HIST SCI 133 Midterm

How did the name "the physicist's war" impact scientists careers after WWII?

Scientists had knowledge on nuclear weapons and energy that not many had, this caused fear from the general public

Cognitive vs Affective Arguments

Scientists think cognitively with objective data and prefer to use/ listen to cognitive arguments. The public thinks affectively with emotional personal responses and prefer to use/listen to affective arguments. This is significant because it can cause a miscommunication between people and scientists. Also, it demonstrates why scientists and nonscientists have such divergent views on certain issues.

"Atoms for Peace" speech

The "Atoms for peace" speech was given by Eisenhower in 1953. His speech covered the initial restrictions on the flow of isotopes. The speech brought up the idea that science could be a way of bringing together nations and strengthen diplomatic ties. Furthermore, this shows that nuclear research and politics can overlap in a positive way.

Animal Welfare Act

The Animal Welfare Act was passed in 1966. It focused on how animals in research were acquired and created guidelines and regulations to help protect animal rights. It is significant because it was the first time the government got involved in animal research ethics. If a researcher wanted funding from the government, it had to follow these guidelines.

what is the alternative story (story number 2) that Shapin tells about scientist-industry interactions? Why do so few people know this story?

it was referred to as "shop floor commentary" and not valued

C elegans

model organism for the nervous system

How closely do the planned messages resemble the messages in the articles that were eventually published?

more of a stress on marketing

UW Madison Primate Studies

proposed study on early life stressor and future risk of psychiatric disorders. caused lots of debate whether or not it was ethical.

what are some of the phenotypical characteristics of the C57, how do they compare to other mouse strains?

the black coat of the mouse makes any mutations easy to spot and pick out when they are still very young

what is the "conflict of interest" model of understanding scientist-industry interactions? What assumptions does this model make about the personalities and preferences of scientists?

the conflict of interest refers to scientists doing more meaningful fulfilling work at a university or with industry earning more, this makes scientists seem almost greedy

"Back door" eugenics

"Back door" eugenics is Troy Duster's theory. He thinks eugenics can still be present in society without government intervention, but through societal norms and individual choices. This theory is significant because it demonstrates how eugenics is still present today. Also, that eugenics was not a one time thing, but can come back again in a different way through social prejudices.

Activist/Community-led Science

Activist/ community-led science are projects designed by non-scientists. They focus on issues that matter to the local communities involved in the project. It is significant because it showcases how the lay public can achieve scientific feats without the help of scientists; however, citizens science could raise security and safety concerns. Also, it demonstrates how ordinary citizens can impact science through organization.

What are some ways that Nelkin and Lindee envision genetic information being used, and what harms do they predict might result?

-blaming a victim based on genetic predisposition -lack of privacy

Characteristics of Model organisms

-easy to work with in the lab - strong community of users - extensive research infrastructure - assumed to be representative of a larger group of organisms

Who was Alexander Fleming and how was his story similar to Meister's?

-found penicillin, but this doesn't mean that he developed the drug used in humans -fleming's story was made more "heroic" to encourage the general public

What is ghostwriting? What is publication planning? How are they different?

-ghostwriting: someone is hired to write something that will then be credited to another person -publication planning: Publication planning is the process by which pharmaceutical, biotech, and medical device companies produce and release articles in medical journals and posters at meetings to establish key marketing messages

Who was Joseph Meister and what was he popular story told about his death?

-the first person to be saved by Pasteur's rabies vaccine -rather than revel the location of Pasteur's tomb to Nazis he killed himself. this story was proven false after someone working with Meister said he had other motive to kill himself

Patent law viewpoints

1) Science norms have not changed -industry and science were never separate - good science can thrive in both academia and industry - pursuing similar projects 2) Practices have changed, but norms haven't - vitamin D milk 3) Norms have changed - motive for profit - harm doctor/ patient or researcher/ subject relationships - produces ghostwriting

Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics

A court case in 2013 that questioned if the decision to treat genes as patentable subject matter should be reversed. The court decided that gene sequences are no longer patentable. This is important because it allowed many other companies to test BRCA genes, which could potentially lead to a variety of discoveries.

X-10 Reactor

A facility for fuel located in Tennessee in WWII. It turned Uranium 238 to Plutonium 239, which was needed to build the atomic bomb. This is of importance because it showed that science research needs more than just scientists to become a reality. There has to be infrastructure to support the needs of research. Also, this system led to making isotopes of other elements that can be useful for various research projects.

