History mid term 1

Patronym

This Greek word translates to "father's name". In ancient Greece, men would be referred to by their father's names; for example, Telemachos would be referred to as Telemachos, son of Odysseus. It was an important sign of status, as elites were referred to by their patronyms; commoners were referred to by their occupation.

Linear A

A Minoan writing system comprised of signs that stood for the sounds of spoken words and syllables. The tablets were discovered by Arthur Evans at Cnossus. Unlike the Linear B tablets, the Linear A tablets do not reflect an Indo-European language and have not been translated. The main purpose of the tablets was to record economic and administrative records.

Heinrich Schliemann

Colorful figure, German, travelled to Cali during Gold Rush and established a bank, became an ammunitions seller for Russia, after retirement, he became self-funded archaeologist. His interest of Ancient Greece arose from Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Came up with the idea that it wasn't myth it was history. Started excavating at stories location sites in 1871 in Troy. 1876 at the site of Mycenae where he finds a palace. Pioneer of using tales of fiction and linking it to physical remains. Wasn't an expert, more of a let's shovel until we hit something sort of guy.

Apoikia

Means "settlement away from home." It refers to the colonies that were established during the 8th, 7th and 6th centuries B.C. They were connected with a mother city, where the majority of the population would have originated from.

Pylos

Palace complex where linear B tablets were found. Most important room is on central axis, which was the receiving room before the main room (symmetrical unlike the Minoans) It had a Megaron- porch and central room with a central hearth. This is the Basic building block of Greek architecture>Symmetrical set up for progression of rooms. Ancient greek city that was inhabited in Neolithic times. Became the site of the Battle of Pylos during the Pelopensian war in 425 BC where Athens defeated Sparta. Home of Nestor, who led men alongside the Greeks in the Trojan war. In the Odyssey Telemachos visits Nestor in Pylos after departing from Ithaca in order to seek advice regarding his father's life. This is referred to as "Sandy Pylos" in the Odyssey.

Hektemoroi

People who were share cropping land. They fell into a debt situation that was irreversible because they needed to pay 1/6 of their crops to the Athenians when Solon was appointed as tyrant.

Xerxes

Persian ruler who rose to power around 485 B.C. Herodotus offers the reader a perspective on how Xerxes commanded the Persian empire in Book 7 (418-421), when his uncle offers an opinion, and he is immediately dismissed. Artabanus, his uncle, is told he is " forbid[dden] to accompany me (Xerxes) on my march to Greece-you (Artabanus) shall stay at home with the woman...(421)." Not only was he extremely powerful, but he was also fixated on avenging the loss suffered to Greece by his father Darius.

Satrap

Persian term for the governor of the region. Artaphernes was the Persian satrap.

Phalanx

Phalanx is the fighting formation that was adapted by every city-state in Archaic Greece. In this formation, each hoplite stands shoulder-to-shoulder carrying his shield with his left arm. A hoplite's shield covers half of his body, and half of the body of the man to his left. When done correctly, every hoplite will be covered and protected and his right arm is free to use a spear. Great skill is not needed to fight in this formation; therefore men of all ages were able to participate in battles because he is only needed to march and carry the shield. The phalanx formation's emphasis on defense reflected the mindset of the hoplites that their duty is to protect and fight for their city-state and that their combined unity makes them stronger.

Cypselus

The first tyrant of Corinth. Came to power in the 7th century B.C. through his achievements which included having the post of pole march in corinth and being born into the Bacchiad clan. He favored the poor over the rich and confiscated land of the wealthy and redistributed it to the poor and made laws that limited aristocratic privileges.

Menelaos

The king of Sparta in the Iliad and the husband to Helen of Troy. His brother was the high king Agamemnon, who was later murdered by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aigisthus. He is said to be the wealthiest man alive due to his trips to Ethiopia, Egypt, and others before his return home. On the advice of Nestor, Telemachos visits Menelaos to inquire about his father Odysseus, who Menelaos was friends with. The last Menelaos had heard (which was during his voyage home, years before his meeting with Telemachos), Odysseus was alive but a prisoner of the nymph Calypso. Unfortunately, Menelaos knew nothing of Odysseus's status since then.

Sea Peoples

The Sea Peoples were a group of raiders dated to roughly 1200-1100 B.C., that looted on and disrupted trade throughout the Mediterranean Sea region with great success. A few of the names throughout written history describing the Sea Peoples include but are not limited to the Sherden, Sheklesh, Lukka, and the Tursha. The variety of names suggests that the Sea Peoples, were made up of multiple different tribes who could have competed amongst themselves. Consequently they affected a large amount trade done by ship during this time period. It is possible that the decent into the Dark Ages could be linked to the Sea Peoples interrupting trade all around the Mediterranean Sea. One specific case this theory applies to is the decline of the Mycenaean civilization that occurred throughout 1200-1100 B.C., roughly the same time the Sea Peoples were on a tear.

Great Rhetra

The Spartan constitution created by Lycurgus somewhere between the 9th and 6th century BC. It consisted of the Agiad and Eurypontid families, which were the executives and military leaders. From here it was divided up three ways: (1) Gerousia: a council of elders that were 60+ years old and had 28 members; (2) Apellai: an assembly of Spartiates who are 30+ years old that vote on measures proposed by the Gerousia; (3) Ephors: five men elected annually to check the powers of the king and to oversee training.

Eretria

The location of a seven day siege in 490 B.C., where the Persians made a stop on their way to Athens. Their siege was rather brief as there were 20,000 Persians and the Eritreans were overwhelmed. They only lasted seven days before giving into the Persians, who then sailed to Marathon on their way to Athens.

Herodotus

considered the Father of History. He established history as a new genre, a method of investigation, which countered Homer's accounts of history as "fact surrounded by mythology". Herodotus strived to compile nothing but fact from both sides of opposition in an attempt to produce an unbiased narrative for his inquiry.

