History 151 Final Section Review

Thomas Hobbes

(1588 - 1679) an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory. -Said that unlimited authority was needed whether in a Parliament or a single ruler in order to control self-centered humans who would devolve to chaos -Science over religion -Negative light of viewing human nature -No room leftover for political dissent or chaos

James I

(1603-1625) Stuart monarch who ignored constitutional principles and asserted the divine right of kings.

Thirty Years' War

(1618-48) A series of European wars that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a batlte between France and their rivals the Hapsburg's, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire. -Louis XIII used war as opportunity to take Netherlands from Spain by siding with Protestant cause -Spain suffered from internal revolts due Peasant revolts in Catalonia and Barcelona -Spain defeated by France in 1643 who lost Portugal but kept Catalan -France out after exhaustion, rising taxes, increased revolts, Louis death, etc. -HRE ultimately tired out, too, and suffered serious economic problems -Ended by universal tiredness and loss of war funds

English Civil War

(1642-1651) Armed conflict between royalists and parliamentarians, resulting in a victory of Pro-Parliament forces and the execution of Charles I. -Royalists were also known as cavaliers. -Parliaments were known as roundheads led by Oliver Cromwell who united the various churchs (presbyterians, Calvinists, and independents) -Use of the New Model Army: reorganization of Parliamentry troops to defeat cavaliers at Battle of Naseby in 1645

Nicolo Barbaro

*The Fall of Constantinople" recounted eyewitness report of what happened the fateful day in 1453 when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman siege by Sultan Mehmed II. Notes the changing nature of war by observing the use of massive bombard cannon, strategic military formations, and cheaper, larger amounts of infantry known as janissaries.

Republic of Venice

-City built on a lagoon, eventually ruled an extensive empire by 1400s whose merchant ships ruled from Black Sea to Atlantic, eventually turning to conquer in the north near Milan -Got into war with Milan in 1450 that was ended by Peace of Lodi, ending in financial exhaustion and fear of Turks/French. -Traded with Ottomans and influenced each other's culture -Not ruled by a signore rather a Great Council, dominated by important (not hereditary) families. -Doge: was the leading magistrate, elected by great council. -Didn't suffer from lower-class revolt since the poor knew the government was an effective form of management. -Conquered Padua in 1405 -Significant contributor to Renaissance art which was influenced by Byzantium. Art was strong colors, intense lighting, and sensuous use of paint. -Artists commissioned by chirch and confraternities.

Commercial Revolution

-Economic recession in early 1600s made northern Europe and middle class winners and southern Europe and extremes the losers -Competition in the New World favored England, Dutch, and French over the Spanish -New idea of mercantilism and capitalism, slave trading power -Expansion of trade disparity in addition to being ravaged by trade -Disappearance of serfdom in western Europe but eastern nobles still enforced this practice which eventually retarded continual economic growth -Economic realignment across the Atlantic Ocean -Colonialism in North and South America (Britain and France)

War Changes

-Emphasis on tactics and strategy such as Henry V -Creates new discipline of education for middle class officers in war sciences -end of feudalism -Emphasis on quantity over quality of soldiers -Use of middle and lower class for war rather than nobles

Books

-Essential part of the middle class thanks to paper and the printing press -public readings, book clubs, -Widespread networks that eventually reach everyone in Europe -Church no longer had a monopoly on knowledge and ideas -Escalates/accelerates weakening of the churh

Divided Realms

-France: Affair of the Placards as the result of the monarchy's inability of stopping Calvinism in the south and western France -England and Scotland: religious division threatened place of ruelrs, Henry VIII made himself head of church but the foundation of the church was shaky

Slavery

-Had existed since antiquity through war or piracy while others like Africans were sold by other Africans or Bedouin traders or selling to get out of poverty, could be Greek, Slav, European, Turkish, or Africans -1400 on: Africans were increasingly used as slaves and exploited by Portuguese, traded for with gold pieces -Worked in large sugar plantations on Atlantic islands and Brazil -Further expanded by Americans in following centuries

Aztecs

-Highly advanced, well-organized empire -Conquered much of Mexico, political and social city -Huge city at Tenochtitlan, built on an island in a middle of land, made artificial land for farming -Technological inferiority: no horse, draft mammals, no good metals in Central America, obsidian blades -Believed Hernan Cortes was God <--- was a myth -Brutal empire that's constitutents feared/hated more than respected -Many defected to Spanish cause of destruction

Native Americans

-Lived in many social and political organization -Nomads roamed sparsely inhabited territories while settled agriculturalists lived in complex and organized states -Mexican and Peruvian highlands -Ex. Aztecs, Mayans, Incans

Incas

-Lived in mountains of Andes in Peru, Chile, Ecuador -Highly organized cities (ex. Machu Pichu) -Contact with Europeans through Pizzaro in 1532 -Incans were in the middle of a civil war between 2 families, Pizzaro took a side and then destroyed that side

Courtier Culture

-Ludovico Ariosto and Baldassare Castiglione both said court culture was the highest synthesis of Christian and classical values, tales of combat, valor, love, love, and magic, debate the qualities of an ideal courtier in eloquent dialogue -True courtier is a gentleman who carries himself with nobility and dignity in service of his prince and his lady

Renaissance Arts

-Lure of classical past strong in visual arts and literature. -Modification of classical models to incorporate medieval traditions. -Ex. Leon Alberti built Florence so that buildings flowed with inclusion of free space and porticoes (free air walkways). -Change in cathedral construction from Middle Age style. -Perfection of perspective, putting 3D illusion in 2D format -Musically, composers incorporated classical texts and allusions into songs based on motet and polyphony; expressed religion, glory, and prestige of benefactors. -Church still a major sponsor of movements, especially in renaissance music that stressed piety,

Reformation Morals

-Middle class wanted more religious conformity and morality -Didn't want some expectation like saints, monasteries, convents -Luther's translation set a new pace of religion with more witty phrases and colloquial expressions, making the Bible the book of the people -New idea of self-discipline -Awareness and caring for the poor, creation of private initiatives to help the poor -Denunciation of sexual immorality and glorification of the family -Significance of the family -Counter: renewal and reformation of the Catholic church

Swiss Confederation

-Most egalitarian of the three main republics in 15th century -Region's cities had long alliances with one another. -Tied together in 14th century in order to keep the peace and pledge to one another against the HRE. -Effective political force despite having no constitution. -Wealthy tradesmen and merchants dominated cities and supplanted landed nobility. (No lord ever ruled the confederation. -The poor became famed pikemen that fought for other monarchs.