Model Organisms

A model organism is a species that are intensively studied to understand something beyond themselves rather than to just understand the species itself. Model Organisms are important because it makes it easy for new researchers to start work with them as there is already so much research conducted prior and a large infrastructure built around them. However, model organisms are more prone to lock-in effects which means the model-organisms are used continuously and might not be the best organism for a particular study and that other organisms are ignored and overlooked.

Moral economy

A moral economy is unstated rules that define the mutual expectations and obligations of scientific research. A moral economy is important because it can determine who gets credit and helps the efficiency of research by promoting open exchange of research.

Human Genome Diversity Project

A project created to collect DNA samples from indigenous people to catalog genetic diversity. The project was never fully launched due to controversy. There were concerns about patenting and commercial gains. This is significant because it shows a breakdown of trust between scientists and indigenous people. Scientists must realize that scientific and social definitions of race are linked. Ignoring co-production can lead to the failure of scientific projects such as this one.

"Science: The endless Frontier"

A report published by Vannevar Bush post World War II in 1945. In the report he advocates for the formation of the National Research Foundation but thought that funding should be free from political influence and to focus on basic science that will eventually translate into benefits for society. This was significant because this was the plan chosen for the formation of the NSF. The government will now give money to research and should be mostly free of political influence so it will mainly be in the name of pure science, not to directly benefit the government/ military.

Buck V Bell

A test case for sterilization laws in 1927 when Carrie Buck was committed for being an "immoral imbecile" and having an illegitimate child. The case was upheld because it was the best for public welfare. This case is significant because it shows how the United States was a leader in eugenic reform and that it was international movement with popular support. Also, it demonstrates an era where there was an increase in the number of sterilizations.

Oppenheimer security hearings

A top Manhattan project scientist loses security clearance because he was thought to be a spy for the USSR in the 1940s. This is significant because it shows the tension between national security and openness of science. It brought up the debate whether important research should have secrecy during peace time.

Planaria

A type of worm that was associated with biochemical theory of memory in the 70s-80s. Planaria has properties similar to C elegant, which were the more preferred organism used of research. This shows that certain organisms might be ignored for research due to the lock-in effect. C elegant were locked in and Planaria were ignored for a time, even though Planaria could be just as useful for research.

Polymerase Chain Reaction

A way to reproducing specific DNA sequences without isolating the sequence.

Academia vs Industry research

Academia - lots of freedom - no guaranteed funding - administration, teaching, writing grants, leaves less time for research Industry - choice of topic is controlled - don't have to apply for funding - focus mainly on research

Penicillin

Alexander Fleming in 1928 created anti-bacterial properties.

Asilomar conference

Asilomar conference was in 1975 when scientists gathered to discussed the risks recombinant DNA. They came up with a risk classification system and put a voluntary moratorium on the riskiest research. This conference is significant because it demonstrates scientists' efforts to self regulate were not enough to quell the concern about recombinant DNA. Also, it shows how scientists and nonscientists differed in their estimates of the risk of this research, and a lack of trust increased this divide.

where did the C57 mouse strain come from and who do researchers like it?

C-6 is a lab created mouse that is widely used by researchers because it has so many favorable characteristics for research, this is why it is used as a model organism -boston by William E. Castle

Havard College v Canada 2002

Can there be a patent on a genetically modified mouse? US: yes Canada: for the process, not the animal Europe: Challenged under the public order

How did the Animal Welfare Act change overtime?

Change of focus went from disease to suffering to well-being of animals

The Certainty Trough

Chart created by McKenzie in 1990 and it illustrates levels of certainty that the public has in regard to scientific information. The chart shows that those who are close to science but are not actually making the decisions are certain, the general public are uncertain, and scientists tend to be in the middle in the degree of uncertainty. This is significant because it shows why scientists and non-scientists have such divergent views on certain issues. Also, it shows the gap between academia and the public in American culture.

Cumbrian Sheep Farmers

Chernobyl radioactive fallout caused massive radiation waves throughout the English Isles. There was a conflict between farmers and scientists in assessing and solving the problems. This event is significant because it demonstrates the importance of lay expertise in science. Also, lay experts have a different kinds of knowledge than traditional experts and different assessment of risk which could prove to be crucial when solving a scientific problem.