Nestor

in Greek mythology was the king of Pylos and one of Jason's Argonauts. He is respected by many due to his age and accomplishments, and is very proud. He fought in the Trojan War, but was older than many of the other Greek heroes when the war started. Due to his age he didn't fight on foot, but instead led his troops from Pylos in a chariot. Nestor also appears in the Odyssey when Telemachus comes to him to ask about his father's whereabouts.

Eupatrids

name for the higher up families which came together to create the first aristocracy in Athens. They published laws in 620 b.c., which was the first time laws were ever written down and made available (engraved in stone and put in public view). You must be born into the this class which created a small problem since those who weren't well born were excluded from ruling.

Sardis

sacked by the Greeks during the Ionian revolt. Also where Xerxes marched to when he was developing a plan against Athens to start the Persian war.

Pithecusae

settlement that was first form of colonization, Euoboeans followed Phoenician trading routes (an island off the coast of Italy).

Bronze Age

A period in the middle years, specifically ranging from 3000-1600 BC of Greek civilization that was characterized by the production of bronze. Bronze was a stronger material and made for more "efficient" work by the Greeks (Pomery 23). This work was later deemed by historians as problematic, as it created many gaps in the economy of Greece, creating a separation of classes. Thus, dividing the Greeks by social class. This period is definitely worth noting because it is when, the first form of a Greek language appears!

Tyrtaeus

A Greek Lyric Poet whose poems discussed fighting in a phalanx in great detail. Tyrtaeus 11, one of his poems, seems to be a call for soldiers to "learn how to fight by doing valiant deeds", suggesting that not only do his poems capture the actual physical aspect of the war, but that his poems were meant to boost morale.

Syssition

"dining group" or "mess" which the Spartans had to be accepted into. Membership in this group was the goal for Spartans where all 15 members of the army group would eat together. This experience requires loyalty and cooperativeness to maintain success in warfare. Each member was obligated to supply a specific amount of food (syssitia) and/or drinks (symposia).

Homoioi

(Equals) This was one of the reforms made in Sparta after the second Messenian war and revolts (650-629 B.C.). All Spartan citizens will have equal share of food coming from the helots. This helped to further ensure loyalty to the state.

Laerkes

(worker in gold)- from The Odyssey, from Pylos, Nestor talks about him...covering cows horns in gold...example of one of the occupations held in Homeric society

Andros

A Greek city-state that medized during Persian war. Themistocles led a battle against them. It was a poor island and was not able to pay Themistocles war reparations

Thera

- a small island north of Crete where the city of Akrotiri was located. Discovered in 1967 the city was destroyed by a volcanic eruption, which preserved it nearly intact. An example of Minoan cultural influence, the at one time prosperous city, demonstrated how the Therans had absorbed Cretan aspects in their own island culture. While heavily influenced by Minoan culture, the "local" features of the island indicate that these islands were independent societies/trading partners- not colonial outposts.

Demes

A deme is a name given to a person in accordance with their place of origin as opposed to the name of their father. For example, Herodotus is named for his place of origin, Halicarnassus. Therefore, he is named Herodotus of Halicarnassus. In The Odyssey, Telemachos was noted for using his patronym, "Telemachos, son of Odysseus". This was an important innovation in naming, for it helped establish citizen allegiance with their city state.

Sappho- a

A female poet living in the late century, who is the only known female poet living in the Archaic period. She was a member of the prominent aristocratic family from Mytilene on the island of Lesbos and was the leader of a group of upper class women who shared their lives together before marriage. She wrote wedding songs, and political verses, but what has survived are mostly solo songs that feature love between women as their main theme. She was greatly admired and critics hailed her as the "tenth muse".

Dowry

A gift given to the husband of a bride on their marriage by her and family; it contrasts with bride price, which is when the husband is the one who pays the bride's family. During the Homeric era, coinage was nonexistent, so dowries often came in the form of land, livestock, or some other valuable commodity.

Megaron

A large room found in palace complexes. A porch connects to the central room, which leads to a hearth. It resembles the layout of later Greek temples.

Seisachtheia

A reform enacted by Solon, a tyrant appointed in Athens during a time of instability, which cancelled all the people's debts. It was particularly beneficial for the Hektemoroi, who were sharecroppers that had fallen into an irreversible debt situation for being required to pay 1/6 of their crop yield to the Athenians. Solon enacted this "shaking off of burdens" to help the Athenian people and to restart the economy in Athens.

Aegean

A sea that is apart of the Mediterranean that is located between the east coast of Greece and Asia Minor (modern day Turkey). Early civilizations crossed the Aegean sea to settle and the different language dialects of Asia Minor reflect the dialects of the regions of Greece. Aeolian in the North, Ionic in the Center, and Doric in the South.

Aristocracy

A type of government in which power is held by a small group of privileged people. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best". These families led very wealthy lives.

Hoplon

A very large circular shield that was considered the most important piece of equipment for a hoplite. The shield was made from wood and covered with a thin sheet of bronze, and was curved in order to help deflect an enemy soldier's spear. In order to hold the shield, a soldier would have to insert his entire left arm through a central band and grip a strap at the rim, which gave it maneuvering ability but only allowed the soldier to fight with one hand. A hoplon reflects how defense was very important for hoplites and shows how all of their equipment was designed to protect the soldier.

Lyric poetry

Alternative genre to heroic epics during the Archaic period. It had roots in folk songs that pertained to special occasions or communal/private life. Poets could gain PanHellenic fame by competing, and often were accompanied by a lyre or an aulos. It was often personal with a range of subjects from drinking, to love, politics, war, or morality and a similar wide range of tones (lighthearted to bitter). It is a key insight into Ancient Greek private life and social attitudes of the elite/ middle class men.

Aristides

An Athenian statesman, son of Lysimachus. Referred to by Herodotus as the "best and most just man that Athens ever produced" (book 8). Aristides was an even-tempered and pacifistic man who put old conflicts and struggles aside in order to keep things productive during a tumultuous and dangerous time in Ancient Greek history. He was a key figure in the Battle of Salamis.

