and motivations.

Homophone

A homophone can be defined as a word that, when pronounced, seems similar to another word, but has a different spelling and meaning. For example, the words "bear" and "bare" are similar in pronunciation, but are different in spelling as well as in meaning. Sometimes the words may have the same spelling, such as "rose," the past tense of rise, and "rose," the flower. Mostly, however, they are spelled differently, such as: carrot caret carat In literature, homophones are used extensively in poetry and prose to make rhythmic effects, and to put emphasis on something. They are also used to create a multiplicity of meanings in a written piece. Types of Homophone There are five different types of homophone: Homograph - Some homophones are similar in spelling, but different in meanings. They are called homographs. For instance, "hail" meaning an ice storm, and "hail" meaning something that occurs in large numbers, such as "a hail of bullets." Homonym - Some words have the same pronunciation but different meanings. These are called homonyms. For instance, "cite," "sight," and "site." Heterograph - Homophones that have different spellings but are pronounced in the same way are called heterographs. For instance, "write" and "right." Oronym - Homophones that have multiple words or phrases, having similar sounds, are called oronyms. For instance, "ice cream" and "I scream." Pseudo-homophone - Homophones that are identical phonetically are called pseudo-homophones. In this type of homophone, one of the pair of words is not a real word, such as "groan" and "grone." Examples of Homophone in Literature Example #1: Where Truth's Wind Blew (By Venicebard) "Sole owner am I of this sorry soul ... pour out corruption's slag from every pore — whole slates scrape clean! they leave no gaping hole. Role that I've played, loose grip! while back I roll, or dodge each wave, or with firm grip on oar bore through this sea, snout down, just like the boar ..." This poem is filled with examples of homophone, which are marked in bold. They create a humorous effect in the poem through their same pronunciations but altogether different meanings. Example #2: A Hymn to God the Father (By John Donne) "When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more. That at my death Thy Son Shall shine as he shines now, and heretofore And having done that, Thou hast done; I fear no more." John Done has used the name of his wife Anne and his own name Donne as homophones. In addition, he makes use of the word "son" instead of "sun," to refer to Christ. They are also homophones. Example #3: The Importance of Being Earnest (By Oscar Wilde) "On the contrary, Aunt Augusta, I've now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest ..." "I always told you, Gwendolen, my name was Ernest, didn't I? Well, it is Ernest after all. I mean it naturally is Ernest. " In these excerpts, Oscar Wilde used the word earnest as a homophone. Here, Jack Earnest is talking to his Aunt Augusta and mocks his family. Jack finds out that his father's name makes him really earnest. Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) MERCUTIO: "Nay, gentle Romeo, we must have you dance." ROMEO: "Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes. With nimble soles; I have a soul of lead. So stakes me to the ground I cannot move ..." Some of Shakespeare's famous literary pieces are rich with homophone examples. One of which is the above excerpt where he uses the words "sole" and "soul" as homophones. Romeo talks about soles of his shoes, and the soul of his heart, which is heavy with sorrow. Example #5: Richard III (By William Shakespeare) "Now is the winter of our discontent ... made glorious summer by this Son of York." Here, Shakespeare uses two words similar in pronunciation, "sun" and "son," which are homophones. The Duke of York has a son named Edward, who is also taken as a sun whose rising power would create trouble for Richard. Function of Homophone The purpose of homophones in literature is to create humorous effect by using words that have two or more meanings. In everyday life, these words are employed intentionally in witty remarks. In addition, these give meaning to a literary piece of work, and writers reveal the ingenuity of their characters through the use of homophones.

Hypothetical Question

A hypothetical question is based on supposition, opinion, personal belief, or conjecture, and not facts. It is not based on reality. It mostly deals with actions and scenarios that might happen, or something that might not have happened as yet, but which could happen. This sort of a question usually requires the questioner to arrange imaginary parameters for the things he supposes. Common Use of Hypothetical Question What would you do if you are given 24 hours to live? If you were a robot, what would you want to do? If you are offered 3 wishes, what would they be? Difference between Hypothetical and Rhetorical Question The difference between hypothetical and rhetorical questions is that a rhetorical question presupposes a correct answer, of which readers are aware. However, a hypothetical question poses an imagined and assumption-based question, not based in fact, and hence the answer could be different from what readers expect. Examples of Hypothetical Question in Literature Example #1: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift) "The number of souls in this kingdom being usually reckoned one million and a half, of these I calculate there may be about two hundred thousand couple whose wives are breeders; from which number I subtract thirty thousand couple, who are able to maintain their own children... There only remain an hundred and twenty thousand children of poor parents annually born: The question therefore is, How this number shall be reared, and provided for, which, as I have already said, under the present Situation of Affairs, is utterly impossible by all the methods hitherto proposed ..." In this passage, Swift is estimating the number of people, and THE number of couples who can manage their children. Then he asks a hypothetical question based on his own opinions and assumption. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) CLAUDIUS: And now, Laertes, what's the news with you? You told us of some suit. What is 't, Laertes? You cannot speak of reason to the Dane And lose your voice. What wouldst thou beg, Laertes, That shall not be my offer, not thy asking? The head is not more native to the heart, The hand more instrumental to the mouth, Than is the throne of Denmark to thy father. What wouldst thou have, Laertes? Here, Claudius asks Laertes what favor he wants from him. Claudius hypothetically asks Laertes how he can waste time of his king by asking something he cannot give him. Example #3: Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) FAUSTUS: My heart is harden'd, I cannot repent... Have not I made blind Homer sing to me Of Alexander's love and Oenon's death? And hath not he, that built the walls of Thebes With ravishing sound of his melodious harp, Made music with my Mephistophilis? Why should I die, then, or basely despair? I am resolv'd; Faustus shall not repent... Speak, are there many spheres above the moon? Are all celestial bodies but one globe, As is the substance of this centric earth? In these lines, Faustus is posing hypothetical questions from two angles. First, he tries to convince himself that he has not done any wrong, and second that various others have done the same thing earlier. Therefore, he is not different. Example #4: Waiting for Godot (By Samuel Beckett) ESTRAGON: (very insidious). But what Saturday? And is it Saturday? Is it not rather Sunday? (Pause.) Or Monday? (Pause.) Or Friday? VLADIMIR: (looking wildly about him, as though the date was inscribed in the landscape). It's not possible! ESTRAGON: Or Thursday? VLADIMIR: What'll we do? ESTRAGON: If he came yesterday and we weren't here you may be sure he won't come again today. VLADIMIR: But you say we were here yesterday. In this example, Estragon and Vladimir pose questions to one another, which are based merely on assumptions. Both are asking and giving generalized answers without knowing the facts or truths. Function of Hypothetical Question Hypothetical question is frequently used in literature, communication, job interviews, public rhetoric, and daily conversation, to let readers know the assumed answers and supposed point of views of the writer or speaker, and to give his own opinion. In public speeches, speakers might have some hidden motives for such questions. The major function of a hypothetical question is to elicit opinions from readers.

Kenning

A kenning, which is derived from Norse and Anglo-Saxon poetry, is a stylistic device defined as a two-word phrase that describes an object through metaphors. A Kenning poem is also defined a riddle that consists of a few lines of kennings, which describe someone or something in confusing detail. It is also described as a "compressed metaphor," which means meanings illustrated in a few words. For example, a two-word phrase "whale-road" represents the sea. Characteristics of Kenning A literary piece may be considered as a kenning example if it possesses the following defining characteristics: It is used to describe an object in detail. The two parts of a compound word represent a relationship between subjects and objects, which creates associations in an abstract and concise way. It is also called a compressed metaphor. Examples of Kenning in Literature Example #1: The Seafarer (By Ezra Pound) "May I for my own self song's truth reckon, Journey's jargon, how I in harsh days Hardship endured oft. Bitter breast-cares have I abided, Known on my keel many a care's hold, And dire sea-surge, and there I oft spent. That he on dry land loveliest liveth, List how I, care-wretched, on ice-cold sea, Deprived of my kinsmen; Over the whale's acre, would wander wide Eager and ready, the crying lone-flyer, Whets for the whale-path the heart irresistibly." The Seafarer is one of the best examples of kenning poems. Here, "whale-path," "whale-road," and "whale's acre" refer to the ocean. "Breast-hoard" refers to the heart. Example #2: Bone Dreams (By Seamus Heaney) "... and its yellowing, ribbed impression in the grass — ¬a small ship-burial. As dead as stone, flint-find, nugget of chalk, I touch it again, I wind it in the sling of mind to pitch it at England and follow its drop to strange fields ... Bone-house: a skeleton in the tongue's old dungeons ..." This poem is also a very good example of kenning. Here, the words which are used as metaphors are "ship-burial," "flint-find," and "bone-house." The two-word phrases give descriptions of objects in an alternative way. Though complex, kennings can make a poem more enjoyable. Example #3: The Oven Bird (By Robert Frost) "There is a singer everyone has heard, Loud, a mid-summer and a mid-wood bird, Who makes the solid tree trunks sound again. He says that leaves are old and that for flowers Mid-summer is to spring as one to ten. He says the early petal-fall is past When pear and cherry bloom went down in showers On sunny days a moment overcast..." In the given example, Frost has also employed kenning. For instance, "mid-wood" refers to a bird. And the second obvious kenning is "petal-fall," which represents autumn or the fall season. Example #4: North (By Seamus Heaney) "I returned to a long strand Were ocean-deafened voices warning me, lifted again in violence and epiphany... was buoyant with hindsight— it said Thor's hammer swung to geography and trade, thick-witted couplings and revenges, the hatreds and behind-backs of the althing, lies and women, exhaustions nominated peace... It said, 'Lie down in the word-hoard, burrow the coil and gleam of your furrowed brain..." Here again, Heaney has utilized kenning. The two word phrases include: "ocean-deafened," which refers to inaudible and warning voices, and other metaphors such as "thick-witted" and "word-hoard," for erudition and books respectively. Example #5: The Dream of the Rodd (By Caedmon and Cynewulf) "Listen, I will tell the best of visions, what came to me in the middle of the night, when voice-bearers dwelled in rest. It seemed to me that I saw a more wonderful tree... That beacon was entirely ... likewise there were five upon the cross-beam. All those fair through creation. Wondrous was the victory-tree, and I stained with sins, wounded with guilts..." This is an example of kenning from an old Anglo-Saxon poem. Here, the phrases "voice-bearer," "cross-beam," and "victory-tree" serve as metaphors. These help in describing an object's detail by employing compound words. Function of Kenning Kenning is used as a poetic device, and its function in poetry is to describe something in alternative ways, in order to provide a richer and different meaning. Kenning is related to dialects as well, wherein it works as a showcase example of regional or local dialect. Also, metaphorical usage of kenning makes the poetic language more vibrant, and increases thought-provoking vocabulary. Hence, it tends to keep readers engaged.

Line Break

A line break is a poetic device that is used at the end of a line, and the beginning of the next line in a poem. It can be employed without traditional punctuation. Also, it can be described as a point wherein a line is divided into two halves. Sometimes, a line break that occurs at mid-clause creates enjambment. Examples of Line Break in Literature Example #1: Cymbeline (By William Shakespeare) "With his own sword, Which he did wave against my throat, I have ta'en His head from him I am absolute Twas very Cloten" There are two line break examples in the given passage. One line break cuts the line, "I have ta'en his head from him" in the middle, placing the line break at the end of the second line. Another line break is used in the fourth line, "I" being a person has an absolute meaning. These line breaks are determining the visual shape of this text. Example #2: Ulysses (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "Match'd with an aged wife, I mete and dole Unequal laws unto a savage race, That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me. I cannot rest from travel: I will drink Life to the lees: All times I have enjoy'd Greatly, have suffer'd greatly, both with those That loved me, and alone, on shore, and when Vext the dim sea: I am become a name Much have I seen and known; cities of men And manners, climates, councils, governments..." There are many line breaks within this excerpt. First, a line break cuts the phrase, "I mete and dole unequal laws unto a savage race," into two at the end of the first line. Similarly, a break occurs in other lines like "I will drink life to lees," "All times I have enjoyed greatly, have suffer'd greatly," and "I am become a name." Example #3: Ode to a Nightingale (By John Keats) "My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, Or emptied some dull opiate to the drain ... That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees In some melodious plot... Of beechen green, and shadows numberless, Singest of summer in full-throated ease." In this excerpt, Keats has employed line breaks to create different types of artistic effect. The line also forces readers to take a slight break, which in turn reinforces the disclosure of the following lines. Example #4: The Second Coming (By William Butler Yeats) "Turning and turning in the widening gyre The falcon cannot hear the falconer; Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere The ceremony of innocence is drowned; The best lack all conviction, while the worst Are full of passionate intensity ... The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out And what rough beast, its hour come round at last ..." This excerpt is also filled with several line breaks. These include "the center cannot hold," "and everywhere the ceremony of innocence is drowned..." The poet takes readers into surprising and multiple ideas. Example #5: Ozymandias (By Percy Bysshe Shelley) "Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown, And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command, Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair! Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare The lone and level sands stretch far away." This excerpt is also a good example of line break. These line breaks give vitality to the poem, also creating breaks in the flow of reading. Function of Line Break Line breaks can be a source of dynamism in poetry, as they provide a manner whereby poetic forms inculcate contents with strength and consequential meanings - which might not be possible in other types of text in the same level. Line breaks are used as important poetic devices, because they often bring ambiguity and also affect the meaning. However, they lead readers into surprising ideas and different understandings, as well as controlling the manner wherein they come upon ideas.

Maxim

A literary device, maxim is a simple and memorable line, quote, or rule for taking action and leading a good life. Simply put, it is a thought with moralistic values that intends to motivate individuals. Maxim is, in fact, a type of saying, or a brief statement of a great thought about life, especially a sententious or aphoristic one such as, "He who hesitates is lost." It helps in characterizing characters. Everyday Examples of Maxim It's better to be safe than sorry. You're never too old to learn. Opposites attract. You can't teach an old dog new tricks. Nothing ventured, nothing gained. One man's meat is another man's poison. We promise according to our hopes, and perform according to our fears. It is easier to be wise for others than for ourselves. Examples of Maxim in Literature Example #1: Various Works (By Francis Bacon) Of Truth "A mixture of lie doth ever add pleasure." Of Marriage and Single Life "He that hath wife and children hath given hostages to fortune ... Unmarried men are best friends, best masters, best servants but not always best subjects." Of Friendship "For a crowd is not company and faces are but a gallery of pictures." Francis Bacon has been very famous for compact, aphoristic, and concise sayings as given above. All of these sayings have deep thought and ideas. Example #2: Essay on Criticism (By Alexander Pope) "A fool might once himself alone expose, Now One in Verse makes many more in Prose ... A little learning is a dangerous thing; Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian Spring." These heroic couplets are rich with words of wisdom. Pope delineates very common faults of poets, and suggests that, despite harmful effects of negative criticism, literature needs it. Example #3: Anna Karenina (By Leo Tolstoy) "All happy families are alike; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." These are the opening lines of Tolstoy's novel, Anna Karenina. The idea behind this maxim is that families fail in many ways; however, they can be happy by avoiding negative possibilities and it's their choice to do this. Example #4: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) "Four legs good, two legs bad." "All Animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others." These two phrases present a tool for propagating ideology in the novel, in how the elite class uses language against the lower class. It also connotes a totalitarian mindset and points toward the corruption on Animal Farm, because the pigs see themselves as privileged, under their totalitarian command, and working animals only exist to serve their leadership. Example #5: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) "Above all: to thine own self me true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man." Polonius gives a life lesson to Laertes by using maxim. He teaches how to be true to himself and to others. The purpose of making this statement is for his own benefit, in order to sound intelligent to his son. Example #6: Romeo & Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "Wisely and slow. They stumble that run fast ..." The speaker suggests that it is wise to not be in hurry. Rather, one should look where he is going, otherwise he might fall flat. Example #7: Mending Wall (By Robert Frost) "He will not go behind his father's saying, And he likes having thought of it so well... Good fences make good neighbors." This statement carries a moral code that serves to characterize a relationship history of two neighbors or two men, who are brought together every spring by re-building the wall. Example #8: Maxims (By La Rochefoucauld) "The world more often rewards the appearance of merit than merit itself." "It is a great ability to be able to conceal one's ability." "We like to judge others, but we do not like to be judged ourselves." La Rochefoucauld has written many books on maxims and proverbs. These are some of the more popular maxims from his book. Function of Maxim To qualify as a maxim, a statement must contain a truth that is revealed in a terse way. Writers, politicians, philosophers, artists, sportsmen, and individuals use such sentences in their respective fields. These maxims bring a pinch of wit, making statements more appealing to the audience. It is also that these adages, proverbs, clichés, and maxims are different types of aphoristic sayings that become relevant to many people and situations, turning into everyday sayings with the passage of time.

Prosody

A literary technique, prosody is the study of meter, intonation, and rhythm of a poetic work. It is a phonetic term that uses meter, rhythm, tempo, pitch, and loudness in a speech for conveying information about the meanings and structure of an utterance. In addition, prosody is an important element of language that contributes toward rhythmic and acoustic effects in a piece of writing. It includes different elements, such as scansion, sound, pace, and meaning. Types of Prosody There are four distinguishable prosodic metrical patterns, which are: Syllabic Prosody - Syllabic prosody counts a fixed number of syllables in each line, while accent, tone, and quantity play a secondary role. Accentual Prosody - Accentual prosody measures only the accents or stresses in a line of verse, while the overall number of syllables may vary in a line. It is very common in Germanic, old English, and modern English verses. Accentual-syllabic Prosody - Accentual-syllabic prosody counts both the number of syllables and accents in each line. We commonly find it in English poetry. Quantitative Prosody - Quantitative prosody does not measure the number of syllables, rather depending upon duration of syllables. This can be determined by the amount of time used on pronunciation, such as a free-verse poem that consists of unmeasured lines. We find this type of prosody in Roman and classical Greek poetry, and only very rarely in English poetry. Examples of Prosody in Literature Example #1: In My Craft or Sullen Art (By Dylan Thomas) "In my craft or sullen art Exercised in the still night When only the moon rages And the lovers lie abed With all their griefs in their arms, I labour by singing light ... But for the common wages of their most secret heart." This extract is an example of syllabic verse, which contains constrained or a fixed number of syllables. Here, in this poem each line consists of seven syllables, except the final line. However, it does not follow a consistent stressed pattern. Example #2: what if a much of a which of a wind (By E. E. Cummings) "what if a much of a which of a wind gives the truth to summer's lie; bloodies with dizzying leaves the sun and yanks immortal stars awry? Blow king to beggar and queen to seem (blow friend to fiend: blow space to time) —when skies are hanged and oceans drowned, the single secret will still be man..." This poem is presenting a good example of accentual verse, in which the number of stressed syllables remains constant at four. They are underlined above, but the total number of syllables in each line does not remain constant and changes from seven to ten. Example #3: To My Dear and Loving Husband (By Anne Bradstreet) "If ever two were one, then surely we. If ever man were loved by wife, then thee; If ever wife was happy in a man, Compare with me, ye women, if you can. I prize thy love more than whole mines of gold ..." This poem is a perfect example of accentual-syllabic verse, which focuses on both the number of syllables, and the number of accents in each poetic line. This iambic pentameter poem is one of the best examples of accented syllabic verse, as it contains five iambs in each line, and follows a strictly measured syllabic pattern. Example #4: Aeneid (By Virgil) "Arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris..." This opening line of Virgil's Aeneid is a classic model of quantitative prosody. Look at the stress pattern which is irregular. As this type of prosody does not have measured syllables, it measures the meter according to duration of time to pronounce a line. Function of Prosody Prosody has multiple functions in literature. For example, poets incorporate it in matters like syntactic phrasing, word segmentation, sentence, accentuation, stress, and phonological distinctions. Generally, authors use it to produce rhythmic and acoustic effects in poetry as well as prose. However, it has expressive and pragmatic functions, because a certain sentence in a given perspective expresses more than just its linguistic meanings. An expressive content could be an identity of a speaker, his mood, age, sex, and other extra-linguistic features. Pragmatic function of prosody encompasses the attitude of speaker and listener, and provides relationship between a speaker and his or her discourse. It also reflects different features of a speaker and his utterance, emotional state, form of utterance, presence of sarcasm or irony, and emphasis.

Narrative Poem

A narrative poem in literature is a poem which tells a story. It has a full storyline with all the elements of a traditional story. These elements include characters, plot, conflict and resolution, setting and action. Although a narrative poem does not need a rhyming pattern, it is a metered poem with clear objectives to reach a specific audience. These poems have been borrowed from oral poetic narratives from different cultures. Narrative poems include old epics, lays and ballads. Examples of Narrative Poems Example #1 Epic of Gilgamesh by Anonymous "He who has seen everything, I will make known to the lands. I will teach about him who experienced all things, ... alike, Anu granted him the totality of knowledge of all. He saw the Secret, discovered the Hidden, he brought information of (the time) before the Flood." (Excerpt from Tablet-1) This is one of the oldest narrative poems written in the ancient Mesopotamia in or around 2100 B.C. This poem narrates the story of the King of Uruk, Gilgamesh, and the wild man Enkidu, who is given the task to stop Gilgamesh's brutality against his people. The poem is originally in twelve tablets some of which have been lost. The surviving tablets give a good clue to the narrative poem and the story it contains. Example #2 The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer "This Chanticleer stood high upon his toes, Stretching his neck, and both his eyes did close, And so did crow right loudly, for the nonce; And Russel Fox, he started up at once, And by the gorget grabbed our Chanticleer, Flung him on back, and toward the wood did steer, For there was no man who as yet pursued." (Excerpt from The Nun's Priest Tale) This is another example of the narrative poem. It has a total of 24 stories whose introduction is given in its prologue. Written during the 13th or 14th century, the Canterbury Tales has a rhyming pattern, yet it is counted as the longest surviving narrative poem of English Literature. It has narrated the tales of almost all the professionals of that time including the religious figures such as a nun, monk, melee and prioress. The tales are straightforward and show the elements of a narrative poem at work. Example #3 The Raven by Edgar Allen Poe "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore— While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door— Only this and nothing more." This is another narrative poem by a famous American short story writer and poet, Edgar Allen Poe. It narrates the story of a raven that can talk. He visits a lover who is lamenting the loss of his beloved, Lenore. As the example shows, it starts exactly like a story but has a supernatural atmosphere. It also has a fixed rhyming pattern that is against the norms of other such narrative poems, but it is still a great narrative poem having characters, settings, action, and resolution of the conflict. Example #4 The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge It is an ancient Mariner, And he stoppeth one of three. 'By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, Now wherefore stopp'st thou me? The Bridegroom's doors are opened wide, And I am next of kin; The guests are met, the feast is set: May'st hear the merry din.' "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is another narrative poem written by a famous English poet, S. T. Coleridge. The poem narrates the story of an ancient mariner. It presents not only characters and settings but also shows a conflict through its supernatural elements. Although the poem has a good rhyme scheme in different stanzas and has a metered verse and is considered as a narrative poem. Example #5 The Charge of the Light Brigade by Alfred Tennyson When can their glory fade? O the wild charge they made! All the world wondered. Honour the charge they made! Honour the Light Brigade, Noble six hundred! This is a short poem by Alfred Tennyson. It narrates the story of six hundred soldiers of Light British brigade which perished when the commander made a mistake of giving the command of attack exactly at the time when the enemy was fully aware. With the setting of the battlefield and the battle command, makes an excellent narrative poem. Example #6 We are Seven by William Wordsworth ———A simple Child, That lightly draws its breath, And feels its life in every limb, What should it know of death? I met a little cottage Girl: She was eight years old, she said; Her hair was thick with many a curl That clustered round her head. This is another great narrative poem by William Wordsworth, the poet of nature. This poem is a short narrative perfectly rhymed into a poem. The narrative has two characters; the poet who inquires the little girl about her siblings, and the little girl who responds to him. Narrative Poem Meaning and Function A narrative poem often contains a moral at the end of the poem. It is because it narrates a story which must have some conflict and resolution. However, the moral lessons may be explicit or implicit. Hence, the readers have to draw the meaning of the poem through analysis and evaluation of the characters and their actions. Another function of the narrative poem is to create a national narrative so that the people may be inspired by it. For example, "The Charge of the Light Brigade." Additionally, a narrative poem also functions as a national song, national anthem or a cultural requiem to make the people aware of their past to receive guidance for the future.

