HIST 264 Midterm

Franz Kafka

(1883-1924) One of the most influential authors of the 20th century, his novels "The Metamorphosis", "The Trial", and "The Castle" touch upon questions like the alienation of man from himself, the absurdity of the modern world, and dark surreal settings. His works are thought to have influenced authors like Camus and Sartre.

Budapest

Capital of Kingdom of Hungary.

Weimar Germany

Post-WWI German Republican government. Has extensive civil liberties and political rights as well as structural elements enabling Hitler's constitutional rise to power.

Woodrow Wilson

President of the US during WWI, creator and leading advocate of the League of Nations. Hoped that America in the war would be the means to build a just, lasting peace. Asking for a declaration of war before Congress in 1917, he said, "the world must be made safe for democracy." Known for his Fourteen Points.

Wincenty Witos

Prominent member of the Polish People's Party, served three times as premier of Poland. Supported Jozef Pilsudski, who he saw the the future leader of the Polish army.

Slovenes

South Slavic ethnic group.

Woodrow Wilson and "self-determination"

The idea that nations have a right to determine their international political status and to freely choose their sovereignty, Wilson set this idea as a "principle of action" regarding the rise of various nations across Europe, after his Fourteen Points were announced. Thus, after World War I, following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the independence of former Russian states like Lithuania and Poland, this principle was often quoted as the justification for nationalist independence movements. However, areas with many nationalities were still faced with the problem of sustaining a government and state while often faced with the reality of only one nationality being the strongest.

Mustafa Kemal/Kemal Atatürk

"Father of the Turks" — founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey. Modernizes Turkey's legal and educational systems with the Ataturk Reforms 1923.

Miklós Horthy

"Permanent regent." 1920 Supports Hungarian Right when they oust the communists. When the leader of the Hungarian Right, in retaliation for the Red Terror, enacts two years of violent repression of communists, social democrats, and Jews (White Terror), Horthy punishes Prónay. Stabilizes economy, builds alliances with weaker nations, sought redress for Treaty of Trianon.

Vuk Karadzić

(1787-1864) Serbian linguist who reformed the Serbian language. Author of the first Serbian dictionary.

Josip Strossmayer

(1815-1905) Croatian politician and Catholic bishop. Leader of the People's Party in the 1860s; had talked about relations of Croatia and Hungary.

Franz Josef

(1830-1916) Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary from 1848 to his death in 1916--in the middle of the war. Succeeded by Charles I. Reigned during the Ausgleich of 1867, transforming the Austrian Empire into the Austro-Hungarian Empire as a dual monarchy. He annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908, and in 1914 when his nephew and heir to the A-H throne Franz Ferdinand was assassinated, A-H declared war on Serbia, leading to the start of WWI. He died in 1916 and was the longest reigning emperor of Austria.

Nikola Pašić

(1845-1926) Influential political leader of Serbia's People's Radical Party. Prime minister of Yugoslavia from 1924-26.

Tomáš G. Masaryk

(1850-1937) The founder and first president of Czechoslovakia (1918-1935), he is considered the founding father and symbol of democracy by Czechs and Slovaks alike. He was the first to realize that the ancient Czech texts discovered as a part of the National Awakening movement of the 18th century were fabricated, and was heavily concerned with modern philosophy and uncovering the truth ("The truth will prevail"). He expressed his sympathies for the South Slavs (of Hapsburg) and spoke on behalf of their independence as well, uniting them in the Czechoslovakian cause of independence and winning over Woodrow Wilson. As president, he represented a tolerant and elite democracy, in which the government was relatively secular, and the State developed a good industry.

Ante Pavelić

(1889-1959) Led the Ustasa; became dictator of Croatia during Nazi occupation in WWII. Pursued genocidal policies against ethnic and racial minorities.

Byzantium

Ancient Greek city, capital of the Byzantine Empire, site that later became Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, now known as Istanbul, capital of modern Turkey.

Kiev

Capital of Ukraine.

Czechoslovak National Council

Established 1916 in Paris under Masaryk, worked for Czechoslovak independence, and was recognized by France in 1918, then the rest of the Allies.

Gabriel Narutowicz

First president of Second Polish Republic; assassinated in 1922 after just days in office. Believed in Pilsudski's ideals, friend of Pilsudski.

Devětsil

The Devetsil was a group of Czech Avant-garde artists in Prague in the 1920s.

Pátecníci ("Friday men")

The Friday Men were a group of intellectuals that met in Karel Capek's garden or Cafe Slavia every Friday afternoon. Masaryk was a part of this group, and was a good friend of Capek. The Friday Men often offered political advice to Masaryk.