Odysseus

An ancient Greek hero and the main character of the Odyssey. During the Odyssey he is king of Ithaca, but has been absent for 20 years in order to lead an army in the Trojan war alongside Menelaus and Achilles. The Odyssey follows the story of his trials while returning home to Ithaca to reunite with his son Telemachos and wife Penelope.

Himera

Ancient Greek city within Sicily, located on the Northern coast of the island. Gelon, the Tyrant of Syracuse, conquered most Sicilian cities in the sixth century. It was believed that he was going to send aid to Greece even though he was was expected to serve under Spartan commanders, if it weren't for the tyrant of Himera, named Terillus. The Battle of Himera took place here in 480 B.C. as well as 409 B.C.

Tyranny

Aristotle states that "a tyrant is set up from among the demos and the multitude to oppose the notables so that the people may suffer no injustice from them... For almost all the tyrants have arisen from being leaders of the people..." Tyranny was a consequence of rapid colonization, anti-aristocratic, popular phenomenon, aimed to break up tradition of granting power by birth. Ancient Greeks did not view a tyrannical government as a bad form of government, rather they often viewed it as a good type of government.

Cleisthenes

Around 508/507 B.C., Cleisthenes largely reformed the system of governance in Athens. He organized Attica into approximately 139 Demes, and within those Demes, he established three regions: the city region, the coastal region, and the plain region. He also established ten tribes, which allowed for the breaking up of clan units so that identification was no longer based on one's patronym, but on where one resided. Cleisthenes is often regarded as the "father of democracy" because he created a mixed system of governance in which the boule was made up of 500 members (50 members from each tribe), and introduced sortition, which allowed citizens to be randomly chosen as officials, directly contrasting the system that was previously in place where positions of power were attained through the lineage of ruling class families.

Artemisia

Artemisia's stories in Herodotus' Histories are exceptional for many reasons, first of which is that she appears to be the sole female in a war otherwise entirely fought by men. Secondly, she seems to have the king Xerxes' ear like no other of his advisers. Unlike the debate where Xerxes punishes the man who speaks against his plan in favor of a different one, Xerxes seems, in 8.68, to value and respect Atemisia's thoughts about the battle to come. He does disregard them, but the fact that he is pleased with her and does not punish her shows that she has high favor with the king. Most notably however, is Herodotus' account of her endeavors in the naval battle at Salamis, this account taking most of the time he allots for the battle so that she takes a center role in his narrative. He describes how she in fact curries more favor by ramming one of her ally's boats and killing all those on board, which Xerxes misinterprets from shore as Artemisia taking down an enemy ship. Finally, it is notable that Artemisia was the Queen of Herodotus' own polis, so this may be a reason that Herodotus seems to spend so much time on her alone in his narrative. Growing up in Halicarnassus, we might expect that Herodotus heard many tales of the exploits of Artemisia and has included them prominently in his work.

Arthur Evans

Arthur Evans in 1900 discovered a huge complex at Cnossus on the island of Crete. Evans called this first Aegean Civilization Minoan, after Minos, the mythical king of Cnossus. Evans showed that the ancestors of the historical Greeks lived in a totally different world from that of classical Greece.

Miltiades

Athenian general who defeated the Persians at the battle of Marathon.

Pisistratus

Became tyrant in 560 BC. He was expelled for 5 years and eventually returned to be the tyrant of Athens again from 546 to 527 BC. He upheld the reforms of Solon. He also had the support of the majority of the Athenians who belong to the lowest property class. During his reign, there was great economic prosperity and a great building program, which provided jobs for lower class people. He was responsible for starting the Dionysia, a festival of the arts, which made Athens a city-state known for the arts. He starts the Panathenaia, which was a festival for Athena, where people from all over came to Athens and recited Homer.

Peloponnesian League

Created between 510-500 B.C. the Peloponnesian league, or "Sparta and its allies", was a policy of alliance created, and eventually led, by the Spartans. It included all the states in the Peloponnesus, except Argos and Achaea, and key poleis that lay outside the Peloponnesus. The purpose of the league was mutual protection, as each state contributed forces in case of war and swore an oath "to have the same friends as enemies, and to follow the Spartans wherever they lead". The league was not an empire and the government was bicameral with an assembly of Spartans and a congress of allies in which they each had one vote. Spartans could only call a meeting of the league and only they could serve as commanders of armed forces. The League lasted until the 360s.

Croesus

Croesus was the King of Lydia from 560-547 BC. He is mentioned by Herodotus twice. Once when he asks Solon how he would be considered the happiest of men he had met. Second, when Croesus goes to the Oracle at Delphi to ask whether he should go to war against the Persian Empire. The Oracle said that "if Croesus goes to war he will destroy a great empire." Croesus effectively destroys his own empire and falls to the Persian king Cyrus.

Dactylic Hexameter

Dactylic hexameter is a type of meter and rhythm in poetry. Homer's Odyssey and Iliad were classical epic poetry written in this form. The meter is made up of lines of 6 feet. Each of the feet would consist of a dactyl, which is a long syllable and two short syllables. A spondee can also takes the place of a dactyl, which is two long syllables. The Homeric poems have a natural rhythm to them due to this dactylic hexameter.

Michael Ventris

Deciphered Linear B tablets in 1953 as the earliest known form of Greek. This information pushes back the Greek civilization 800 years before what was originally thought to be the beginning. The tablets prove the Mycenaeans are actually the first Greek people to invade Crete and conquer the mainland. He believed the tablets were a representation of symbols not individual letters

Mt. Athos

During the first Persian invasion of Greece, Persian commander Mardonios lost a huge portion of his military after attempting to sail through the cliffs off the Athos peninsula. While preparing for the Persians second invasion, King Xerxes ordered a canal to be built through the base of Mount Athos to prevent possible damage again. The Persian fleet passed through on their way to Athens. The canal is still a landmark today.