Protagonist

A protagonist is the central character or leading figure in poetry, narrative, novel or any other story. A protagonist is sometimes a "hero" to the audience or readers. The word originally came from the Greek language, and in Greek drama it refers to the person who led the chorus. Later on, the word started being used as a term for the first actor in order of performance. Iago in Shakespeare's Othello could be identified as the protagonist of the novel because he played a central role in all the controversies of the play. The question here would be that, even though he was a central character, was he really the lead character too? This type of indistinctness generally results in completely different interpretations of whether the said character is a protagonist or not. Examples of Protagonist from Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Protagonist examples in many stories are not shown to be flawless. They generally undergo some change that causes a turn of events. This makes a story interesting and helps deliver a message. Sometimes, a moral weakness shows that causes the fall of the protagonist. For example, in William Shakespeare's play Hamlet, the protagonist experiences terrible events because of his indecisiveness, which troubles him while murdering his evil uncle. So, Hamlet's struggle in dealing with the antagonist is what precedes the story. Example #2: Vanity Fair (By William Makepeace Thackeray) A protagonist can sometimes be very controversial because of some evil traits. One of the good examples of protagonist who is controversial would be Becky Sharp from William Makepeace Thackeray's Vanity Fair, who is occasionally be very manipulative in order to achieve her own interests. Example #3: As I Lay Dying (By William Faulkner) There are ensemble stories that do not particularly highlight either one of the characters more than the rest. For instance, Addie Bundren's demise in the novel As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner, results in her family traveling a long way to bury her, and they all tell the story from their own perspectives, which makes them all equally important to the story. Thus, it leaves us with more than one protagonist in the same story. Protagonist Examples from Cinema Example #4: Star Wars (By George Lucas) George Lucas develops the character of Luke Skywalker in the movie Star Wars. He plays an outwardly naïve farm boy. Luke desperately wants a life different from his monotonous existence. After his uncle's and aunt's demise, he has no other choice but to join forces with Obi-wan Kenobe. Luke later matures to understand the customs of The Force. His antagonist in the movie is Darth Vader, who turns out to be Luke's father. They both get into a major conflict but eventually Luke succeeds. Function of Protagonist A protagonist is a very important tool to develop a story. There are different terms for a protagonist, such as hero, focal character, central character, and main character. Regardless of what title you give a protagonist, he or she remains the key ingredient in the development of the story, which is why the story revolves around him or her. More often than not the protagonist is fair and virtuous, and is always supporting the moral good. Further in the plot the protagonist may undergo some change, which will probably be the climax of the story. Being the central element puts grave responsibilities on the shoulders of a protagonist. Since, the story revolves around the protagonist, he is the one who has to work as an emotional heart of the story, helping the audience connect with it on a basic level. A well-constructed protagonist attracts the audience emotionally. It helps them relate to the joys, fears, and hopes of the character in the story. The events occurring in a story are always viewed from the perspective of the protagonist. The audience decides whether or not a particular event is favorable in a story. A wedding is an important and positive event in The Sound of Music because it is a positive event for the protagonist, Maria. However, the same kind of event in the movie While You Were Sleeping would be unfortunate because in that case the protagonist Lucy was marrying the wrong person. Some stories weave many characters into an ensemble story, but even in such stories there is often one character that is more important to the story than the rest. For instance, in The Lord of the Rings trilogy there are many characters that have great significance to the story, but Frodo Baggins is the one who stands out, because everyone else's destiny rests in his hands.

Proverb

A proverb is a brief, simple, and popular saying, or a phrase that gives advice and effectively embodies a commonplace truth based on practical experience or common sense. A proverb may have an allegorical message behind its odd appearance. The reason of popularity is due to its usage in spoken language, as well as in folk literature. Some authors twist and bend proverbs, and create anti-proverbs to add literary effect to their works. However, in poetry, poets use proverbs strategically by employing some parts of them in poems' titles, such as Lord Kennet has done in his poem, A Bird in the Bush, which is a popular proverb. Some poems contain multiple proverbs, like Paul Muldoon's poem Symposium. Use of Popular Proverbs in Everyday Speech Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. Laugh and the world laughs with you, weep and you weep alone. Absence makes the heart grow fonder. All that glitters is not gold. An army of sheep led by a lion would defeat an army of lions led by a sheep. The old horse in the stable still yearns to run . Examples of Proverb in Literature Example #1: Things Fall Apart (By Chinua Achebe) "If a child washes his hands he could eat with kings." Meaning: If you remove the dirt of your ancestors, you can have a better future. Everyone can build his or her own fame. "A toad does not run in the daytime for nothing." Meaning: Everything happens for a reason, and for something, not for nothingness. "A child's fingers are not scalded by a piece of hot yam which its mother puts into its palm." Meaning: Children who obey their mothers are not punished. Example #2: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "The weakest goes to the wall." Meaning: Weak people are never favored. "He that is strucken blind cannot forget The precious treasure of his eyesight lost." Meaning: A man who loses his eyesight can never forget the importance of lost eyesight. "One fire burns out another's burning, One pain is lessen'd by another's anguish." Meaning: You can burn new fire from lighting another fire, similarly a new pain could mitigate your old pain. Example #3: Book of Proverbs (from The Bible) "The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and instruction." (Proverbs 1:7) Meaning: Wise men always fear the Lord, while fools do not like wisdom and guidance. "Every word of God is flawless; He is a shield to those who take refuge in him." (Proverbs 30:5) Meaning: The things God says are never flawed. He protects the people who ask for His help, and who follow His path. "Commit to the LORD whatever you do, and he will establish your plans." (Proverbs 16:3) Meaning: Do whatever you do for the Lord, putting faith in Him, and he will guide your plans and actions. Example #4: The Power and the Glory (By Graham Greene) "And when we love our sin then we are damned indeed." Meaning: When we do not repent of our sins, rather loving them, then we are damned. "Nothing in life was as ugly as death." Meaning: Death is the most horrible experience in life. "There is always one moment in childhood when the door opens and lets the future in ...We should be thankful we cannot see the horrors and degradations lying around our childhood, in cupboards and bookshelves, everywhere." Meaning: Childhood is a blessing for us, as we do not face horrible experiences like humiliation and degradation from people. Example #5: Aesop Fables: An Astrologer and A Traveller (By Aesop) Fortune Teller: "We should make sure that our own house is in order before we give advice to others." Meaning: We should act upon our own words, before advising others to do the same. Function of Proverb Proverbs play very important roles in different types of literary works. The most important function of proverbs is to teach and educate the audience. They often contain expert advice, with a role for educating the readers on what they may face if they do something. Hence, proverbs play a didactic role, as they play a universal role in teaching wisdom and sagacity to the common people. Since proverbs are usually metaphorical and indirect, they allow writers to express their messages in a less harsh way.

Pun

A pun is a play on words that produces a humorous effect by using a word that suggests two or more meanings, or by exploiting similar sounding words that have different meanings. Humorous effects created by puns depend upon the ambiguities the words entail. These ambiguities arise mostly in homophones and homonyms. For instance, in the sentence, "A happy life depends on a liver," the word liver can refer to the bodily organ, or simply a person who lives. Similarly, in the saying "Atheism is a non-prophet institution," the word "prophet" is used instead of "profit" to produce a humorous effect. Common Pun Examples In everyday life, pun examples are found intentionally or accidentally, used in jokes and witty remarks. The life of a patient of hypertension is always at steak. Why do we still have troops in Germany? To keep the Russians in Czech. A horse is a very stable Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana. An elephant's opinion carries a lot of weight. What is the difference between a conductor and a teacher? The conductor minds the trainand a teacher trains the mind. Examples of Pun in Literature In literature, puns have been used by famous writers throughout history. Example #1: William Shakespeare In constructing puns, William Shakespeare was a master craftsman. We find many examples of puns in his plays. Let us have a look at some of them: "It is the unkindest tied that ever any man tied." (Richard III) "Now is the winter of our discontent ... made glorious summer by this sun of York." (Richard III) "Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles; I have a soul of lead" (Romeo and Juliet) Claudius: "... But now, my cousin Hamlet, and my son..." Hamlet: [aside] "A little more than kin, and less than kind." (Hamlet) Example #2: A Hymn to God the Father (By John Donne) John Donne's A Hymn to God the Father has several examples of pun. "When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more. That at my death Thy Son / Shall shine as he shines now, and heretofore And having done that, Thou hast done; I fear no more." He is playing with his name Donne, and with the name of his wife Anne More. Besides, he uses Son, referring to the Christ, instead of the sun. Example #3: The Importance of being Earnest (By Oscar Wilde) Oscar Wilde employs puns in his play The Importance of being Earnest. Jack Earnest tells Aunt Augusta, in Act III: "On the contrary, Aunt Augusta, I've now realised for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest." Similarly, in Act III we see Jack puns his family name again: "I always told you, Gwendolen, my name was Ernest, didn't I? Well, it is Ernest after all. I mean it naturally is Ernest." Here Jack discovers his father's name, which makes him truly earnest. Example #4: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens plays around with words in his novel Great Expectations. In his opening chapter, Pip says: "They seemed to think the opportunity lost, if they failed to point the conversation to me, every now and then, and stick the point into me" Note the pun in the use of the word "point." We see another interesting example in Chapter 2: "Tickler was a wax-ended piece of cane, worn smooth by collision with my tickled frame." The writer puns the word "tickle". Example #5: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov) We notice a unique use of multilingual puns in Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita. For example, the name of the character Humbert is a pun in two languages. In French it means "Shadow," and in Spanish it means "man." Similarly, Lolita changing her name to "Dolores," which means "pain" in Latin, and her nickname "Dolly" refers to a toy in English. Function of Pun Apart from being witty and humorous, puns add profound meanings to texts, and shape the way in which the text is interpreted by the readers. By playing with the words, the writers reveal their cleverness and the cleverness of their characters. Besides, puns in a literary works act as a source of comic relief, or an intentional effort on the part of the writer, to show his or her creative ability in using language.

Quatrain

A quatrain is a verse with four lines, or even a full poem containing four lines, having an independent and separate theme. Often one line consists of alternating rhyme, existing in a variety of forms. We can trace back quatrains in poetic traditions of various ancient civilizations, such as China, Ancient Rome, and Ancient Greece; and they continue to appear in the twenty-first century. During the Dark Ages in Europe, the Middle East, and Iran, polymath poets like Omar Khayyam popularized this type of poetry. It gained popularity with the name of Rubai in Iran, and has a possible rhyme scheme of aabb, aaaa and abab. Types of Quatrain In formal poetry, rhyme scheme and meter define different types of quatrain. There are many types of quatrain, but the most common types include: Ballad Stanza - Its rhyme scheme is abab with iambic tetrameter. Envelope Stanza - Its rhyme scheme is abba with iambic tetrameter. Goethe Stanza - Its rhyme scheme is abab but no meter. Italian Quatrain - Its rhyme scheme is abba with iambic pentameter. Hymnal Quatrain - This multi stanza contains three alternating rhymes with iambic trimester and iambic tetrameter. Rhyme scheme is a4 b3 c4 b3. Elegiac Stanza - This uses abab rhyme scheme with iambic pentameter. Memoriam Stanza - This uses abba rhyme scheme with iambic tetrameter. Examples of Quatrain in Literature Example #1: Stopping by Woods On a Snowy Evening (By Robert Frost) "He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there's some mistake. The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake." This poem contains four quatrains with different rhyme schemes. This stanza rhymes as aaba, in which the first and second lines rhyme with the last line. Frost has used iambic tetrameter, eight syllables in each line with regular rhythm, presenting a perfect example of Rubaiyat stanza, which also consists of aaba rhyme scheme with four lines. Example #2: Hope is the Thing with Feathers (By Emily Dickinson) "Hope is the thing with feathers That perches in the soul, And sings the tune without the words, And never stops at all..." This entire poem is written in iambic trimeter pattern, and has three quatrains. However, it often adds a fourth stress at the end of the lines, such as in the fourth line of this stanza. This stanza loosely rhymes with rhythmical flow in abab pattern. Example #3: A Red, Red Rose (By Robert Burns) "O, my luve's like a red, red rose, That's newly sprung in June: O, my luve's like the melodie That's sweetly played in tune." These lines embody an example of Hymnal Stanza, in which we see the poet having written in alternating quatrain with iambics. The first and third lines follow iambic tetrameter, while the second and fourth lines follow iambic trimeter, using the rhyme scheme of abcb. This alternating meter makes the poem more voiced and pronounced. Example #4: Look Before You Leap (By W. H. Auden) "The worried efforts of the busy heap, The dirt, the imprecision, and the beer Produce a few smart wisecracks every year; Laugh if you can, but you will have to leap." This is an example of the envelope stanza, in which the quatrain follows the rhyme scheme of abba, with iambic tetrameter. In this type of quatrain, the first and fourth lines enclose the second and third lines. Example #5: Elegy Written in Country Courtyard (By Thomas Gray) "The tolls curfew the knell of parting day, The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea, The plowman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me." This quatrain is presenting an example of elegiac stanza, written in iambic pentameter with rhyme scheme abab. It is also referred as "heroic stanza," as its rhyme is similar to a heroic couplet. Example #6: In Memoriam A. H. H (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "So word by word, and line by line, The dead man touch'd me from the past, And all at once it seem'd at last The living soul was flash'd on mine." This example of memoriam stanza with rhyme scheme of abba follows the iambic tetrameter pattern (each line contains four iambs). Function of Quatrain Quatrain is a very popular stanza, and important poetic form in English literature. It determines a specific style of expression, and shapes the structure of a poem. The rhyming lines of a quatrain give it a regular rhythm. In addition, it gives language a fine arrangement by using accents on syllables and adding variations of rhyme scheme. A quatrain uses speech in a regular pattern, and converts a normal text into a dramatic form. Besides, it creates a rhythmic sense in literary works.

Rhetorical Question

A rhetorical question is asked just for effect, or to lay emphasis on some point being discussed, when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer, but the questioner asks it to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident, and used for style as an impressive persuasive device. Broadly speaking, a rhetorical question is asked when the questioner himself knows the answer already, or an answer is not actually demanded. So, an answer is not expected from the audience. Such a question is used to emphasize a point or draw the audience's attention. Common Rhetorical Question Examples Rhetorical questions, though almost needless or meaningless, seem a basic need of daily language. Some common examples of rhetorical questions from daily life are as follows: "Who knows?" "Are you stupid?" "Did you hear me?" "Ok?" "Why not?" Mostly, it is easy to spot a rhetorical question because of its position in the sentence. It occurs immediately after a comment made, and states the opposite of it. The idea again is to make a point more prominent. Some rhetorical question examples are as follows. Keep in mind that they are also called "tag questions" if used in everyday conversation. "It's too hot today, isn't it?" "The actors played the roles well, didn't they?" Examples of Rhetorical Question in Literature Rhetorical questions in literature are as important as they are in daily language, or perhaps even more so. The reason is the significant change a rhetorical question can bring about. The absence or presence of a rhetorical question in some of the most famous lines in literature would change the impact altogether. Some examples of rhetorical questions in literature show that writers sometimes ask questions, and then goes on to answer them to produce a desired effect. Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) JULIET: " 'Tis but thy name that is my enemy. Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. What's Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name! What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet." A very good example of rhetorical question in literature is from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Here, Juliet makes a statement that a man's name does not define him as a person. She draws attention to this issue by asking two important rhetorical questions, as noted in bold. Example #2: Ode to the West Wind (By Percy Bysshe Shelley) Percy Bysshe Shelley ends his masterpiece Ode to the West Wind with a rhetorical question: "...O Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?" In this excerpt, Shelley achieves the desired effect by asking a rhetorical question, rather than making a statement. The answer to this question is not sought; rather, an effect is successfully created giving a fine finishing touch to the ode. Example #3: Creation (By Hladia Porter Stewart) Mrs. Hladia Porter Stewart in her poem Creation employs rhetorical questions to create effect and achieve the desired appeal of the poem. "What made you think of love and tears And birth and death and pain?" Without rhetorical question, it might have been impossible for the poet to express herself as impressively as she does here. Example #4: The Solitary Reaper (By William Wordsworth) "Will no one tell me what she sings?" Notice, an answer is not expected to this question. The poet prefers a rhetorical question to a plain statement to emphasize his feelings of pleasant surprise. Thus, the poem's meaning is enhanced by the use of a rhetorical question. Example #5: The Merchant of Venice (By William Shakespeare) "If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?" The character Shylock, in Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice, asks a series of rhetorical questions in this excerpt. The questions don't necessarily need answers. They are neither questions nor plain statements, but rather something in between the two. Function of Rhetorical Question Writers employ rhetorical questions for rhetorical effects, and we cannot easily quantify the impact rendered by a rhetorical question. The idea becomes all the more powerful, and our interest is aroused to continue to read and enjoy the technical and aesthetic beauty that a rhetorical question generates. Moreover, it is a requirement in persuasive speeches.

Rhyme

A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounding words, occurring at the end of lines in poems or songs. A rhyme is a tool utilizing repeating patterns that bring rhythm or musicality to poems. This differentiates them from prose, which is plain. A rhyme is employed for the specific purpose of rendering a pleasing effect to a poem, which makes its recital an enjoyable experience. Moreover, it offers itself as a mnemonic device, smoothing the progress of memorization. For instance, all nursery rhymes contain rhyming words in order to facilitate learning for children, as they enjoy reading them, and the presence of repetitive patterns enables them to memorize them effortlessly. We do not seem to forget the nursery rhymes we learned as children. Below are a few nursery rhyme examples with rhyming words in bold and italics: "Baa baa black sheep, have you any wool? Yes sir, yes sir, three bags full! One for the master, one for the dame, And one for the little boy who lives down the lane." "Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall. All the King's horses, And all the King's men Couldn't put Humpty together again!" "Mary had a little lamb its fleece was white as snow; And everywhere that Mary went, the lamb was sure to go. It followed her to school one day, which was against the rule; It made the children laugh and play, to see a lamb at school. And so the teacher turned it out, but still it lingered near, And waited patiently about till Mary did appear." Various Types of Rhyme Poems written in English employ the following types of rhyme: Perfect Rhyme A perfect rhyme is a case in which two words rhyme in such a way that their final stressed vowel, and all subsequent sounds, are identical. For instance, sight and light, right and might, and rose and dose. General Rhyme The term general rhyme refers to a variety of phonetic likenesses between words. Syllabic Rhyme- Bottle and fiddle, cleaver and silver, patter and pitter are examples of syllabic rhyme: words having a similar sounding last syllable, but without a stressed vowel. Imperfect Rhyme - Wing and caring, sit and perfect, and reflect and subject are examples of imperfect rhyme. This is a rhyme between a stressed and an unstressed syllable. Assonance or Slant Rhyme exists in words having the same vowel sound. For instance, kill and bill, wall and hall, and shake and ha Consonance exists in words having the same consonant sound, such as rabbit and robber, ship and sheep Alliteration or Head Rhyme refers to matching initial consonant sounds, shuch as sea and seal, and ship and sh Eye Rhyme Eye rhymes, also called "sight rhymes," or "spelling rhymes," refers to words having the same spelling but different sounds. In such case, the final syllables have the same spellings, but are pronounced differently, such as cough and bough, and love and move. Types of Rhyme According to Position Classification of rhymes may be based on their positions, such as the following examples of rhyme. Example #1: Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star (By Jane Taylor) "Twinkle, twinkle little star How I wonder what you are" Classification: Tail Rhyme This is the most common type of rhyme. It occurs in the final syllable of a verse or line. Example #2: Don't Fence Me In (By Cole Porter and Robert Fletcher) "Just turn me loose let me straddle my old saddle, Underneath the western skies, On my cayuse let me wander over yonder, 'Til I see the mountains rise." Classification: Internal Rhyme This is a type of rhyme in which a word at the end of a verse rhymes with another word in the same line. Example #3: A Scottish Lowlands Holiday Ends in Enjoyable Inactivity (By Miles Kington) "In Ayrshire hill areas, a cruise, eh, lass? Inertia, hilarious, accrues, hélas!" Classification: Holo-rhyme This is a type of rhyme in which all the words of two entire lines rhyme. Example #4: At Lulworth Cove a Century Back (By Thomas Hardy) "Had I but lived a hundred years ago I might have gone, as I have gone this year, By Warmwell Cross on to a Cove I know, And Time have placed his finger on me there..." Classification: Cross rhyme This refers to matching sounds at the ends of intervening lines. Function of Rhyme As discussed above, a rhyme serves two distinct functions in the art of writing poetry: It gives poetry a typical symmetry that differentiates poetry from prose. It makes recital of poetry a pleasurable experience for the readers, as the repetitive patterns render musicality and rhythm to it. H. Auden gives his views on the function of rhyme and other tools of prosody, saying that these are like servants that a master uses in the ways he wants.

Run-On Sentence

A run-on sentence is a combination of two independent clauses, joined together without a conjunction or punctuation mark. Both of these independent clauses form a complete sense or thought; however, when they group together, they need proper punctuation for clarity. For instance, in the sentence, "It is now ten we cannot go there before early morning," two complete thoughts are joined together in a confusing manner. Generally, this is considered grammatically incorrect, and called a stylistic error. There are many examples of run-on sentences used as literary devices in literature. However, not all long sentences are run-on sentences, for it is quite acceptable to combine different related ideas into a compound sentence. Nevertheless, without using appropriate punctuation rules, a compound sentence becomes a run-on sentence. Types of Run-On Sentence Comma Splice Run-On Sentence In this type, a comma splits two independent clauses. However, the position of this comma is a bit weak to make a complete relationship between two complete sentences. Thus, it requires a proper coordinating conjunction to make a relationship. For instance: "People are mingling, everybody looks so happy." This would be much clearer if the conjunction "and" were added, for: "People are mingling, and everybody looks so happy." Fused Sentence This occurs when a writer connects two clauses with no punctuation, where the main clause makes perfect sense on its own. Independent clauses should not be smashed together into a fused sentence. For instance: "A wise man makes his own decisions an ignorant man follows public opinion." Punctuation between these two independent clauses would make this sentence more clear: "A wise man makes his own decisions. An ignorant man follows public opinion." Examples of Run-On Sentence from Literature Example #1: Rabbit, Run (By John Updike) "But then they were married (she felt awful about being pregnant before but Harry had been talking about marriage for a while and anyway laughed when she told him in early February about missing her period and said Great she was terribly frightened and he said Great and lifted her put his arms around under her bottom ... she was still little clumsy dark-complected Janice Springer and her husband was a conceited lunk who wasn't good for anything in the world Daddy said and the feeling of being alone would melt a little with a little drink." This passage presents an example of fused run-on sentences, where the author has not used commas to separate the sentences. These sentences, however, can make a proper thought. Example #2: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair... —in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only." This excerpt is a good example of comma splices, where we can clearly see the use of commas separating the clauses. Yet, there is no use of conjunction to form a complete sense or thought. Example #3: Ulysses (By James Joyce) " ... I hate people that have always their poor story to tell everybody has their own troubles that poor Nancy Blake died a month ago of acute pneumonia well I didn't know her so well as all that she was Floeys friend more than mine ... " This novel is very popular for using run-on sentences. Notice in this example Joyce has used a fused sentence with no commas. Though understandable, the meaning is not clear. Example #4: The Sound and the Fury (By William Faulkner) "My God the cigar what would your mother say if she found a blister on her mantel just in time too look here Quentin we're about to do something we'll both regret I like you liked you as soon as I saw you I says he must be ..." This excerpt is a perfect example of fused run-on sentences, where we find neither commas nor use of conjunction that could separate the clauses and give clarity. Function of Run-On Sentence Though it is not a good idea to use run-on sentences in writing, poets and writers sometimes use them for repeating something important, or for imitating the speaking style of characters. Despite that, use of run-on sentences is usually incorrect, because it makes the writing too difficult and intricate to understand. However, intentional use of run-on sentences creates special effects in colloquial speech and informal contexts.