Colony collapse disorder

Colony collapse disorder is the widespread abandonment and death of bees and beehives. There was varying perspective on the cause of the problem between the beekeepers, government, and scientists. This event is significant because it demonstrates how lay expertise can be crucial is solving scientific problem. Also, it shows how lay expertise can be ignored by scientists when solving issues.

Diamond v. Chakrabarty

Diamond v. Charkrabarty is a case that ended up at the Supreme Court in 1980. It called into question whether a bacteria made through genetic transformation could be patented. It is significant because the court ruled that micro-organisms can be considered a manufacture. This means that alive organisms are patentable and opened the door for many other researchers to patent their inventions.

According to Carroll and Dufour, what is the force that drives scientific myth making? Why do they think scientific myths are potentially harmful?

Driving forces: -Glorification -good storytelling Harm: -greatman idea can prohibit someone from going into science as these huge glorified stories are told, no one can live up to those expectations

Earth Day

Earth Day was proposed by the Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson. The first Earth Day was celebrated on April 22, 1970. This event is significant because millions of Americans participated in peaceful protests for environmental reform. Also, it shows how the public participated in environmental reform and pressure for regulatory change around environmental issues comes largely from the public, not just the scientific community.

National Science Foundation

Established in 1950 it was a peer review process of distributing public funds to support basic research

Genetic Essentialism

Genetic Essentialism is reducing an individual down to their genes. Nelkin and Lindee proposed this idea in their article the "DNA Mystique" and argued that genetic essentialism allows people to be discriminated against on the basis of their genes. This concept is important because it demonstrates that legislation alone cannot resolve problems of discrimination. Also, it reflects the history of eugenics when genetic information is used for discrimination.

What is genetic essentialism? How does genetic essentialism connect to discrimination on genetics?

Genetic essentialism reduces the self to a molecular entity. equating human beings, in all their social, historical, and moral complexity, with their genes. Predisposed characteristics

Genie and the Three Wishes

Genie - atoms of nuclear substances Wishes: 1) unlimited energy 2) Peace - Eisenhower's speech 3) Health - Cancer, medical imaging

Ghost Management

Ghost Management is formatting scientific articles with marketing in mind, particularly by the hands of pharmaceutical companies. It occurs when the author of scientific article is not credited with the research conducted and a journal decides to publish it. It is significant because it shows that not all research is conducted to find out the truth. The company funding the research most likely wants a specific outcome and so research may be biased and not true to science.

What is the difference between the "hair splitter" and "lumper" approaches to biology? What approach does the C57 best fit into?

Hair spitters refer to observing the differences in biology while lumpers refer to observing the similarities. C57 mouse is a prime example of a LUMPER

Harley Kilgore

Harley Kilgore was a senator in mid 1940s. He believed that the National Science Foundation should support focused research that was set by citizens and funds should be spread geographically. He is significant because even though the NSF did not take up his vision, it still shows that people in politics are getting involved in science and how it should be organized.

Vitamin D milk

Harry Steenbock patented Vitamin D milk in 1920s at UW Madison. His reasons for patenting include protecting the public from "patent pirates", preventing advertisers from making unscientific claims, and to protect the Wisconsin dairy industry. This is important because it shows how practices might have changed due to technology transfer offices, but scientific norms have not. Steenbock conducted his research in the same manner as he would have if there were no technology transfer offices, but because there were, he could control the distribution of vitamin D milk. He was able to patent his research and gain profit, but still wanted to benefit the public.

Carson's Silent Spring

In 1962, Rachel Carson wrote a book called Silent Spring. The book focused on devastating environmental degradation cause by the widespread use of pesticides, especially DDT. This book is significant because it sparked the environmental movement in the 1960s. Also, the book's intended audience was the public which shows how pressure for regulatory change around environmental issues comes largely from the public.

"Ecology of justice" in urban asthma

In the 1960s in there rise in the number of asthma cases severely affect African Americans in poor urban neighborhoods. Scientists tried to find one major cause; however, it was found to be poor housing conditions and socioeconomic inequality that disproportionately affected African Americans in poor urban housing. This event is significant because it shows how systematic inequalities shapes the physical health of urban life. Also, the people there were other activists in the environmental movement in the 1960s other than hippies and middle class white housewives.