Laertes

Father of Odysseus. He was an Argonaut and King of Ithaca before Odysseus. He lives on a farm near Odysseus's palace and keeps to himself for most of The Odyssey, filled with grief for his son and wife. Odysseus reunites with him after killing the suitors and together they fend off the families of the dead suitors.

Messenia

First Messenian War (740-720BC): Were conquered and reduced to the status of Helots by the Spartans during the first Messenian war. Messenians who escaped founded the colony at Regium in Italy. As helots, the Messenians were forced to give up 1/2 of their crops to the Spartans. Second Messenian War/Messenian Revolt: Spartans retake Messenia. They created the Krypteia, which was a secret service that kept the Messenians in check.

Geometric Style

Geometric Style began around 900 BC through 700 BC and has been most heavily tied to Athens. Characterized as one of the last purely Mycenaean-Greek forms of art before foreign powers began settling in the area and impacting various forms of art and culture. Geometric Style can be found primarily on vases and pottery. Defined by sharp angles and of course, geometric shapes, breaks the art style that was seen on vases before this period. For example, before this time period, stories were rarely told through vase painting, nor were animals nor humans depicted through this medium. However, the Geometric style was used to tell stories, and paint portraits of daily Mycenaean-Greek life, while using a very distinct style.

Hesiod

Hesiod was a Greek poet who lived somewhere between 750 and 650 B.C., composing at about the same time as Homer. He is best known for his Theogony, believed to be his earliest work, and Works and Days. These are both used as sources of information on ancient Greek society and how people lived before there were other records. The Theogony outlines the Gods and Goddesses and walks the reader through his version of the creation myth. Works and Days takes the reader through the five ages of man.

Homer

Homer was the "composer" of the epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey. Homer was from Ionia and he was blind. He did not write down the epic poems,( not because he was blind) but instead they were shared as oral epic poems. From the use of oral epic poems, the dactylic hexameter was formed and the use of formulas and epithets helped readers to remember all 12,00 lines of The Odyssey and 16,00 lines of The Iliad. Homer's epics reflects a mix of ideas from Mycenaean civilization "Dark Ages" and contemporary time (8th century).

Hoplite

Hoplites were the basic fighting unit for all Greek poleis. The name comes from the word "hoplon," which was the name of the shield carried by hoplites. Hoplites existed from about 800 to 350 BC. The heavy equipment, or panoply, consisted of hoplon shields, metal helmets, breastplates, and greaves. Hoplites' main weapons were thrusting spears and their secondary weapons were short swords. A Hoplite's equipment was expensive and each warrior had to provide it himself, which led to the development of an elite Hoplite culture.

Import-driven trade

Import-driven trade is trade that occurs on an import need basis. For example, if a country is in need of copper, then it trades with a country that does have it, exchanging a product that they have an excess of that the other country would want in return.

Marathon

In 490 B.C. Artaphernes and Datis (Persian military leaders) lead an expedition against Athens and Eritria. After a seven day siege in Eritria, they sailed to Marathon to march the 26 miles on Athens. However the Athenians met them there, with aid from Plataea, and the Battle of Marathon commenced. Though they were twice outnumbered, the Athenians managed to get the Persians to retreat to there ships, where they then tried to sail to Athens and beat the Athenians, who had to run the 26 miles back. The Athenians somehow managed to beat the Persians back to Athens, however, and the Persians gave up and sailed away.

Solon

In 594/593 BC, Solon created a new publication of laws for the Athens. He created four property classes know as:Pentekosiomedimnoi, Hippeis, Zeugitai, Thetes. After that he decided that Pentekosiomedimnoi and Hippeis could be Archons which were part of the upper class. Leaving Zeugitai and Thetes as part as the lower classes. Anyone out of the four different classes could be known as Ekklesia or Jurors. After Solon had completed these laws Athens had to keeps these laws for ten years and Solon was sent away for these ten years so no one could argue you with him about these laws.

Draco

In 620 BC he created a new publication of laws that established how murder will be investigated and how all of the details of murder will work in the court. The people that are prosecuting the case are the family members of the person who was killed and in addition to that the state provides the judges. This was the first written code at Athens. Draco was also one the Eupatrids. After Draco, Solon was then put up to the task to make a new form of government.

Ostracism

In ancient Athens democracy, ostracism was a procedure used by members of the society to expel any member of society that it deemed to be a threat to the state, such as a tyrant, for a period of 10 years. This process was used during the 5th Century B.C. to expel potential tyrants. Key people to be ostracized using the athenian process of ostracism are Themistocles, who helped to turn back both of the Persian invasions of Greece, and a man named Cimon, who was also an important general during the Persian invasions and also helped to broker a peace deal between Sparta and Athens.

Pentakosiomedimnoi

In modern mathematics, Penta = 5! In the development of polis in Athens, four property classes were created by Solon. Pentakosiomedimnoi was one of them, and it loosely translates to 500 bushel men, who were seen as the wealthier people in society. At this time, Solon reforms society and sees that power should not be given through birth, but through wealth. Men who own property, are seen as the ones with power.

Anthropomorphic

In relation to gods and the Odyssey, anthropomorphic deals with the fact that Gods have human characteristics and can shape into humans.For example on page 29, when it is mentioned that Poseidon, " the earth encircler Poseidon who, ever relentless, nurses a grudge because of the Cylcops, whose eye he blinded..." Gods in this context act amongst and regularly with humans.