Short Story

A short story is a fully developed story which is shorter than a novel and longer than a fable. It typically takes just a single sitting for reading. Short Story focuses on the incidents bigger or smaller and evokes strong feelings from its readers. A short story often has a few characters in the plot. Features of a Short Story As a short story is mostly a short narrative and has few features. The standard features include exposition, complication, crisis, climax, and resolution of the crisis. However, it is not essential that all short stories follow the same pattern. Examples of Short Stories from Literature Example #1 The Happy Prince by Oscar Wilde The Happy Prince is one of the best stories written in English Literature written by Oscar Wilde. The story shows how the elites of that kingdom neglect the poor. And the statue of the Happy Prince takes help of a Swallow to help the poor of the city. One by one, the Prince starts losing his precious stones, rubies, and gold leaves when the Swallow starts plucking them give to the poor that the Prince can see from his high pedestal. The dramatic irony of the story reaches the climax when the city mayor sees the dead bird and the ugly broken statue. When the statue is sent to a furnace, God invites the Prince and the Swallow to live in the City of Gold in heaven. Example #2 The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman In the short story of The Yellow Wallpaper, Charlotte sheds light on the difficulties faced by the narrator of the story, due to depression after the childbirth. Her husband John, a physician, takes her to a countryside home for the cure and assumes that she is suffering from hysteria. He doesn't allow her to do her favorite activities, like writing which helps her escape reality. She is also distant to her child. After a while, she is obsessed with the yellow wallpaper in her room and imagines that a woman, like her, is stuck in it and wants to come out. To help the imaginary woman, the narrator starts peeling the wallpaper. By the end of the story, John, sees her creeping around the room and faints. The story also highlights how many women are ignored by their spouses, leading them to depression. Example #3 The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allen Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart" is another wonderful example of a short horror story. In the story, the anonymous narrator tells about the murder of an old man that he has committed in cold-blood because he had 'vulture eyes'. The story is told in the first-person narrative and explores the state of mind of a person. The narrator has hallucinations after the murder when he feels guilty. He convinces the readers that he is not insane. By the end of the story, he continues to hallucinate and asks what to do to make the old man's heart stop. This is an excellent example of a short story having a few characters and a complicated theme. Example #4 The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin This story is an extraordinary piece of its time. Louise Mallard, probably oppressed by her husband, is relieved when she sees the prospects of freedom after the death of her husband. She rejoices and imagines a bright future after receiving the news. However, Brently Mallard, Louise' husband returns home. The pain of her failing dreams causes her to suffer a heart attack and death. The doctor assumes that she has died of heart failure as she couldn't absorb the happiness at her husband's arrival. Example #5 The Necklace by Guy De Maupassant The Necklace is one of the best short stories. It revolves around the life of a clerk in the ministry of education and his extraordinarily beautiful wife, Mathilda. She borrows an expensive necklace from her friend for a ball but loses it when they are returning home. They, somehow, arrange to replace it after purchasing the original necklace with borrowed money and spend their lives in the struggle to pay back the loan. After several years, they met the same friend again. To their horror, she tells them that her necklace was fake. Example #6 To Build a Fire by Jack London To Build a Fire is the story of an anonymous character who leaves home for a destination on the Yukon trail but faces heavy snow which makes him fall. He tries to kill his dog to keep himself alive, but the dog also senses his intentions. Later, he tries to make the fire but does not succeed and dies. His struggle and his wrong notion about his strength and thinking power prove fatal for him. This is one of the best short stories without the names of the characters. Short Story Meaning and Function A short story presents one aspect of the life of a character. It could be an incident, an event, a description of a feeling, or even a simple act. A short story can also impact a reader and even inspire them. For persons who cannot read novels, enjoy reading the short stories. Moreover, in a short story, the characters also share their innermost thoughts, their motives, their feelings, their emotions, and different notions.

Simile

A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words "like" or "as." Therefore, it is a direct comparison. We can find simile examples in our daily speech. We often hear comments like, "John is as slow as a snail." Snails are notorious for their slow pace, and here the slowness of John is compared to that of a snail. The use of "as" in the example helps to draw the resemblance. Now we know the definition of simile, let's look at some examples of common similes. Common Examples of Simile Our soldiers are as brave as lions. Her cheeks are red like a rose. He is as funny as a monkey. The water well was as dry as a bone. He is as cunning as a fox. Simile introduces vividness into what we say. Authors and poets utilize simile to convey their sentiments and thoughts through vivid word pictures. Short Examples of Simile in a Sentence The glow of the tube-light was as bright as the sunshine. In winter, when it rained, he climbed into bed and felt as snug as a bug in a rug. At exam time, the high school student was as busy as a bee. The beggar on the road looked as blind as a bat. When the examination finished, the candidate felt as light as a feather. When the teacher entered the class, the 6th-grade students were fighting like cats and dogs. The diplomat said the friendship of the two countries was as deep as an ocean. The desert traveler's hopes were dashed, as when at last he reached a well, it was as dry as a bone. His opponent was trying to infuriate him, but he remained as cool as cucumber. The laborer remained busy at work all day long and slept like a log that night. The audience listened to his spellbinding speech as quietly as mice. The young athlete looked as strong as an ox. The student moved as fast as lightning after getting permission from the teacher for an early release. The history paper was as tricky as a labyrinth. The boys in the playing field were feeling as happy as dogs with two tails. Examples of Simile in Literature Example #1: Lord Jim (By Joseph Conrad) "I would have given anything for the power to soothe her frail soul, tormenting itself in its invincible ignorance like a small bird beating about the cruel wires of a cage." In these lines from Lord Jim, the helplessness of the soul is being compared with a bird in a cage, beating itself against the merciless wires to be free. Example #2: To the Lighthouse (By Virginia Woolf) "... impressions poured in upon her of those two men, and to follow her thought was like following a voice which speaks too quickly to be taken down by one's pencil... " In the above example of simile, Ms. Woolf makes the point that her thoughts are difficult to follow, and cannot be written quickly enough. Example #3: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov) "Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa." This simile produces a humorous effect by comparing old women leaning on walking sticks with the ancient leaning tower of Pisa. Example #4: A Red, Red Rose (By Robert Burns) "O my Luve's like a red, red rose That's newly sprung in June; O my Luve's like the melodie That's sweetly played in tune." Here, Robert Burns uses a simile to describe the beauty of his beloved. He says that his love is a fresh red rose that blossoms in the spring. Example #5: the Daffodils (By William Wordsworth) "I wandered lonely as a cloud that floats on high o'er vales and hills." The poet envisions himself as a free cloud that floats alone in a blue sky above valleys and the mountains. By choosing this simile, Wordsworth describes his loneliness. Example #6: Sonnet 18 (By William Shakespeare) A significant thing to consider here is that at times simile is drawn without using the words "as" or "like." Consider the following example: "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date. Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimmed; And every fair from fair sometime declines" In the very first line, Shakespeare poses a question if he should compare his beloved to a summer's day. But then he rejects this idea and says that his beloved is better than that. This is an example of an extended simile. is an example of an extended simile. Example #7: Will There Really Be a Morning? (By Emily Dickinson) "Will there really be a morning? Is there such a thing as day? Could I see it from the mountains If I were as tall as they? Has it feet like water-lilies? Has it feathers like a bird? Is it brought from famous countries." In this example of simile, the speaker is feeling dejected, wondering if there could be hope and morning again. The poet has used trochees, giving a strong rhythm to the poem. Notice in this first stanza, the accented syllables are emphasized. See that word "I" is unaccented or unstressed with different feet. Example #8: To Be Taken with a Grain of Salt (By Charles Dickens) "... when I laid down the paper, I was aware of a flash — rush — flow — I do not know what to call it — no word I can find is satisfactorily descriptive — in which I seemed to see that bedroom passing through my room, like a picture impossibly painted on a running river. Charles Dickens, in this excerpt, uses a simile in the last line, indicated in bold. Example #9: Othello (By William Shakespeare) "It is the cause, it is the cause, my soul,— Let me not name it to you, you chaste stars! It is the cause. Yet I'll not shed her blood; Nor scar that whiter skin of hers than snow, And smooth as monumental alabaster." The last line here exhibits a beautiful use of simile by Shakespeare, where Othello compares Desdemona's smooth skin to alabaster. Example #10: Othello (By William Shakespeare) Othello: She was false as water. Emilia: Thou are rash as fire, To say that she was false: O she was heavenly true. Othello compares Desdemona's infidelity to water, but Emilia calls him as rash as fire and testifies to her fidelity. In both cases, these are very good similes to reflect the character of a person. Simile Meaning and Function So what is a simile and its purpose? From the above discussion of simile examples, we can infer the function of similes, both in everyday life and in literature. Using similes attracts attention, and appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, encouraging their imaginations to understand what is being communicated. Also, it brings rhythm, life-like quality in our daily speech and the characters of fiction or poetry. Simile allows readers to relate the feelings of a writer or a poet to their personal experiences. Therefore, the use of similes makes it easier for readers to understand the subject matter of a literary text, which may have been otherwise too demanding to be comprehended. Like metaphors, similes also offer variety in our ways of thinking and offer new perspectives on the world.

Soliloquy

A soliloquy is a popular literary device often used in drama to reveal the innermost thoughts of a character. It is a great technique used to convey the progress of action of the play, by means of expressing a character's thoughts about a certain character or past, present, or upcoming event, while talking to himself without acknowledging the presence of any other person. The word soliloquy is derived from the Latin word solo, which means "to himself," and loquor, which means "I speak," respectively. A soliloquy is often used as a means of character revelation or character manifestation to the reader or the audience of the play. Due to a lack of time and space, it was sometimes considered essential to present information about the plot, and to expose the feelings and intentions of the characters. Historically, dramatists made extensive use of soliloquies in their plays, but it has become outdated, though some playwrights still use it in their plays. Soliloquy examples abound during the Elizabethan era. Soliloquy and Monologue Sometimes soliloquy is wrongly mixed up with monologue and aside. These two techniques are distinctly different from a soliloquy. Although, like soliloquy, a monologue is a speech, the purpose and presentation of both is different. In a monologue, a character usually makes a speech in the presence of other characters, while in a soliloquy, the character or speaker speaks to himself. By doing so, the character keeps these thoughts secret from the other characters of the play. An aside on the other hand, is a short comment by a character towards the audience, often for another character, but usually without his knowledge. Examples of Soliloquy in Literature Shakespeare made extensive use of soliloquies in his plays. But before Shakespeare, we find considerable use of this significant dramatic technique in Christopher Marlow's play Doctor Faustus. Modern plays do not have as many examples of soliloquy as the Renaissance era. Example #1: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlow) "Yet art thou still but Faustus, and a man" In the first soliloquy of Doctor Faustus, Marlow has nicely summed up Faustus' life, motives, intentions, and growth of his ideas that took place before the start of the action. The extraordinarily ambitious soul of Doctor Faustus is revealed here, who was not satisfied with the existing branches of knowledge, and needed something beyond the powers of man. Example #2: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlow) "Fair Nature's eye, rise, rise again, and make Perpetual day; or let this hour be but A year, a month, a week, a natural day, That Faustus may repent and save his soul!" These lines are taken from Dr. Faustus' last soliloquy, where Faustus makes an appeal in the last hour's anguish to stop whatever was done. Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) "To be, or not to be? That is the question— Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune..." Hamlet is in a state of mind that only Shakespeare can describe through his magnificent pen. Uncertain, reluctant Prince Hamlet was literally unable to do anything but merely wait to "catch the conscience of the king" to complete his supposed plan. Example #4: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo? Deny thy father and refuse thy name; Or, if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love, And I'll no longer be a Capulet." Juliet was thinking aloud about the traditional enmity between Romeo's clan and her family, expressing her hopelessness about the success of their love. Example #5: The Crucible (By Arthur Miller) "Peace. It is providence, and no great change; we are only what we always were, but naked now. Aye, naked! And the wind, God's icy wind, will blow!" Although modern plays hardly use any soliloquies, The Crucible has some used in the second act. This short form of soliloquy comes at the end of Act 2, where John Proctor faces the open sky when talking to Mary Warren. Function of Soliloquy A soliloquy in a play is a great dramatic technique or tool that intends to reveal the inner workings of the character. No other technique can perform the function of supplying essential progress of the action of the story better than a soliloquy. It is used, not only to convey the development of the play to the audience, but also to provide an opportunity to see inside the mind of a certain character.

Subjective

A subjective point of view is something based on one's opinions, perspectives, beliefs, discoveries, desires, and feelings. It has no concern with right or wrong, other than the person's opinion of what is right and wrong. Likewise, subjective writing or point of view is based on the writer's own observation and experience. It focuses on the writer's personal point of view and not built on facts that others see or things others go through. Third person point of view can also be subjective. It is known as "limited omniscience," in which a writer knows every detail about a character and sees the whole story through that character's eyes. Difference between Subjective and Objective The major difference between subjective and objective is that subjective information is based on just one person's feelings, assumptions, and opinions. It has a viewpoint of that person regardless of information or arguments it offers. Objective, on the other hand, is the information a writer or speaker provides outside of his/her personal opinions or feelings. It is based on facts. Examples of Subjective in Literature Example #1: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (By J. K. Rowling) "Harry had taken up his place at wizard school, where he and his scar were famous ... but now the school year was over, and he was back with the Dursleys for the summer, back to being treated like a dog that had rolled in something smelly. The Dursleys hadn't even remembered that today happened to be Harry's twelfth birthday ..." In this passage, readers can see how Harry is feeling, thinking, and what is happening with him. They follow him very closely, but are unable to see what the Dursleys are feeling or thinking about Harry. This is a depiction of subjective feelings. Example #2: Ode on a Grecian Urn (by John Keats) "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on... Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone: Fair youth, beneath the trees, thou canst not leave Thy song, nor ever can those trees be bare;" This excerpt is a very good example of a subjective approach. Here, the speaker is expressing his feelings of love for the old days of Ancient Greece, as displayed through pictures on a marble pot. In this stanza, he is talking about a musician, playing pipes beautifully. He escapes from physical world to his world of fantasy, where weather never changes and there is an eternal spring. Example #3: Sonnet 18 (by William Shakespeare) "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May.... But thy eternal summer shall not fade... So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee." In these lines, the speaker expresses his opinion about his beloved, who is lovelier than the summer's day. All the elements such as admiration and comparisons are subjective because standards of beauty for one person may not be the same for others. Example #4: O Captain! My Captain! (by Walt Whitman) "O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won... But O heart! heart! heart! O the bleeding drops of red, Where on the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead. O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells..." In this poem, the speaker is a sailor. He sings this song for the captain who leads his ship and crew safely into harbor after a dangerous long voyage. However, the captain dies in the end, and the speaker is in a somber and intense mood of sadness. This is also an excellent example of a subjective mood. Example #5: She Walks in Beauty (by George Gordon, Lord Byron) "She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that's best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes: Thus mellowed to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies." In this stanza, the speaker is a poet himself who praises an anonymous woman. Comparing her beauty to night on the sky filled with stars. He expresses his feelings by comparing her to light and dark that she is a combination of both. This is purely a subjective approach of expression. Function of Subjective Subjective approach or presentation or view point is useful and allows the readers to get an insight into the mind of a writer through interpretations and explication of his characters, thoughts, opinions and beliefs. Subjective writing or point of view builds tension and provides a greater freedom to readers to interpret actions of individual characters. This approach givens a view that every person sees a thing from different perspective.

Tercet

A tercet is a three-lined verse, or a group, or unit of three lines. These three lines are often rhymed together, or they rhyme with another triplet. It has a flow of words as rolling waves. Creating rhythmic flow in in just three lines, however, is quite a challenging job. Types of Tercet Haiku Haiku is a Japanese type of tercet. It is a three-line poem based usually on nature, and follows five-seven-five syllable counts. It means the first line contains five, the second seven, and the third line five syllables. Triplet A triplet has three rhymed lines in each stanza. Its rhyme scheme is AAA. Enclosed or Sicilian Tercet An enclosed or Sicilian tercet uses a rhyme scheme of ABA. In simple words, the first and third lines rhyme together and enclose a rhyming middle line. This tercet adds the challenge of using iambic pentameter. It means each line uses ten syllables with emphasis on each second syllable. Villanelle Another type of triplet which uses five tercets and one quatrain. It follows the rhyme scheme as: A1 b A2 / a b A1 / a b A2 / a b A1 / a b A2 / a b A1 A2. Terza Rima Terza rima is one of the most challenging types of tercet. It usually follows iambic pentameter with rhyme scheme of ABA BCB CDC. This is a complicated rhyme scheme that binds stanzas together in which the second line in each stanza rhyme with the next tercet. Examples of Tercet in Literature Example #1: The Old Pond (By Matsuo Bashu, translated by William J. Higginso) "An old silent pond... A frog jumps into the pond, splash! Silence again." This haiku poem contains three lines with no rhyming pattern. The focus of the poem is on a natural scene. There are five-syllables in the first line, seven in the second, and five in the third line. Example #2: A Toccata of Galuppi's (By Robert Browning) "Oh, Galuppi, Baldassaro, this is very sad to find! I can hardly misconceive you; it would prove me deaf and blind; But although I give you credit, 'tis with such a heavy mind!" This is the first triplet that is using AAA rhyme scheme. In this triplet, the speaker listens to a nostalgic musical piece. The rhyming of words bind, blind, and mind creates music similar to the theme of the poem. Example #3: Upon Julia's Clothes (By Robert Herrick) "Whenas in silks my Julia goes, Then, then, methinks, how sweetly flows The liquefaction of her clothes..." See the rhyming words "goes", "flows", "clothes." These rhyming words strengthen smooth flow of ideas. This rhyme scheme is perfect for triplet because it follows AAA scheme. Example #4: The Waking (By Theodore Roethke) "I wake to sleep, and take my waking slow. I feel my fate in what I cannot fear. I learn by going where I have to go. We think by feeling. What is there to know? I hear my being dance from ear to ear. I wake to sleep, and take my waking slow. Of those so close beside me, which are you? God bless the Ground! I shall walk softly there, And learn by going where I have to go..." This is an example of villanelle with a rhyme scheme of tercet ABA. Each line is following strong iambic pentameter. They are shown through underlined lines with stressed/unstressed syllabic patterns. Example #5: Ode to the West Wind (By Percy Bysshe Shelley) "O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being, Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing, Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red, Pestilence-stricken multitudes: O thou, Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed Thine azure sister of the Spring shall blow..." This is a perfect example of terza rima tercet with the interlocking pattern of rhyme scheme ABA BCB CDC. This pattern continues throughout the poem. Function of Tercet A tercet gives a smooth, flowing reading experience due to its rhyme scheme. It evokes both physical and cerebral response in their senses. It is commonly found in historical poetry. Contemporary poets, too, use slant rhymes, broken rhymes, and free verse in tercets. The use of iambic pentameter adds to the rhythm and flow of the poems. Moreover, subtle variation through iambic pentameter produces emotional impacts on readers, which is the major objectives of these short poems.

Thesis

A thesis is a statement in a non-fiction or a fiction work that a writer intends to support and prove. One can find examples of thesis statement at the beginning of literary pieces. These thesis statements are of utmost importance, as they provide clear indicators as to which direction the writer will follow in their work. A thesis statement is carefully crafted by a writer, and is marked by vigilant selection of words that will never miss its target. Generally, such a statement shows up in the first paragraph, or what is called an introduction. Despite writers' efforts to prove their thesis statements, not all of these statements can be verified for their exactness. Nevertheless, they do develop an argument. Importance of a Thesis Statement In writing an essay, a thesis statement determines the worth of the essay by its capacity to stay focused on its thesis statement. For instance, if a writer fails to clearly mention or define a solid thesis statement in his or her essay, it will be difficult for readers to track the issue the writer plans to discuss and explain. Suppose a writer wants to write an essay on how to make a perfect fruit salad, the quality of his or her writing will exceedingly improve if he or she lets the readers know the subject matter at the start of the essay, for example: "In this essay, I will tell you how to make the perfect fruit salad. Not only will it be tasty, but also healthy for your body." Narrative Thesis In a narrative essay, or narrative section of a piece of literature, a thesis statement is called a "narrative thesis." A narrative thesis can be an apparent one or a hidden or implied one. In both cases, such a statement is a powerful, propelling force behind an entire work, that guides it toward its ultimate purpose and the lesson it intends to instruct. Narrative Thesis Examples Below is a list of a few narrative thesis examples - opening lines that determine the entire course of the narratives. Example #1: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) "It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife." Example #2: One Hundred Years of Solitude (By Gabriel García Márquez) "Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendía was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice." Example #3: Lolita (By Vladimir Nabokov) "Lolita, light of my life, fire of my loins." Example #4: Anna Karenina (By Leo Tolstoy) "Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." Example #5: 1984 (By George Orwell) "It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen." Example #6: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." Example #7: The Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger) "If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you'll probably want to know is where I was born, and what my lousy childhood was like, and how my parents were occupied and all before they had me, and all that David Copperfield kind of crap, but I don't feel like going into it, if you want to know the truth." Example #8: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) "Once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the road and this moocow that was coming down along the road met a nicens little boy named baby tuckoo." Function of Thesis The above arguments clearly reveal the function of a thesis statements or a narrative thesis as a driving force behind a literary composition. It guides the narrative toward its ultimate purpose, which is the moral lesson it aims to inculcate.

Voice

A voice in literature is the form or a format through which narrators tell their stories. It is prominent when a writer places himself herself into words, and provides a sense that the character is real person, conveying a specific message the writer intends to convey. In simple words, it is an author's individual writing style or point of view. When a writer engages personally with a topic, he imparts his personality to that piece of literature. This individual personality is different from other individual personalities, which other writers put into their own works. Thus, voice is a unique personality of a literary work. Depending upon the type of work, authors may use a single voice, or multiple voices. Types of Voice Though there are many types of voice, two are most commonly used: Author's Voice - Author's voice is the writer's particular style, which he employs in a particular story, or piece of writing. Character's Voice - A character's voice is the voice of the main character, how he views the world. It is a common narrative voice used with first and third person points of view. Here, the author uses a conscious person as a narrator in the story. Examples of Voice in Literature Example #1: Various works (By Multiple Authors) Stream of Consciousness Voice Stream of consciousness is a narrative voice that comprises the thought processes of the characters. James Joyce's novel, Ulysses, and William Faulkner's novels, As I Lay Dying, and The Sound and Fury, are modes of stream of consciousness narrative. Example #2: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee) Character Voice Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird is a very good example of a character's voice, in which the character Scout narrates the whole story. Though she is an adult, she tells her story from her childhood's point of view. When she grows older, her language becomes more sophisticated. Scout uses first‑person narrative to create a realistic sense, enabling the audience to notice the child is growing up. Her dialogue allows readers to hear the language of younger Scout. Also, it enables the readers to feel the voice of an adult in her actions and thinking. Example #3: The Tell-Tale Heart (By Edgar Allan Poe) Unreliable Voice Edgar Allan Poe's short story The Tell-Tale Heart is an example of first‑person unreliable narrative voice, which is significantly unknowledgeable, biased, childish, and ignorant, which purposefully tries to deceive the readers. As the story proceeds, readers notice the voice is unusual, characterized by starts and stops. The character directly talks to the readers, showing a highly exaggerated and wrought style. It is obvious that the effectiveness of this story relies on its style, voice, and structure, which reveal the diseased state of mind of the narrator. Example #4: Frankenstein (By Mary Shelley) Epistolary Voice Epistolary narrative voice makes use of letters and documents to convey the message and reveal the story. It may use multiple persons' voices, or there could be no narrator at all, as the author may have gathered different documents into a single place to shape the story. For instance, Mary Shelley, in her novel Frankenstein, employs epistolary form, in which she uses a sequence of letters to express the voice of her narrator - a scientific explorer, Captain Robert Walton. He attempts to reach the North Pole, where he meets Victor Frankenstein, and then records his experiences and confessions. Example #5: Old Man and the Sea (By George R. R. Martin) Third-person, Subjective Voice Third person narrative voice employs a third‑person point of view. In a third‑person subjective voice, a narrator describes feelings, thoughts, and opinions of one or more characters. Hemingway's novel Old Man and the Sea, and George R. R. Martin's fantasy novel A Song of Ice and Fire, present examples of third person subjective voice. Example #6: Hills Like White Elephants (By Ernest Hemingway) Third-person Objective Voice In a third person objective voice, a narrator narrates the story without showing the character's feelings and thoughts, and gives unbiased and objective points of view. A typical example of this voice is Ernest Hemingway's Hills Like White Elephants. Function of Voice While identifying the function of voice in literature, it is necessary to consider the narrator's degree of objectivity, reliability, and omniscience. Voice shows whose eyes readers see the narrative through, which gives a personality to a literary piece. Moreover, a strong voice helps make every word count, sets up consistency, and most importantly grabs the attention of the readers.

