History of Science Final Exam

Mendel's Laws of Inheritance

1. Independent assortment - genes are inherited independently of one another 2. Segregation - sexually reproducing organisms only inherit one allele from each parent for each trait

Lamark

2 forces that drive evolution 1. force that adapts organisms to their local environments 2. force making simple beings complex Animals who physically struggled during their lifetime were changed into what they are today.

Hubble Expansion

Basically a theory of universe expansion. Hubble's law give velocity as a function of Hubble's constant times distance away from earth. (loaf of raisin bread)

Carolus Linnaeus

Binomial nomenclature naming system for biological organisms.

Bohr atom

Building on rutherford's atom model created idea of valence shells for electrons, curved electromagnetic paths for them

Rutherford

Centralized nucleus with electrons around it. Postulated while experimenting with particles and gold foil.

Theory of evolution

Charles Darwin vs. Lamark Natural selection through favorable traits vs. change due to physical interaction with the environment from generation to generation

Fritz Haber

Chemist who experimented with synthesizing ammonia for fertilizer. Also worked on development of poisonous gasses during WW1. Also developed method for determination of lattice energy

Mary Anning

Collected fossil evidence of various dinosaurs on cliffs by home. with her revolutionary fossil evidence she was able to assist in the rendering of prehistoric drawings.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Contains the biological information to make each organism unique. Through the study of the x-ray diffraction images produced by Rosalind Franklin, George Watson and Francis Crick were able to surmise the complex ordering of the DNA strand.

Ernest Rutherford

Created a model of the atom that included a central nucleus that had electrons around it. Did this based on experiments with gold foil and scattering.

James Clerk Maxwell

Created a unified model for physics by mathematical equations for electricity, magnetism and optics. Universe = system of newtonian forces accompanied by magnetic, electric, and sound waves swimming through aether

Humphrey Davy

Discovered the chemistry of gasses, experimented with nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, and examined respiration and tested the effects of air on various things. Also created a mine light that was a cage around the flame.

Sigmund Freud

Ego = voice of reason, Id = instinctual actions, Super ego = balance between id and ego that provides in between so you don't do stupid things. Came up with theory of transference and unconscious where childhood events transfer to real life

André-Marie Ampère

Electromagnetism, accounted for the attraction or repulsion of wires due to electric current.

String Theory

Elements - smaller than a quark that consist of a series of vibrating filaments of energy. The vibrational shape of the spring can be predicted and the frequency can be calculated. Offers and explanation for gravitation.

Joseph Priestly

Enlightenment scientist who experimented with gases and invented carbonated water. Believed seriously in the phlogiston theory of gasses and tried to create air that burns more effectively than regular air.

Marie Curie

Experimentation with radioactive elements lead to the discovery of polonium and radium.

Michelson Morely Experiment

Final determination that by shooting aether wind into a light beam splitter that AETHER DOESNT EXIST!

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier

French noblemen and chemist who postulated the theory of calx (metal oxide) = metal +oxygen. Also debunked the phlogiston theory with careful experimentation determining the weight of combusted material was greater.

Charles Lyell

Geologist who popularized uniformitarianism, where geology of world was formed by slow gradual processes. First to challenge biblical origin of earth, said earth was millions of years old.

Manhattan Project

Governmentally funded project to develop the atomic bomb. Funded by the US military and carried out by massive institutional organizations. Created bombs dropped on hiroshima and nagasaki

Caloric

Heat represented as a fluid flowing in and out of matter. Also explains expansion during heating - flows in voids

ID, EGO, SUPER EGO

Id = instinctual, passionate EGO = negotiates with the ID and pleases the SUPEREGO SUPEREGO = keeps on the straight and narrow

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen

Invented the x-ray, which involved a cathode ray and the dust it stirred up on the paper, eventually led to the discovery of the shape DNA.

Henrietta Leavitt

Measured and cataloged the brightness of stars; discovered the relationship between luminosity and the period of stars. Her discoveries opened the doors for how scientist now calculate the distance between earth and faraway galaxies.

Leó Szilárd

Physicist who envisioned the nuclear chain reaction process which would eventually be used as an explosive. Initially argued for the manhattan project but then with colleagues urged moral restraint in the use of these bombs

Louis Pasteur

Pioneer in microbiology, invented pasteurization which eliminates microbes from things using heat; also worked on cures for disease like immunizations and vaccinations to cure cholera and rabies.

Arthur Holmes

Pioneered the use of radioactive dating for soils and also discovered the implications of mantle convection which led to the theory of plate techtonics

J. Robert Oppenheimer

Project overseer for the manhattan project (based on his experience in nuclear fission) where they created the atomic bomb, afterwards experienced supreme guilt, lost security clearance, and fought for moral restraint in nuclear bombings.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

Radiation left over from the big bang theory of cosmology

Newtonian Absolute Space

Space = absolute, unmoving reference point for which inertial systems that remain within it. Every object has an absolute state of motion relative to absolute space (has to either be in a state of absolute motion or absolute rest)

Einsteinian Spacetime

Space and time are relative = objects in motion actually experience time at a slower rate than those at rest

Special Relativity

Speed of light is constant at all times so that space and time have to adjust themselves relative to the observer. resulted in formulation of E=MC^2 equation.