Krypteia

Introduced during the Second Messenian War, the Krypteia was a Spartan institution for young men to carry out duties as secret police; essentially an ancient example of a secret service. keep helots off guard

Ionian Revolt

Involves civil strife in Naxos (Herodotus pg. 320f). kicked out aristocrats, aristocrats go to myletus. Aristagoras convinced Persian governor to use Persian army to get aristocrats back in charge of Naxos, Naxos will then have to pledge to Persians. When they go to Naxos, the Persians lose. Aristagoras not in good situation-promised Persians an easy victory, and they lost. Decided to have Myletus revolt against Persians...urged by via secret message. Persia to seek revenge against Athens since Athens helped Myletus. Since the Ionian cities have problems with unity and planning for the revolt, they seek help from mainland Greece (Eretria and Athens, the birthplaces of the Ionian Greeks). The Greeks sack Sardis, go home and believe that they are independent. Darius vows revenge (Battle of Lade)

Mycenae

Mycenae is the archeological site that we have named the Mycenaean civilization after. Discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876, the site shows a difference from the Minion Civilization,for example, because of the large fortification walls surrounding the citadel. Along with the fortified walls, text written in Linear B, the earliest form of Greek, which was translated by Michael Ventris. This shows that the Greeks had in fact had invaded Crete instead of Crete invading mainland Greece. In addition, it is believed that Mycenae is the kingdom of Agamemnon from Homer's Epic poems. Schliemann, a fanatic for the poems, even claimed that he had found the death mask of Agamemnon himself. The mask would be dated and proven not to be from the same time period, but the thought still stands that it is in fact the kingdom of Agamemnon.

Mykale

Mykale was the site where the battle of Mykale took place around August 27, 479 BC. It was one of the two major battles that ended the second Persian invasion. The battle was fought by an alliance of Greek city-states and the Persian empire under Xerxes I. Leotychides led the attack on the Persian camp at Mount Mykale, where the Persians had settled to avoid battle. The Ionians within the Persian army turned against the Persians and the Greeks effectively slaughtered Persians and captured and burned their ships.

Hellespont

Named after a girl named Helle fell into the sea (sea of hella). A natural narrow waterway between kingdom of Macedonia and the Persian Empire (near Troy) . During the Greco Persian War, King Xerxes utilized a tremendous amount of resources and time to build a bridge made of floating pontoon ships tied together as a foot-route for the Persian military to invade Europe, more specifically Athens. The purpose of this bridge was to intimidate smaller Greek polis to surrender to the Persian Empire before any battle or military action was actually taken. The bridge however was ordered to be rebuilt after being destroyed by a storm. Xerxes demands that the god Hellespont is punished with 300 lashes, however when Xerxes arrives at the bridge he makes a sacrifice to the god and this leaves Herodotus confused about his intentions.

Hippias

One of Pisistratus' sons. (Pisistratus, son of Hippocrates and ruler of Athens between 561-527 B.C. Pisistratus was focused on strengthening the economy in Athens, for example he initiated a major renovation of the Acropolis to beautify Athens, establish a well respected place to worship, and to create jobs for the urban poor.) He ruled alongside his brother Hipparchus after their fathers death. They were lovers of art, music and poetry; and kept these artists active in their court. The book says the brothers suggested a man name Harmodius' sister wasn't a virgin, which ultimately resulted in the assassination of Hipparchus. He ruled until 510, however, at his time, the exiled Alcmaeonids worked alongside the Delphian's to overthrow the Tyrant. The Alcmaeonids worked with the Delphians to rebuild the temple of Apollo and even payed for exclusive Parian marble.

Plataea

Plataea is the location of one of the last battles on land between the Persians and the Greeks during this Persian invasion. The Battle of Plataea took place after the Battle of Salamis and before the Battle of Mykale, in 479 B.C. The battle of Plataea involved multiple Greek city-states fighting different groups. In this battle, the Spartan hoplites fought the Persians and the Athenians battled the Boetians. At this time there were 31 separate Greek states battling the Persians and Medizers.

Polis

Polis was the Ancient Greek word for city-state. Aristotle defined it as "an association of several villages which achieves almost complete self-sufficiency." The purpose of a polis was to have enough people come together to be self-sufficient. Poleis were self-governing and the earliest governments were aristocracies in which members of the leading oikoi ruled. Poleis were comprised of two parts: the astu (urban center) and the chora (countryside).

Agoge

Refers to the intense training and education that most males in Sparta had to undergo. At age 7, young boys were removed from their family and began the training. At age 12, the military training began. At ages 20-30, they would become Hebontes, or mentors to younger boys. The goal was membership in a mess-hall, or syssition. This was the center of the man's life. They would remain living in the mess-hall until age 30, but were allowed to marry before then. The goal of this system was to shift the focus from the household, or Oikas, to the STATE. This system was successful in Sparta and was maintained by Helot labor. This system also allowed women to gain more freedom.

Oracle of Apollo

Serves to show how the Greeks use a form of democracy to come to agreements, unlike Xerxes. More specifically when deciding whether or not to go to war with the Persians, by going to the oracle, " the Athenians found Themistocles' explanation of the oracle preferable to that of the professional interpreters...(463)". The Greeks used the oracle in order to not only find a answer to their liking, but to justify their decision to go to war.

Eurykleia

She is the "Nurse" or maid in Telemachos' household. She is actually a slave bought by Laertes, Odysseus' father, a long time ago. She was Laertes' favorite in the house, but he supposedly never slept with her because of his wife's jealousy. She continued to work for the household all throughout Telemachos' childhood. She loves Telemachos more than the other maidservants and even nursed him when he was little. She is one of the most trusted slaves in the house as Telemachos goes to her for help with his journey to find information on his father, and she kept his whereabouts a secret.

Eumaios

Sold to Laertes as a slave but was raised and treated as an equal by Odysseus' family. Odysseus' lifelong friend. Tended to Odysseus' livestock.

Metropolis

The "mother" polis was a political union of several villages who sought to achieve self-sufficiency. It would send citizens to set up colonies in "divinely approved" locations in order to: curb population growth, limit expenditure of resources, further trade opportunities, and control shipping routes. The colonies would often mimic the governmental structure and religious traditions of the mother polis, but would be politically separate.