Understatement

An understatement is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is. For example, you win 10 million dollars in a lottery. When you tell a news reporter "I am delighted," you are making an understatement. Similarly, suppose a team loses to its opponent 50 to 0 in a soccer match, and the captain of the team says in a post-match ceremony, "We did not do well," it is an understatement because he is trying to decrease the intensity of the loss. An understatement usually has an ironic effect, as an equally intense response is expected in severe situations, but the statement in response is the opposite of what was expected. For instance, your friend returns your new coat with a large wine stain on the front of it. In response, you make an understatement, "It doesn't look too bad." Therefore, an understatement is opposite to another figure of speech, hyperbole, which is an overstatement. Common Understatement Examples Let us try to understand understatement better with the help of some common examples of understatement used in daily conversations: "Deserts are sometimes hot, dry, and sandy." - Describing deserts of the world. "He is not too thin." - Describing an obese person. "It rained a bit more than usual." - Describing an area being flooded by heavy rainfall. "It was O.K." - Said by the student who got the highest score on the test. "It is a bit nippy today." - Describing the temperature, which is 5 degrees below freezing. Examples of Understatement in Literature Example #1: Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger) In Salinger's Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield says: "I have to have this operation. It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain." Having a tumor in the brain is a serious issue, which has been understated in this excerpt. Example #2: Emperor Mage (By Tamora Pierce) In Emperor Mage, a fantasy novel by Tamora Pierce, Daine states (as if she has done nothing wrong): "I thought they'd killed you. I lost my temper." This is an understatement that Daine makes, after raising an army of dinosaur skeletons to destroy the king and later, she destroys the imperial palace in order to avenge the death of her teacher. Example #3: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (By Mark Twain) [Aunt Sally] "Good gracious, anybody hurt?" [Huck] "No'm. Killed a ******." This excerpt from Mark Twain's famous work provides one of the great understatement examples found in Twain's literary pieces. Huck's response, "No'm. Killed a ******" exposes the thinking of the people of the time, who did not consider black men humans. Killing a black man was not considered something serious. Example #4: Night's Dawn Trilogy (By Peter F. Hamilton) Look at the understatement in Night's Dawn Trilogy written by Peter F. Hamilton: "I've always been a massive admirer of the Edenist ability to understate. But I think defining a chunk of land fifteen kilometers across that suddenly takes flight and wanders off into another dimension as a little problem is possibly the best example yet." Example #5: The Silver Chain (By Primula Bond) Another example of understatement comes from Primula Bond's novel The Silver Chain: "And you, who have told me a hundred times how deeply you pitied me for the sorceries by which I was bound, will doubtless hear with joy that they are now ended forever. There was, it seems, some small error in your Ladyship's way of treating them." The reference of "some small error" is an understatement as the error which ends somebody's power is not small at all. Example #6: Consider Phlebas (By Iain Banks) In another fantasy novel, Consider Phlebas, an understatement was made about a war that lasted for 48 years, and took the lives of more than 851 billion beings. "A small, short war that rarely extended throughout more than .02% of the galaxy and .01% by stellar population ... the galaxy's elder civilisations rate the Idiran-Culture war as ... one of those singularly interesting Events they see so rarely these days." Function of Understatement An understatement is a tool that helps to develop other figures of speech, such as irony and sarcasm, by deliberately decreasing the severity of a situation, when an intense response is expected by the listeners or the readers.

Anachronism

Anachronism is derived from the Greek word anachronous, which means "against time." Therefore, an anachronism is an error of chronology or timeline in a literary piece. In other words, anything that is out of time and out of place is an anachronism. Anachronisms appear in literature, paintings, and other works, and it is fascinating to explore them. Generally, they are considered errors that occur due to lack of research. For example, if a painter paints a portrait of Aristotle, and shows him wearing a wrist watch, it would be an example of anachronism, as we are all aware that wristwatches did not exist during Aristotle's time. Similarly, the presence of a wall clock in a stage setting that depicts the interior of a Roman fort is an anachronism. Examples of Anachronism in Literature Example #1: The Great Gatsby (By F. Scott Fitzgerald) The most famous anachronism example comes from Act 2, Scene 1 of William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar: Brutus: "Peace! Count the clock." Cassius: "The clock has stricken three." The time this play depicts is a point in history dating back to 44 A.D. Mechanical clocks referred to in the above-mentioned dialogue had not been invented at that time, but were present in Shakespeare's time. Thus, the mention of a clock in this play is an anachronism. The same play presents another example of anachronism in Act 1, Scene 2: "... he plucked me open his doublet and offered them his throat to cut." Romans at the time of Julius Caesar did not wear a doublet, a close-fitted jacket. This was, however, a fashion among men at the time of Shakespeare, and therefore its use in the play is an anachronism. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) It is interesting to cite an instance of anachronism in Shakespeare's play Hamlet. Hamlet, the protagonist, is the Prince of Denmark. We are told in the play that he has been attending the University of Halle-Wittenberg. It is a historical fact that the aforementioned institute was established in 1502 A.D. The time that was depicted in the play was that of the 7th or 13th century. Shakespeare did not bother much to set the mistake right, nor did people ever call into question the presence of the university mentioned above in the Hamlet character's time. Example #3: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) Yet another example of Shakespearean anachronism comes from Act 1, Scene 2 of his play Macbeth: "Ross: That now Sweno, the Norways' king, craves composition: Nor would we deign him burial of his men Till he disbursed at Saint Colme's inch Ten thousand dollars to our general use." The use of the word "dollar" in the above excerpt is clearly an example of an anachronism, as the dollar was not the monetary unit during the time that the play is set. Shakespeare's lack of research caused him to mention an item out of its time. Example #4: Pharaoh (By Boleslaw Prus) Another example of anachronism caused by a lack of research is in the novel Pharaoh, written by the Polish writer Boleslaw Prus. The setting of the novel is the regime of Ramses XII (1087-1085 B.C). The writer mentions in his novel a Prince Harim's canal in the time of Ramses XII, and claims that it was the size of the Suez Canal. Careful research reveals that the canal existed before the mentioned timeline of the narrative, and it was much smaller than the Suez Canal. Example #5: Ode on a Grecian Urn (By John Keats) An example of anachronism can be traced in John Keats' poem Ode on a Grecian Urn: "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes play on." Notice the use of the century-old and formal term "ye," rather than the informal and more appropriate to Keats' time, "you." It is an anachronism, but its use here is intentional, as it is used to show the respect that the urn inspires in Keats; hence, produces an artistic effect. Function of Anachronism Generally, an anachronism is considered an unintentional error that is a result of a writer's carelessness, and his lack of research. At times, however, it is employed in order to produce a special artistic effect, in order to attract the attention of the readers by an appropriate use of anachronism.

Pedantic

Pedantic comes from the French word pedant, which means "to teach or to act as pedagogue." A pedantic is someone who is concerned with precision, formalism, accuracy, and minute details in order to make an arrogant and ostentatious show of learning. He could be a writer, a character, feelings, tone, or words. Sigmund Freud defined pedantic in this manner: "The pedant is he who finds it impossible to read criticism of himself without immediately reaching for his pen and replying to the effect that the accusation is a gross insult to his person." A pedant often corrects small mistakes that are not very important in grand matters and, therefore, may annoy others around him. Popular Views about Pedants But even they are too pedantic: with prejudiced views, they pursue one-sided aims. (From Piano and Song, by Friedrich Wieck) The pedant still does the cause of education incalculable injury. (From Craftsmanship in Teaching, by William Chandler Bagley) It is their instinct to flower in spring, of course, but they are not pedantic about it in the least. (From About Orchids: A Chat, by Frederick Boyle) Examples of Pedantic Characters in Literature Example #1: Pale Fire (By Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov) Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov has used Charles Kinbote as a pedant in his novel Pale Fire. Kinbote is a leading character, living in exile as a literature Professor in a New England college town known as New Wye. In fact, he belongs to a country called Zembla. Kinbote is a pedantic, a disturbed liar who cannot avoid telling lies, which makes this novel interesting. Throughout the novel, Kinbote keeps giving clues that he is an exiled king from Zembla. In this case, the readers believe that Kinbote is really a king from Zembla, despite that it is equally important to remember that Zembla has no king. He did this through demonstration of his knowledge of things others do not know about. Example #2: The Big Bang Theory (By Bill Prady and Chuck Lorre) Bill Prady and Chuck Lorre's sitcom contains a pedantic character, Dr. Sheldon Lee Cooper, who is a theoretical physicist. Dr. Sheldon Cooper is idiosyncratic and obsessed, being possessed with extreme narcissism and extensive general knowledge. Other characteristics of his personality include inflated ego, prodigy, social ineptitude, and his inability to express emotions to people, which show him as a typical pedantic person. Example #3: The Great Gatsby (By F. Scott Fitzgerald) "Civilization's going to pieces ... I've gotten to be a terrible pessimist about things. Have you read 'The Rise of the Colored Empires' by this man Goddard? ... Well, it's a fine book, and everybody ought to read it. The idea is if we don't look out the white race will be — will be utterly submerged. It's all scientific stuff; it's been proved ... I know I'm not very popular. I don't give big parties. I suppose you've got to make your house into a pigsty in order to have any friends - in the modern world." In this paragraph, Tom Buchanan is trying to look like a learned person but he winds up looking foolish. The final line is a pedantic, as Tom is citing popularity and parties of Gatsby as a proof of modern world disintegration. Example #4: Cherry Orchard (By Anton Chekhov) Trofimov is an intelligent person yet impassioned, and immature too. Therefore, Chekhov calls him an "Eternal Student." He is unforgiving and judgmental, as Lubov puts blame on his youth saying: "You boldly look forward, isn't it because you cannot foresee or expect anything terrible, because so far life has been hidden from your young eyes? You are bolder, more honest, deeper than we are, but think only, be just a little magnanimous, and have mercy on me." Here he thinks that he is an intellectual and a revolutionary preoccupied with plans, however being ostentatious, lacking real world experience and displaying characteristics of a pedantic man. Function of Pedantic Writers use a pedantic character to teach something in a complicated manner, or to teach with excessive demonstration of knowledge. Another purpose of writers in using pedantry is to display their multilingual abilities by using excessive knowledge. Though the term pedantic refers to displaying a sense of knowledge, which is its positive side, it also tells about the narrow-mindedness of a character or a writer who tries to insist on adhering to arbitrary rules and principles, because often such rules are pointless.

Pentameter

Pentameter is a literary device that can be defined as a line in verse or poetry that has five strong metrical feet or beats. There are different forms of pentameter: iamb, trochaic, dactylic, and anapestic. The most commonly used pentameter in English is iambic. It also can be described as a line that consists of ten syllables, where the first syllable is stressed, the second is unstressed, the third is stressed, and so on until it reaches the 10th line syllable. For instance: "Shall I comPARE thee TO a SUMmer's DAY?" (Sonnet 18, by William Shakespeare) Types of Pentameter Iamb pentameter Trochaic pentameter Anapestic pentameter Dactylic pentameter Examples of Pentameter in Literature Example #1: Twelfth Night (By William Shakespeare) "If music be the food of love, play on; Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting, The appetite may sicken, and so die. That strain again! it had a dying fall: O, it came o'er my ear like the sweet sound..." This excerpt has an iambic pentameter style (unstressed/stressed pattern), the stressed syllables shown in bold. Here we can see that each line has five beats, and stress is placed on the second syllable. Example #2: Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) "Whan that aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of march hath perced to the roote, And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour; Whan zephirus eek with his sweete breeth. To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende, The hooly blisful martir for to seke That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke." This is another example of iambic pentameter. Here, each foot is called an "iamb," and contains two syllables, wherein the first syllable is unaccented and the second is accented. Through this unstressed/stressed pattern, emphasis has been added to the words. Example #3: Holy Sonnet XIV (By John Donne) "Batter my heart three-personed God, for you as yet but knock, breathe, shine and seek to mend. That I may rise and stand o'erthrow me and bend Your force to break, blow, burn and make me new..." Iambic pentameter examples are rich in Donne's poems. Here, in this extract, the second and third lines follow this pattern perfectly. There are ten syllables, where the first syllables are unstressed followed by stressed syllables. Example #4: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) "And my poor fool is hang'd! No, no, no life! Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life, And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more, Never, never, never, never, never! Pray you, undo this button: thank you, sir. Do you see this? Look on her, look, her lips, Look there, look there...! This excerpt is a perfect example of trochaic pentameter, which follows a stressed/unstressed pattern that is opposite to iamb meter. The syllables are perfectly alternating between unstressed and stressed syllables in the fourth line. Example #5: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred, Lord Tennyson) "Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. 'Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!' he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred." This is an example of dactyl pentameter, which follows a stressed/unstressed/unstressed pattern. It is an elegiac poem, since dactyl pentameter exists mostly in elegies. This meter is functioning as a building block, and gives a regular rhythm to the poem. Function of Pentameter Pentameter widely governs the individual lines in poems, couplets, and verses, and provides a structural form to a poem. It also determines the speaking style and rhythm. Pentameters also give arrangement to words through the regular use of accents on the syllables, and helps in emphasizing the specific words which a poet wishes to. This is the major reason for variation in the text through stressed/unstressed patterns.

Periphrasis

Periphrasis originates from the Greek word periphrazein, which means "talking around." It is a stylistic device that can be defined as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression, or in a few words. It is an indirect or roundabout way of writing about something. For example, using the phrase "I am going to" instead of "I will" is periphrasis. This is also called "circumlocution," but there is a slight difference between circumlocution and periphrasis. Types of Periphrasis Periphrasis is one type of circumlocution. There are two types of circumlocution, namely periphrasis and ambage. Periphrasis is a roundabout explanation of something, while ambage is an indirect and ambiguous way of expressing things or ideas. Difference Between Paraphrasis and Periphrasis Para means "beside," whereas peri means "around." In paraphrasing, ambiguous statements are restated in order to enhance the meanings, while periphrasis is a measured roundabout way of expressing something. Examples of Periphrasis in Literature Example #1: David Copperfield (By Charles Dickens) "'Under the impression,' said Mr. Micawber, 'that your peregrinations in this metropolis have not as yet been extensive, and that you might have some difficulty in penetrating the arcana of the Modern Babylon in the direction of the City Road—in short,' said Mr. Micawber, in another burst of confidence, 'that you might lose yourself—I shall be happy to call this evening, and install you in the knowledge of the nearest way ...'" In this excerpt, Dickens has used periphrasis to give comic effect to the text. It is used in the speech of Wilkins Micawber, who speaks in an indirect way. Also, this technique gives poetic flavor to this prose. Example #2: Sonnet 74 (By William Shakespeare) "When that fell arrest Without all bail shall carry me away." In this extract, Shakespeare is explaining death and its consequences. He has used an indirect way of illustrating death as "when that fell." Here it means, when death comes, no one would be able to save him. Example #3: The Rape of the Lock (By Alexander Pope) "Close by those meads, forever crowned with flowers, Where Thames with pride surveys his rising towers, There stands a structure of majestic frame, Which for the neighb'ring Hampton takes its name. Here Britain's statesmen oft the fall foredoom Dost sometimes counsel take—and sometimes tea. Not louder shrieks to pitying Heav'n are cast, When husbands or when lap-dogs breathe their last, Or when rich China vessels, fall'n from high, In glitt'ring dust and painted fragments lie!" In this excerpt, Pope is employing periphrasis by criticizing the aristocratic class through the description of Hampton Court Palace. He has used this device to disclose the negative side of aristocracy. Example #4: The Importance of Being Earnest (By Oscar Wilde) "I was within a hair's-breadth of the last opportunity for pronouncement, and I found with humiliation that probably I would have nothing to say." In the above passage, periphrasis is employed to describe earnestness. This idea could be understood in different ways. In the text, it is given as the opposite of pettiness, but elsewhere it is explained as the reverse of seriousness. Example #5: Kubla Khan (By S. T. Coleridge) "So twice five miles of fertile ground With walls and towers were girdled round: And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills, Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree; And here were forests ancient as the hills, Enfolding sunny spots of greenery." Coleridge has used periphrasis to demonstrate hidden meanings and concepts. He illustrates the natural world as wild, while things are safe and calm inside the palace walls. Function of Periphrasis From the above examples of periphrasis, one could surmise that this literary device is used to embellish sentences by creating splendid effects to draw readers' attention. These periphrasis examples have also shown that the use of this literary device lends poetic flavor to prose. Periphrasis is a feature of analytical language that tends to shun inflection.

Personification

Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing - an idea or an animal - is given human attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings. For example, when we say, "The sky weeps," we are giving the sky the ability to cry, which is a human quality. Thus, we can say that the sky has been personified in the given sentence. With the above definition of personification, let us look at some personification examples. Common Examples of Personification Look at my car. She is a beauty, isn't she? The wind whispered through dry grass. The flowers danced in the gentle breeze. Time and tide wait for none. The fire swallowed the entire forest. We see from the above examples of personification that this literary device helps us relate actions of inanimate objects to our own emotions. Short Examples of Personification in Speech The shadow of the moon danced on the lake. There was a heavy thunderstorm, the wind snorted outside, rattling my windowpanes. The flowers were blooming, and the bees kissed them every now and then. The flood raged over the entire village. The tread of time is so ruthless that it tramples even the kings under its feet. It was early morning - I met a cat yawning and stretching in the street. The skyscraper was so tall that it seemed to kiss the sky. The tree was pulled down, and the birds lamented over its dead body. The tall pines in the hilly area fondled the clouds. The long road to his home was a twisting snake, with no visible end. The full moon peeped through partial clouds. His car suffered a severe stroke in the middle of the road, and refused to move forward. The ship danced over the undulating waves of the ocean. When he sat the test, the words and the ideas fled from his mind. When he came out of the house of his deceased friend, everything looked to him to be weeping. Examples of Personification in Literature Example #1: The Green Gables Letters (By L. M. Montgomery) "I hied me away to the woods — away back into the sun-washed alleys carpeted with fallen gold and glades where the moss is green and vivid yet. The woods are getting ready to sleep — they are not yet asleep but they are disrobing and are having all sorts of little bed-time conferences and whisperings and good-nights." The lack of activity in the forest has been beautifully personified as the forest getting ready to sleep, busy at bed-time chatting and wishing good-nights, all of which are human customs. Example #2: Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Scene II (By William Shakespeare) "When well-appareled April on the heel Of limping winter treads." There are two personification examples here. April cannot put on a dress, and winter does not limp, nor does it have a heel on which a month can walk. Shakespeare personifies the month of April and the winter season by giving them two distinct human qualities. Example #3: Loveliest of Trees the Cherry Now (By A. H. Houseman) "Loveliest of trees, the cherry now Is hung with bloom along the bough, And stands about the woodland ride Wearing white for Eastertide." He sees a cherry tree covered with beautiful white flowers in the forest, and says that the cherry tree wears white clothes to celebrate Easter. He gives human attributes to a tree in order to describe it in human terms. Example #4: Have You Got A Brook In Your Little Heart (By Emily Elizabeth Dickinson) "Have you got a brook in your little heart, Where bashful flowers blow, And blushing birds go down to drink, And shadows tremble so?" The bashful flowers, blushing birds, and trembling shadows are examples of personification. Example #5: How Pearl Button Was Kidnapped (By William Shakespeare) "Pearl Button swung on the little gate in front of the House of Boxes. It was the early afternoon of a sunshiny day with little winds playing hide-and-seek in it." It personifies wind by saying that it is as playful as little children playing hide-and-seek on a sunny day. Example #6: Two Sunflowers Move in a Yellow Room (By William Blake) "Two Sunflowers Move in the Yellow Room. 'Ah, William, we're weary of weather,' said the sunflowers, shining with dew. Our traveling habits have tired us. Can you give us a room with a view?" This poem by William Blake contains a lot of examples of personification. The poem starts in a dialogue form, where a sunflower is directly addressing the poet by calling his name. Again, in the third line the flower says, "our travelling habits have tired us", which is a good personification. The flowers are depicting a human characteristic of weariness caused by the weather. In a human way, they make a request to the poet to put them in a room with a window with plenty of sunshine. Example #7: I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (By William Wordsworth) "I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze." This poem by William Wordsworth contains artistic examples of personification. The fourth line says, "A host of golden daffodils," and the fifth line has those flowers "Fluttering and dancing in the breeze." Example #8: The Waste Land (By T. S. ELIOT) "April is the cruellest month, breeding Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing Memory and desire, stirring Dull roots with spring rain." These are the opening lines of The Waste Land, by T. S. Eliot. The very first line contains personification in that it labels April as the cruelest month'. Example #9: Because I could not stop for Death (By Emily Dickinson) "Because I could not stop for Death - He kindly stopped for me - The Carriage held but just Ourselves - And Immortality. We slowly drove - He knew no haste And I had put away My labor and my leisure too, For His Civility -" The whole poem is full of examples of personification. In fact, death has been personified by the poet, saying "He kindly stopped for me." Again in the second stanza, "He knew no haste," and so on. Function of Personification Personification is not merely a decorative device, but serves the purpose of giving deeper meanings to literary texts. It adds vividness to expressions, as we always look at the world from a human perspective. Writers and poets rely on personification to bring inanimate things to life, so that their nature and actions are understood in a better way. Because it is easier for us to relate to something that is human, or which possesses human traits, its use encourages us to develop a perspective that is new as well as creative.

Persuasion

Persuasion is a literary technique that writers use to present their ideas through reason and logic, in order to influence the audience. Persuasion may simply use an argument to persuade the readers, or sometimes may persuade readers to perform a certain action. Simply, it is an art of effective speaking and writing in which writers make their opinions believable to the audience through logic, by invoking emotions, and by proving their own credibility. Types of Persuasion Persuasion has three basic types: 1. Ethos It is linked with morality and ethics. In this method of persuasion, writers or speakers convince their audience of their goodwill and present themselves as trustworthy. In order to determine whether a writer is credible or not, the audience needs to understand his intention and his strong understanding of the subject. 2. Logos Logos comes of logic, therefore writers use logic, reasoning, and rationality to convince audiences of their perspectives. 3. Pathos The third method is pathos, which invokes and appeals to the emotions of the audience. This is contrary to logos, as it presents arguments without using logic or reasoning. Many writers consider love, fear, empathy, and anger as strong factors to influence the emotions of their audiences. Examples of Persuasion in Literature Example #1: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift) Ethos: In, A Modest Proposal, Jonathan Swift uses ethos to prove that he is a credible source due to his conclusive research concerning infantile consumption, as he writes: "I am assured by our merchants that a boy or a girl before twelve years old is no saleable commodity, and even when they come to this age, they will not yield above three pounds." Swift builds his credibility by assuring that, prior to creating this proposal, he had discussed the issue with merchants. Swift attempts to make clear his point that selling infants as food would be profitable, and would help financially impoverished parents. Example #2: Of Studies (By Francis Bacon) Logos: "STUDIES serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight, is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment, and disposition of business." In the above excerpt, Bacon employs logic to describe how we can use studies for various purposes. He gives logic that in aloofness and retirement, reading gives pleasure, and adorns a person's conversation as an ornament. Hence, we can know the ability of a learned man through his judgment. Example #3: Jane Eyre (By Charlotte Bronte) Pathos: In Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte brings pathos when Jane leaves Mr. Rochester as they were about to tie the knot. Jane, however, finds out that Mr. Rochester already has a wife, who is actually alive, though mentally disturbed living with a nurse in the attic. These circumstances arouse the emotions of readers, in that Jane had already faced a difficult and sad life with her aunt and her children, and now when she was about to finally find happiness, she feels dejected once again. Example #4: Campaign Speech, November 3, 2008 (By Barack Obama) Barack Obama made a public speech a night before his election campaign in Virginia on November 3, 2008, saying: "This country is more decent than one where a woman in Ohio, on the brink of retirement, finds herself one illness away from disaster after a lifetime of hard work...This country is more generous than one where a man in Indiana has to pack up the equipment he's worked on for twenty years and watch it shipped off to China... We are more compassionate than a government that lets veterans sleep on our streets and families slide into poverty; that sits on its hands while a major American city drowns before our eyes..." This emotional speech plays on people's sense of guilt, making it a good example of pathos. Although Obama employs snob appeal fallacy in his argument, it is a very influential and emotional appeal. Function of Persuasion Persuasion is the most common literary technique. We not only find it in literature, but also in political speeches, conferences, courtrooms, and advertisements. Through persuasive writing, writers express their own feelings and opinions by appealing to the audience emotionally and rationally. Hence, it is a very effective technique to win over the readers or audience. In addition, it helps students to unearth certain reasons in favor of their points of view, and gives them a chance to research facts linked to their views. While developing an understanding of how writing can change and influence their thoughts and actions, students can understand the nature of persuasive work.