Pravda zvítězí ("the truth will prevail")

This was the national motto adopted by Tomas Masaryk.

Wilhelm II

(1859-1941) Kaiser (emperor) of Germany and king of Prussia from 1888 to end of WWI.

Stjepan Radić

(1871-1928) Leader of Croat Peasant Party who advocated for Croat ethnic and nationalist awareness. Not necessarily in favor of Croat independence, just wanted to avoid subjugation in the new Yugoslavia by the dominant Serbs. 1925 Radić accepts monarchy from prison. Fails to bring Serbian and Croat peasant parties together 1926. Shot from podium in parliament 1928.

Svetozar Pribićević

(1875-1936) Croatian Serb politician who fought for a unitarist Yugoslavia. Was leader of Croato-Serbian Coalition (dominant party in the Sabor) when Croatia joined the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs. After Italy moved into Istria in 1918, Privićević worked to create Yugoslavia, urging Croatian unification with Serbia.

Vladimir Maćek

(1879-1964) Croatian politician active in Yugoslavia; led the Croatian Peasant Party as President after the 1928 assassination of Radic through WWII.

Edvard Beneš

(1884-1948) As a long-serving ally of Masaryk and Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia, he served as the second president after Masaryk's retirement in 1935. He wanted CZSL to be like Switzerland, and shared a genuine vision of Liberal Democracy with Masaryk. He was forced to give up CZSL as he was not given a voice in the Munich Agreement. He was forced to resign in 1938.

Karel Čapek

(1890-1938) A Czech writer in the early 20th century, was well known as an intellectual, author, and political writer. Most famous to us through his "War With the Newts," a work of satire on 20th century Europe and the world. He brought up various social issues like the rise of Fascism, Nazi Germany and their racial policies (they claimed to have found a superior Nordic race of Newts), and the global arms race. Capek died of illness in 1938, shortly after the Munich Agreement.

Milena Jesenská

(1896-1944) A Czech journalist and writer, she is best known for her intense relationship with Kafka, and to be the first one to translate his works into Czech, and for receiving all of his diaries following his death in 1924.

Roman Jakobson

(1896-1982) A prominent linguist and literary theorist of the 20th century, he completed his doctoral studies in Prague and later became one of the founders of the Prague Literary Circle. He escaped Prague after the German takeover and joined the intellectual emigre community in New York in 1941.

Borot'bists

(1918-1920) Left-nationalist political party in Ukraine. In 1920, merged with the Communist Party (bolshevik) of Ukraine.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

(February 1918) Peace treaty between Bolshevik Russian government and Germany that ended Russia's involvement in WWI. Russia loses Ukraine, its Polish and Baltic territories, and Finland.

Treaty of Versailles

(June 1919) Signed on June 28th, 1919, it ended the war between Germany and the Allied Powers, and forced Germany to accept the treaty's conditions without giving them a seat at the negotiating table. Some main terms were: that Germany accept responsibility for the war and all its damages (the War Guilt clause), substantial territorial concessions, and reparations for damages. The German forces in Eastern Europe, who had never lost a battle, did not receive this well, and this treaty left a lasting feeling of injustice in the minds of German people.

"Pittsburgh Agreement"

(March 1918) Signed on May 31st, 1918 by members of the Czech and Slovak expat communities in America. There was no significant Slovak population large enough to give consent to a united Czechoslovakia, thus the expat community had to get involved. This laid out the intent to form a united Czechoslovak republic. This agreement led to the proclamation of the Czechoslovak republic five months later, on October 18th.

Corfu Declaration

1917, called for establishment of a unified Yugoslavia after the War. Agreement between Serbian government-in-exile and Yugoslav Committee (London). Continues Serbian political institutions, installs Serbian monarch. Take territory from A-H. Parliamentary democracy, capital markets. Encourage Croats fighting the A-H army to join the Yugoslav movement and changed the attitude of the Entente in favor of the Yugoslavs.

Konrad Henlein

A Sudeten German politician who came to prominence in the 30s, he founded the Sudetendeutsche partei in hopes of achieving autonomy for the German minority in CZSL, mainly in Sudetenland. In the election of 1935, the SdP gained 15 percent of all votes and a majority of the German votes, and was greatly supported by the Nazis in CZSL. He later joined the Nazi party and Hitler's Reichstag after the German takeover in 1939.