Alcmaeonids

The Alcmaeonids family was a prominent family in Athens. They are important because they stopped Cylon in his attempt to break the power of the Eupatrids by killing his supporters in the sanctuary of Athena. Because you aren't supposed to kill in a sacred place, the Alcmaeonids family was cursed and later expelled from Athens in order to purify the city.

Dark Ages

The Dark Ages occurred between 1100-800 B.C. After the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, which could have been caused by the Dorian invasion, the sea peoples, or a systems collapse, the Dark Ages emerged, which is characterized by a loss of literacy, decline in wealth, a decrease in organized centers, and a shift to Iron. Archeological evidence shows that palaces and cities of the Mycenaeans were destroyed or abandoned. Very little writing occurred during this period, thus, historians have to rely on limited archeological evidence to piece together this age.

Helot

The Helots were a serf group during Spartan Civilization. They were often Mycenaeans or underclass. These lower class were not deemed Spartan citizens, and were often referred to as the equivalent of slaves. They were workers of the land and worked in agriculture, which was a huge economic component of Sparta. Helots were most likely the original inhabitants of Laconia, but were reduced to lower status and servitude as state slaves after they were conquered. Spartans constantly feared a Helot revolt, so the Krypteia were established.

Minoans

The Minoans were a pre-Greek civilization that developed on the island of Crete. The term "Minoan" comes from Minos, the mythic king of Cnossus, which was the site of Arthur Evans's excavations in 1899. Minos is associated with the myth of the Minotaur and the labyrinth. The Minoan Civilization dates back to 3000 BC, and it came to an end following the destruction of Cnossus in 1375 BC by the Mycenaeans. The Minoans had one of the first systems of writing, a non-Greek language which we today call Linear A.

Linear B

The Mycenaean writing system that uses a combination of pictograms and syllabic forms. Unlike the Minoan Linear A system, it was more organized and was deciphered in 1953 by Michael Ventris. Linear B tablets were found at Cnossos and other places such as Pylos. Because they were original found at Cnossos, a known location of Minoan palaces, it at first seemed like the Minoans were conquering other lands because this Linear B form was later found in the Greek mainland, but this was wrong. It was the other way around; Mycenaean Greeks were the ones that invaded and conquered Cnossos which is why the Linear B tablets were found at Cnossos.

Mycenaeans

The Mycenaeans are know to be the first Greek people, and are the first people to speak some form of the Greek language. The rise of the Mycenaean empire began around 1400-1200 B.C., and their civilization was influenced by the earlier Minoan civilization on the island of Crete. This influence can be seen through their writing system, known as Linear B. Michael Ventris deciphered Linear B to be the earliest form of Greek. The Mycenaeans were located not only throughout the Peloponnese, but also across the Aegean Sea to the island of Crete. Their architecture was known to center around a central hall, or Megaron. The collapse of the Mycenaean civilization occurred between 1200 and 1100 B.C., leading into the Dark Ages.

Metis

The ancient Greek word to describe cleverness and trickery. In The Odyssey, Penelope displays metis when she tricks the suitors by convincing them that she will marry one of them when she is done with her weaving, although she keeps unraveling it against their knowledge. Also, Penelope exhibits metis when she tricks Odysseus into revealing that he is truly who he says he is by ordering their wedding bed to be moved, something that the real Odysseus would know is impossible to do. It is clear that metis is a very valuable trait in the ancient Greek society depicted by Homer, for, in order to serve the oikos, it is understood that sometimes tricking people is necessary.

Archon

The archons are the aristocratically elected officials (magistrates). They worked in conjunction with the thesmothetai, the law-givers. These two together composed the top two classes in Athenian society.

Bachhiads

The bachhiads were an exclusive, elite clan that would-be tyrants were born into. This emphasized the exclusivity of the aristocracy during the age of the tyrants (671-500 BC). Cleisthenes, known as the "father of democracy", later made reforms to disassemble the clan units during 510 BC.

Iros

The beggar who taunted Odysseus at the prompting of the suitors of Penelope.

Thermopylae

The coastline of Thermopylae seemed like the optimal place for resistance because it was the only passing point from the North to the South. Xerxes army is heavily populated and so forcing them to work in a narrow area helps the Greek Army. This battle is most famous for King Leonidas with 300 Spartan soldiers trying to prevent Xerxes army from progressing forward. Although the Greeks lost, the aid of the Spartans helped make the loss worth while killing nearly 20,000 Persians.

Lycurgus

The one thought to be responsible for the Great Rhetra, may or may not have lived between the 9th and 6th century b.c. The Greeks believe that he created institutions such as men's dining groups, organization of the population by age cohorts, and the use of iron money, however scholars today believe that these institutions existed in other Greek communities.

Gift-exchange

The practice of gift exchange is one seen often in the Homeric poems, and notably in the Odyssey. It seems that in Homeric society the elite men of different oikoi would exchange gifts when staying at another oikos. The host would give the guest a present, usually some high quality product, expensive animal, or symbolic item, in the understanding that the guest would then return the favor when the host stayed with him. An example of this is Telemachus' and Menelaus' interaction in the Odyssey where Menelaus first offers horses and a chariot and then a well - wrought silver bowl given to him by the Sidonian king and made by the god Hephaistos himself. This process of gift exchange broke down in the Odyssey when the suitors came back over and over again for years to the house of Odysseus, always taking from his oikos but never returning the favor.

"History" (istoria)

The significance of the term history comes from the opening passage of Herodotus' writings. In this passage Herodotus first introduces the concept of history, or "inquiry" ,and creates a new genre. This accomplishment made him the "Father of History" to many. This work is the first in recorded history to examine and analyze events that occurred in the past. The word we know as history originally comes from the Greek word "istoria".