Circumlocution

Circumlocution is a rhetorical device that can be defined as an ambiguous or paradoxical way of expressing things, ideas, or views. In fact, when somebody wants to remain ambiguous about something, and he does not want to say a thing directly, it means he is using circumlocution. Common Features Examining all the examples of circumlocution, one would find that they share the following features: It is used when the speaker is unable to choose the right words to express or say something. It is used for social purposes in order to avoid using offensive words. It is used in politics and law, and sometimes it becomes difficult to judge which perspective of a politician or a lawyer should be supported. In poetry and verse, it is used to create a regular meter. Examples of Circumlocution in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) LAERTES: "Then weigh what loss your honour may sustain If with too credent ear you list his songs, Or lose your heart, or your chaste treasure open To his unmast'red importunity." Laertes gives his domineering suggestion genuinely here, but his tone seemed to be of a prepared speech. He neither shows real awareness of, nor consideration for, Ophelia's feelings. By using circumlocution, he underscores her feminine inferiority. Example #2: The Rape of the Lock (By Alexander Pope) "Close by those meads, forever crowned with flowers, Where Thames with pride surveys his rising towers, There stands a structure of majestic frame, Which for the neighb'ring Hampton takes its name. Here Britain's statesmen oft the fall foredoom Dost sometimes counsel take—and sometimes tea. Not louder shrieks to pitying Heav'n are cast, When husbands or when lap-dogs breathe their last, Or when rich China vessels, fall'n from high, In glitt'ring dust and painted fragments lie!" In the preceding excerpt, Pope criticizes the aristocracy by describing Hampton Court Palace. Circumlocution is employed to reveal the harsh realities, apart from the amusement of court. Pope points out both serious matters and trivial occasions happening in royal houses. Example #3: Kubla Khan (By S. T. Coleridge) "So twice five miles of fertile ground With walls and towers were girdled round: And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills, Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree; And here were forests ancient as the hills, Enfolding sunny spots of greenery." Here, Coleridge uses circumlocution to illustrate the underlying concepts. He describes the outside natural world, which is wild, and the things that are protected and peaceful within the palace walls. Example #4: Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) "The edge of a colossal jungle, so dark green as to be almost black, fringed with white surf, ran straight, like a ruled line, far, far away along a blue sea whose glitter was blurred by a creeping mist. The sun was fierce, the land seemed to glisten and drip with steam..." Conrad is intentionally presenting ambiguous descriptions of the nature of morality and truth, which forces readers to take part in comprehending the novella. Here, the depiction of nature - of forests, and sea, of sun and mist - represents racial, political, psychoanalytical, and feminist perspectives. Example #5: The Importance of Being Earnest (By Oscar Wilde) "I was within a hair's breadth of the last opportunity for pronouncement, and I found with humiliation that probably I would have nothing to say..." In this excerpt, the idea of earnestness has appeared in various forms. It can be understood by its opposites. Here, it is offered as the reverse of triviality, and elsewhere as the opposite of seriousness. Though ostensibly it is a quality of candor, the exact meanings are still vague. Example #6: Holy Sonnet 14 (By John Donne) "Divorce me, untie or break that knot again; Take me to you, imprison me, for I, Except you enthrall me, never shall be free, Nor ever chaste, except you ravish me." Donne talks about the conflict that rages within himself, which he expresses through circumlocution. He says a man cannot avoid Satan's influence, but he must rely on God to get freedom spiritually from Satan. Function of Circumlocution Circumlocution is extensively used in poetry, music, and rhetorical speech. It is, in fact, the embellishment of putting different words together so as not to say what a person wants not to say. Circumlocution makes the verses soft and beautiful, since it is a way to set aside harsh speech, and make words sound sweeter. However, the major use of circumlocution is to express something ambiguously, and often in poetry to create regular rhyme. Also, it is employed to give different ideas to readers.

Anthology

The term anthology originates from a Greek word, anthologia, meaning a "collection of flowers." An anthology is a compilation of literary works such as poems, plays, short stories, excerpts, including television programs, dramas, movies and songs. There are different categories of anthologies such as comic anthologies, essay collections, fiction anthologies, poetry anthologies, anthologies of films, and of television programs. Its most common category is literary one, which editors compile from different sources and publish in book forms. Examples of Anthologies in Literature Example #1: The Garden Party and Other Stories (by Katherine Mansfield) Mansfield published her collection, "The Garden Party and Other Stories," in 1922, just a year prior to her death due to tuberculosis. She was a pioneer modernist writer, who was brought up in New Zealand, then moved to England, where she befriended Virginia Woolf and D.H. Lawrence. The title story is one of Mansfield's well-known works, which she wrote in the modernist style, using a simple backdrop of a family making preparations for a beautiful garden party. Mansfield, against this setting, has brilliantly interwoven meditations on life, class, illusion, reality, and death. This is perhaps the first short story collection published by an English female writer, which included herself in her own anthology. Example #2: The Collected Stories (by Lorrie Moore) "The Collected Stories," by Lorrie Moore, is a beautiful collection of tales that allows readers to plunge in and out of the writer's experience observing of human behavior. Ms. Moore is famous for her sharp humor and ironic tone. Moore writes about family dynamics, infidelity, and terminal illness. However, the way she shifts smoothly from one theme to another, makes this anthology a popular one. The most popular story from this volume is, "How to Be an Other Woman." The book is counted as an excellent anthology of its time. Example #3: The Faerie Queens (by David Rankine) "The Faerie Queens" is another noted anthology of essays exploring magic, myths, and mythology in ancient times. This collection is mysterious, otherworldly, and powerful, which has spread its magic across the entirety of Europe for centuries, captivating those who have read the essays. In fact, Rankine has given his readers critical reviews of myths, mythologies, legends, and epic figures. Example #4: 100 Best Love Poems (by Philip Smith) "100 Best Love Poems" is a popular collection of poems in the English language. The works are compiled together, not only for their popularity, but also for their literary quality. From the middle ages, to the twentieth century, these poems remain all-time favorites, and have the ability to captivate and engage the minds of readers, and keep their spirits fresh. Example #5: Renaissance Drama: An Anthology of Plays and Entertainments (by Arthur F. Kinny) "An Anthology of Plays and Entertainments" is a ground-breaking collection of non-Shakespearean Renaissance drama. It covers a full sweep of dramatic performances, such as court masques, and state balls. This second edition anthology includes pageants and plays that are not anthologized anywhere else, including plays about the coronation of Queen Anne and Elizabeth I, as well as "A Woman Killed with Kindness" by Thomas Heywood. Mr. Kinny has added more material, including "The Second Shepherd's Play," "Noah," "The Tragedy of Antony," "The Malcontent," and "The Masque of Queen." Function Perhaps the greatest function of an anthology is to give readers a look into places, experiences, and people they would not otherwise experience. This is done by linking together stories, poems, and plays, by their themes, characters, and places. The successful editor puts pieces together to make sense - not merely as individual works, but as a whole unit with coherence, that otherwise might be overlooked. Readers can just pull an anthology from the shelf, and get lost in a story or poem that reflects their feelings. Another important function of an anthology is to prevent readers from getting bored, or being tied to one particular theme or element. Rather, they explore different types of worlds and feelings, in a variety of stories and poems - all of which are linked by a single theme. Another function of anthologies is to enable students to easily find the best pieces, put together according to times, reviews, critical theories, settings and plots.

Expository Essay

Expose means to uncover or lay something bare, or to discover something in a way that others know what it is. Expository is derived from exposition, which is a noun of 'expose.' An expository essay is a genre of writing which tends to explain, illustrate, clarify, or explicate something in a way that it becomes clear for readers. Therefore, it could be an investigation, evaluation, or even argumentation about an idea for clarification. Types of Expository Essay Expository essay is further divided into five major categories. Descriptive Essay: A descriptive essay describes something, some place, some experience, or some situation through sensory information. Process Essay: A process essay explains or shows a process of making or doing something. Comparison Essay: A comparison essay makes comparison and contrasts between two things. Cause/Effect Essay: A cause and effect essay finds out the cause of something and then its effects on something else. Problem/Solution Essay: A problem/solution essay presents a problem and its solution for readers. Difference Between an Expository Essay and an Argumentative Essay As is clear, an expository essay is an exposition, explanation, investigation, or illustration for the purpose of clarification, therefore, its tone is often kept neutral. However, in an argumentative essay, a clear position about something is taken before the argument is presented. There is no issue of objectivity or neutrality. Examples of Expository Essay in Literature Example #1: How Chinese Mothers are Superior (by Amy Chua) "I'm using the term 'Chinese mother' loosely. I know some Korean, Indian, Jamaican, Irish and Ghanaian parents who qualify too. Conversely, I know some mothers of Chinese heritage, almost always born in the West, who are not Chinese mothers, by choice or otherwise. I'm also using the term 'Western parents' loosely. Western parents come in all varieties. All the same, even when Western parents think they're being strict, they usually don't come close to being Chinese mothers. For example, my Western friends who consider themselves strict make their children practice their instruments 30 minutes every day. An hour at most. For a Chinese mother, the first hour is the easy part. It's hours two and three that get tough." This is an excerpt from a comparison/contrast essay by Amy Chua, which explains how mothers are different in different cultures. This paragraph compares mothers from Chinese, Iranian, Jamaican, and Irish contexts. Example #2: Learning to Read (by Malcolm X) "It was because of my letters that I happened to stumble upon starting to acquire some kind of a homemade education. I became increasingly frustrated at not being able to express what I wanted to convey in letters that I wrote, especially those to Mr. Elijah Muhammad. In the street, I had been the most articulate hustler out there. I had commanded attention when I said something. But now, trying to write simple English, I not only wasn't articulate, I wasn't even functional. How would I sound writing in slang, the way I would say it, something such as, 'Look, daddy, let me pull your coat about a cat, Elijah Muhammad — ' Many who today hear me somewhere in person, or on television, or those who read something I've said, will think I went to school far beyond the eighth grade. This impression is due entirely to my prison studies." This passage has been taken from a process essay. In this essay, Malcolm X tells the process of his learning. In this paragraph, he gives full detail how he learns letters. Example #3: Summer Ritual (by Ray Bradbury) "About seven o'clock you could hear the chairs scraping from the tables, someone experimenting with a yellow-toothed piano, if you stood outside the dining-room window and listened. Matches being struck, the first dishes bubbling in the suds and tinkling on the wall racks, somewhere, faintly, a phonograph playing. And then as the evening changed the hour, at house after house on the twilight streets, under the immense oaks and elms, on shady porches, people would begin to appear, like those figures who tell good or bad weather in rain-or-shine clocks. Uncle Bert, perhaps Grandfather, then Father, and some of the cousins; the men all coming out first into the syrupy evening, blowing smoke, leaving the wSWomen's voices behind in the cooling-warm kitchen to set their universe aright. Then the first male voices under the porch brim, the feet up, the boys fringed on the worn steps or wooden rails where sometime during the evening something, a boy or a geranium pot, would fall off." This is an example of a passage from a descriptive essay. It has full description which tells us about sounds and colors; a type of sensory information. Functions of an Expository Essay The function of an expository essay is to clarify and expose things, ideas, persons, and places through description, process, comparison/contrast, or through problem solution. The objective of this type of essay is to make readers aware of things given in the essay. It proves full and detailed information in a way that readers become knowledgeable about the topic.

Exposition

Exposition is a literary device used to introduce background information about events, settings, characters, or other elements of a work to the audience or readers. The word comes from the Latin language, and its literal meaning is "a showing forth." Exposition is crucial to any story, for without it nothing makes sense. There are many ways to present an exposition, including monologues, dialogues, in-universe media (newspapers, letters, reports, journals, etc.), a protagonist's thoughts, or a narrator's explanation of past events. It is one of the four rhetorical modes of communication - the other three being narration, description, and argumentation. Examples of Exposition in Literature Exposition in Movies Example #1: Star Wars (By George Lucas) There are countless examples of exposition in many great movies and one of them, which comes across particularly well, is from Star Wars. The exposition in this movie is the opening title sequence, which gives information about the past events to the audience. The crawling text on the screen at the beginning of each movie in the series gives the audience every piece of information they need to understand the upcoming events in the film. The opening lines usually begin like this: "A long time ago in a galaxy far away, far away..." Exposition in Literature Example #2: The Three Little Bears (By Robert Southey) An exposition is typically positioned at the beginning of a novel, movie, or other literary work, because the author wants the audience to be fully aware of the characters in the story. The famous children's story entitled The Three Little Bears applies this technique of exposition. "Once upon a time, there were three bears. There was a Daddy Bear, who was very big, a Mama Bear, who was middle-sized, and a Baby Bear, who was very small. They all lived together in a little cottage in the middle of the woods. Their favorite breakfast was porridge. One morning, after they made their porridge, Daddy Bear said, 'Let's go for walk in the woods until it cools.' Mama Bear and Baby Bear liked the idea, so off they went. While they were away, a little girl named Goldilocks came walking through the forest and smelled the porridge..." With the help of a single passage, the author of the story has given us an overview of the bear family, their residence, and information that sets the story in motion. Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare) All of Shakespeare's writings contain excellent exposition examples. Take Othello, Romeo and Juliet, Henry V, and Richard III, and you will see how exceptionally well he used the art of expository writing. Here, two examples from Othello have been taken to elaborate the point. The opening scene in Act I of Othello shows a fierce argument between Roderigo and Iago, which helps build the interest of the audience. The audience realizes that Iago is persistently trying to convince Roderigo to be his accomplice in destroying Othello. The exposition in this scene plays the following roles: It explicates Iago's treacherous, spiteful, and scheming nature. The main conflict of the play is revealed here. It revolves around Iago's concealed bitterness towards his boss Othello who, in Iago's opinion, is overlooking him for promotion. It ascertains two basic themes of the play: racism, and that appearance is not always the same as reality. At the end of Act 1, the play gives the audience a few facts about Othello, including: He is a very respectable man. He had run away with Desdemona, Brabantio's daughter. He is a great general who is sought by Venice to defend it in the war against the Turks. As is evident from the examples given above, exposition always gives us an insight into the characters' personalities, and adds flavor to the tragedy and drama we see towards the end of the play. Function of Exposition The importance of exposition in literature, as well as in our practical lives, cannot be ignored. Examining the types of writing we come across in our daily lives shows us that almost all of them are incomplete without exposition. The fiction books, articles, and magazines that people read in their everyday lives essentially rely on exposition to connect the readers to the main story by giving them the background information. In most cases, a narrative or script loses its essence if not accompanied by an exposition. Not only is it important for bringing clarity to a script, but it is also vital to enhance its literary value. The true essence of a book usually lies in how the reader is introduced to the characters in it and, if done correctly, the reader automatically starts relating to them. Moreover, exposition is widely used for academic purposes in schools, colleges, and universities. Generally, students are asked to submit research reports and pass exams to establish their progress. The exposition here is keeping the academia updated on what you have learned so far. Also, employees are asked very often to put together business reports and memorandums to update their employers about their progress.

Sonnet

The word sonnet is derived from the Italian word "sonetto," which means a "little song" or small lyric. In poetry, a sonnet has 14 lines, and is written in iambic pentameter. Each line has 10 syllables. It has a specific rhyme scheme, and a volta, or a specific turn. Generally, sonnets are divided into different groups based on the rhyme scheme they follow. The rhymes of a sonnet are arranged according to a certain rhyme scheme. The rhyme scheme in English is usually abab-cdcd-efef-gg, and in Italian abba-abba-cde-cde. Types of Sonnet Sonnets can be categorized into six major types: Italian Sonnet Shakespearean Sonnet Spenserian Sonnet Miltonic Sonnet Terza Rima Sonnet Curtal Sonnet Examples of Sonnet in Literature Let us take a look at the examples of sonnets in literature, based on the various categories: Example #1: Visions (By Francesco Petrarch) Italian or Petrarchan Sonnet Italian or Petrarchan sonnet was introduced by 14th century Italian poet Francesco Petrarch. "Being one day at my window all alone, So manie strange things happened me to see, As much as it grieveth me to thinke thereon. At my right hand a hynde appear'd to mee, So faire as mote the greatest god delite; Two eager dogs did her pursue in chace. Of which the one was blacke, the other white: With deadly force so in their cruell race They pincht the haunches of that gentle beast, That at the last, and in short time, I spide, Under a rocke, where she alas, opprest, Fell to the ground, and there untimely dide. Cruell death vanquishing so noble beautie Oft makes me wayle so hard a desire." The rhyme scheme of a Petrarchan sonnet features the first eight lines, called an octet, which rhymes as abba-abba-cdc-dcd. The remaining six lines are called a sestet, and might have a range of rhyme schemes. Example #2: Sonnet 1 (By William Shakespeare) Shakespearean Sonnet A Shakespearean sonnet is generally written in iambic pentameter, in which there are 10 syllables in each line. The rhythm of the lines must be as below: "From fairest creatures we desire increase, That thereby beauty's rose might never die. But as the riper should by time decease, His tender heir might bear his memory: But thou, contracted to thine own bright eyes, Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel, Making a famine where abundance lies, Thyself thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel. Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament And only herald to the gaudy spring, Within thine own bud buriest thy content And, tender churl, mak'st waste in niggarding. Pity the world, or else this glutton be, To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee..." The rhyme scheme of the Shakespearian sonnet is abab-cdcd-efef-gg, which is difficult to follow. Hence, only Shakespeare is known to have done it. Example #3: Amoretti (By Edmund Spenser) Spenserian Sonnet Sir Edmund Spenser was the first poet who modified the Petrarch's form, and introduced a new rhyme scheme as follows: "What guile is this, that those her golden tresses She doth attire under a net of gold; And with sly skill so cunningly them dresses, That which is gold or hair, may scarce be told? Is it that men's frail eyes, which gaze too bold, She may entangle in that golden snare; And being caught may craftily enfold Their weaker hearts, which are not yet well aware? Take heed therefore, mine eyes, how ye do stare Henceforth too rashly on that guileful net, In which if ever ye entrapped are, Out of her bands ye by no means shall get. Folly it were for any being free, To covet fetters, though they golden be." The rhyme scheme in this sonnet is abab-bcbc-cdcd-ee, which is specific to Spenser, and such types of sonnets are called Spenserian sonnets. Function of Sonnet The sonnet has become popular among different poets because it has a great adaptability to different purposes and requirements. Rhythms are strictly followed. It could be a perfect poetic style for elaboration or expression of a single feeling or thought, with its short length in iambic pentameter. In fact, it gives an ideal setting for a poet to explore strong emotions. Due to its short length, it is easy to manage for both the writer and the reader.

Blank Verse

Blank verse is a literary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in iambic pentameter. In poetry and prose, it has a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each line (pentameter); where, unstressed syllables are followed by stressed ones, five of which are stressed but do not rhyme. It is also known as "un-rhymed iambic pentameter." Features of Blank Verse Blank verse poetry has no fixed number of lines. It has a conventional meter that is used for verse drama and long narrative poems. It is often used in descriptive and reflective poems and dramatic monologues — the poems in which a single character delivers his thoughts in the form of a speech. Blank verse can be composed in any kind of meter, such as iamb, trochee, spondee, and dactyl. Types of Blank Verse Poetry Iamb pentameter blank verse (unstressed/stressed syllables) Trochee blank verse (stressed/unstressed syllables) Anapest blank verse (unstressed/unstressed/stressed syllables) Dactyl blank verse (stressed/unstressed/unstressed syllables) Short Examples of Blank Verse The dreams are clues that tell us take chances. The source of faith in happiness and Daylight changes, and it is time to take The night frost drips silently from the roof Human cadences always searching for this The moon takes its bath in lovely silver dust. The buds luminous in white sway happily, and sparkling valleys darkened by angst. Only if mountains might give me a push Only if sunrise lights could converse hope. Listen to your heart while using your wisdom A valuable treasure you have is your ta Beholding red and golden sparkles of sunlight Sweet-sparks of light glowing before the eyes. Within the stars your dreams can be fulfilled, now you can fly the unlimited starlight If passports are passwords to the heaven above, then we shall read the riddle If there is a twelfth player, who does not play, He only leaves the field when free. Birds chirp in the orchard of the cherry and try to sing a little later. Enemies reached at the inimical stage of enmity. Examples of Blank Verse from Literature The Earl of Surrey introduced blank verse in English literature in 1540. Milton, Shakespeare, Marlowe, John Donne, John Keats, and many other poets and dramatists have used this device in their works. Have a look at some examples of blank verse: Example #1: Mending Walls (By Robert Frost) Something there is that doesn't love a wall. That sends the frozen-ground-swell under it, And spills the upper boulders in the sun; This poem has no proper rhyme scheme. However, there is consistent meter in 10 syllables of each line. It is following the iambic pentameter pattern with five feet in each line. Only the first line is written in trochee pattern. All the stressed syllables are marked in bold. Example #2: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) But, woe is me, you are so sick of late, So far from cheer and from your former state, That I distrust you. Yet, though I distrust, Discomfort you, my lord, it nothing must. ... Hamlet gives us a perfect example of a typical blank verse, written in iambic pentameter. Shakespeare employed the deliberate effort to use the syllables in a particular way. He brought variation by using caesuras (pause) in the middle of the line, as in the third line. Shakespeare has other literary pieces that are also good sources of blank verse examples. Example #3: Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) You stars that reign'd at my nativity, Whose influence hath allotted death and hell, Now draw up Faustus like a foggy mist Into entrails of yon labouring clouds, ... So that my soul may but ascend to Heaven ... Marlowe developed this potential in the late 16th century. Marlowe was the first author who exploited the potential of blank verse for writing a powerful speech, as given here. The pattern utilized here is iambic pentameter. Example #4: Ulysses (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) It little profits that an idle king, By this still hearth, among these barren crags Match'd with an aged wife, I mete and dole Unequal laws unto a savage race ... That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me. Just look at the above example in which the first line is written in regular pentameter. However, there is a little variation in the stressed pattern in the following lines that is again revived in the last two lines, and does not follow any rhyme scheme. Example #5: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, To the last syllable of recorded time; And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death ... William Shakespeare wrote verses in iambic pentameter pattern, without rhyme. Macbeth is a good example of blank verse. Many speeches in this play are written in the form of blank verse. Example #6: Frost at Midnight (By Samuel Taylor Coleridge) But thou, my babe! shalt wander like a breeze By lakes and sandy shores, beneath the crags Of ancient mountain, and beneath the clouds, Which image in their bulk both lakes and shores. And mountain crags: so shalt thou see and hear The lovely shapes and sounds intelligible Of that eternal language, which thy God... Coleridge has used iambic pentameter - ten syllables, with five stressed syllables in this example. Though there is no rhyme scheme, readers can feel the rhythm of a real speech due to proper use of meter in this blank verse. Example #6: Thanatopsis (By William Cullen Bryant) To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language; for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness, and a smile. This blank verse does not have any rhyme scheme, but it brings a slight rhythm and cadence that mimics a pattern readers could hear and feel like listening to nature. Example #8: Tintern Abbey (By William Wordsworth) Five years have past; five summers, with the length Of five long winters! And again I hear These waters, rolling from their mountain-springs With a soft inland murmur. - Once again Do I behold these steep and lofty cliffs ... The landscape with the quiet of the sky. The day is come when I again repose ... This example does not follow any rhyme scheme, but it is written in blank verse with iambic pentameter patterns of unaccented and accented syllables. Example #9: This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison (By S.T. Coleridge) Well, they are gone, and here must I remain, This lime-tree bower my prison! I have lost Beauties and feelings, such as would have been Most sweet to my remembrance even when age had dimmed mine eyes to blindness! They, meanwhile... The slip of smooth clear blue betwixt two Isles Of purple shadow! Yes! they wander on In gladness all; but thou, methinks, most glad, My gentle-hearted Charles! for thou hast pined ... Coleridge has jotted down these lines as a spontaneous feel while sitting in his garden. He has written it in a blank verse without any rhyme scheme, yet it follows iambic pentameter. Function of Blank Verse Originating from Latin and Greek sources, blank verse is widely employed as a vehicle in English dramatic poetry and prose, to create specific grandeur. Blank verse has similarity to normal speech but it is written in a variety of patterns, which bring interruptions such as pauses. Therefore, the intention is to produce a formal rhythmical pattern that creates musical effect. Hence, it tends to capture the attention of the readers and the listeners, which is its primary objective.