US/UK/Germany approach to governing biotechnology

In the US, decision about risky science and technology are made regulatory agencies or in the courts, and has a legalistic approach. In the UK, trusted civil servants lead public consultations exercises, and focuses on gathering different views and mediating between them. In Germany, representative groups are trusted with making decisions and they should explain the reasoning behind their decisions available for all to see. These differing approaches are significant because they show that different countries can come up with different structures for governing biotechnology. Also, they show that scientist's efforts to suppress concern about biotechnology was not enough and governments had to step in.

Scientist-Citizenship Partnerships

Involves non-scientists in the scientific process, but research questions and processes are set by the scientists. Focuses on education and awareness of scientific problems and methods. This is significant because it shows the collaborative nature between scientists and the lay public. Also, it shows how the degree of participation non-scientists in citizen science projects varies, they could be a source of labor or independent researchers.

Genetic Nondiscrimination Act

Is a federal law enacted in 2008 that protects individuals from genetic discrimination in health insurance and employment. The ELSI research program of the human genome project helped developed GINA. GINA is significant because it demonstrates the success of the ELSI research program. Also, shows that legislation alone cannot resolve problems of discrimination.

ELSI Research Program

Joint working group on the ethical, legal, and social implications of the human genome research funded in 1989. The research will aim to anticipate issues, examine the consequences, stimulate public discussion, and develop policy. This is significant because it develop GINA (genetic nondiscrimination act). Also, it shows how the ELSI approach still has gaps and that legislation alone cannot resolve problems of discrimination.

Lay Expertise

Lay expertise are individuals without formal credentials or training who have expertise on an issue, often through experience. Important in the case of colony collapse disorder on the varying perspectives between scientists and the beekeepers on the cause of the phenomena. Lay expertise is significant because lay experts often have different kinds of knowledge compared to traditional experts, and a different assessment of risk. Also, this difference in knowledge can be crucial in solving scientific problems.

Localized and Distributed Modes

Localized and Distributed modes are two different ways to tell a story. A localized story has a short length of time, has few actors, and typically contains an "aha" moment. Mullis' story is an example of Localized Mode. A distributed story takes place over a longer period of time. It contains many actors and contains more details, such as problems and barriers of the invention, and field tests. Rabinow's story is an example of distributed story telling. These types of story telling are important because it change how people perceive a concept. Localized stories attract people's attention, but may be inaccurate. Distributed stories might not be as enjoyable to hear, but are typically more accurate and give more insight to the scientific invention.

Melvin Calvin

Melvin Calvin won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1961. He grew plants in labeled CO2 for different lengths of time and separated out the radio-labeled compounds. He was able to trace photosynthesis this way. This is significant because it shows how scientific infrastructure can be repurposed for other forms of research. The system used for converting uranium into plutonium created the opportunity to make isotopes of other elements, such as carbon that was essential for Calvin's research.

Merton's norms for science

Merton's ideas of pure science that he wrote in 1942. The acronym CUDOS can be used. Communism, free sharing of information, Universalism, everybody should be able to do science, Disinterestedness, scientist should not have a stake in outcome, and Organized Skepticism, scientific community should critique other scientists' results. This is important because Merton believed this would produce science the fastest, but many others only saw it as an ideal that would not become reality.

Mr. Cycle

Mr. Cycle is an invention made in the 1980s that allowed PCR to be fully automated. The invention of PCR is important because it shows that PCR was not all that useful until it could be used in the lab on a larger scale. Without the invention of Mr. Cycle, PCR would just be a good idea, not an actual technique used because doing it manually would take too much time and resources.

Requirements for patentability

Novel (new), Non-obvious, and useful

Positive Eugenics

Positive eugenics is improving the genetic composition of the population by encouraging those with desirable traits to reproduce. Positive eugenics was promoted in the United States and Germany by "fitter family" competitions and the government giving incentives to upper class women to have babies. This is significant because it demonstrates how the eugenics movement was justified. Also, it shows how eugenics was an international movement with widespread popular support.

Emergence of Big Science

Projects requiring large scale organization, massive funds, and complex technological systems ex) Manhattan Project, NASA, Human Genome Project

Pros and Cons about Patent Rights

Pros - provides protection for companies - Without patent protection, little incentive for commercial investment - gives companies time to develop new technologies without fear of competition Cons - Public pays twice, first for research, then for high cost of products - hampers openness and further downstream research - "winner takes all" approach - patents can lead to monopolies

Risk Society

Risk society is in modern times people with many resources can avoid risk while people with few resources are unable to avoid risk. Modernization of farming has brought new risks such as chemical fertilizers. This is significant because risks are unevenly distributed by American companies by operating outside of United States where safety standards are lower. Also, risk is a prevalent feature of society today and is tied to the development of science.