Telemachos

The son of Odysseus and Penelope. With the help of Athena, Telemachos grows and matures throughout the Odyssey. He was just a young boy when his father left but he slowly understands he is the man of the house. He struggles at times handling the suitors but helps his mother when he can. With the help of Athena, Telemachos is taking strides as a price to obtain a more king like personality.

Artabanus

The uncle of Xerxes and was an important figure in the Persian debate scene in the Histories Book 7.10. Having been told to discuss other ideas by Xerxes, he voices his opinion that they should all reconsider their plan because the Greeks could be difficult to subdue, which results in Xerxes becoming angry and demanding he stay home with the women. This scene shows the false democracy of Persian politics by having Xerxes say he wants to hear other opinions but then shuts down anyone who disagrees with him.

Salamis

Themistocles' trick (Herodotus pg. 525). He is concerned that some of the Greeks are going to run away, so he tips off the Persians. Here, Greeks are betraying the Greeks, but doing it to help the Greeks (rats out the pelopenesian navy to the Persians). The pan-helenic force meets the Persians at the battle of Salamis. The Greeks faked retreated, Persians out of battle formation (strategic naval victory for the greeks). After Salamis, Xerxes and most Persian troops and fleet withdraw bc no more fleet to support them, concerned that greeks may destroy his bridge at Hellespont • The naval battle of Salamis took place in 480 BC. Athenian admiral, Themistocles, understood that stopping Xerxes by land was likely to be unsuccessful. Athens had already been taken by the Persian Army and so the Greek navy retreated to Salamis. The narrow isle of Salamis, similar to Thermopylae, prevented from the mass amount of Persian soldiers from proving relevant. The Greek Navy helped prevent Xerxes from setting up a winter home for his heavily populated army

Panhellenic Shrines

There are four Panhellenic shrines in Spartan society. These shrines are Olympia, Nemea, Isthmia, and Delphi. These shrines held athletic competitions on a rotating cycle. They served as a unifying element amongst the Greeks in the eighth century. The shrine of Delphi was known for the Oracle of Apollo. Another Panhellenic shrine, Olympia, held the Olympic games starting in 776 B.C. The Panhellenic Shrines were located across Greece in several different regions of the area.

Oikos

This is an ancient Greek word that refers to three related but distinct concepts: the family, the family's property, and the house. Throughout ancient Greek life people would refer to belonging to their Oikos, for example, someone would say they belong to Odysseus's Oikos. This was important because it would show where you come from and how respected you are depending on the Oikos.

Cnossus

This is an ancient town in Crete that was active during the Bronze Age by a pre-Greek civilization. Arthur Evan excavated at Cnossus in 1899 and discovered the "Minoan" Civilization. Here, thousands of Linear A and Linear B tablets were found in the "palace" which is really just a distribution center. The Greeks, or the Mycenaeans, to be specific, destroyed this palace in 1375 B.C., as is indicated by the fact that their writings, Linear B tablets, were left there.

Medize

To medize meant to agree to become a part of the Persian empire. Xerxes' Persian strategy was to go to every Greek city-state except Athens and Sparta and ask for "earth and water" which was to ask for submission from those places. Many city-states became medizers because their primary concern was to look out for their polis and as a result subjected themselves to Persia in order to stay safe.

Gelon

Tyrant of Syracuse who conquered most of the cities of Sicily in the late sixth century. When Greek allies sought his help against Persia he refused to send aid unless he was made commander, which was declined by the Greek alliance. When his empire threatened Messina and Selinus, they convinced Carthage to invade Sicily with 300,000 men. Gelon defeated the Carthaginian force and maintained his empire until his death in 478 BC.

Miletus

Tyrant was Histiaeus. This is where the aristocrats went when they were kicked out of Naxos. Revolted against the Persians during Ionian Revolt (led by aristagoras)

Lydia

Under king Cresus, Lydia conquered Greek cities in the 6th century only to be conquered shortly after by the Persians

Naxos

When the aristocrats were kicked out of Miletus, they were sent to Naxos. Naxos beat the Persians when they tried to get the aristocrats in power there.

Penelope

Wife of Odysseus, king of Ithaka, and mother to Telemachos. She believes her husband is dead at the beginning of the story, and is either to be married to one of the twelve suitors, or sent home to be with her father. Instead, she remains in Ithaka and very loyal to her husband Odysseus, who tests her to see how loyal she really is. She can be characterized as clever, loyal, and devious as she plans to bring down the suitors by giving them the absurd challenge of stringing a bow and using an arrow to shoot through twelve axes. Soon after the competition, she lets Odysseus back into their home.

Xenia

Xenia is the Greek concept of "hospitality," a very important principle in Ancient Greek society. When guests come to another's household, the guest is treated with the utmost courtesy and respect. Often times, guests are given gifts as well. This concept of hospitality is based off of reciprocity between the guest and the host. If a guest comes to stay and receive gifts, they are expected to return that hospitality to the host down the line. The suitors in Homer's Odyssey did not abide by the laws of hospitality and the reciprocal relationship, thus causing problems later on in the story.

Gerousia

a Council of Elders (60 yrs +) that includes 28 members and 2 Kings. The members must be full Spartan citizens (Spartiates). They are primary delivering body of the Spartan state. They propose legislation which is then voted on by the Apellai. The discussion is dominated by the Elders which leads to more conservative policy.

Lefkandi

a site on the island of Euboea that was found to have been a Mycenaean town that was revived after the collapse of the palace system. This site prospered even during the Dark Age. Here, the largest Dark Age building to date was found. It was possibly a chief's house, mausoleum, or even a communal dwelling. Rich graves were found here, containing high-quality local and imported pottery from both Athens and Northern Greece. Such a finding suggests that by the mid-9th C. BCE, society had become stratified, with the basileus and his supporters being able to have access to luxury items, and with the society being able to support the labor of others for large projects like this one.