Financing War

-New need for finances in the west for larger armies, greater military pieces, larger forts, new gun emplacements -Royal income expenditures, couldn't keep up with the price of war -New world profits couldn't keep up, high war costs like those of Charles (37 million ducats over 40 year period -Creation of gov't debts and banks (like the Fugger in France)

Art Techniques

-Oil-based paints that take months if not years to dry to allow for continual adaptation -Invention of perspective, three-point perspective -Not having to be directly related to Christianity

Recession Signs

-Population grew tremendously without price increase (England and Spain --> +70%) -Foreign trade slumped through war and uncertain money supply -Less imports of gold and silver since Indians were dying -Less textile production due to less demand and smaller labor force -Decline in slave trade in 1630 -Demographic slow down -Dropping agricultural prices that dropped in places where population declined due to less demand -Inability of agriculture to support growing population -Thirty Years' War -State demands for more taxes -Middle class financial waste -Climatic changes: cold winters and wet summers, created bad harvest that led to catastrophe

Schmalkadic League

-Protestant princes and cities made up this League in 1531, led by elector of Saxony and Philip of Hesse, included many imperial cities -Opposed Charles V and remaining Catholic princes, had to gain support from French, Turks, etc. -War broke out in 1547 in which Charles used Spanish veterans and German allies to occupy south -Protestant commanders couldn't form a strategy -Regained control in 1552 and opposed Charles V successfully

Scotland

-Protestants held a small minority until 1550s -Center of religious conflict was Mary Guise, a french native who married James V of Scotland, when James died she tried making Scotland all Catholic -Alienated many Scottish nobles and joined pro-English Protestant cause -Dethroned Mary Guise and forced her to flee, turned Scotland Calvinist

Republic of Florence

-Republic of Italy. -Societal and political life were turbulent as factions constantly fought for power. -Ciompi Revolt of 1378: wool workers (ciompi) not allowed to form a guild and led a revolt that created own guild and new distribution of power in city which was restored to nobles by 1382 -Medici family was a notable ruling group that characterized the state -Fluctuated between being a republic and a monarchy due to the Medicis, specifically during the period from 1500-1530

King-Parliament Conflict

-Right to levy taxes and authority of Church of England -Original expectation of wealthy landowners to support royal policies since it was in their own interest -Long tradition of various laws, judicial decisions, customary procedures, charters, and petitions -Charles I attempt to assert control created civil war

Christian Humanism Support

-Supported mainly kings of France, England, and HRE -Worked in growing universities of Europe -Free of influence/demands of a traditional patron -Freedom to do research in whatever field that please them, can't be fired for what they discover -Set up premise for challenging European society and church -Modern university: trained much larger part of society and taught many more skills to improve society

Economic Crisis

-Thirty Years' War creates this crisis -Prices fell and population leveled off -International trade fell in recession -Agriculture declined and people weren't able to pay escalating taxes to fund wars -Famine and disease increased issues -Balance of power shifted to north and west Europe -Widened gap between rich and poor (the nobles and the peasants), expansion of debts and taxes -Women lost opportunities for economic independence -European families became older and smaller due to high IMR and the economic practicality, increase in Protestantism, no sex until marriage

30 Years' Military

-Use of gunpowder -Massive scale of military -Organization and quantity over quality of troops -Use of cannon with exploding or canister shot -Military science -Generals no longer on the battlefield but beyond the scene -Line fighting orders: emphasis on discipline -Understanding of logistics: knowing how to move supplies through lines to the battlefield

Religious Reform

-Wanted to change political authority and social order but still maintained need for discipline and social behavior -Protestants took idea of "priesthood for all believers" literally -Catholics undertook parallel action by launching the Counter-Reformation -Luther: freedom of Christian meant spiritual freedom

Italian Economy

-Wealth due to Mediterranean trade and Crusader-explored trade routes -Creation of merchant class which could rise to powerful political positions -Creation of middle class between rich and poor which led to political and social reform (i.e., separation of church and state)

Recession Effects

-aggravated threat of food shortages, increased outbreak of diseases, famine, and caused people to leave families and homes -Fall in grain harvests which really hurt peasants -Malnutrition weakened people and left them vulnerable to epidemics like plague and typhoid, small pox, the flu

Indulgences

-based on idea of purgatory or a mid-way point between Earth and heaven where sins are cleaned from the human soul, where most people end up -Remission of sins beforehand to bank up the amount of forgiveness, best way to get them is by performing good acts (church, charity, caring for neighbor) or directly giving money to church

The Inquisition

1492: this special tribunal of the Catholic Church was created to investigate the sincerity of Spanish conversos, Jewish Spaniards who had recently converted to Christianity -Jews must either leave or convert. -150,000 Jews left that year to travel all over the Mediterranean

King Henry VIII of England

1509-1547: English king who first opposed the Protestant Reformation and then broke with the Catholic Church, naming himself the new head of the Church of England in the Act of Supremacy of 1534, his new church still had many aspects of Catholic worship but still aligned itself with Protestantism, originally called Defender of the Faith by Pope Leo X -1527: wanted to annul a marriage to Catherine of Aragon since she had only produced a daughter who couldn't continue Tudor dynsasty -Pope refused and it became the king's great matter -Elected Thomas Cromwell as chancellor and archbishop of canterbury -Act of Supremacy: allowed marriage to Anne Boleyn who gave birth to Elizabeth I -Four more wives and eventually got Edward I

John Calvin

1509-1564: French-born Christian humanist and founder of Calvinism, one of the major branches of Protestant Reformation, he led reform movement in Geneva, Switzerland until 1564, studied in Paris and Orleans got a law degree, had a crisis of faith and sought salvation through intense theological study, had to leave France after Catholics came upon controversial claims posted on mass door

Andreas Vesalius

1514-1562: new ideas for anatomy and medicine, challenged/expanded on traditional ideas of Galen, used dissections

Charles V of HRE

1519-1556: the most powerful ruler in 16th century EUrope that reigned over the Low Counties, Spain, Italian possessions, New World colonies, and Austrian-Habsburg land -Strongest HRE ever, unites most of western Europe -Most powerful man on Earth --> world emperor who was famous as a Catholic defender -"Sun never set on his empire" -Reformation begins under his reign -Engulfs all of Europe in warfare -Thirty Years' War -Fought civil wars internally against Protestants

Suleiman the Magnificent

1520-1466: Sultan of the Ottoman Empire at the time of its greatest power, destroyed the Hungarian Army at Mohacs, sieged Vienna, reformed the Ottoman Empire -Allied with Francis I to siege Habsburg troops at Nice by giving Ottomans Toulon for a colony -Showed changing times: no longer Christian crusade against Islam but now political strategy that only saw religion as a single part of policy

Colloquy of Marburg

1529, Zwingli and Luther officially split over the issue of Eucharist.