Prague Linguistic Circle

Also called the Prague School, the Prague Linguistic Circle was a group of linguists and literary theorists that was heavily influential in the creation of structuralist literary analysis, and a theory of the standard language.

Andrej Hlinka and the Slovak People's Party

Andrej Hlinka was a right-wing (dubbed fascist by communist Czechs), Catholic politician who had long opposed the secularization of Hungary. He joined the formation of Czechoslovakia, but his party aimed for Slovak autonomy based on the Pittsburgh Agreement. This claim was rejected by Masaryk and Benes, but Slovakia would become independent following the Czech ceding of land to Germany.

Triest

Annexed into Italy from A-H after the war, as per terms of Treaty of London (1915), a secret agreement which promised territory to Italy in return for its support of the Allies, and the Treaty of Rapallo (1920), with newly created Yugoslavia. Site of local (Slavic/Slovene) resistance to Italian fascist regime.

March on Kiev

April 24-June 13 1920. Attempt by Jozef Pilsudski and the Polish army, in cooperation with Ukranian leader Symon Petliura, to seize Central and Eastern Ukraine from Soviet control.

Franz Ferdinand

Archduke and heir to Austro-Hungarian throne, brother of Franz Josef, assassinated by the Black Hand (Serbian student terrorist organization). With his death, A-H sees an opportunity to end the Serbian question, gets German support, drafts ultimatum putting Serbian govt. responsible for Ferdinand's death and demanding full satisfaction. Direct cause of WWI.

Robert Musil

Austrian novelist, best known for unfinished novel The Man Without Qualities, a witty, urbane portrait of life in the last days of the Austro-Hungarian Empire--tragic farce accounting the slow collapse of society into anarchy and chaos and indictment of a society that embraces fascism.

Black Hand and White Hand

Black Hand: Terrorist group in Serbia that wanted to liberate Serbs outside of Serbia from Habsburg and Ottoman rule. They were responsible for the event many point to as the start of WWI - the assassination of Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand. Also assassinated Alexander Obrenovic and installed Peter Karadjordevic as new king of Serbia. White Hand: Similar organization, but in Yugoslavia. Formed 1912 in opposition to the Black Hand.

Gavrilo Princip

Bosnian Serb who assassinates Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, June 1914. Trained by Black Hand.

R.W. Seton-Watson

British political activist and historian (b. 1879-d. 1951) who encouraged break-up of A-H Empire and creation of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia after WWI

Vienna

Capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Center of wealth and power.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Capital: Sarajevo. Nation annexed by A-H in 1908, land that is also tempting to Serbia--which has just proven that nationalism can defeat empire.

Tomaš Masaryk

Chief founder and first president (1918-35) of Czechoslovakia. Works on Czech Reformation and Czech language/culture revival, campaigns against A-H and Germany during WWI in Western Europe. Goes to Russia when the tsar falls in 1917, then to the US after the Bolshevik Revolution, where he negotiates Czechoslovak independence (1918) with Wilson ("Pittsburgh Agreement").

Jósef Piłsudski

Chief of State of Republic of Poland (1918-1922) and later de-facto dictator (1926-1935) of the country. Person most responsible for creation of the Republic of Poland. Wanted independent Poland, more land than was in Versailles. Accepts Hitler's 10-year non-aggression agreement (1934) Died 1935.

Little Entente

Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia : An alliance formed in 1920, it was designed to prevent a Hungarian and Hapsburg attempt to reclaim land that they had lost through the Paris Peace talks (Trianon, 1920 June). Benes was the chief proponent of the little Entente, and was successful in keeping Charles I of Austria from reclaiming his throne in Hungary. Hungary abrogated his sovereign rights in November, 1921.

Yiddish

Dialect of High German spoken by Jews. Mother tongue of 80% of Polish Jews

štokavian

Dialect of Serbo-Croatian that is declared standard in Yugoslavia.

Vladimir Lenin

Founder of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), inspirer and leader of the Bolshevik Revolution , and first head of the Soviet state. Also founded the Comintern. Modifies Marxism's historical determinism by allowing for human action and acceleration towards communism.

Max Weber

German intellectual who countered Marx, related Protestantism to capitalism. Sought to produce a scientific approach to overcome the deficiencies of Marx and Émile Durkheim. Focused on rationalism. Cited along with Marx and Durkheim as one of the inventors of sociology.

Central Powers

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire (and Bulgaria) - Germany and Austro-Hungarian Empire at beginning of the war. Ottoman Empire joins later in 1914, Bulgaria joins in 1915.