Lade

a small island that is the site of a major naval battle that took place during the Ionian Revolt. The Ionians had 353 vessels while the Persian fleet consisted of 600 ships. Even though the Ionians amassed a substantial defense force, they did not anticipate that at the start of the battle the Samians would flee. Following the Samians, the Lesbians also retreated and most of the Ionian fleet followed suit. Because of this, the Persians defeated the Ionians at Lade.

Aristagoras

acting tyrant in Ionia. Aristagoras convinced Persian governor to use Persian army to get aristocrats back in charge of naxos, naxos will then have to pledge to Persians. When they go to Naxos, the Persians lose. Aristagoras not in good situation-promised Persians an easy victory, and they lost. Decided to have myletus revolt against persians...urged by histiaeus (sends secret message to aristagoras...tattoos head of slave, has aristagoras shave the slaves head... tattoo says to revolt)

Neolithic Age

an age marked by the beginning of cultivating domesticated plants, the use of domesticated animals, the production of cloth on a loom, and skilled artisans creating figures of both humans and animals out of marble and clay. During this time there was a transition to agriculture from hunting and gathering, which combined with the favorable warm climate of the time, allowed people to settle permanently and for villages to form and expand.

Sortition

election by lot, a method of choosing public officials in some ancient Greek city-states. It was used especially in the Athenian democracy,

Troezen Decree

is an inscription, describing the decision by the Athenian assembly to evacuate Athens when threatened by the Persian invasion. Instead of medizing to the Persians, Athenian citizens were shipped from the Peloponnese to Salamis. This evacuation plan signifies how the identity of the polis was not dependent on physical location, rather the unification of people. The Troezen Degree is a controversial text because it says the decision to evacuate was before the battle of Thermopylae, whereas Herodotus explains that the Athenians evacuated after Thermopylae. Therefore, the level of Athenian patriotism to the Panhellenic aim is questioned because the Athenians may have been evacuating their city before they lost the battle.

Synoecism

is the bringing together of people/households to create a polis. The synoecism of Attica is attributed to Theseus in the mid 8th century BC. Athens used to have to send Athenian as tributes for the Minotaur to eat, when Theseus defeated the Minotaur, Athens no longer had to send children as tributes. The Athenians thus, believe Theseus brought together the settlers of Attica and created the Athenian state.

Kouros

is the modern term given to free-standing ancient Greek sculptures which first appear in the Archaic period in Greece and represent nude male youths. In Ancient Greek kouros means "youth or boy" especially of noble rank. It does not represent a specific youth but instead the idea of youth.

Artaphernes

leads expedition with Datis against Athens and Eretria (with Hippas- son of tyrant of athens who was expelled)...go southern route across the aegean

Mardonius

led the Persian invasion on Athenians and Eretrians. They took the northern route to get there, but their ships were destroyed at Mount Athos.

Mentor/Mentes

the disguised form of the Goddess Athena. This is the form she takes when she first greets Telemachus at his father, Odysseus' home. From this point on in the story she is in this form whenever she is in the presence of mortals, unless she is in the form of an Eagle as she is flying away. Athena is one of Zeus' daughters, which explains why she takes the form of an Eagle whenever she is flying away from the mortals. As this human, Athena is able to travel with Telemachus to Pylos to talk to Nestor about Odysseus. After she secures Telemachus' journey and gets him safely to Nestor's oikos, he gives Telemachus the opportunity to lead his own journey, by asking Nestor to loan Telemachus a chariot, some horses and some trustworthy men. After Nester sees Mentor fly away, he tells Telemachus he never has to fear because the Gods are watching over him.

Minos

the mythical King of Crete and the main character of the myth, "King Minos and the Minotaur". In this myth, Minos was competing to be the King of Crete against his brothers. Minos prayed to Poseidon in order to have his support, and in return, Poseidon gave him a bull. Poseidon sent Minos this bull in order that he would sacrifice it to show his faith to him, but instead, Minos kept it, and instead decided to sacrifice one of his own people. In other words, Minos did not keep his end of the deal. As punishment, Poseidon makes Minos' wife fall in love with the bull, and eventually mate with it--their offspring was thus, the Minotaur. The myth of Minos and the Minotaur was very influential in Minoan society, as the symbol of the bull shows up in art (i.e.: on pottery and a drinking cup, among others), and the city of Knossos shows a labyrinth (where the Minotaur was later banished) on some of its coins. Also, this myth is where the Minoans get their name.

Histiaeus

tyrant of myletus. Urged aristagoras to revolt against the Persians by sending him a secret message- tattooed the head of a slave, had aristagoras shave his head, tattoo says to revolt

Milman Parry

was a Homer scholar who worked in the 1930's Serbia. In the early twentieth century Serbia was still practicing the oral tradition and Parry noticed some telltale signs of oral poetry in Homer's Odyssey. The signs Parry used as evidence were Homer's use of formulas and epithets, which are go to phrases that fit the meter of the poem, and thus proved that Homer's epics were spoken poems.

Themistocles

was an Athenian Politician and general. He was the first to propose the idea that the oracle of Delphi was talking about a fleet of ships when talking about its wood walls, not the walls around the acropolis. In addition, to defeat the Persians at the Battle of Salamis he told Xerxes that the Peloponnesian city states where going to flee from the battle to the other side of Salamis. This caused Xerxes to send ships to the other side if the island. This not only prevented those city states from defecting, it also made it possible for the Greeks to defeat the forces in from of them and claim a great victory at Salamis. Ephialtes from Malis- goes to Xerxes and betrays the greeks by telling xerxes the fact that there is another pass (another example of Greek looking out for well being of own city-state)

Artemisium

was the site at which the battle of Artemisium was fought between the Persians and the Greeks. This was a naval engagement that according to Herodotus occurred on the same day as the Battle of Thermopylae. Here the Persians used the same technique trying to outflank the Greeks by sailing around the island of Euboea, but there ships where destroyed in a storm. This allowed the Greek navy to retreat once it was heard that the land forces had been defeated.