Council of Trent

1545-1563: effectively set the course of Catholicism until the 1960s, sought renewal of religious devotion and reform of clerical morality as well as clarification of church doctrine -Response to new religious orders who wanted to convert Catholicism -Still wanted to root out dissenters and gave powers to Inquisition and censoring books --> Papal Index -Dominated by Italian and Spanish clergy -Salvation depended on faith and good works -Eucharist becomes actual blood and body of Christ -Dominance of clergy of lay -Papal/church infallibility -rejected divorce and claimed legitimacy of indulgences -Called for some reform s

Tycho Brahe

1546-1601: Observed new star and comet and brought unchanging nature of universe into question, Still rejected heliocentrim

King Edward VI

1547-1553: king of England who furthered the Protestant cause by welcoming prominent religious refugees of Calvinism

Peace of Augsburg

1555: settlement between Charles V and Protestant leaders that recognized the Lutheran churches in the empire, accepted the secularization of church lands but reserved remaining ecclesiastal territories for Catholics, all princes had right to determine religion in their provinces, disillusioned Charles V and made him abdicate the throne to live rest of life in a sanctuary

Queen Elizabeth I

1558-1603: restored English Protestant cause -Protestantism came to define character of the Kingdom -Still contention around Calvinism -Catholics tolerated if they kept their mouths shut -Succeeded half-sister Mary Tudor -Successful defense of the realm against the Spanish Armada -May Tudor married Philip II since she protected CatholicismP

Galileo Galilei

1564-1642: More evidence for heliocentric view and challenged idea that heaven was perfect and unchanging as he used a telescope to observe moons of Venus and Jupiter, was censored and put under house arrest by Catholic Church

Johannes Kepler

1571-1630: heliocentrism and developed 3 laws for planetary motion, provided mathematical backing for heliocentrism and challenged idea of circular orbits in exchange for elliptical orbit

Albrecht von Wallenstein

1583-1634: Czech Protestant who raised army for Ferdinand II to plunder Protestant churches, ultimately defecting to other side by end of war

Hugo Grotius

1583-1645; believed rational laws govern relationship between states; first to formulate international law- freedom of the seas, established rules for treatment of civilians during war

Christian IV

1596-1648: Lutheran king of Denmark who responded to German aggression by invading Germany from the north, but was defeated by Wallenstien

John Milton

1608-1674: English Puritan who walked about inevitable limitations on individual liberty, supported divorce in writings and the freedom of the press in "Areopagitica", and published Paradise Lost which used Adam and Eve to discuss human freedom and tragedies from rebellion

Gustavus Adolphus

1611-1632: Swedish military general and tactician who marched into Germany with 100,000 men, defeated Imperial army and occupied southern Germany, killed in 1632

Charles I of England

1625-1640: after James I, and faced aggressive Parliament who resisted his efforts -Forced to agree to Petition of Right- no taxes w/o Parliament -Didn't call Parliament from 1629 to 1640 to avoid contact: -Religious tensions with archbishop William Laud who made increasingly elaborate ceremonies with Church of England -Court of the Star Chamber: silence Puritan critics -Increased conflict with Parliament when Charles ran out of money to finance his war

Edict of Restitution

1629: Issued by Ferdinand II which outlawed Calvinism in empire and reclaimed Catholic Church properties taken by Lutherans

Isaac Newton

1642-1727: Defined the laws of motion and gravity. Tried to explain motion of the universe.

Christian Humanism

A general intellectual trend in the 16th century that coupled love of classical learning, as in Renaissance humanism, with an emphasis on Christian piety -Developed by urban merchants, now more literature, who sought a more meaningful faith and a clergy more responsive to their needs -Urbanites generously donated to hire university-trained clerics, new trend toward funded clerics -Resented funding clerics who were children of nobility -More about the revival and inculcation of Christian piety like copying manuscripts

Scientific Revolution

A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs.

Tories

A member of a British political party, founded in 1689, that was the opposition party to the Whigs and has been known as the Conservative Party since about 1832

Johan Tetzel

A priest who set up a pulpit on the outskirts of Wuttenburg. He offered indulgences to any Christian who contributed money for the rebuilding of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome.

Secularization

A process of removing institutions such as education and government from the dominance or influence of religion. -Search for non-religious answers and explanations for political authority and natural phenomenon -Late 16th and 17th century, science, political theory, and art began to break bonds with religion -Seeking laws in nature to explain politics and astronomy

Geneva

A reformed, Protestant utopia that would be led by strict Christian guidelines based on ideas put forward in Institutes of the Christian Republic, became a theocracy, fusing church and society

Navigation Act

A series of British regulations which taxed goods imported by the colonies from places other than Britain, or otherwise sought to control and regulate colonial trade. Increased British-colonial trade and tax revenues. The Navigation Acts were reinstated after the French and Indian War because Britain needed to pay off debts incurred during the war, and to pay the costs of maintaining a standing army in the colonies.

Nation-State

A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality

Absolutism

A system of government in which a ruler claims sole and uncontested power

Toleration Act of 1689

Act of Parliament granting freedom of worship to Nonconformists

Whigs

Advocated Parliamentary supremacy and toleration of Protestant dissenters like Presbyterians (Scots)

Civic Society

All societies shape the state, must have morality and virtue in all societies to raise society to a new standard of the ideal state

Compass

Always points to magnetic north or south and allows one to always to determine direction

Northern Renaissance

An extension of the Italian Renaissance to the nations Germany, Flanders, France, and England; it took on a more religious nature than the Italian Renaissance. -Jan van Eyck's portrayal of Court of Burgundy with religious overtones and motifs

95 Theses

Arguments written by Martin Luther against the Catholic church. They were posted on October 31, 1517. -Were printed and became public and unleashed as a torrent of pent-up resentment and frustration among the lay. -Engulfed HRE. -Supported by younger Christian humanists and liberal clerics from middle class backgrounds and educated, also supported by illiterate artisans and peasants with fanatical zeal

Combined Arms Tactics

As in the Thirty Years' War, Philip's use of calvary and pike together by covering the others' weakness

Diet of Worms

Assembly of the estates of the empire, called by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1521. Luther was ordered to recant but he refused. Charles V declared Luther an outlaw.