(Triple) Entente

Great Britain, France, Russian Empire

IMRO

Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization: Macedonian radical nationalist terrorist group that supported the Ustasa financially. Wanted territory in Hungary and Yugoslavia.

Polish People's Party

Interwar Polish political party that was created in 1913. When Poland became independent in 1918, it formed several other parties, eventually becoming the SL in 1931. During WWII formed part of the Polish resistance movement, led by Wincenty Witos.

irredentism

Irredentism refers to political or popular movements to reclaim lost territory on the grounds of historic or fictional claims to ethnic affiliations and former ownership. It is commonly seen in nationalist movements. Hungary wished to regain land it owned before WWI, while Germany believed in the creation of a Greater Germany, through the incorporation of lands in Austria.

"Eastern Question"

Issue of Ottoman Empire and the emergence of national ideas, most notably of Serbia, Greece, and the Balkans at the turn of the century. Emerges after 1774 loss of the Russo-Turkish War. "1912 Solution" of ethnic nationalism against the colonizer when Balkan States fight and defeat the Ottoman Empire.

"Polish Question"

Issue of existence of Poland as an independent state. Emerges post-partitions (1772-1795). The partitioning powers (Russia, Prussia/Germany, and the Habsburgs) deal with the question during WWI, when they fight each other and each attempt to take parts of Poland by giving Poles their own state. After the war, interwar Republic of Poland is created when Poland switches to side of Allies. Hitler believes that Poland did not actually exist and never had, justifying his occupation of the territory

Bund

Jewish socialist party in Poland which promoted the political, cultural and social autonomy of Jewish workers (socialist), sought to combat antisemitism and was generally opposed to Zionism/ largest secular political formation of Jews/

Zionists

Jews who believe in Theodore Herzl's call to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

John Maynard Keynes (Keynesian Economics)

John Maynard Keynes, in his 1936 book "The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money" argues that during times of recession, the government should gear its policies towards deficit spending and solve problems in the short run. Germany followed such an economic policy following the Great Depression, implementing large public works projects like the construction of the Autobahn and higher military spending. Other countries, like Austria, did the opposite and cut back on government spending and focused on securing internal markets. This led to a slower recovery from the Great Depression and large gold reserves, serving as an additional incentive for Germany's takeover of Austria. Germany also promised fixed prices and amounts for trading crops and other products with other nations.

Ugoda

July 1925 agreement between Jews and Poles that set a mutual arrangement for political and social reforms. Offered Jews a level of political autonomy and exemption from particular national laws Largely ineffective as the Polish government that enacted it was deposed in the 1926 coup d'etat (by Pilsudksi)

Béla Kun

Leader of Hungary's communist government which took power in Budapest March 1919, the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Used terrorism to eliminate the moderate elements of the Hungarian government (Red Terror). Nationalized Hungary's estates instead of dividing them among the peasants, breaking down food distribution and angering the peasantry. When the Soviets did not come to his aid, regime collapses August 1919.

Jozef Pilsudski

Leader of Socialist party (multiethnic, multilingual). Does not want

Mykhailo Hrushevsky

Leader of Ukrainian national revival. Author of first Ukrainian history. 1917 elected head of the Ukrainian Central Rada (revolutionary parliament), guiding Ukraine from national autonomy within a democratic Russia to completely independent statehood.

Roman Dmowski

Leader of the Polish right-wing nationalist "National Democracy" movement, supports creating independent Poland (1918-39), and a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles. Chief opponent of Pilsudski. The Poles are Polish-speaking, Roman-Catholic. Content with Versailles.

Eleuthérios Venizélos

Most prominent Greek politician of the early 20th century. Dies 1936. During his time as prime minister and premier, Greece doubles in area and population.

Ban

Noble title for a kind of viceroy/governor. Title of the governor of Yugoslavia.

Vyx Note

Note presented March 1919 from the French to the Hungarians ordering them to pull back and pushing their border back. Creates nationalist outrage among the Hungarians, who decide to fight the Allies rather than accept the borders prescribed to them. Named after French Colonel Fernand Vyx.

Bolshevik Revolution (October Revolution)

October 1917, the second and last phase of the Russian Revolution - the Bolshevik Party seizes power in Russia, inaugurating the Soviet Regime.

Obrenović and Karadjordjević

Old rival dynasties in the Serbian Kingdom, who notably included the Princes of Serbia who negotiated the terms of autonomy in 1830 (Milos Obrenovic), led the first Serbian uprising (Petrovic Karadjordevic), and the writer of the 1869 Constitution (Alexander Obrenovic) which was in place until the time we study. They switched off assassinating each other and getting the Serbian crown.