Sesquipedalian

Sesquipedalian is derived from the Latin word sesquipedalis, which means the words are a foot and a half long. It is a stylistic device, defined as the use of words that are very long and have several syllables. In other words, sesquipedalian writing or speech involves the overuse of long syllabic (multisyllabic) words, or excessive use of extraordinarily long words. This style of speaking and writing is called "sesquipedalian style," and is shown in this example: "Antipericatametaanaparcircumvolutiorectumgustpoops of the Coprofied"(From Gargantua and Pantagruel by Francois Rabelais). Some words are made longer by adding multiple suffixes and prefixes to the ordinary terms, like this long syllabic word, "antidisestablishmentarianism" (anti-dis-establishment-arian-ism). This device was first introduced in literary texts in Roman times, when the famous poet Horace coined the word sesquipedaliaverba. Thereafter, no examples of sesquipedalian were found until the 19th century. Later on, this literary device has been extensively used. Examples of Sesquipedalian in Literature Example #1: Finnegans (By James Joyce) "The fall (bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbronntonner-ronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoohoordenenthur — nuk!) of a once wallstraitoldparr is retaled early in bed and later on life down through all christian minstrelsy. The great fall of the offwall entailed at such short notice the pftjschute of Finnegan ... one well to the west in quest of his tumptytumtoes: and their upturnpikepointandplace is at the knock out in the park where oranges have been laid to rust upon the green since dev-linsfirst loved livvy. What clashes here of wills gen wonts, oystrygodsgaggin fishy-gods! BrékkekKékkekKékkekKékkek! KóaxKóaxKóax! UaluUaluUalu! Quaouauh! Where the Baddelaries partisans are still out to mathmasterMalachusMicgranes and the Verdonscata-pelting the camibalistics out of the Whoyteboyce of Hoodie Head. Assiegates and boomeringstroms..." There are many sesquipedalian examples in this James Joyce book. Joyce has used words up to hundred letters long in this novel. In this excerpt, he has used one of the most famous long words in the first line. This word supposedly represents a symbolic thunderclap linked with the fall of Adam and Eve. Example #2: Chrononhotonthologos (By Henry Carey) "Enter RIGDUM-FUNNIDOS, and Aldiborontiphoscophornio. Rigdum-Funnidos. Aldiborontiphoscophornio! Where left you Chrononhotonthologos?... King. Peace Coward! were they wedg'd like Golden Ingots, pent so close, as to admit no Vacuum. One look from Chrononhotonthologos Shall scare them into Nothing. RigdumFunnidos, Bid Bombardinion draw his Legions forth, And meet us in the Plains of Queerumania." This is a very good example of sesquipedalian, as Carey has coined long syllabic words. Here, the opening line, and then the second to the last line, contain multisyllabic words that are very long coinages that give a humorous effect. Example #3: Love's Labour's Lost (By William Shakespeare) "Cost. O! they have lived long on the alms basket of words. I marvel thy master hath not eaten thee for a word; for thou art not so long by the head as honorificabilitudinitatibus: thou art easier swallowed than a flap-dragon..." Shakespeare used a 27-letter long word, honorificabilitudinitatibus, as shown in bold. It means the capability to be honored, and is considered as one of the longest words in literature. Example #4: Assemblywomen (By Aristophanes) "Lopado¬¬temacho¬¬selacho¬¬galeo¬¬kranio¬¬leipsano¬¬drim¬¬hypo¬¬trimmato¬¬silphio¬¬parao¬¬melito¬¬katakechy¬-meno¬¬kichl¬¬epi¬¬kossypho¬¬phatto¬¬perister¬¬alektryon¬¬opte¬¬kephallio¬¬kigklo¬¬peleio¬¬lagoio¬¬siraio¬¬baphe¬¬tragano¬-pterygon...." Aristophanes, being a comedic playwright, created a long Greek word of about 171 letters, which is shown above. This word means a dish consisting of different ingredients, like fish, dainties, sauces, and flesh. Example #5: Headlong Hall (By Thomas Love Peacock) "Osteosarchaematosplanchnochondroneuromuelous... osseocarnisanguineoviscericartilaginonervomedullary..." Thomas Peacock has coined two words in this example. The first one has 44 letters, and the second has 51 letters. These two words are roughly translated as of "flesh, bone, organs, blood, nerve, gristle and marrow." He describes the human body by using these words. Function of Sesquipedalian The English language has an abundance of sesquipedalian words, which are often used to add humorous effect. The most likely users of such words are language professionals and word hobbyists. Many language lovers and hobbyists are prone to attempt topping one another in order to set new records using these words and devising them. It is also used as a humorous attempt to reformulate popular English expressions. Since the multisyllabic words slow down the pace of a verse, it gives readers more time to comprehend the meaning of such words. Hence, the main function of sesquipedalian words is to put emphasis and draw the attention of the audience.

Sestet

Sestet originates from the Italian word sestetto, which means "sixth." The famous Italian poet Petrarch was the first to have introduced this poetic form in Italian sonnet. This is the second part of the sonnet, while the first part is called "octave," and comprises of eight lines. It has six lines, and also refers to a poem of six lines, or a six-lined stanza in a poem, which can be distinguished from other units by line breaks. Hence, a sestet could also be a complete poem of six lines, or could be a stanza in a poem. Examples of Sestet in Literature Example #1: When I Have Fears that I May Cease to Be (By John Keats)/ "And when I feel, fair creature of an hour! That I shall never look upon thee more, Never have relish in the faery power Of unreflecting love! — then on the shore Of the wide world I stand alone, and think Till Love and Fame to nothingness do sink." This sestet is the second part of Keats' sonnet, When I Have Fears that I May Cease to Be, in which he has used classic iambic pentameter. In the first section, the poet has explored his agonizing combination of desires, and then a turn comes in this section, where he reverses his thoughts in entirely surprising and new directions. Example #2: A Dream Pang (by Robert Frost) "Not far, but near, I stood and saw it all Behind low boughs the trees let down outside; And the sweet pang it cost me not to call And tell you that I saw does still abide, But 'tis not true that thus I dwelt aloof, For the wood wakes, and you are here for proof." This is also the second part of a sonnet, with a rhyming scheme of CDCDEE. In the sestet, the speaker solves this uncertainty presented in the previous part, by witnessing his friend's presence in the woods when he says, "and you are here for proof." Example #3: Behind Me Dips Eternity (by Emily Dickinson) "Behind Me - dips Eternity - Before Me - Immortality - Myself - the Term between - ... Before the West begin -" Usually, poets do not employ straightforward six-line stanzas, or sestets, in their work, other than in a strict form of sonnet. In this example, however, Dickinson opens the poem with a sestet that has the rhyme scheme of AABCCD. Example #4: The New Colossus (by William Shakespeare) " 'Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!' cries she With silent lips. 'Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free... I lift my lamp beside the golden door!' " This is a perfect example of Italian sestet with rhyme scheme of CDCDCD. This is a stanza break that brings change in the poem by using dialogue and first person point of view, which is different from octave. Example #5: On His Blindness (by John Milton) "That murmur, soon replies, 'God doth not need Either man's work or his own gifts; who best Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best ... They also serve who only stand and wait.' " This is another famous example of Italian sonnet, using second part as a sestet with a rhyme scheme of CDECDE and metrical pattern of iambic pentameter. In the first part, the speaker tries to convey a foolish question and in the second part, a figure named "patience" gives response to that question. Example #6: Annabel Lee (by Edgar Allan Poe) "It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea, That a maiden there lived whom you may know By the name of Annabel Lee; And this maiden she lived with no other thought Than to love and be loved by me." Most of the stanzas in the given poem are sestets. Again this poet also begins the poem with sestet by using a rhyme scheme of ABABCB. Function of Sestet The most fascinating thing about the structure of a sonnet is that the nature of octave is more objective. In other words, it is set to present some dilemma or a problem. In contrast, the function of sestet is subjective that answers or gives response to that problem presented in octave, completing the complex world with fourteen lines. In simple words, sestet is a "turn or volta" in a sonnet that resolves the issue presented in the first part, or it provides a new perspective or a solution to an idea. Therefore, it gives surprise and new direction to the idea expressed in the sonnet.

Sestina

Sestina is a type of a poem that contains six stanzas, each stanza having six lines, while a concluding seventh stanza has three lines called "envoi," which is also known as "tornada." As sestina derives its name from fixed structure and characteristics, it is as popular as the sextain. Unlike other poetic forms, sestina does not rhyme. However, it has rhythmic quality on account of the repetition of the final six words of the first stanza that recur in the remaining poem. Hence, a sestina follows the rule of an end word pattern. Types of Sestina Depending upon the number and size of stanzas, different poets have changed sestinas as give below. Double Sestina This may contain twelve stanzas with six lines in each stanza, and a final tercet. For instance, in Philip Sydney's, Ye Goatherd Gods; or the twelve stanzas with twelve lines in each stanza, and final envoi with six lines, such as in Algernon Charles Swinburne's, The Complaint of Lisa. Trinita This is a contracted form of sestina, containing three stanzas with three lines and final one-line envoi. Examples of Sestina in Literature Example #1: Altaforte (By Ezra Pound) "Damn it all! all this our South stinks peace. You whoreson dog, Papiols, come! Let's to music! I have no life save when the swords clash. But ah! when I see the standards gold, vair, purple, opposing And the broad fields beneath them turn crimson, Then howl I my heart nigh mad with rejoicing ... " This is a perfect sestina in which Pound uses repetitive ending words, "peace," "music," "clash," "opposing," "crimson," and "rejoicing," respectively. As we know, sestinas have six stanzas with six lines in each stanza, which repeat the final words of first stanza, and this repetition occurs in the remaining poem too. The same happens in this poem. Example #2: A Miracle for Breakfast (By Elizabeth Bishop) "At six o'clock we were waiting for coffee, waiting for coffee and the charitable crumb that was going to be served from a certain balcony —like kings of old, or like a miracle. It was still dark. One foot of the sun steadied itself on a long ripple in the river ..." The above example presents complex structure of sestina. The poet has repeatedly used the words "coffee," "crumb," "balcony," "miracle," "sun," and "river," which show even from a surface reading that these are its keywords. Towards her concluding envoi, Bishop uses all her repeated words to illustrate the the breakfast miracle. Example #3: Paysage Moralisé (By W. H. Auden) "Hearing of harvests rotting in the valleys, Seeing at end of street the barren mountains, Round corners coming suddenly on water, Knowing them shipwrecked who were launched for islands, We honour founders of these starving cities Whose honour is the image of our sorrow ..." This example is presenting a modern form of sestina. In this form, again we see Auden has employed repetitive words like, "valleys," "mountains," "water," "islands," "cities," and "sorrows," which play on sensory description, creates vivid imagery in the minds of the readers, and adds rhythm to the poem. Example #4: Farm Implements and Rutabagas in a Landscape (By John Ashbury) "The first of the undecoded messages read: "Popeye sits in thunder, Unthought of. From that shoebox of an apartment, From livid curtain's hue, a tangram emerges: a country." Meanwhile the Sea Hag was relaxing on a green couch: "How pleasant To spend one's vacation en la casa de Popeye," she scratched Her cleft chin's solitary hair. She remembered spinach ... " This one is another perfect example of sestina, containing six stanzas and a final envoi. Though the poem does not have a regular rhythm, the repetition of six words, "thunder," "apartment," "country," "pleasant," "scratched," and "spinach," towards the conclusion of each line, except the final envoi, giving it a slight rhyme. Function of Sestina The form of sestina requires adherence to its arbitrary and strict order. Though it is a complex verse form, it achieves its amazing effects due to intricate repetition of words, called "lexical repetition." Therefore, it does not rely upon its meter or rhyme alone. Apart from drawing attention to its structure, this lexical repetition creates rhythm in the poem, brings harmony among various stanzas, enhances the subject matter, keeps the idea alive in the reader's minds, and engages them. Hence, the basic function of sestina is to highlight an idea.

Catharsis

A Catharsis is an emotional discharge through which one can achieve a state of moral or spiritual renewal, or achieve a state of liberation from anxiety and stress. Catharsis is a Greek word meaning "cleansing." In literature, it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the characters. It can also be any other radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a person. Originally, the term was used as a metaphor in Poetics by Aristotle, to explain the impact of tragedy on the audiences. He believed that catharsis was the ultimate end of a tragic artistic work, and that it marked its quality. He further said, in Poetics: "Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; ... through pity [eleos] and fear [phobos] effecting the proper purgation [catharsis] of these emotions" (c. 350 BCE, Book 6.2). Examples of Catharsis from Literature Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare wrote two famous examples of catharsis. One of these catharsis examples is his tragic drama Macbeth. The audience and readers of Macbeth usually pity the tragic central figure of the play because he was blinded by his destructive preoccupation with ambition. In Act 1, he is made the thane of Cawdor by King Duncan, which makes him a prodigy, well-regarded for his valor and talent. However, the era of his doom starts when he, like most people, gets carried away by ambition, and the supernatural world as well. Subsequently, he loses his wife, his veracity, and eventually his life. The temptation of ambition robs him of the essence of his existence as a human being, and leaves behind nothing but discontent and a worthless life. In Act V, Macbeth gathers this idea in his soliloquy. He says, while speaking of his life: "... a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more. It is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing." Example #2: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "Here's to my love! [Drinks] O true apothecary! Thy drugs are quick. Thus with a kiss I die. [Falls]" In Romeo and Juliet, Romeo commits suicide by drinking the poison that he erroneously thinks Juliet had tasted too. The audience usually finds themselves crying at this particular moment for several reasons. Primarily because losing a loved one is a feeling that all of us have experienced. Watching or reading such a scene triggers the memories of someone we have lost (either by death or by mere separation), and because we are able to relate to it, we suddenly release the emotions that we have been repressing. Function of Catharsis: Dramatic Uses In dramatic art, the term catharsis explains the impact of tragedy, comedy, or any other form of art on the audience - and in some cases even on the performers themselves. Aristotle did not elaborate on the meaning of "catharsis," and the way he used it in defining tragedy in Poetics. According to G. F. Else, the conventional and the most prevalent explanation of catharsis as "purgation" or "cleansing" does not have a basis in Poetics. It has rather stemmed from other non-Aristotelian and Aristotelian contexts. Such confusion regarding the origin of the term has led to assorted interpretations of its meaning. An authoritative version of Poetics by D. W. Lucas thoroughly covered, in an appendix dedicated to "Pity, Fear, and Katharsis," the different shades of meaning and aspects inherent in the interpretation of the word (Aristotle: Poetics, Oxford, 1968, pp. 276-79). Lucas identifies that there is a chance that catharsis may have some aspect of meanings like "purgation," "intellectual clarification," and "purification." However, the kind of discussion he conducts on these terms is not as precise as other leading scholars would want it to be. He does not consider any interpretations other than his own, and rather takes a different approach. His approach is centered on "the Greek doctrine of Humours," which was not received too well. The most common interpretations of the term are purgation and purification, which are still widely used. The most recent interpretation of the term catharsis is "intellectual clarification."

Anapest

Anapest is a poetic device defined as a metrical foot in a line of a poem that contains three syllables wherein the first two syllables are short and unstressed, followed by a third syllable that is long and stressed. For example: "I must FInish my JOURney aLONE." Here, the anapestic foot is marked in capitals. Difference Between Anapest and Dactyl Anapest is known as antidactylus, since it is a reverse pattern of dactyl meter. The difference is that anapest consists of three syllables, where the first two are unstressed and the last one is stressed, in an unstressed/unstressed/stressed pattern. However, dactyl is the opposite of this pattern. It is a metrical foot that consists of three syllables wherein the first two syllables are stressed, and the last one is unstressed, such as stressed/stressed/unstressed pattern. Examples of Anapest in Literature Example #1: The Destruction of Sennacherib (By Lord Byron) "The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. Like the leaves of the forest when Summer is green, That host with their banners at sunset were seen: Like the leaves of the forest when Autumn hath blown... For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast... And their hearts but once heaved, and forever grew still!" Byron has written this poem in anapestic tetrameter pattern, which consists of four anapests in each line. In this extract, anapests are marked in bold. The entire poem has the same pattern, where the first two syllables are unstressed, followed by a third stressed syllable. Example #2: Verses Supposed to Be Written by Alexander Selkirk (By William Cowper) "I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute; From the centre all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. Oh, solitude! where are the charms... Better dwell in the midst of alarms... I am out of humanity's reach, I must finish my journey alone, Never hear the sweet music of speech... They are so unacquaintted with man, Their tameness is shocking to me..." This poem shows examples of anapests and iamb combinations. And at some places, iambs are substituted by anapests. The poem is written in anapestic trimeter in each line, which means there are three anapests in each line. Example #3: 'Twas the Night before Christmas (By Clement Clarke Moore) " 'Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse; The stockings were hung by the chimney with care... While visions of sugar plums danced in their heads... had just settled our brains for a long winter's nap... As dry leaves that before the wild hurricane fly, when they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky... with the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too." This poem is a perfect example of anapest, which runs throughout the poem. Most of the lines are following anapestic tetrameter. Like in the first line, there are four anapests. However, three anapests are also used in other lines. Example #4: The Cloud (By Percy Bysshe Shelley) "May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof, The stars peep behind her and peer; And I laugh to see them whirl and flee, Like a swarm of golden bees, When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent... Are each paved with the moon and these... And the Moon's with a girdle of pearl; The volcanoes are dim, and the stars reel and swim, When the whirlwinds my banner unfurl... Sunbeam-proof, I hang like a roof, The mountains its columns be. The triumphal arch through which I march... When the Powers of the air are chained to my chair... While the moist Earth was laughing below." This poem is also a very good example of anapest. Each long line has three anapests (anapestic trimeter) followed by shorter lines with two anapests (anapestic dimeter). It is lending rhythm and regular beats to the poem. Function of Anapest It helps create artistic lines with a regular meter in a poem. Since anapest ends in a stressed syllable, it makes strong rhyming lines that create music in a poem. It plays a very important role in poetry, and the most common role in verse is that of a comic meter, which is, the foot used in the limerick for comical effects.

Assertion

When someone makes a statement investing his strong belief in it, as if it is true, though it may not be, he is making an assertion. Assertion is a stylistic approach or technique involving a strong declaration, a forceful or confident and positive statement regarding a belief or a fact. Often, it is without proof or any support. Its purpose is to express ideas or feelings directly, for instance, "I have put my every effort to complete this task today." Types of Assertion Assertion has four types, including: Basic Assertion It is a simple and straightforward statement for expressing feelings, opinions, and beliefs such as: "I wish I could have expressed this idea earlier, because now someone else has taken the credit." "Excuse me, first I want to finish my work, then I shall go with you." Emphatic Assertion It conveys sympathy to someone, and usually has two parts: the first encompasses recognition of the feelings or situations of the other person, and the second is a statement that shows support for the other person's viewpoint, feelings, or rights such as: "I understand you are busy, and me too, but it is difficult for me to finish this project on my own. So, I want you to help me complete this project." "I know this is making you angry and frustrated because you have not gotten a response yet. But I can help you by giving you an estimate of how long it might take." Escalating Assertion It occurs when someone is not able to give a response to a person's basic assertions, and therefore that person becomes firm about him or her such as: "If you do not finish this work by 6:00 tonight, I I will engage the services of another worker." "I really want to finish this point before you start yours." Language Assertion It involves the first person pronoun "I," and is useful for expressing negative feelings. Nevertheless, it constructively lays emphasis on a person's feelings of anger such as: "When you speak harshly, I cannot work with you because I feel annoyed. Therefore, I want you to speak nicely and then assign me a task." "When I don't get enough sleep, it affects my nerves and I feel irritated. Therefore, I try to go to bed earlier." Examples of Assertion in Literature Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) In Animal Farm, pigs make use of assertion as a tool for making propaganda in the entire novel. This is to weaken the position of other animals, preventing contradiction with their rules and leadership. In chapter seven, Squealer informs other animals that they need not sing the original anthem of the Old Major, Beasts of England — a song they used to inspire the revolution in the chapter one. Squealer asserts, saying: "It's no longer needed, comrade ... In Beasts of England we expressed our longing for a better society in days to come. However, that society has now been established. Clearly this song has no longer any purpose." Look at his language where he gives them information that is obvious, which they have realized already, and no one can make arguments against it. Thus, no one argued against his assertion. Example #2: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) Elizabeth conceals her surprise at the news of Darcy's plan to marry her. When Lady Catherine objects to this marriage, as Bennets have low connections and their marriage would ruin Darcy's position before his friends and society, Elizabeth attempts to defend her family background by asserting: "I am a gentleman's daughter." In fact, she sets herself free from the exasperating control of snobs like Miss Bingley, Mr. Collins, and Lady Catherine, and declares: "I am ... resolved." Then further says with assertion: "... to act in that manner, which will, in my own opinion, constitute my happiness, without reference to you, or to any person so wholly unconnected with me." Example #3: Cherry Orchard (By Anton Chekov) Trofimov and Lopakhin exchange barbed words, and Lopakhin calls Trofimov an "eternal student." When Lopakhin asks Trofimov's views about him, Trofimov replies that he considers Lopakhin as "a soon-to-be-millionaire," and "a beast of prey." Then, Gayev points towards the conversation about pride the two men had earlier. Trofimov asserts with reasoning about the folly of their pride, as man is a "pretty poor physiological specimen," they are in misery, and "the only thing to do is work." Although, he was pessimistic about the current situation of humans, however, he starts feeling optimistic for their future. He expresses this idea with assertion and rebukes Russian intellectuals, as they do not even know the meaning of work. Example #4: Othello (By William Shakespeare) DESDEMONA: "I never did Offend you in my life, never loved Cassio But with such general warranty of heaven As I might love. I never gave him token." In these lines, Desdemona makes a dying assertion that she is innocent, denying Othello's accusations. However, blinded by emotion and furious, Othello is resolved to kill her. Function of Assertion The function of assertion is to let readers to feel that they should not disagree or dispute what they read or hear; rather, they should accept the idea or notion as an indisputable fact. It has proved to be one of the best approaches for writers to express their personal feelings, beliefs, and ideas in a direct way. By using this technique, writers can defend others' feelings and rights if violated. This rhetorical style also expresses self-affirmation and rational thinking of personal respect or worth. It is very common in various fields of life, like literature, politics, advertisements, and legal affairs.

Chiasmus

Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect. Let us try to understand chiasmus with the help of an example: "Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You." Notice that the second half of this sentence is an inverted form of the first half, both grammatically and logically. In the simplest sense, the term chiasmus applies to almost all "criss-cross" structures, and this is a concept that is common these days. In its strict classical sense, however, the function of chiasmus is to reverse grammatical structure or ideas of sentences, given that the same words and phrases are not repeated. The Difference Between Chiasmus and Antimetabole Chiasmus is different from antimetabole. An antimetabole is the repetition of words in consecutive clauses, but in an inverted or transposed order. For example: "You forget what you want to remember, and you remember what you want to forget." Antimetabole examples resemble chiasmus, as they are marked by the inversion of structure. In examples of chiasmus, however, the words and phrases are not repeated. Generally, chiasmus and antimetabole are regarded by many critics as similar tools of rhetoric. Examples of Chiasmus from Greek Sages The use of chiasmus as a rhetorical device dates back to the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Its traces have been found in the ancient texts of Sanskrit, and also in ancient Chinese writings. Greeks, however, developed an unmatched inclination for this device, and made it an essential part of the art of oration. Example #1: Aeschylus, 5th Century B.C. "It is not the oath that makes us believe the man, but the man the oath." Example #2: Bias, 6th Century B.C. "Love as if you would one day hate, and hate as if you would one day love." Example #3: Socrates, 5th Century B.C. "Bad men live that they may eat and drink, whereas good men eat and drink that they may live." Examples of Chiasmus from Literature Example #1: Othello (By William Shakespeare) "But O, what damned minutes tells he o'er Who dotes, yet doubts; suspects, yet strongly loves." Example #2: Essay on Man (By Alexander Pope) "His time a moment, and a point his space." Example #3: Do I Love You Because You're Beautiful? (By Oscar Hammerstein) "Do I love you because you're beautiful? Or are you beautiful because I love you?" Example #4: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) "...in his face Divine compassion visibly appeared, Love without end, and without measure Grace..." Example #5: Quote (By Judith Viorst) "Lust is what makes you keep wanting to do it, Even when you have no desire to be with each other. Love is what makes you keep wanting to be with each other, Even when you have no desire to do it." Example #6: Quote (By John Marshall) "In the blue grass region, A paradox was born: The corn was full of kernels And the colonels full of corn." Example #7: Quote (By Alfred P. Solan) "Some have an idea that the reason we in this country discard things so readily is because we have so much. The facts are exactly opposite - the reason we have so much is simply because we discard things so readily." Example #8: Quote (By Voltaire) "The instinct of a man is to pursue everything that flies from him, and to fly from all that pursues him." Example #9: Quote (By Thomas Szaz) "When religion was strong and science weak, men mistook magic for medicine; Now, when science is strong and religion weak, men mistake medicine for magic." Function of Chiasmus As the above discussion reveals, chiasmus is a unique rhetorical device that is employed by writers to create a special artistic effect, in order to lay emphasis on what they want to communicate. In his treatise, Analyzing Prose, Richard A. Lanham puts forward his interesting point of view about chiasmus in the following words: "By keeping the phrase but inverting its meaning we use our opponent's own power to overcome him, just as a judo expert does. So a scholar remarked of another's theory, 'Cannon entertains that theory because that theory entertains Cannon.' The pun on 'entertain' complicates the chiasmus here, but the judo still prevails — Cannon is playing with the power of his own mind rather than figuring out the secrets of the universe."