Scientific Method

Combined experimental observation and mathematical deduction used to determine the laws of nature, first developed in 17th century, became secular standards of truth in 17th century such as Isaac Newton's used

Pikes

Compliments arquebusiers with long spear-sticks that can defeat calvary and move in formation. Most famous group was Swiss Pikemen which were personal guards to the Pope. Again, didn't require lots of training other than marching in formation. Usefulness same as arquebus. Essentially made mass calvary useless.

Dynastic War

Conflict between the Habsburgs and the Valois that fought for domination of Europe -Italian Wars: French claim to north Italy in 1494 that involved Christian and Muslim monarchs, fought in Italy and the Low Counties, French crushed at Pavia in 1525, Francis I surrendered -1527: Charles sacked Rome since Pope allied with French, Imperial German troops were Protestant and saw the sack as punishment by God, ended by treaty of cateau-cambresis -English sided with Valois at first and then Habsburgs for power considerations -Involved religious reasons: German protestantism wanted to extract concessions from HRE -Involved outer Ottoman influence

Middle Class

Defined as a comfortable life beyond poverty but not having nearly as much wealth as the nobility and aristocrats -Despised by the rich and poor extremes -Part of neither class- look down upon -Struggle for developing own identity -Emulation of the rich: spending money on houses, own land, buying luxury items, and getting education -Key was education: becoming smart enough to learn a skill and achieve on their own, status symbol

Baroque

Design of this period that submerged viewer into the greater design which was both a political and social movement that served a variety of purposes. Very romantic, robust, and over-powering stylistically in arts and architecture.

Exclusion Crisis

During the time period of 1679-1681, people (led by Shaftesbury) wanted to pass legislation to exclude James from being the next King ended with Charles arresting people and exiling Shaftesbury. Millets a group of highly variable small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for both human food and fodder.

Ptolemy

Earth was center of the universe/cosmos, with rest of planets moving in concentric crystalline spheres, beyond where God and heavens were. The sun revolved around a corupted Earth. Completely circular orbits

Peace of Rijswick

Ended the War of the League of Augsburg, Louis lost most of his conquests

Quakers

English dissenters who broke from Church of England, preache a doctrine of pacificism, inner divinity, and social equity, under William Penn they founded Pennsylvania

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator. -Tried to expand power overseas thru Navigation Acts and the creation of a naval force -Wars were twice the budget of Charles I and raised property taxes. -Silenced all critics by the end of his reign as Lord Protector.

Buttress

External support that allows for thinner external walls and inclusion of windows, notable in cathedrals like St. Peter's Basilica and Notre Dame

Italian Change

Factors that changed the Italian peninsula -The plague: cities practiced quarantine and suffered less -Wars: Mussite Wars, 100 Years' War -Lack of outside of interest -Weakening of the papacy: The Great Schism -Bubble of population and the booms -Cooperation and competition between the states

Castato

Florentine inventory of houses for taxation purposes that asked really specific questions (people, jobs, money) as a means of intimate control of the people, included all aspects of financial investment, identification number assigned to each house, shoed a lot of info about Florence -1427: population was about 260,000 38,000 hed 2/3 of the wealth 60% were little people like poor artisans and merchants 30% were upper class 10% were poor people like slaves and peasants

Moliere

French classicist playwright who produced popular comedies that exposed the hypocrisies and follies of society.

Blaise Pascal

French thinker who wrote "A Wage Unto God" and argued that it's safer to assume there is a God rather than there not being a God. He believed that reason couldn't determine if there was a God but fear would be a powerful justification for his existence.

Predestination

God has ordained every man, woman, and child to salvation, or damnation even before creation, God saved an elect, or small group, and God could terrify or embolden, leading a righteous life was clue that you were chosen for salvation

Missionaries

Groups of Catholic priests tasked with spreading religious to colonial possessions in the New World -Some indigenous embraced newcomer while others were hostile and closed to new ideas -Focused on winning over local elites by learning local languages and set up schools -Missionaries admired Chinese and Japanese civilization and used sermons to convert

Mixed Constitution

Idea of blending aristocracy, democracy, and monarchy that was originally proposed by Polybius, Xenophon, and Aristotle

Sepulveda

In Defense of Colonization of the New World: argued for superiority of Christian Spanish over the lesser Native American pagans the justification for the actions of the Spanish through empirical reasoning (observations about Christian ideology)

Early Italy

Independent states that were neither decentralized nor localized but rather controlled and consolidated in cities. Vestment of old city state remained in north while south became a backwater of stagnant remains of Rome. Politically fractured into competing states like the Papal States, the Venetian Republic, Genoa, and Florence. Influenced by outsides like Carolingians, Spain.

War of Devolution

Invasion of Spanish Netherlands by the French b/c Spain did not pay dowry on Louis' wife, French vs. Spain, Dutch Republic, England and Sweden. France gains some lands on border (1667- 1668) Ended by Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle in which France got a few territories

Paper

Invented by pressing wood pulp into sheets, result is the mass production of written texts, such as the Bible, allows for huge volumes of books to be produced, allowing them into the middle class

La Rochelle

It is a city in France, which belonged to the Huguenots. Its importance grew after the colonisation because it became a significant Atlantic port, Richelieu sieged the city and took away the privileges of the Huguenots.

Leonardo da Vinci

Italian painter, engineer, musician, and scientist. The most versatile genius of the Renaissance, Leonardo filled notebooks with engineering and scientific observations that were in some cases centuries ahead of their time. As a painter Leonardo is best known for The Last Supper (c. 1495) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503).

Lorenzo de Medici

Italian statesman and scholar who supported many artists and humanists including Michelangelo and Leonardo and Botticelli (1449-1492)

Spanish Expulsion

King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella sought religious uniformity and purity by persecuting conversos (Jews who converted to Christianity after earlier persecutions) through declaration that they were heretics. 1478: establishment of the Inquisition. Destruction of last Muslim stronghold at Granada in 1502.