Posen = Poznań

Part of Poland that was given over in the Treaty of Versailles. This led to the migration of many ethnic Germans out of the area. Incorporated into the Reich during the German occupation, finally falling to the Red Army (assisted by Polish locals) in 1945.

Istria

Peninsula into the Adriatic Sea - given to Italy from A-H at the end of the war. There was an ethnic cleansing of Italians after the war in retaliation for cultural suppression against the native Croats and Slovenes.

Bronisław Malinowski

Polish anthropologist, founder of functionalism, who fled to the US.

Adam Ulam

Polish historian and political scientist. Fled Poland right before the German invasion.

Stanisław Ulam

Polish mathematician and Jew, participated in the Manhattan project, inventor of the Monte Carlo method.

Florian Znaniecki

Polish philosopher and sociologist who fled to the US.

Sanacja (Sanation)

Polish political movement that came to power after Jozef Pilsudski's May 1926 coup d'état. "Healing" of the Polish body politic. Preached national interest, contended against parliamentary democracy, and supported authoritarian government.

Julian Tuwim

Polish realist poet and Jew, admired for his children's literature. Emigrated through Romania to France during WWI, then to Brazil and the US. He wrote Kwiaty polskie (Polish Flowers) in exile in the US in 1949.

Bruno Schulz

Polish writer and Jew, known for his collection of short stories, The Cinnamon Shops, published in 1934. Shot by the Nazis.

Witold Gombrowicz

Polish writer known for themes of immaturity and youth, creation of identity in interactions with others, and ironic/critical examination of class roles in Polish society and culture.

Agudat Israel

Political Arm of Ashkenazi Judaism. Established in 1912. Ultrareligious party.

Galicia

Region between Hungary and Ukraine, had been part of Poland, taken in partition by Austria, then A-H after Ausgleich. Became part of Poland after WWI. In WWII, the USSR took Galicia to Ukraine.

Ustaša

Revolutionary Croatian party founded in 1929, banned in 1945. Wanted to create a homogeneous Croatia (racist/anti-semitic), favored terrorism as a tactic. Engaged in conflict with White Hand's counter-terrorism. Gets foreign support. Serves as puppet government of the Nazis in Croatia.

Fourteen Points

Speech by Wilson in 1918, promising liberal non-punitive peace and a league of nations. Nation-states and European self-determination. Essentially determines Wilson's stance at the Paris Peace Conference and the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

Sabor

The Croatian Parliament, descendent of the diet parliaments. In 1918, decided on independence from A-H and the formation of the State of Slovenes Croats and Serbs. The 1921 Constitution got rid of the Sabor.

Locarno (1925)

The Locarno Treaties, signed in October of 1925, guaranteed territorial boundaries and a sense of cooperation among the signatory nations: Germany, France, Belgium, UK, and Italy. Germany also signed arbitration treaties with Poland and CZSL. The United Kingdom's favoring of Germany is referred to by some as the first instance of appeasement, as the allied forces withdrew from Rhineland. This treaty was later repudiated in 1936 when Germany sent troops into the demilitarized Rhineland.

SPD (German Social-Democratic Party)

The SPD enjoyed great support throughout the 1910s and 20s, but was banned by Hitler in 1933 after voting against the Enabling Act which gave Chancellor Adolf Hitler the power to enact laws without going through the Reichstag. It was passed in 1933. The SPD remained opponents of the Nazi throughout the war, suffering deportation, execution, and concentration camps. They remained an exile party in Paris.

"Jesus, not Caesar"

This was the slogan for Masaryk's vision of democracy in his "New Europe." This quote is indicative of Masaryk's understanding of democracy as tolerant and respectful of the human soul.

Arthur Zimmermann

WWI German statesman who was involved in bringing Germany to support A-H after the assassination of Ferdinand. Known also for his Zimmermann Telegram (1917), which proposed an alliance with Mexico in exchange for US land. The telegram was intercepted and given to Wilson, published, and convinced Americans of German hostility to the US. It was one of the factors that made the US declare war against Germany.

Pětka

five-party ruling coalition. The Petka (pronounced pyetka) was an extra-parliamentary political forum that brought together leaders from five different parties across the political spectrum: Agrarian, National Democratic, Peoples', Social Democratic, National Socialist. It was created in light of the prime minister's (Cemy) weak cabinet to provide more voices, and it was successful in creating a national insurance, 8-hour work days, and child labor laws. The success of democracy in CZSL can be partly attributed to the Petka's willingness to reach a consensus.