Subplot

A literary technique, subplot is a secondary plot, or a strand of the main plot that runs parallel to it and supports it. It is usually found in plays, novels, short stories, television shows, and movies. It is also known as a "minor story," or as "B" or "C" story. Its purpose is to add complexity and depth to the story, and thereby increases tension - a state of high interest and suspense about events in a story. Not only does it show various aspects of the characters, connecting the readers with them, but it is also a story within a story. Examples of Subplot in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare has incorporated subplots many times in his plays, such as in Romeo and Juliet, which is a love story of the two leading title characters. While a subplot runs in the form of an old rivalry between their families (the Capulets and the Montagues), the conflict increases due to the restrictions placed on young lovers' romance further adds to the drama in the story. There are many scenes depicting young Capulets (Juliet's friends and cousins) fighting with young Montagues (including Romeo's friends), and some scenes depicting older Capulets and Montagues discussing hatred towards one another. Thus, this subplot plays a vital role, else the central romantic plot would have been ordinary rather than dramatic. Example #2: The Great Gatsby (By F. Scott Fitzgerald) In his popular novel The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald has shown his main character, Jay Gatsby, becoming an overnight success, despite having no family inheritance. It becomes clear that Gatsby has earned good fortune through bootlegging — the illegal preparation and selling of liquor. He, on the other hand, wastes his wealth on useless and extravagant parties. He does this to seek enjoyment with friends, including a beautiful married woman, Daisy Buchanan, whose company he enjoys very much. However, when Daisy's husband Tom learns Gatsby is engaged in illegal activities, he shows his suspicion in an intense argument by accusing Gatsby of illegally selling alcohol through their drug stores. This subplot about prohibition adds intensity to the main plot.. Example #3: King Lear (By William Shakespeare) William Shakespeare, in his popular play King Lear, describes the main plot: King Lear disowns Cordelia, his faithful and loyal daughter, and divides his entire kingdom between his unfaithful and treacherous daughters, Regan and Goneril. However, the subplot involves the Earl of Gloucester and his sons, Edmund, an illegitimate son, and Edgar, a tricky man. Edgar is very cunning, tricking his father into thinking his faithful son Edgar is engaging in intrigue against him. The earl forces Edgar to leave. This subplot points toward major events in the plot, such as neither father could differentiate between their faithful and treacherous children. Nevertheless, the events get mixed up, and Regan and Goneril start falling for Edmund, when he becomes the Earl, and Edgar ties the knot with Cordelia. Example #4: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens' novel Great Expectations is a huge web with a series of subplots. One of these subplots is Pip's acquaintance with Herbert, as he cares more for his friend's finances than his own. Pip even asks for money from Mrs. Havisham to help Herbert. Another subplot involves Pip's plan to get Abel Magwitch out of the country with the help of Wemmick. Example #5: The Lord of Rings (By J. R. R. Tolkien) J. R. R. Tolkien's novel The Lord of Ring contains an excellent example of a subplot. The main plot concerns the quest of Frodo to go back to the ring, while the secondary plot moves around Legolas and Aragon's adventures in their pursuit to protect settlements while destroying the Orcs' armies. Another subplot concerns the escape of Merry and Pippin from the Orcs. By the end, these three subplots weave into the main storyline. Function of Subplot The function of subplot is to describe hidden impulses behind actions of the major characters. While this secondary strand has two effects on a storyline, mostly it ties directly to the main plot and characters, putting an immediate effect on situations and characters. However, an alternative way is that subplots run parallel to the main story. This serves as a contrast to explain decisions of the leading characters. Usually, subplots create justifications for actions, and unexpected actions taken by protagonists and antagonists. In addition, they add a back-story, or reminiscing element, to a main plot without directly affecting the pace of action. Subplots also provide contrast to the events of the main story in order to make it more meaningful and intricate.

Setting

Setting is an environment or surrounding in which an event or story takes place. It may provide particular information about placement and timing, such as New York, America, in the year 1820. Setting could be simply descriptive, like a lonely cottage on a mountain. Social conditions, historical time, geographical locations, weather, immediate surroundings, and timing are all different aspects of setting. There are three major components to setting: social environment, place, and time. Moreover, setting could be an actual region, or a city made larger than life, as James Joyce characterizes Dublin in Ulysses. Or, it could be a work of the author's imagination, such as Vladimir Nabokov's imaginative place, space-time continuum in Ada. Types of Setting There are two main types of setting: Backdrop Setting Backdrop setting emerges when it is not important for a story, and it could happen in any setting. For instance, A. A. Milne's story Winnie-the-Pooh could take place in any type of setting. Integral Setting It is when the place and time influences the theme, character, and action of a story. This type of setting controls the characters. By confining a certain character to a particular setting, the writer defines the character. Beatrix Potter's short story The Tail of Peter Rabbit is an example of integral setting, in which the behavior of Peter becomes an integral part of the setting. Another good example of this type of setting can be seen in E. B. White's novel Charlotte's Web. Examples of Setting in Literature Example #1: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) In Emily Bronte's novel Wuthering Heights, its setting plays a vital role, as it reflects the mood of major characters and their actions, while contributing to its overall atmosphere. The novel has three main settings: The Moors Wuthering Heights Thrushcross Grange The Moors symbolize wilderness and freedom, as nobody owns them, and everyone can freely move about anytime. Wuthering Heights depicts weather around this house, which is stormy and gloomy. The characters are cruel and extremely passionate. Thrushcross Grange, on the other hand, is contrary to Wuthering Heights because its weather is calm, while its inhabitants are dull and weak. Example #2: The Passionate Shepherd to His Love (By Christopher Marlowe) Christopher Marlowe's poem The Passionate Shepherd to His Love is set in the countryside in the springtime. The springtime has a double purpose, as it refers to baby animals and budding flowers, and the fifth month of the year. Then the month of May sets the scene as well as emphasizes fertility and new life linked with springtime. Thus, the poet has idealized the image of rural life in the background of his personal emotions, while time is stationary in the poem. Example #3: Heart of Darkness (By Joseph Conrad) In Joseph Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness, the leading character Marlow goes to different places and settings that influence his imagination, which adds to the themes of the story. The title, Heart of Darkness, refers to the center of the jungle on the African continent, where Marlowe travels to find Kurtz. The darkness not only applies to the shadowy jungle, but also to the behavior and actions of the civilized people it affects, and they become savage like Kurtz. The setting is also symbolic of imperialistic forces that have made black men their slaves. Example #4: Lord of the Flies (By William Golding) In William Golding's novel Lord of the Flies, weather plays a very important role, as it represents mood, behavior, and attitudes of young boys throughout the storyline. During the day, the beach looks bright, while the ocean is calm, and there is no conflict. The author describes the dense areas of the jungle as scary and dark. One night, when Simon is killed, there comes a violent storm, and the ocean looks very rough in the black night. Thus, its setting includes weather conditions, and the ocean representing dark forces of nature present in human nature. Function of Setting The function of setting in a fictional, poetic, and prose work is of great importance. It has immense effect on plots and characters, as it could act as an antagonist, post a conflict that characters need to resolve, or shed light upon characters. It can also present symbolic persons, objects, place, action, or situations. Setting can establish the mood or atmosphere of a scene or story, and develop the plot into a more realistic form, resulting in more convincing characters. By establishing mood, setting also helps the audience relate themselves to the characters in a story.

Rhythm

The word rhythm is derived from rhythmos (Greek) which means, "measured motion." Rhythm is a literary device that demonstrates the long and short patterns through stressed and unstressed syllables, particularly in verse form. Types of Rhythm English poetry makes use of five important rhythms. These rhythms are of different patterns of stressed (/) and unstressed (x) syllables. Each unit of these types is called foot. Here are the five types of rhythm: 1. Iamb (x /) This is the most commonly used rhythm. It consists of two syllables, the first of which is not stressed, while the second syllable is stressed. Such as: "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" (Sonnet 18, by William Shakespeare) 2. Trochee (/ x) A trochee is a type of poetic foot commonly used in English poetry. It has two syllables, the first of which is strongly stressed, while the second syllable is unstressed, as given below: "Tell me not, in mournful numbers" (Psalm of Life, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) 3. Spondee (/ /) Spondee is a poetic foot that has two syllables, which are consecutively stressed. For example: "White founts falling in the Courts of the sun" (Lepanto, by G. K. Chesterton) 4. Dactyl (/ x x) Dactyl is made up of three syllables. The first syllable is stressed, and the remaining two syllables are not stressed, such as in the word "marvelous." For example: "This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks," (Evangeline, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) The words "primeval" and "murmuring" show dactyls in this line. 5. Anapest (x x /) Anapests are total opposites of dactyls. They have three syllables; where the first two syllables are not stressed, and the last syllable is stressed. For example: " 'Twas the night before Christmas, and all through the house," ('Twas the Night Before Christmas, by Clement Clarke Moore) Short Examples of Rhythm in Sentences Doit as you planned, I'd choose to stay at home. Whois the woman on the phone? You'll have to call her again. Tellthem why you don't agree, Do remem I will find the keys for you, and you must finda place to park the car. Whose goods are these, I don't know. If I take, my life is at stake, I know though. Givehim a burger with an egg. She'd rather go to school. Bill acts brilliantly, hence he wants to stay at Holly With us they will see they do not need Never stop doing best till you reach the top if you want to find hope. A mouse is hiding in their house. The goat is eating in the boat. She made a star on her car. This rat is fat. Nina liked the ball in a mall. How do you pray looking at the tray? Examples of Rhythm in Literature Example #1: Romeo Juliet (By William Shakespeare) "Two households, both alike in dignity, In fair Verona, where we lay our scene, From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. From forth the fatal loins of these two foes A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life;" There are ten syllables in iamb pentameter, where the second syllable is accented or stressed. In the above lines the stressed syllables are expressed in bold. Example #2: Paradise Lost (By John Milton) "And Life—blood streaming fresh; wide was the wound." Milton has used spondee in this entire epic poem. The spondaic meter is explicitly visible in the words "wide was." However, the remaining line is iambic pentameter. Example #3: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) "DOU-ble, / DOU-ble / TOIL and / TROU-ble; FI-re / BURN, and / CAL-dron / BUB-ble." These two lines are taken from Shakespeare's Macbeth. The chorus of the witches' spell shows a perfect example of trochees. Stressed pattern is shown in capitals. Example #4: Song (By Sir John Suckling) "Why so pale and wan, fond Lover? Prithee why so pale? Will, when looking well can't move her, Looking ill prevail? Prithee why so pale?" Sir John has written this poem in trochaic meter. Here, the stressed or accented syllables of trochaic pattern are shown in bold-face type. This poem gives a strong rhythmical effect. Example #5: Tyger (By William Blake) "Tyger! Tyger! burning bright In the forests of the night, What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry? Trochees are perfectly used in this poem by William Blake. Here, the first syllables of the words "tyger," "burning," and "forests" are stressed; however the second syllables are unstressed. Example #6: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred Lord Tennyson) "Half a League, Half a League" This single line is an example of dactylic pattern, as one stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables, the stressed syllables noted in bold above. Example #7: Will There Really Be a Morning? (By Emily Dickinson) "Will there really be a morning? Is there such a thing as day? Could I see it from the mountains If I were as tall as they? Has it feet like water-lilies? Has it feathers like a bird? Is it brought from famous countries." In this poem, the speaker is feeling dejected, wondering if there could be hope and morning again. The poet has used trochees, giving a strong rhythm to the poem. Notice in this first stanza, the accented syllables are emphasized. See that word "I" is unaccented or unstressed with different feet as underlined. Example #8: My Papa's Waltz (By Theodore Roethke) "The whiskey on your breath Could make a small boy dizzy... We romped until the pans Slid from the kitchen shelf; My mother's countenance Could not unfrown itself." The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABAB, which means the first and the third lines rhyme, as do the second and the fourth lines. Roethke has used three iambs, or three beats per line, giving the poem regular rhythmic flow. Example #9: By the North Sea (By A. C. Swinburne) "And his hand is not weary of giving, And the thirst of her heart is not fed And the hunger that moans in her passion, And the rage in her hunger that roars, As a wolf's that the winter lays lash on... As the waves of the numberless waters That the wind cannot number who guides Are the sons of the shore and the daughters." This poet has used anapests (two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable) in this example. It adds to the rhythm, yet it carries a subdued effect. Example #10: The Courage That My Mother Had (By Edna St. Vincent Millay) "Oh, if instead she'd left to me The thing she took into the grave! That courage like a rock, which she Has no more need of, and I have." These lines follow a pattern of four iambs in each line. This rhythm is catchy because the poet first sets the rhythm, and then breaks it in the last few syllables. It makes the reading smooth and melodious. Function of Rhythm Rhythm in writing acts as beat does in music. The use of rhythm in poetry arises from the need to express some words more strongly than others. They might be stressed for a longer period of time. Hence, the repeated use of rhythmical patterns of such accent produces rhythmical effect, which sounds pleasant to the mind as well as to the soul. In speech, rhythm is used unconsciously to create identifiable patterns. Moreover, rhythm captivates the audience and readers alike by giving musical effect to a speech or a literary piece.

Hero

As a literary device, a hero can be defined as the principal character of a literary work. The term hero has been applied, not only in the classical sense, but also in modern literature, as the principal character of a story, play or novel. This term is also employed in another sense, for the celebrated figures in certain ancient legends, and heroic epics like Gilgamesh, the Iliad, Beowulf, or La Chanson de Roland. However, it has traveled a long way from classical heroes in Oedipus and Odysseus, to Hamlet, and then to modern heroes, such as Willy Loman. From confrontation of monsters, to mental dilemmas, a hero has transformed from an attractive prince to a common man. Examples of Hero from Literature Example #1: Odysseus Odysseus is the principal character of Homer's epic "Odyssey." Odysseus is also known by his Latin name, Ulysses. As the king of Ithaca, Odysseus has been presented as the dominant character of the ten-year-long Trojan War, who became famous through his struggles in the war. Odysseus is well-known for his brilliance, versatility, wit, and ingenuity - so much so that the epithet "Odysseus the cunning" is used for his character. He is the best example of a larger-than-life-figure type of a classical hero. Example #2: Beowulf Beowulf is the hero of the epic poem of the same title from Old English. The epic consists of 3,182 alliterative lines, and is considered the oldest surviving epic in Old English literature. This long poem is supposed to have been written between the 8th and 11th centuries. As an adventurous hero from the race of Geats - who offers his help to the King of the Danes, against a monster called Grendel - Beowulf displays legendary courage, and sacrifices his men to save the king. He fought the monster until his own death; thus achieving greatness in the ancient poem, and becoming a classical hero of English literature. Example #3: Hamlet Hamlet is the hero of the play Hamlet, written by William Shakespeare. He is a sort of modern hero, in that he faces physical as well as psychological dilemmas. However, he is also akin to classical heroes, for he is a larger-than-life figure, and the would-be king of Denmark after his uncle, Claudius. However, he is akin to a common man, a modern hero, in that he faces the same universal dilemmas about life and death as a common man faces. That is why Hamlet has achieved so much popularity, for he represents a common man facing common problems, despite his being a prince. Example #3: Willy Loman A modern hero is reduced to a common man, who simultaneously suffers the "slings and arrows" of the time, and of society. It is because an ordinary man has the same life as a king has. Therefore, Arthur Miller has made Willy Loman the hero of his famous play, Death of a Salesman. Willy Loman represents a common man who could not face the pressure of the modern world, and commits suicide. The difference between Willy Loman and Hamlet is the evolution a hero goes through from a prince facing common problems, to a common man facing common problems. Function of a Hero A hero is the major character of a narrative. In classical sense, the hero is not only involved in dangerous adventures or wars, but also in feats and exploits of unparalleled courage and bravery. He possesses extraordinary mental faculties and physical abilities. He takes the narrative long with him to the end that is usually his victory or, in some cases, his death. However, a modern hero plays a complex role in facing mental dilemmas, as he is an ordinary man intended to bring out complex modern psychological issues faced by modern man. This long journey of a hero from prince to common salesman has brought several changes in a narrative, turning tragedy into a tragi-comedy, and a complex modern tragedy, absurd writings, and then modern pieces. Therefore, the character of a hero in a literary piece not only brings unity in action, but also makes other characters prominent when they are compared and contrasted with him. That is why a hero is considered the central figure of a narrative or a play, and even if a hero is not present in a piece, efforts are made to create one.

Process Essay

As the name suggests, this type of essay explains a process of making or breaking something. These essays are often written in chronological order, or in numerical order to show step-by-step processes. They are written in descriptive or prescriptive modes. Although it is not a technical communication, it sounds like having all the qualities of a technical document. The only difference is that it is often written in descriptive mode, while a technical document is mostly in imperative mode. Transition in a Process Essay As process essay provides step-by-step approach of doing something, they have typical transition words. These transition words make readers understand what has been done and what will follow next. Some of the specific transition words could be immediately, initially, in the end, in the future, in the meanwhile, later, next, soon, eventually, finally or firstly, and secondly. Examples of Process Essay in Literature Example #1: Community Re-Discovered (by Heidi Ramirez) "In any community, there are several and varying ways in which residents fulfill a sense of community: participating in intramural sports, attending farmers' markets, walking with neighbors, attending political meetings, helping the elderly, visiting the library, and volunteering for youth groups. It's knowing the people in these interchanges, not just being familiar with faces, that build strong community. Unfortunately, when this basic engagement is overlooked, communities can begin to disintegrate." This an excerpt from a process essay by Heidi Ramirez. It sets the tone of a process how communities integrate with each other. It clearly shows the sequence of the integration process. Example #2: A Homemade Education (by Malcolm X) "I was so fascinated that I went on—I copied the dictionary's next page. And the same experience came when I studied that. With every succeeding page, I also learned of people and places and events from history. Actually, the dictionary is like a miniature encyclopedia. Finally the dictionary's A section had filled a whole tablet—and I went on into the B's. That was the way I started copying what eventually became the entire dictionary. It went a lot faster after so much practice helped me to pick up handwriting speed. Between what I wrote in my tablet, and writing letters, during the rest of my time in prison I would guess I wrote a million words." In this essay, Malcolm X has stated some of the ways through which he learned writing. He states how he "went on" copying the dictionary from one page to the next page. Some of the transition words such as "finally" and "actually" are quite obvious. Example #3: Perspectives on "Borders" (by Luis Valdez) "Let's go back to the Popol Vuh. We're talking about borders now. There is a border that defines the human being as a material and spiritual being. We have all learned that we're Homo sapiens, wise monkeys. The monkey is a symbol of intelligence in the Popol Vuh, and in the classic Chinese novel Monkey. The wise monkey is a symbol for humanity. Now let me offer you another symbol for our human being—the feathered serpent. You are a feathered serpent that is evolving and crawling out of the seeds of your being. And once in awhile you get caught up in the dead skins of your life. You know biologically we go through a complete cellular change every seven to nine years. We're totally renewed. So in one sense, biologically, you crawl out of a dead skin. You evolve out of yourself. The feathers are necessary because they represent our spiritual being." Although written in second person, this excerpt shows that the essay presents a process. It follows the same structure and same pattern of using things or doing tasks in a sequence. Specifically, the last lines show it clearly. Function of a Process Essay A process essay gives reader a sense of complete how-to-do process of making or creating some objects or things. Readers, after going through the essay, are able to create and make things. Although it is not like imperative instructions, it gives full details in a descriptive or prescriptive mode. It is because its major objective is not to present trite and dry instructions, but lively language to make readers read it with interest and do the act with enthusiasm.

Implied Metaphor

Implied Metaphor is a literary device used in prose and poetry to compare two unlikely things, with common characteristics without mentioning one of the objects of comparison. It is implied in the texts to make imagery rich and effective and also to make subjects relatable and understandable to the readers. In this sense, it enables them to grasp the complex phenomenon discussed in the text. Moreover, the appropriate use of implied metaphor appeals to the sense of hearing and makes readers comprehend what is being communicated to them. Implied Metaphor is a phrase of two words: implied and metaphor. Implied means not directly expressed and a metaphor means a word or a phrase used for comparing different objects but they are not literally applicable. Examples Implied Metaphor from Literature Example #1 I Know Why the Caged Birds Sings by Maya Angelou But a bird that stalks Down his narrow cage Can seldom see through His bars of rage His wings are clipped and His feet are tied So he opens his throat to sing. The caged bird sings With a fearful trill Of things unknown But longed for still And his tune is heard On the distant hill For the caged bird Sings of freedom. The poem exhibits racial segregation and social discrimination prevalent against the black community in American society. She has used two metaphors in the poem; the first metaphor is of the "free bird" that is for the white people, while the "caged bird" is the metaphor of African American people and their detention in the social norms. Using this implied metaphor of bird, Maya Angelou explores the ideas of freedom, equality, and justice in the text. She skilfully contrasts the freedom of the free bird and the alienation and captivity of the caged bird by using this metaphor. Example #2 She Walks in Beauty by Lord Byron "She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that's best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes; Thus mellowed to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies. One shade the more, one ray the less, Had half impaired the nameless grace Which waves in every raven tress, Or softly lightens o'er her face; Where thoughts serenely sweet express, How pure, how dear their dwelling-place." The poem offers a noticeable description of a glamorous woman, whom the speaker seems familiar with. It deals with a woman's exceptional external and internal beauty which provides a clue to her decent nature. Byron has artistically used some metaphors in the poem to make it relatable to the readers. He has used implied metaphors in the lines eleven and twelve, "Where thoughts serenely sweet express, How pure, how dear their dwelling-place." Here, he compares thoughts with people and "dwelling place" with a mind. Similarly, "Raven Trees" is the metaphor of the dark hair of the lady that add charm to her beauty. Example #3 Lights Out by Edward Thomas "I have come to the borders of sleep, The unfathomable deep Forest where all must lose Their way, however straight, Or winding, soon or late; They cannot choose. Many a road and track That, since the dawn's first crack, Up to the forest brink, Deceived the travellers, Suddenly now blurs, And in they sink." The poet compares sleep with a dark forest, where sooner or later, everyone may eventually lose their direction. He believes that it is a place where every human emotion such as love, ambitions, and affection lose their charm. However, the path that leads us to this destination is mysterious and oblique, yet it offers immense pleasure and calmness to its travelers. Therefore, the one who is attracted to it willingly obeys to what it says. By implying the metaphor of sleep, the poet has beautifully discussed the phenomenon of inevitable death. The poet has not mentioned the other object of comparison that is death. Example #4 Fire and Ice by Robert Frost Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice. From what I've tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if it had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great And would suffice. 'Fire and Ice' explores how the world would end in destruction. It presents two different schools of thoughts; some people believe that the world will end in a fire while some say that it will end in ice. To him, if the world will be destroyed twice, ice would be more damaging than fire. Frost has used many implied metaphors in the poem to express his ideas. For example, "fire" stands for the desires and "ice" represents hate. Similarly, the destruction of the world is the metaphor for the end of relationships. It is through the appropriate use of these implied metaphors that he has made the poem thought-provoking for the readers. Functions of Implied Metaphor An implied metaphor is a highly useful literary device that allows the authors to present unfamiliar ideas to help readers understand the deeper and hidden meanings. It broadens their imaginations and helps to grasp new ideas. Thus, it acts as a useful tool that allows the writers to present their ideas, thoughts, and imagination differently and appealingly.