William of Orange

King of England and Scotland and Ireland, he married the daughter of James II and was invited by opponents of James II to invade England; when James fled, William III and Mary II were declared joint monarchs (1650-1702)

Charles II

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1660-1685) who reigned during the Restoration, a period of expanding trade and colonization as well as strong opposition to Catholicism -Tried to emulate the absolutist policies of Louis the Sun King -Plague resurgence in 1665 -The Great Fire in 1666

Montezuma

King of the Aztecs who Hernan Cortes encountered in the Mexican

Expulsion

Kings exerted power by controlling the composition of their subjects. Ex. Many kings had Jews and Muslims expelled from their country since power was concentrated and centralized and could use full force to rally against internal and external enemies.

Absolutism Court

Louis wanted to domesticate local nobles who had traditionally owned their own armies, maintained their owned justice, and kept power over own estates by introducing new standards for nobility by picking them personally rather than being determined by hereditary lines. -Ex. Practice at Versailles where highest honor was watching the king get dressed. -New court activities were king-centered. -New appreciation for the arts that were king-centered. (Moliere, Lully) -King glorification of image of the king through massive public works that the nobility would also admire like the Louvre and veteran hospitals.

Nobility of a German Nation

Luther's denouncement of corrupt Italians in Rome and called on German princes to defend their nation and reform the church

Discourses on Livy

Machiavelli-praises ancient Roman republic, lauds constitutional government, equality among citizens of a republic, political independence for city-states (committed republican)

Gunpowder

Made of sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter (which is made by mixing feces and urine). Originally invented in China around 800s. Used for fireworks in China while in Europe it was used for warfare, at first psychological. Spread east by Mongols.

Johannes Ockegham

Man who died and his death inspired the composition of a beautiful piece that combined classical elements added to traditional forms, making a combo of religion and grief. Used five voices with 4 singing in vernacular but fifth in Latin Mass.

Cottage Industry

Manufacturing based in homes rather than in a factory, commonly found before the Industrial Revolution.

Columbian Exchange

Movement of peoples, animals, plants, manufactured goods, precious metals, and diseases between Europe, New World, and Africa -Dramatic transformation in ecology, agriculture, and way of life -Started by Columbus when he brought firearms, horses, and other farm animals and plants to New World -Brought enslaved Africans to sugar plantations first in 1503-1505 -Transmission of disease: small pox brought to New World, syphillus brought back to Euorpe -Europe got tobacco, chocolate, sweet potatoes, maize, and tomaoes

Mercantilism

New economic doctrine that said governments must intervene to increase national wealth by whatever means possible -Establishment of overseas trading companies -Granting manufacturing monopolies -Government inspection system to regulate quality of goods -Rescinded many internal customs but enacted high foreign tariffs to cut import competition -Subsidization of ship-building -Policies aimed to ensure a state's prominence -Shaped french colonies and the fur trade (Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette explored and established settlements)

Renaissance

New forms of thought and expression that began in Northern Italy and lasted from 1350 to 1600. -Revisited elements of the classical past like Aristotle, Hellenism for inspiration due to current issues -Humanism --> Cicero -Architecture --> public space, plaza -Writes --> combined medieval and ancient ideals

Jesuits

New religious order called Society of Jesus, founded by Spanish noble, Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) -Inspired by Ignatius while recovering from war injury and reading biographies of saints, abandoned military to search for religious glory -Vigorous defenders of papal authority -1556: had 1,000 followers -Missionaries and post-secondary education through schools

Renaissance Authors

Niccolo Machiavelli - The Prince Dante Aligheir - The Inferno, The Divine Comedy Boccacio Mirandola - On the Dignity of Man Wrote in the local language - the vernacular - which undermined the concept of Christendom and a united language

Patronage

People paying other people to design and create, examples include the Medici family and the papacy, generated great competition between families as well as city-states

Republic

Power is controlled separately from the church within the aristocracy of a state. -Ex. Florence, Venice -Valued virtues of Rome in which secular leaders were above religious

Civic Virtue

Putting the collective before the individual, doing one's duty, participating in government

Peasants' War

Rebellion of southern German peasants against nobles' castles, convents, and monasteries, joined by urbanites and looted churches of the town, split the reform movement in 1525, Princes and City officials supported by Luther turned against peasants and put down the revolt, Luther supported the rulers and said mixing religion and politics was wrong

Classicism

Reflected ideals of art of antiquity: geometric shapes, order, and harmony of lines took precedence over sensuous, exuberant, and emotional forms of baroque, made observer center of converging, symmetrical, and straight lines, influenced painters like Nicolar Poussin and Claude Lorrain

Thirty Years' War Causes

Religious disputes, ethnic competition, and political weakness. -Habsburgs ruled over HRE which was 8 major ethnic groups, 4 were Catholics while 3 were Protestants. -Peace of Augsburg didn't solve all problems since it ignored Calvinists and other non-Lutherans -Crowning of Archduke Ferdinand in Bohemia in 1617 who tried to make Bohemia purely Catholic by removing religious freedom -Czechs rallied against him and put Frederick V up as Calvinist leader -Czech Protestants defeated at Battle of White Mountains -War spread to Germany beginning 30 years' war

Josquin Deprez

Renaissance; 1450-1521; Brought the 15th-century mass to a brilliant climax and pioneered whole new expressive genres; "Pange lingua Mass", "Mille regrets"

Test Act of 1673

Required all government officials to profess allegiance to church of England and disavow Catholic doctrine, making Charles II's religion illegal

Mary Tudor

Restored line of succession in England by Act of Parliament in 1554, she was a Catholic and thus persecuted Protestants, 300 perished at the stake and many more fled to Germany

Constitutionalism

Ruler shared power with a representative assembly such as the English House of Parliament, developed as a model specifically in England in which two separate revolutions (1642, 1689) overturned the attempts of kings to monopolize power and overbear Parliament

Caravel

Small, maneuverable 3-mast ship using lateen (triangular) sails

Bartolome de las Casas

Spanish dominician priest who said Africans were more suitable for labor than native Americans and therefore should be exported from Africa -"A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies"

Rump Parliament

The Cromwell-controlled Parliament that proclaimed England a republic and abolished the House of Lords and the monarchy. Created high court to charge Charles I with attempting to become a tyrant and punished him by beheading him, despite few wanting him killed and he became a martyr for the royalist cause. Became a tyrannical group in itself by being a puppet for Cromwell's actions. Wanted to extend state power just like Charles I.

Conscription

The automatic drafting of men, usually peasants, from smaller villages in the countryside since no army at this point is volunteer. Only requirement is the ability to stand and march.