Tobacco Mosaic Virus

Rosalind Franklin was a scientist in 1955 that was studying Tobacco Mosaic Virus. She created X-ray diffractions of this virus. This research demonstrates that scientists at the time were more interested in studying RNA and proteins, not DNA.

Francis Peyton Rous

Rous was an editor for the Journal of Experimental Medicine from 1920s-40s. He exercised a form of "prior restraint" where he altered the presentation, description, and results of research involving animals subjects to bad publicity brought about by the antivivisectionists. This is important because this shows how politics crosses over science. Rous had to control what was acceptable in terms of morality to put in the article so that he would not upset the antivivisectionist or the general public. It further shows that reports on scientific research may be misleading to the public.

Moore vs Regents of the university of Cali (1990)

Ruled that Moore had no rights on the cells that were removed from his body. would produce a "chilling effect" on medical research.

Rosalind Franklin

Scientist in 1950s, x-ray crystallographer - diffraction pattern of DNA was important of development to double helix model.

Southern Wisconsin Training Colony and Training School

Southern Wisconsin Training colony and training school was sterilization institute. Women were sent there once they were deemed mentally deficient and then they were sterilized. This institute is significant because it shows how negative eugenics and sterilization was promoted in the state of Wisconsin. Also, it show how the United States was a leader in eugenic reform and that it was an international movement with popular support.

Raymond Gosling

Student who took the picture of DNA

Synthetic Detergents

Synthetic detergents were first marketed in the US in the 1940s. The detergents had high cleaning power; however, this lead to high phosphate concentration in the water and other environmental problems. Housewives contributed to phosphate reduction in several way such as consumer pressure on detergent manufacturers and advocating for local and state level detergent ban. This is significant because it shows how ordinary citizens can impact science through organization. Also, it shows how the public participated in environmental reform and pressure for regulatory change around environmental issues comes largely from the public, not just the scientific community.

Technology transfer offices

Technology transfer offices evaluate new inventions and helps researchers gain patent protection. Many of these offices were founded in the late 1980s-90s. This is important because it gave new roles to university professors. They could be a scientist as well as an entrepreneur by licensing their own inventions. Furthermore, this created an argument whether or not scientific norms have changed.

Bayh-Dole Act

The Bayh- Dole Act was passed In 1980. The act allowed universities to patent inventions developed with federal research funds. The act was important because it allowed the benefits of research to flow into society. It also gave incentive to universities to conduct research as they would make money off the patents.

C57 Black 6

The Black 6 mouse is a popular model organism used in scientific research throughout late 1900s through present. The mouse has widespread use among research because it is more practical to build off research that has already been conducted on the mice. This is important because there is a whole infrastructure built around the Black-6 mouse. It is easy to obtain these mice and they are cheaper than other research organisms. It would difficult to stop using the mice for research because of this, even if the studies based on the black 6 may not transfer to other organisms and potentially harm research that way.

Love Canal

The Love Canal is a one mile stretch of canal in a Niagara Falls neighborhood that was used as a toxic waste dump. Lois Gibbs coordinated protests and media campaigns about the health concerns with the canal and its health effects on the nearby neighborhood. This is significant because it shows how ordinary citizens can impact science through organization. Also, it shows how citizen sciences advances democratic ideals by addressing issues of importance to local communities.

The "physicists' war"

The Physicists' War pertained to World War II that occurred in the 1940s. It was called this because the teaching of physics was encouraged and many military soldiers had to take physics courses. Also, the Manhattan Project, the making of the atomic bomb, also related to this name. This is significant because it was the first time that the government and the military got involved with science. Before the physicists war, science and military were completely separate, but during/after the war the government was particularly interested in funding research and education to soldiers.

RNA Tie Club

The RNA Tie Club was a "gentlemen's club" in the 1950s that included James Watson and Francis Crick. The club's main focus was to discover more about RNA and protein. This is significant because the club is not particularly interested in DNA, as many people would assume today. It also shows that not all scientists and researchers were in competition, but rather collaborated and worked with each other.

Rights based Philosophies

The Rights based philosophies was the idea created by Tom Regan in late 1900s that animals have some basic rights just as humans do. It is the opposite of utilitarianism. Animals have the right not be caused pain just because it promotes the common good. This is significant because it offers a new way of doing research. Animals should be used in research the same way humans are. It brings up the question, though, if new discoveries would be possible if research was constricted on animals.