In Medias Res

In Medias Res means narrating a story from the middle after supposing that the audiences are aware of past events. The etymology of this literary device goes back to the Roman lyric poet, Horace, who used it in his poem Ars Poetica as "Semper ad eventum festinat et in medias res...." It is a Latin phrase which literally denotes "in the midst of things." Hence, the author employs this expression as a common strategy to initiate their stories. In medias res demands beginning a narrative in the very middle of its action from some vital point when most of the action has occurred. The author then freely moves backward and forward at his leisure, connecting the dots of the story. All the explanations regarding the significance of setting, plot, characters and the minutiae of the story are gradually revealed in the form of a character's dialogues or thoughts, or flashbacks. The setting and environment also contribute to add to the details of the action introduced at the beginning of the story. Examples from Literature Example #1 Iliad by Homer "Sing, O goddess, the anger of Achilles son of Peleus, that brought countless ills upon the Achaeans. Many a brave soul did it send hurrying down to Hades, and many a hero did it yield a prey to dogs and vultures, for so were the counsels of Jove fulfilled from the day on which the son of Atreus, king of men, and great Achilles, first fell out with one another." (Iliad by Homer, Book-1, Translation by Samuel Butler) The practice of in medias res can be traced in Iliad as given in the first few lines. Homer has started his narrative directly with a quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon during the events of the Trojan War instead of beginning chronologically from the birth of Achilles to onward. Example #2 Odyssey by Homer "Tell me, O muse, of that ingenious hero who travelled far and wide after he had sacked the famous town of Troy. Many cities did he visit, and many were the nations with whose manners and customs he was acquainted; moreover he suffered much by sea while trying to save his own life and bring his men safely home; but do what he might he could not save his men, for they perished through their own sheer folly in eating the cattle of the Sun-god Hyperion; so the god prevented them from ever reaching home. Tell me, too, about all these things, O daughter of Jove, from whatsoever source you may know them." (Odyssey by Homer, Book-1, Translation by Samuel Butler) Another example is Odyssey again by Homer. The point of action does not start with the fall of Troy. Instead, it begins spontaneously with the details of Odysseus being held captive on the island of Ogygiya by the nymph Calypso where he was for the past seven years. Example #3 "In the midway of this our mortal life, I found me in a gloomy wood, astray Gone from the path direct: and e'en to tell It were no easy task, how savage wild That forest, how robust and rough its growth, Which to remember only, my dismay Renews, in bitterness not far from death." (Canto-1, "Inferno" by Dante Alighieri, Translation by H. F. Cary) Dante's epic poem The Divine Comedy, also employs this technique, as Dante begins his narrative right in the center of the action. Even, the first line of part of the poem titled, "Inferno" begins, "Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita," which means "In the midway of this our mortal journey." Example #4 Dostoyevsky's novel The Gambler can also be cited as an example of in medias res. The novel starts forth as "At length, I returned from two weeks leave of absence to find that my patrons had arrived three days ago in Roulettenberg. I received from them a welcome quite different to that which I had expected. The General eyed me coldly, greeted me in rather haughty fashion, and dismissed me to pay my respects to his sister. It was clear that from SOMEWHERE money had been acquired. I thought I could even detect a certain shamefacedness in the General's glance." (The Gambler by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Chapter 1, Page 1) Example #5 A more contemporary example of this literary technique can be observed in the series Twilight by Stephenie Meyer. The author begins each of the novels in her saga by recounting a scene which happens towards the end of the book in the very start. "I'd never given much thought as to how I would die - though I'd had reason enough in the last few months - but even if I had, I would not have imagined it like this." (Twilight by Stephenie Meyer, Prologue, Page 1) In Medias Res Meaning and Function The purpose of starting in the middle of the action induces such an effect on the readers that they are forced to put questions to the authors. That is why it leads to the creation of suspense and tension. In fact, the readers have a strong desire to know the preceding as well as the succeeding events from the very beginning. Hence, the readers begin to focus on the events occurring throughout the story, and the author is spared from providing tedious details of the past. It also forces the readers to question every aspect of the events that are connected to the characters and their journey.

Archaism

Archaism is the derivative of the Greek word archaïkós, which means "beginning," or "ancient." It is a figure of speech in which a used phrase or word is considered very old fashioned and outdated. It can be a word, a phrase, a group of letters, spelling, or syntax. Archaism is the use of writing or speech that is now rarely used; the use of older versions of language and art. Such as in these lines, "To thine own self be true" (Hamlet, by William Shakespeare). Sentences that may be considered examples of archaism will most probably contain words like "thine" and "thou." Evolution of Archaism Archaism is also known as "archaic diction." Languages evolve over the years. The English language written and spoken by Shakespeare was very different from English used today. The use of archaic language is found in the literary works of ancient medieval ages, as well as in the Victorian and Edwardian, 19th and 20th centuries. Examples of Archaism in Literature Archaism examples are found in the masterpieces of Shakespeare, S. T. Coleridge, Hemingway, and Keats. Example #1: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S. T. Coleridge) "It is an ancient Mariner, And he stoppeth one of three. 'By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, Now wherefore stopp'st thou me? He holds him with his skinny hand, 'There was a ship,' quoth he. 'Hold off! unhand me, grey-beard loon!' Eftsoons his hand dropt he 'I fear thy skinny hand! ... I fear thee and thy glittering eye, And thy skinny hand, so brown.'— Fear not, fear not, thou Wedding-Guest! This body dropt not down ..." In the following extract, archaic words are used extensively. These words are shown in bold. Example #2: For Whom the Bell Tolls (By Earnest Hemingway) "'Where the hell are you going?' Agustín asked the grave little man as he came up... 'Thy duty,' said Agustín mockingly. 'I besmirch the milk of thy duty.' Then turning to the woman, 'Where the un-nameable is this vileness that I am to guard?' 'In the cave,' Pilar said. 'In two sacks. And I am tired of thy obscenity.' 'I obscenity in the milk of thy tiredness,' Agustín said. 'Then go and befoul thyself,' Pilar said to him without heat. 'Thy mother,' Agustín replied." Hemingway has filled this paragraph with archaism. For instance, the words "un-namable" and "vileness" are old fashioned and out of use. He has, however, used them purposefully to create special mysterious effect. Example #3: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats) "Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store? Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find Thee sitting careless on a granary floor, Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind; ... Drowsed with the fume of poppies, while thy hook And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep Steady thy laden head across a brook; ... Thou watchest the last oozings, hours by hours." John Keats has used archaism frequently in his poems. This example is also based on old fashioned words. Like, "hath" is an older version of "has," "thou" has replaced "you," and "watchest" is used as the past participle of "watch." Example #4: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) "Perhaps he loves you now, And now no soil nor cautel doth besmirch The virtue of his will There; my blessing with thee! And these few precepts in thy memory Look thou character. Give thy thoughts no tongue ... I find thee apt; And duller shouldst thou be than the fat weed That rots itself in ease on Lethe wharf, Wouldst thou not stir in this ..." Shakespeare is famous for using archaic words to make his work more rhythmic, realistic, and to draw the attention of readers. Here, the words marked in bold are considered archaic. Function of Archaism Archaism is frequently used in poetry, prose, science, law, geography, ritual, and technology speech and writing. It may have been used accidentally or purposefully. The role of archaism in history is to suggest a superior, but maybe mythical, ancient golden age. Also, it can be used for creating humor and irony. However, the most effective use of archaism is in poetry. The sound patterns of archaic words are helpful when it comes to assonance, alliteration, and rhyme scheme.

Pathetic Fallacy

Pathetic fallacy is a literary device that attributes human qualities and emotions to inanimate objects of nature. The word pathetic in the term is not used in the derogatory sense of being miserable; rather, it stands for "imparting emotions to something else." Difference Between Pathetic Fallacy and Personification Generally, pathetic fallacy is confused with personification. The fact is that they differ in their function. Pathetic fallacy is a kind of personification that gives human emotions to inanimate objects of nature; for example, referring to weather features reflecting a mood. Personification, on the other hand, is a broader term. It gives human attributes to abstract ideas, animate objects of nature, or inanimate non-natural objects. For example, the sentence "The somber clouds darkened our mood" is a pathetic fallacy, as human attributes are given to an inanimate object of nature reflecting a mood. But, the sentence "The sparrow talked to us" is a personification because the animate object of nature - the sparrow - is given the human quality of "talking." Examples of Pathetic Fallacy in Literature Lets us analyze some examples of pathetic fallacy in literature: Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare) Shakespeare uses pathetic fallacy in his play Macbeth to describe the dark murder of the character Duncan. In Act 2, Scene 3, Lennox says: "The night has been unruly. Where we lay, Our chimneys were blown down and, as they say, Lamentings heard i' th' air, strange screams of death, And prophesying with accents terrible Of dire combustion and confused events New hatched to the woeful time. The obscure bird Clamored the livelong night. Some say the Earth Was feverous and did shake." The pathetic fallacy examples in the above lines describe the ominous atmosphere on the night of Duncan's murder. The unruly night, the screams of death in the air, and the feverous earth depict the evil act of murder that happened a night before. Example #2: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) Emily Bronte's novel Wuthering Heights is full of pathetic fallacies. The title itself shows the use of this device, as the word wuthering means "blowing strongly with a roaring sound." Therefore, "Wuthering Heights" means uproarious and aggressive weather that represents the nature of its residents. There are lots of instances in the novel in which the mood of nature portrays the nature of events in the narrative. For example, the character Lockwood is trapped in a snow storm before the nightmare scene, the "wild and windy" night at the time of Mr. Earnshaw's death, the "violent thunderstorm" on the night Heathcliff leaves Wuthering Heights, and the stormy weather outside when Cathy makes a choice between Heathcliff and Edgar indicates her inner turmoil. Example #3: Ode to Melancholy (By John Keats) Keats employs pathetic Fallacy in his Ode to Melancholy: "But when the melancholy fit shall fall Sudden from heaven like a weeping cloud That fosters the droop-headed flowers all And hides the green hills in an April shroud" The feeling of melancholy has been described by attributing the human emotion of weeping to the clouds. Example #4: I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (By William Wordsworth) William Wordsworth, in his poem I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, says: "I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills," The poet describes clouds as lonely, in order to describe his own state. Example #5: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens makes use of pathetic fallacy in his novel, Great Expectations. At the beginning of Chapter 39, his protagonist, Pip, comments on the "wretched weather": "Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still, as if in the East there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn up, and sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the coast, of shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had accompanied these rages of wind, and the day just closed as I sat down to read had been the worst of all." The furious gusts, and the rages of wind indicate the confused inner world of Pip. Function of Pathetic Fallacy By employing pathetic fallacy, writers try to bring inanimate objects to life, so that the nature of emotions they want to convey is understood in a better way. This is because it is easier for readers to relate to abstract emotions when they observe it in their natural surroundings. In addition, the use of pathetic fallacy encourages readers to develop a perspective that is new as well as creative.

Theme

Theme is defined as a main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work, which may be stated directly or indirectly. Major and Minor Themes Major and minor themes are two types of themes that appear in literary works. A major theme is an idea that a writer repeats in his literary work, making it the most significant idea in the work. A minor theme, on the other hand, refers to an idea that appears in a work briefly, giving way to another minor theme. Examples of theme in Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" are matrimony, love, friendship, and affection. The whole narrative revolves around the major theme of matrimony. Its minor themes are love, friendship, affectation etc. Difference Between a Theme and a Subject It is important not to confuse a theme of a literary work with its subject. Subject is a topic that acts as a foundation for a literary work, while a theme is an opinion expressed on the subject. For example, a writer may choose a subject of war for his story, and the theme may be his personal opinion that war is a curse for humanity. Usually, it is up to the readers to explore the theme of a literary work by analyzing characters, plot, and other literary devices. Presentation of Themes A writer presents themes in a literary work through several means. A writer may express a theme through the feelings of his main character about the subject he has chosen to write about. Similarly, themes are presented through thoughts and conversations of different characters. Moreover, the experiences of the main character in the course of a literary work give us an idea about its theme. Finally, the actions and events taking place in a narrative are consequential in determining its theme. Short Examples of Theme When the astronaut landed on the moon, he felt loneliness. Thinking there was no one else, he became a little forlorned, though the view of Earth was stunningly beautiful. (Theme of lonesomeness) The space travelers were travelling to the moon, when their spaceship suddenly ran out of fuel. They were all frightened to learn that they wouldn't be able to return to Earth, and could only land on the moon. (Theme of fear) The bus was travelling at a great speed when it was stopped by a gang of robbers. The passengers were ordered to get out, leaving their precious belongings in the bus. (Theme of fear) Their marriage ceremony was taking place in a grand hotel. All the eminent people of the city were invited, the reason that the celebration was excellent. (Theme of happiness) As soon as the clock struck 12 at noon, the jubilations started. It travelled from East to West on the first day of the year. (Theme of felicitation) The religious leader was leading a huge congregation of followers, praying with utmost humility. (Theme of religiosity) All the family members were dressed in black, with somber faces. They were participating in the funeral ceremony of their deceased relative. (Theme of gloom) The cricket match was reaching a highpoint, the fans of both teams screaming their support. It was an excellent game. (Theme of cheerfulness) The teacher said that she hoped all of her students would pass with good grades. (Theme of optimism) The father of the slowwitted student said he had no false hopes about his son's future. (Theme of pessimism) The immigrant looked around to talk to somebody, but could find no one who spoke his language. He felt claustrophobic and desolate. (Theme of hopelessness) Only the laborers were working on Labor Day. (Theme of irony) The conference was in full swing, with scholars delivering knowledgeable lectures on varying subjects. The audience enjoyed it immensely. (Theme of learning) The politician was delivering a speech on the need for peace between two neighboring states. He said through peace they could achieve what not possible through war. (Theme of peace) The general commanded his troops to open fire at the enemy, and to kill each and every soldier of the combatants. (Theme of war) Examples of Theme in Literature Example #1: Love and Friendship Theme Love and friendship are frequently occurring themes in literature. They generate emotional twists and turns in a narrative, and can lead to a variety of endings: happy, sad, or bittersweet. The following are famous literary works with love and friendship themes: Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Example #2: War Theme The theme of war has been explored in literature since ancient times. literary woks utilizing this theme may either glorify or criticize the idea of war. Most recent literary works portray war as a curse for humanity, due to the suffering it inflicts. Some famous examples include: Iliad and Odyssey by Homer War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway Arms and the Man by Bernard Shaw A Band of Brothers: Stories from Vietnam by Walter McDonald Example #3: Crime and Mystery Themes Crime and mystery are utilized in detective novels. Such narratives also include sub-themes, such as "crimes cannot be hidden," "evil is always punished," and others. Some well-known crime and mystery theme examples include: The Murders in the Rue Morgue by Edgar Allan Poe Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle Bleak House by Charles Dickens Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown Example #4: Revenge Theme Revenge is another recurrent theme found in many popular literary works. A character comes across certain circumstances that make him aware of his need for revenge. The outcome of his action is often bitter, but sometimes they may end up being satisfied. Examples are: Hamlet and Macbeth by William Shakespeare The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexander Dumas The Girl Who Kicked the Hornet's Nest by Stieg Larsson A Time to Kill by John Grisham Example #5: Annabel Lee (By Edgar Allan Poe) "I was a child and she was a child, In this kingdom by the sea, But we loved with a love that was more than love— I and my Annabel Lee— With a love that the wingèd seraphs of Heaven Coveted her and me." This short extract, taken from Poe's poem, depicts the theme of love. Example #6: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred Tennyson) "Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. 'Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!' he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred." This extract from a poem by Tennyson has two interwoven themes. War is the main theme of the poem, which naturally leads to death — while the theme of death is interwoven with the theme of war. Function of Theme Theme is an element of a story that binds together various essential elements of a narrative. It is often a truth that exhibits universality, and stands true for people of all cultures. Theme gives readers better understanding of the main character's conflicts, experiences, discoveries, and emotions as they are derived from them. Through themes, a writer tries to give his readers an insight into how the world works, or how he or she views human life.

Villanelle

Villanelle is derived from the Italian word villano, which means "peasant.' In fact, a villanelle is a dance song coupled with pastoral themes. In literature, it is defined as a poetic device that which requires a poem to have 19 lines and a fixed form. It has five tercets (first 15 lines), a quatrain (last four lines), and a couplet at the end of the quatrain. Major Features of Villanelle Here are the major characteristics of a villanelle: There is no well-organized meter in a villanelle, but it has a set rhyme scheme. There are no fixed numbers of syllables. The refraining pattern of a typical villanelle is arranged as shown below: (A1) refrain 1 Line 2 (b) (A2) refrain 2 Line 4 (a) Line 5 (b) (A1) refrain 1 Line 7 (a) Line 8 (b) (A2) refrain 2 Line 10 (a) Line 11 (b) (A1) refrain 1 Line 13 (a) Line 14 (b) (A2) refrain 2 Line 16 (a) Line 17 (b) (A1) refrain 1 (A2) refrain 2 Here, the letters "a" and "b" denote two rhyming sounds, while "A" indicates refrain, and the numerals "1" and "2" denote refrain 1 and refrain 2 respectively. Examples of Villanelle in Literature Example #1: Mad Girl's Love Song (By Sylvia Plath) "I shut my eyes and all the world drops dead; (A1) I lift my lids and all is born again. (a) (I think I made you up inside my head.) (A2) The stars go waltzing out in blue and red, (a) And arbitrary blackness gallops in: (b) I shut my eyes and all the world drops dead. (A1) I dreamed that you bewitched me into bed (a) And sung me moon-struck, kissed me quite insane. (b) (I think I made you up inside my head.) (A2) God topples from the sky, hell's fires fade: (a) Exit seraphim and Satan's men: (b) I shut my eyes and all the world drops dead. (A1) I fancied you'd return the way you said, (a) But I grow old and I forget your name. (b) (I think I made you up inside my head.) (A2) I should have loved a thunderbird instead; (a) At least when spring comes they roar back again. (b) I shut my eyes and all the world drops dead. (A1) (I think I made you up inside my head.)" (A2) Example #2: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce) Are you not weary of ardent ways, (A1) Lure of the fallen seraphim? (b) Tell no more of enchanted days. (A2) Your eyes have set man's heart ablaze (a) And you have had your will of him. (b) Are you not weary of ardent ways? (A1) Above the flame the smoke of praise (a) Goes up from ocean rim to rim. (b) Tell no more of enchanted days. (A2) Our broken cries and mournful lays (a) Rise in one eucharistic hymn. (b) Are you not weary of ardent ways? (A1) While sacrificing hands upraise (a) The chalice flowing to the brim, (b) Tell no more of enchanted days. (A2) And still you hold our longing gaze (a) With languorous look and lavish limb! (b) Are you not weary of ardent ways? (A1) Tell no more of enchanted days. (A2) Example #3: Theocritus (By Oscar Wilde) O Singer of Persephone! (A1) In the dim meadows desolate (b) Dost thou remember Sicily? (A2) Still through the ivy flits the bee (a) Where Amaryllis lies in state; (b) O Singer of Persephone! (A1) Simætha calls on Hecate And hears the wild dogs at the gate; Dost thou remember Sicily? (A2) Still by the light and laughing sea Poor Polypheme bemoans his fate: O Singer of Persephone! (A1) And still in boyish rivalry Young Daphnis challenges his mate: Dost thou remember Sicily? (A2) Slim Lacon keeps a goat for thee, For thee the jocund shepherds wait, O Singer of Persephone! (A1) Dost thou remember Sicily? (A2) Oscar Wilde is famous for using villanelle in his poems. Function of Villanelle Villanelle is divided into three segments. The first segment is called the "introduction." The second is called the "development," and the third is called the "conclusion." Villanelle builds up the intensity and tone of a poem. It is mostly used in lyrical poems and songs, with the objective of using repeated lines to soften the typical repetition of traditional forms.

Exaggeration

We all exaggerate. Sometimes by spicing up stories to make them more fun, or simply to highlight our points. Exaggeration is a statement that makes something worse, or better, than it really is. In literature and oral communication, writers and speakers use exaggeration as a literary technique, to give extra stress and drama in a work or speech. Everyday Examples of Exaggeration This bicycle is a thousand years old. He snores louder than a cargo train. My dog only has cat friends. He is drowning in his tears. His brain is the size of a pea. Types of Exaggeration Overstatement It is a statement that slightly exaggerates something to convey the meaning. Cole Porter's poem You're the Top provides a good example: "You're the Nile, You're the Tower of Pisa, You're the smile Of the Mona Lisa..." Here, the poet overstates the actual truth and calls his beloved the river Nile, and the tower of Pisa. He also says that her smile like that of the Mona Lisa. Hyperbole Hyperbole is an extreme, extravagant, and impossible exaggeration, such as when Flannery O'Connor writes in his essay, Parker's Back: "And the skin on her face was thin and drawn tight like the skin on an onion and her eyes were gray and sharp like the points of two ice picks." Examples of Exaggeration in Literature Example #1: A Modest Proposal (By Jonathan Swift) Jonathan Swift has been notorious for employing exaggeration in his writings, to provide social and political commentary. Through his peculiar story, A Modest Proposal, Swift elevates the politics of society to an extent of barefaced absurdity. In this essay, Swift exaggerates by suggesting that the only way to save Ireland from poverty and overpopulation is to kill the children of the poor families. He further suggests that their meat would serve as a delicacy for the nobles of Ireland. He continues to exaggerate, considering ways and recipes to make their skin into handbags and gloves by saying: "Those who are more thrifty may flay the carcass, the skin of which, artificially dressed, will make admirable gloves for ladies and summer boots for fine gentleman." In fact, Swift exaggerates tenaciously this idea because the people of Ireland have failed to find a logical solution to reduce poverty and overpopulation. Example #2: Candida (By Voltaire) "I have wanted to kill myself a hundred times, but somehow I am still in love with life. This ridiculous weakness is perhaps one of our more stupid melancholy propensities, for is there anything more stupid than to be eager to go on carrying a burden which one would gladly throw away, to loathe one's very being and yet to hold it fast, to fondle the snake that devours us until it has eaten our hearts away?" In this example, an old woman tells her story - how she faced hard times, exaggerating that she wanted to kill herself a hundred times, calling herself a burden. Example #3: Song (By John Donne) "Go and catch a falling star, Get with child a mandrake root, Tell me where all past years are, Or who cleft the devil's foot, Teach me to hear mermaids singing, Or to keep off envy's stinging, And find What wind Serves to advance an honest mind. If thou be'st born to strange sights, Things invisible to see, Ride ten thousand days and nights, Till age snow white hairs on thee, Thou, when thou return'st, wilt tell me, All strange wonders that befell thee, And swear, No where Lives a woman true, and fair..." John Donne uses exaggerated expressions in this poem. The first line of this poem, "Go and catch a falling star," employs an impossible undertaking. In the remaining stanzas, the poet urges readers to undertake more unachievable tasks, by using extreme exaggeration. These include finding a mandrake root - a mythical root in medieval lore, and hearing mermaids' songs. In the second stanza, Donne suggests taking a journey of "ten thousand days and nights," to find a faithful woman. In fact, the entire poem is rich with exaggeratedly doubtful tasks. Example #4: To His Coy Mistress (By Andrew Marvell) "An hundred years should go to praise Thine eyes and on thy forehead gaze; Two hundred to adore each breast; But thirty thousand to the rest." Andrew Marvell has employed exceptional exaggeration in this excerpt to praise his beloved. His purpose of using this literary device is to lay emphasis on his point, rather than deception. Function of Exaggeration The function of any type of exaggeration, whether it is overstatement or hyperbole, is to lay emphasis and stress on the given idea, action, feature, or feeling by overstating it. Through exaggeration, writers describe an action or a feature in a remarkable and heightened manner. Sometimes, they also use it sarcastically and ironically to bring humor to their works. In poetry, on the other hand, poets use it by adding images, similes and metaphors.