Witchcraft

The belief of artists, political thinkers, and scientists that certain individuals had supernatural powers and could perform feats of magic that couldn't be explained otherwise while it was really an attempt to scapegoat the issues of society on the most vulnerable: young women. Connections to dark arts, pact with the devil. -Usual punishment was a trial followed by death or personal humiliation. -Blamed for all maladies, from mundane to the extraordinary -Taken to extremes as in 1682 where it was a decreed a witch was a fraud/imposture and mass trials were done in Salem, Mass.

Heliocentrism

The belief that the sun was the center of the solar system and that the earth rotated around it

Social Contract

The doctrine originated by Hugo Grotius, that all political authority derives not from the divine but from an implicit contract between citizens and their rulers

Jan Hus

The leader of the Czech religious reforms, and the spiritual founder of the Protestant reformation in the 1500's. He was convicted by the Council of Constance for heresy.

State Building

The period from 1640-1715 in which questions about obedience, order, and limits of power occupied the minds of politicians and artists with the extent of free expression, the balance between individual and government, and formation of cultural identity.

Gold Bubbles

The problem incurred when the influx of New World gold dropped off significantly and severely damaged European (esp. Spanish) markets that had artificially inflated prices to new heights. This burst greatly damaged economies by increasing food prices, creating agricultural problems, and ending wars.

Enclosure Movement

The process of consolidating small landholdings into a smaller number of larger farms in England during the eighteenth century.Roots of capitalism and private property ownership in England

Philip II of Spain

The son of Charles V who later became husband to Mary I and king of Spain and Portugal. He supported the Counter Reformation and sent the Spanish Armada to invade England (1527-1598) He was a intolerant, Catholic king.

Centralization

The tendency of states to consolidate multiple local rulers into the power of fewer or a single ruler(s) or governing body -In Europe, it was furthered by Renaissance and the need for wealth and having a larger pool of educated advisors, and the need for powerful states with secular authority

Exceptionalism

The theory that a nation is distinct from and superior to other nations. Used to describe the historic belief that a given state is separate and unique, and a moral guide for other nations.

Favorable Balance of Trade

This was the ideology that most states used to gain the most money from their exports by increasing the amount of finished materials while decreasing the amount of raw materials

Lateen sails

Triangular sails, allows ships to sail in the wind, allow ships to zig-zag against the prevailing winds, can travel into the deep of the Atlantic

Siege of Constantinople

Turkish attack on key Middle Eastern city that made extensive use of gunpowder which essentially single-handedly took down the massive double walls. It made the Byzantines think that the end of days was approaching. Developed a revolution in warfare. Included the use of personal firearms. Ottoman Empire becomes most powerful state in Europe.

Modern Education

Universities began popping up throughout Europe and texts moved thru Italy and the rest of Europe. Creation of scientific approach to understanding that began distancing itself from religion. New emphasis on pre-Christian ideas and ancient political thought. Connections to ancient world

Cannons

Used widely by 1400. Originally made of Bronze since iron didn't mold well. Extremely large, slow, and expensive. Only owned by kings and extremely wealthy. Were wildly inaccurate. Made use of rifling which created a corkscrew motion to give it spin. Effective at destroying walls, making it useful in siege. Ended decentralized nature of castles. Ushered in era of star forts.

Jean Baptise-Colbert

Was in charge of finances for Louis XIV. Promoted mercantilistic economic policies. Worked to ensure a worldwide reputation for the uniformly high quality of French products. By his death, he balanced the budget and promoted relative prosperity despite Louis XIV's lavish expenditures.

Court

What all royals used to keep eyes on leading courtiers like cardinals and dukes and to impress their subjects -Equal to a ruler's household -Community household of servants, councilors, officials, artists, and soldiers, entered high phase in the Renaissance -Represented by Michelangelo Buonarroti, a talented artist who made David and painted Cistine Chapel all for Pope Julius II -French courts: had physicians, librarians, musicians, dwarves, animal trainers, and many individuals -Ex. Fontainebleu in France

Human Agency

When individuals, acting alone or with others, shape, resist, challenge, and sometimes change the social institutions that impinge on them. Indirectly played a role in weakening the institution of the church despite not being a rejection of faith but a reforming of man.

Habeus Corpus

a legal principle that requires aurthorities to show reasons why a person should be held in custody and to provide a speedy trial

Bureaucracy

a network of state officials carrying out orders according to a regular and routine line of authority, from the French word for desk as a position of authority -Supervised personally by Louis to ensure supremacy in all matters -Maintained close relationship with people at the local level -Use of intendants: handpicked magistrate for each region to represent his rule against local interests

Printing Press

allows new ideas to be quickly reproduced and spread throughout the region, until then everything had to be produced by hand which was expensive and works had limited audiences, inconsistencies in editions, and changes over time

Joint-Stock Companies

an association of individuals in a business enterprise with transferable shares of stock, much like a corporation except that stockholders are liable for the debts of the business

Luther Affair

concern from Rome about Luther being only one monk, but influencing others. -Luther ignored Pope's command to obey his superiors -Ideas spread throughout Europe by printing press -Protest fused with nationalism, social, economic rebellion

Carrack

deep hull that is rounded, larger than galleys, can go on longer voyages in the open water

Freedom of a Christian

faith not good works saved sinners from damnation, true Gospel versus the invention of church doctrine, Bible alone provided all teachings needed for Christian living and that professional clerics shouldn't control people

Salon

informal gathering held in private homes and presided over by socially eminent women, french government worried about them as challengers to authority, three main conversations were love, literature, and philosophy, some went beyond and encouraged male authors -Madame de Lafayette

Levellers

insistence of leveling social differences, soldiers took on sides in debates about political authority, demanded Parliament meet annually, members should be paid, allow commoners to participate, all males can vote, ideals of political participation extended only to males, not males, servants

Renaissance Humanism

literary and linguistic movement that was attempt to revive classical Latin and later Greek as the values and sensibilities that came with the language, began in Italian city-states, a way to confront the crises and praise advances of 1300-1600 period, wrote about poetry, history, moral, and philosophical fields, combined Christian piety and pagan past, supported by pope

Sextant

measures angle of sun and stars to the horizon, purpose is to allow navigator to determine position of latitude, allows ships to sail out of sight of land without fear of getting lost or losing proper direction

Diggers

rural communism group that believed in collective property ownership, example of one of the groups that Parliament feared would radically alter the government