Pangaea

Supercontinent proposed by Wegener using method of convection proposed by arthur holmes

Social Darwinism

Survivial of the fittest mindset in politics, economics and social systems. Provided an avenue to justify the methods of colonialism

Gregor Mendel

The father of modern genetics who discovered that certain traits are inheritable. 2 major rules: 1. Law of segregation: only get one allele from each person in a sexually reproducing pair 2. Law of Independent assortment: each gene is distributed independently of one another unless they are paired. Independent inheritance

Phlogiston Theory

The theory that phlogiston, a massless odorless compound, was in air and other things that burned. Dephlogistication = whats left after burning is it's true form.

Catastrophism

The theory that the evolution of the globe based on a series of catastrophic events that changed the makeup from period to period

Albert Einstein

Theory of Relativity = inertia of a system depends on energy it produces. Conservation of mass and energy. Laws of newton couldn't account for the laws of electromagnetism

Werner Heisinburg

Theory of Uncertainty = the more you know about the location of the particle the less you know about the momentum of the particle. Every particle has a wavelength or wave-like behavior

Charles Darwin

Theory of evolution based on inheritable traits passed down from generation with method of natural selection as the mechanism. Survival of the fittest mindset. On the origin of species.

Alexander Von Humboldt

Unified approach to science that included an amalgamation of all the sciences to discover the whole results. Quantitative methodology that sought to prove truth. Desire to tie the spiritual and physical world together through the "Cosmos"

Humboldtian Science

Unified, holistic approach to science, where to understand one science you must know about all the sciences. Basically a quantitative method of scientific endeavors. Sought the unification of the mind and the spirit in the cosmos.

Clockwork Universe

Universe is a long perfected machine governed by the laws of physics. Universe is predictable in nature - popular in time of enlightenment and Newton

Edwin Hubble

Universe is constantly expanding; invented law to calculate rate at which it was expanding. Likened the expansion of the universe to raisin bread. using the constant he discovered he determined the age of the universe.

Francis Crick and George Watson

Using Rosalind Franklin's x-ray image of DNA, they were able to determine the double helix structure of the DNA and also postulated that the shape of DNA was originated for replication (internal copying mechanism)

Schrödinger Atom

Using the Bohr model; made up a series of equations to predict the location of these electrons in the shells

Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisinburg - the idea that every particle has a wavelike behavior (in turn the more precisely the location of a particle is the less certain it's momentum) Non-zero and its fourier transform cannot be localized

Rosalind Franklin

X-ray images were the key to the discovery by watson and crick of the structure of DNA. She made contributions to better understanding of DNA, RNA, viruses, and coal

Dalton Atom

all elements made up of their own specific atoms that cannot be altered they can just be moved around.

Dimitri Mendeleev

divided atoms by their atomic weights and valence properties; physical and chemical properties recur in systematic order

Michael Faraday

experimented mainly in electromagnetics, determined that it could affect light waves and induce electric current. He also created the first electric motor

Georges Lemaître

first person to propose the theory of the expansion of the universe. he was the first to derive hubble's law and constant and proposed the Big Bang theory of the formation of the universe

General relativity

gravity equivalent to acceleration. when viewing acceleration from the inside of a windowless spaceship you cannot tell whether the forces are gravitational or acceleration. Objects subjected to forces are just experiencing warps in the fabric of space-time; as are objects in free fall. Describes a method to calculate the rate of application of gravity

Probability Wave

indicates the probable location or momentum of a particle (electron, neutron, photon) by probability that it is at a certain point at a certain time. An attempt to explain the interactions of particles with their environment (where they want to go/not go)

HGP

mapping and determining the chemical base pairs that make up the Human genome

Enlightenment Science

moved from university system to academies, formed more centralized scientific pursuit. Many traditional ideas overthrown; rational thought with advancement and progress

Alfred Wegener

popularized the theory of continental drift, plate tectonics based on arthur holms' convection cell idea

Affinity chemistry

proposed by Antoine Lavosier - as a way dissimilar atoms can form compounds. can form compounds based on their attraction/affinity for one another

Quantum Mechanics

study of particles at a subatomic scale in order to provide a mathematical description of their motion and wave behavior. Max Plank - energy is in packets(quanta). Albert Einstein experimented with light and determined that light is another property that can be evaluated using this method

Holism

the idea that the whole picture is greater than the sum of the parts (Humboldt)

The unconscious

theory by Freud that described thoughts that occur in mind automatically and aren't subject to introspection. Unconscious phenomena can be tied to fears and dreams.

Uniformitarianism

theory that the earths formation was a series of gradual changes: Charles Lyell

Organicism

type of holism that focuses on the workings of the entire organism vs a part of the organism (most adequate reality is organism) - organisms grow and develop due to internal forces

Kelvin Atom

vortex with flow lines of aether circling around them