Cambridge City Council Hearings

The city council hearings occurred on 1976 in Cambridge, MA where a moratorium on recombinant DNA research was being debated. City ended up voting on a three month moratorium and experiments had to be reviewed by both scientists and members of the public. These hearings were significant because they shows extreme concern from the public about research in this area. Also, it raises questions of whether lack of harm is evidence enough to prove that something is safe.

Deficit Model

The deficient model says that public resistance to science is based on a lack of understanding, and therefore education will lead to acceptance. However, research and evidence has not supported the deficit model when it comes to accepting new technologies or science. This is significant because it shows that providing more information will not address the root of public concerns. Also, deficit model ignores religious, cultural, or personal reasons for opinions on science.

Gene gun

The gene gun was invented in the early 1980s by Edward Wolf and John Sanford. The gene gun made it possible to emplace genes into plants. Wolf and Stanford each made millions. There were other people involved in helping making the gene gun but they do not receive credit. This story is of importance because it shows that even thought there are many people involved in an invention, only a few get credit for it and get rewarded for it.

Cornell Synchrotron

The laboratory for the synchrotron was set up at Cornell in the 1930s. The synchrotron was a very powerful source of x-rays that was used by physicists and then eventually biologists for their research. Synchrotron infrastructure shows funding switched from physicists to biologists as new information and knowledge is acquired. Also, it shows how big physics infrastructure make new biological discoveries possible.

Type 1/Type 2 Risk

Type I risk more stringent regulatory process while type II risk is a less stringent regulatory process. When assessing the risk of using pesticides in the wake of the colony collapse disorder beekeepers had differing opinions of assessing of risk compared to the scientists and government. This difference is significant because it determines the consequences coming from the different types of risk. For example, Type I risk farmers will stop using the pesticides but they lose money. On the other hand, Type 2 is the risk of the bees dying off and the ecosystem is altered.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is the idea to create the greatest good for the greatest number. Utilitarianism can be applied to animal research, such as stating use of animals in research is ethical if it produces great benefit for many people. Utilitarianism is significant because it created the question how much benefit is needed to outweigh the harm? It is difficult to measure harm and benefit and therefore utilitarianism caused many debates in the scientific community and general public.

Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (WARF)

WARF was founded in 1925. It is a technology-transfer organization that allows the University of Wisconsin to have patents derived from research that was conducted on campus. WARF is significant because it creates incentive for research and it also helps contribute to the state's economy. WARF helps the benefits of research to flow into society.

Monsanto Canada Inc. v Schmeiser 2004

can Schmeiser be sued for growing non_GM canola if the seeds landed on his property? Yes. Unauthorized use of the invention

Who are the antivivisectionists and what kind of medical research were they most concerned with?

antivivisectionists were concerned with biomedical procedure in relation to animal cruelty

Thomas H Morgan and the Fly people

distinct community of fly labs formed in the early 20th century - share mutant flies and new technologies with each other - established a moral economy -- credit goes to person who did the work (not who had idea) -- if you get mutant stocks, you have give back stocks -- have to describe what you're doing with the stocks

What guidelines did Francis Peyton Rous create for reporting animal experiments? How do we know he was thinking about the antivivisectionists when he was creating them?

encouraged researchers to use "neutral language" this didn't go with the antivivisectionists, instead with the Medical Research Defense

Manhatten Project

established in 1942, nuclear weapons,

Rockefeller Foundation

one of the largest drug and chemical companies of scientific research before WWII

what was the original meaning of "the physicist's war" and what do people now commonly associate with this name?

people think the name refers to the atom bombs from WWII, however the name referred to the urgent and ambitious training: to teach physics to as many men as possible

what do Nelkin and Lindee mean when they say that the gene is a "cultural icon"? How is the gene represented in pop culture similar to or different from the gene as represented by scientists?

the gene is a cultural icon simply refers to the commonality that the genes and genetics have with every day conversation, it is present in many things, and believed to have many "jobs" by the general public, scientists however know that there is no "sinning gene" and that the genome is much more complex than that

What role did the "authors" play in the publications that Fugh-Berman examines?

they stress the marketing messages that the studies aimed to portray

Radioisotopes

unstable isotopes that decay over time, emitting particles (radiation) - allowed to trace out movement of molecules through an ecosystem and trace photosynthesis