Puritans

strict Calvinists who opposed all vestiges of Catholic ritual in Church of England -Returned to England with Elizabeth's ascension -Demanded drastic changes in church rituals and governance -Thirty Nine Articles of Religion (Elizabeth) pissed them off since it since the Church of England was a combo of Calvinist and Catholic ideas -Strict morality- close England's theaters and fairs -Role of father as teacher -Believed in idea of God's elect -Wanted Elizabeth's help in protecting Protestants on the continent

Council of Constance

the council in 1414-1418 that succeeded in ending the Great Schism in the Roman Catholic Church, showed that church enjoyed the writings of Cicero, Vario, Livy since they show dignified values in Latin, reflecting Church love of the ancients

Protestantism

the theological system of any of the churches of western Christendom that separated from the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation

Trade Winds

winds swirl where the two currents meet and sails into a huge dead zone, finding a good wind and using these equatorial currents

Amerigo Vespucci

(1454-1521, Italian) America was named after him; first to realize that the Americas were a different continent that Asia

Sando Boticelli

"Birth of Venus" - drew on Greek idea of Venus as goddess of love and beauty

Francisco Pizzaro

1475-1541: subjugated the Incans in Peru, gathered men-at-arms to search for gold and bring Christianity to indigenous people

In Praise of Folly

Erasmus's short satire on the lines of his conversations with Thomas More, extolling what was silly and condemning what was wise; one of the best-sellers in publishing history

Middle Age Crises

Hundred Years' War in 1337 Black Death in 1347 The Great Schism in 1378 Mass revolt and rebellion Fall of Constantinople in 1453

Babylonian Captivity of Church

condemned the papacy as the embodiment of the antichrist

Huldyrch Zwilngli

1484-1531: declared himself a reformer and attacked corruption of Catholics and clerical celibacy, questioned Luther on Eucharist (turning bread and wine into blood and body of Christ) since he thought they were strictly symbols

Arquebus

"Hand-cannons", standard medieval firearm, usually 2 rounds/minute, wildly inaccurate, aiming is irrelevant, origin of "fog of war" useful for three reasons 1. training is simple and no need for prior skill 2. Effectiveness: punctures armor, serious damage 3.Mass production: can be manufactured quickly and cheaply

Raison d'etat

"reason of state", Cardinal Richelieu's setting of state interest above all, silenced French Protestants, crushed all resistance to king, oversaw all aspects of state from police and army to financial affairs, trend during the Thirty Years' War to completely consolidate government and increase its power like increasing taxes at will, silencing revolt, and rulers retaining absolute power derived from God

Anabaptists

"rebaptizers" who rejected the validity of infant baptism and called for adult repbaptism, pacifists rejected law of courts, drew leadership from artisan class and members from middle and lower class, attracted people through simple message of peace and salvation, attacked Zwingli, developed in Zurich, Switzerland, survived under leadership of Dutch Menno Simmons

Magna Carta

(1215) a charter of liberties (freedoms) that King John "Lackland" of Englad was forced to sign; it made the king obey the same laws as the citizens of his kingdom

Sir Francis Bacon

(1561-1626): an English philosopher and statesman(Lord Chancellor of England for James I) who wrote the Advancement of Learning and popularized the new scientific method of observation and experimentation. He was not a trained or full-time scientist but kept up with astronomical debates and mathematical competitions of the day. His philosophical inclinations led him to consider science in his age and the timeless elements of the scientific approach.

William Harvey

(1578-1657) English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood

Cardinal Richelieu

(1585-1642) Minister to Louis XIII. His three point plan (1. Break the power of the nobility, 2. Humble the House of Austria, 3. Control the Protestants) helped to send France on the road to absolute monarchy.

Hernan Cortes

1485-1547: Spanish explorer who captured Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1519 and subjugated the Aztec people and conquered what is now Mexico, originally greeted warmly by native Aztecs by giving him gifts, made Spanish empire the largest empire in the world, gold and silver also made them the richest in the world

Exploration Troika

1. Gold: economic motivations, trade contacts, exchange of luxury, goods through Muslim world, Silk Road was expensive, wanted to find ways to bypass Muslim control/intermediaries 2. Glory: individual and collective greatness, political to become a world power to rival the Ottoman Empire (most powerful state in Europe), escape from Ottoman control 3. God: spread the word of Jesus, save souls, spread Christianity

Niccolo Machiavelli

1469-1527 -Wrote the Prince for the prince of the Medici family in order to regain approval and be allowed back in Florence. Covers the various elements required to be an effective prince, or single-powerful monarch through a matter of cold, calculating premises that establish a variety of precedents for governments to follow. -Born and raised in Florence -Got a classical education -Supported new idea of republic -Was accused by Medicis of trying to undermine their authority -Also wrote "Discourse of Livy" which was much longer than the Prince and supported the idea of the republic

Peasant Culture

1. Religion: shaped every aspect through life and death 2. Knowledge needed to work farm or conduct trade 3. Entertainment: like village/farm dances -Catholics and Protestants in this period both tried to reform these cultures by removing superstition and replacing it with religion -Some even tried setting up asylums since they deemed the poor as diseased and corrupt -Regulation of these three facets of peasant culture was a hallmark of early modern europe change

Nicholas Copernicus

1473-1543: attacked Ptolemaic system and claimed we live in a heliocentric universe and removed need for calculation of epicycles

St. Thomas More

1478-1535: English philosopher and statesman -Friend of Erasmus -Followed ideas of Christian humanism -"Utopia" --> literally meaning nowhere -Imagined a perfect society compared to reality of society -Free education, welfare, hospitals -No private property -Panreligious tolerance -Even allowed male and female priests -Indirectly challenged church practices

Francis Petrarch

1304-1374: first humanist, born in Arezzo, Italy, learned classical literature in Avignon, became famous poet who wrote in Italian, Latin, tradition of troubadours, idealized on a woman named Laura, sensitive to failings of the church, coined idea of "Babylonian captivity" of the church when papacy was in Avignon, lived life of dissipation

Christine de Pisan

1365-1430: humanist woman who was a write and a courtier, born in Venice and educated in France who was married then widowed, wrote poems inspired by classical models financed by patrons, supported by numerous monarchs

Lorenzo Ghiberti

1378-1455: redid doors, baptistery to show sacrifice Isaac in Greek style as well as Medieval elements, showed syncretism, mining the ancient world for new subjects

Henry the Navigator

1394-1460: personally financed many voyages with revenues from crusading order, attracted many Christian, Jewish, and Arab soldiers along with cartographers, compiled tile calendars and books of sailing directions which reduced dangers of sea travel

Lauro Quirini

1420-1475: wrote about Turks being barbarians, educated in Padua, got a law degree, humanist

Medici Family

1434: dominant power in Florence that found money and power in banking for the pope and and took public office and established new government committees, kept old Florence constitution -Lorenze the Magnificent: increased regime's prestige thru patronage of the humanities and arts, renovated many churches, paid for art, and inspired Michelangelo and Poliziano -Had enemies, assassination attempts

Johannes Gutenburg

1445: Inventor of moveable type and the creator of the first printing press

Christopher Columbus

1451-1506: an Italian sailor who opened up the New World by sailing west across the Atlantic in search of a new route to Asia -Left in August of 1492: claimed new lands in name of Spain when he reached Bahamas in October where he encountered Arawak Indians -Objectives: find gold, subjugate Indians, spread Christianity -Second trip in 1493: many soldiers and ships and subjugated the native Caribs

Giovanni Mirandola

1463-1494: flamboyant humanist, born in Ferrara to noble family, got a humanist education then did law at Bologna, believed in Jewish mystical writings and supported Christian scriptures, wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man which summed humanist view on wonder of human agency, armed with desires and judgments who had the power of choice

Desiderus Erasmus

1466-1536: joined Augustinian order of Monks, left monks to become an independent scholar, became known across Europe, and prepared a critical edition of New Testament in Greek and Latin, strove for peaceful, unified Christendom in which clarity and good works marked true religion, wrote Militant Christian, and Praise of Folly to illustrate Christian values of modesty, humility, and poverty, instructed Charles V, chose Christian unity over reform and schism, dreamed of Christian pacifism, writings condemned by Catholic Church

Louis XIV of France

1643-1715: personified the absolutist monarch, who really shared his power with no one, believed "he was the state", emphasized the authority rested with him personally, manipulated courtiers to make sure his motives were carried ut -Built up Europe's largest army and snuffed out all religious and political opposition -Depended on cooperation of many people: local officials, peasants, artisans, tax collections, clergy, and nobility -Organized entertainment at the massive palace he built at Versailles and made himself the center of France -Associated himself with Apollo, the Sun God -Enforced religious orthodoxy all over France through his udea of Catholicism, focused on the Jansenites who resembled English Puritans -Fiercely contested Huguenots or French Protestants

Maria Merian

1646-1707: German painter and scholar whose engravings were celebrated for realism and details, famous for watercolors of exotic flowers

Gottfried Leibniz

1646-1716: claimed he invented calculus, not Newton, was philosopher, lawyer, mathematician and historian, and created salons

Fronde

1648-53. Brutal civil wars that struck France during the reign of Louis XIV. Caused political up heaval and economic devastation. -Rebellion against Marazin the next cardinal after Richelieu who tried to raise taxes to meet the growing costs of government -1648: coalition of opponents presented charter of demands that would give Parlement constitutional powers -Marazin resisted and that led to a series of clashes that changed France forever. -Shaped Louis XIV forever and made him want to keep close control on power of nobility

Peace of Westphalia

1648: comprehensive settlement named after German province where negotiations were, served as a model for solving future conflict among European states, diplomatic congress convened to address international disputes and agreement to settlement, bringing all parties together, not just two sides -France and Sweden gained most: got Alscaue and several northern territories -Habsburgs lost the most: -Spanish Dutch got independence -Each German prince got to decide own region religion, became more independent and separate than ever before -Redistribution of Europe's main religion -Last war of religious motivation specifically - state interests would greatly outweigh religious implications -Increase in state authority

Declaration of Indulgence

1672. Charles II. granted free worship to non-conformist protestants. parliament thought it was a back-door catholic move. Backwater was the Parliament's refusal to fund Dutch war unless he recanted

Treaty of Nijmegen

1678; signed by the French, specifically King Louis XIV, and the Dutch. Through this treaty, Louis obtained more land. This treaty is significant because it ended the 6 year long Dutch war, and expanded France.

James II

1685-1688: succeeded his brother and was determined to force Catholicism on subject, King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1685-1688). The last Stuart king to rule both England and Scotland, he was overthrown by his son-in-law William of Orange

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

1685: closed Calvinist churches and schools, forbade pastors to stay in country and ordered conversion of all Calvinists, children of Calvinists could be abducted, forced many to flee to other countries, used as justification for war against Louis

Glorious Revolution

1688; the parliament deposed King James II, a Roman Catholic who had asserted royal rights over the rights of Parliament. Parliament gave the crown to the Protestant King William III, a Dutch prince, and his British wife, Queen Mary II (daughter of James II), as joint rulers. When the crown was offered to William and Mary, they agreed to a Bill of Rights that severely limited the king or queen's power. The British Bill of Rights is often regarded as a forerunner to the United States Bill of Rights.

Bill of Rights

1689, no law can be suspended by the king; no taxes raised; no army maintained except by parliamentary consent. Established after The Glorious Revolution.

Martin Luther

16th century German monk and professor who is considered to be the person who started the Protestant Reformation; he began by criticizing Church practices (mainly indulgences) and ultimately broke with the Catholic Church to form his own new religious faith, protected by Frederick the Wise when he was almost executed by Charles V at the Diet of Worms

War of Spanish Succession

1701-1713 between france and England, Holland, HRE about who would become King of Spain after Charles (retard) left no heir. Spain is split

Peace of Utrecht

1713, ended Louis XIV's attempts to gain military power and land. Marked the end of French expansionist policy. Ended the War of Spanish Succession.

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property. -Saw firsthand the troubles of unlimited power in a monarch and a parliament -Two Treatises on Government to justify revolution of 1688 -Anti-absolutist policies -Challenged divine right of kings -Idea of tabula rasa: humans are completely shaped by their environment

Rene Descartes

17th century French philosopher; wrote Discourse on Method; 1st principle "i think therefore i am"; believed mind and matter were completly seperate; known as father of modern rationalism

Portuguese Exploration

1st overseas exploration in 1433 when this nation sailed by West Africa to find a spice trade route to bypass the Turks, whose success was based on technology like the caravel, known for Henry the Navigator, set up forts on coast of West Africa to search for gold and silver -Cape of Good Hope in 1488 -Vasco de Gama reached Calcutta, India in 1498 -1519: Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigates the globe

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Portugal and Spain, declaring that newly discovered lands to the west of an imaginary line in the Atlantic Ocean would belong to Spain and newly discovered lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal.