Honors Bio Midterm
secretion functions (List them)
*amylase* - source: salivary glands and pancreas -properties: breaks down carbohydrates -result: monosaccharides *Pepsin* -source: stomach -properties: breaks down proteins -result: smaller polypeptides *trypsin* -source: pancreas -properties: breaks down proteins -result: even smaller polypeptides *pepsinogen and trypsinogen* -source: stomach and pancreas -properties: inactive forms of pepsin and trypsin -results: have to be activated by acids *bile* -source: made by liver, stored in gallbladder -properties: emulsifies fat -results: fat droplets *amino/carboxypeptidases/sucrase/lactase/other finishers* -source:small intestine -properties: final breakdown -result: monomers *gastrin* -source: stomach -properties: hormone that activates stomach result: produces gastric juice *secretin* -source: small intestine -properties: activates gall bladder and pancreas -result: produces pancreatic juice and bile *pancreatic juices* -source: pancreas -properties: buffer -result: neutralizes acids
what animals can digest cellulose and why
-*ruminants* -have lots of bacteria and longer digestive track that breaks down cellulose
how does the structure of the small intestine promote nutrient absorption
-*villi*: hair like structures in the small intestine lining -increase surface area for nutrient absorption
products of fermentation
-2 lactic acid and a NAD+,alcohol
reactants of fermentation
-2 pyruvate -NADH
lagging strand
-3'->5' towards from fork -RNA primers are placed and then create okazaki fragments -ligase joins fragments together
Leading strand
-5'->3' towards the fork -DNA polymerase can only place nucleotides in the 5'->3' -
purines rings?
-A and G -double ringed
hydrogen bonds
-Actually an inter molecular force attraction (IMF) -In water, O has highest electronegativity, so it pulls other H atoms with a positive towards itself, not actually bonding -Weak -Does NOT become compound OR molecule
phospholipids molecules polar? Non-polar? what does their polarity create?
-Cell membrane is made of a phospholipid bilayer -phospholipids are made up of a fatty acid tail and a phosphate head -the phosphate head is hydrophilic and the fatty acid tail is hydrophobic -because of this, the phospholipids situate into a bilateral with the heads pointing outward toward the water filled environment and the tails facing inwards away from the water -since most of the phospholipid bilayer is made of the nonpolar fatty acid tails, small nonpolar molecules are the only molecules that can pass through the small gaps in the bilayer (ex: oxygen, carbon dioxide, iodine, and nitrogen)
non polar covalent bonds
-Electrons are shared EQUALLY between atoms -Beacuse atoms have the same electronegativity -Between two nonmetals -Becomes a MOLECULE
polar covalent bonds
-Electrons are shared UNEQUALLY -Because one atom has a higher electronegativity -Between two nonmetals -Becomes a MOLECULE
how are transport proteins involved in facilitated diffusion
-Facilitated diffusion is a form of passive transport because the molecules are moving from high to low concentration. -uses transport proteins because the molecules are either polar or too big to fit through the gaps in the phospholipid bilayer
Mitosis v. Meiosis number of division number of chromosomes duplicated number of d.cells produced number of chromosomes in d.cells how chromosomes line up genetic relation of d.cells and parent functions performed in the human body
-MI: 2 ME:2 -MI:1 ME:1 -MI: 2 ME:2 -MI: 46 ME:23 -MI:on top ME:side by side -MI: identical ME: half (one of each piece) -MI:repair,replace,growth ME:gametes
organs food passes through as it goes through the alimentary canal
-Mouth -Pharynx -Esophagus -Cardiac sphincter -Stomach -Pyloric sphincter -small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) -Large intestine (caecum is first part, rectum is last part) -Anal spincter (anus)
special properties of water
-Polar (good solvent) -neutral pH -Hydrogen Bonds with itself (making it cohesive,adhesive, and hard to change temp)
metaphase 1 (meiosis)
-Spindle fibers attach to the paired homologous chromosomes. -The paired chromosomes line up along the equator (middle) of the cell.
anaphase 2 (meiosis)
-Spindle fibers line up the sister chromatids of each chromosome along the equator of the cell.
anaphase 1 (meiosis)
-Spindle fibers shorten - the chromosomes of each homologous pair start to separate from each other - One chromosome of each pair moves toward one pole of the cell, other chromosome moves toward the opposite pole
pyrimidines rings?
-T and C -single ringed
prophase 1 (meiosis)
-The nuclear envelope begins to break down -the chromosomes condense -Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell -spindle begins to form -homologous chromosomes pair up -Crossing-over occurs during this phase
prophase 2 (meiosis)
-The nuclear envelope breaks down -the spindle begins to form in each haploid daughter cell from meiosis I -The centrioles also start to separate.
telephase 1 and cytokinesis 1(meiosis)
-The spindle breaks down -new nuclear membranes form -The cytoplasm of the cell divides -two haploid daughter cells result. -The daughter cells each have a random assortment of chromosomes, with one from each homologous pair
telephase 2 (meiosis)
-The spindle breaks down -new nuclear membranes form The cytoplasm of each cell divide -four haploid cells result, each cell has a unique combination of chromosomes
ionic bonds
-Two ions with opposite charges attract each other -When an atom gains or loses electrons to another -Between a metal and nonmetal -Becomes a COMPOUND that is electrically neutral -electrons are transferred
function of colon
-absorb water -process waste before elimination
environment of intestines (ph)
-acidic
eukaryotic cells Structure
-animal and plant cells -a plasma membrane, chromosomes containing DNA, ribosomes, and cytoplasm,a nucleus,mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, vacuoles, cytoskeletons, and lysosomes.
Helicase
-breaks hydrogen bonds -"unzips"
2 main functions of the small intestine
-digestion -absorption
Structure of DNA
-double helix -antiparallel -nitrogenous base from each strand bond together -attached to deoxyribose and phosphate group
prokaryotic cells Structure?
-ex: bacteria,alge, etc -a plasma membrane, chromosomes containing DNA, ribosomes, and cytoplasm, an outer capsule, and always have a flagella and a cell wall
microtubules
-filamentous intracellular structures that are responsible for various kinds of movements in all eukaryotic cells
Full Digestion process
-food enters the body through the mouth -mechanical digestion occurs when teeth break food into smaller pieces -enzyme amylase is secreted by the salivary glands (breaks down carbohydrates into monosaccharides -the food bolus is pushed the the back of the throat (pharynx) -the epiglottis is a flap that covers the trachea to prevent food from going into it -food plus then enters the esophagus and is pushed down by a process called peristalsis (sequence of squeezing) -the food plus then comes to the cardiac sphincter at the end of the esophagus (cardiac sphincter also prevents acid from the stomach from coming up into the esophagus) -stomach produces a the hormone Gastrin which activates the stomach and produces gastric juice -cardiac sphincter opens up to let food into stomach -food enters stomach (very acidic) -pepsin is present and breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptides -stomach churns food -food leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter -food bolus enters the small intestine (duodenum is first part) and the hormone secretin is produced by the small intestine which activates the gall bladder and pancreas to secrete bile and pancreatic juice into the duodenum -Bile, made by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, emulsifies fat into fat droplets -pancreatic juice consists of enzyme lipase (breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol), trypsin (breaks proteins into even smaller polypeptides), enzyme amylase (breaks down carbohydrates into monosaccharides) and others. Together, the pancreatic juice is a buffer that neutralizes the acids coming from the stomach. -peristalsis occurs again as the food bolus moves through the small intestine (jejunum and ileum) -the small intestine secretes amino peptidases, carboxypeptidases, sucrase, lactase and other finishers that complete the final breakdown of all molecules into monomers -the interior of the small intestine contains villi which increase the surface area -food then leaves the small intestine and enters the large intestine or colon -the first part of the large intestine is the caecum, where the appendix is attached -as the food bolus moves through the colon and into the rectum, water is removed and the bolus solidifies -the indigestible remains leave the body through the anal sphincter (anus)
active transport
-forces molecules to go against their concentration gradient -L--->H concentration -requires ATP
Mitochondria
-functions: produce ATP and to regulate cellular metabolism -houses the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs) and the ETC
why does the stomach not digest itself
-has a nonpolar mucus lining which the acid can't go through
environment of the stomach (ph)
-highly acidic
structure of stomach and its functions
-highly acidic -mucus lining that prevents it from digesting itself -function: break down food into monomers so their nutrients can be absorbed into the body
final products of fermentation
-lactic acid (causes the burning sensation in our muscles) -yeast which makes ethanol(alcohol), and CO2
endocytosis
-larger cell swallows smaller cell to create organelles
membrane proteins
-let polar and large molecules through membrane
calvin cycle
-located in stroma, -goal :stores energy in G3P. -uses the ATP from the ETC one and the NADPH form ETC2 and CO2 from the air -ATP powers the C.C -NADPH drops off electrons to make G3P and then is oxidized back to NAD+
glycolysis
-located in the cytoplasm -glucose is split up into 2 G3P which are oxidized and get turned into two pyruvate
The kreb cycle
-located in the matrix of the mitochondria -the acetyl group coA from grooming is used to start the Kreb cycle -NAD+ and FAD carry electrons and become reduced into NADH and FADH2 which produces ATP -the NADH and FADH2 are now electron carriers which carry electrons over to the ETC
ETC (cellular respiration)
-located on the cristae -electrons are pulled down chain and pump hydrogen ions through ATP synthase where they make ATP -The oxygen grabs onto the electrons and hydrogen ions making water
ribosomes
-make proteins -found floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER
polysaccharides
-many glucose molecules -in plants:cellulose (structure of cell walls) and starch (energy) -in animals-glycogen (energy) and chitin (exoskeletons)
how is a transport across the cell membrane related to homeostasis?
-means staying within a normal condition/state membranes are selectively permeable and let certain things in out to maintain their normal range of condition
monomers of nucleic acids
-nucleotides
ETC (photosynthesis)
-occurs on the thylakoid membrane - uses the energy to pump hydrogen ions across a membrane. The protons pass back through ATP synthase, driving the production of ATP
facilitated diffusion
-passive transport -H--->L concentration -no energy required -through transmembrane proteins
Production of ATP in cellular respiration v. photosynthesis
-photosynthesis only produces 2 ATP -Cellular respiration produces 38 ATP
three fundamental features of all organisms
-plasma membrane -cytoplasm -DNA
chemical energy
-potential energy
function of rectum
-remove water -compact -push out waste
components of nucleotides
-sugar (ribose, deoxyribose) -phosphate group -nitrogenous base
how electron transport chain generate ATP, NADPH, and oxygen in the light reactions
-the NADP picks up an electron on the ETC and becomes the electron carrier NADPH which is then used in the calvin cycle -ATP are made in the ETC through ATP synthase -the oxygen is made form the energy of sunlight which plants can convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen.
osmosis
-the diffusion of water across a membrane
What is involved in DNA replication
-the enzymes DNA polymerase, helicase, and ligase, leading and lagging strands -happens in the S phase of interphase
cellular environment affects enzyme activity
-too hot: speeds up reactions but breaks bonds and changes active site shape -too cold: slows down all reactions -too acidic or basic: changes shapes of enzymes and active sites
pinocytosis
-type of endocytosis -"Drinking" -liquids
phagoctosis
-type of endocytosis -"Eating" -solids
glycerol
1 glycerol+3 fatty acids---> lipid
disaccharides
2 glucose molecules
end product of Cellular respiration
38 ATP and water
equation for photosynthesis
6CO2+6H2O+Photons---->C6H12O6+6O2
Base pairing rules how many bonds does each make?
A and T make two bonds C and G make three bonds
surface tension
A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. (i.e. water has high surface tension)
element
A substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by ordinary chemical means.
hypothesis How is it written
A testable explanation that addresses the question. Written in an "if-then" statement.
Explain how acids and bases directly AND indirectly affect the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
Acid: A compound that donates H+ ions to solutions (higher concentration of H+) Base: A compound that accepts H+ ions and removes them (donates OH- that combines with H+ to from water, and reducing the H+ concentration)
trace element
An element essential for life but only required in minute quantities.
difference between independent and dependent variable
An independent variable is controlled, such as the amount of water being put in the pot, a dependent variable is dependent on the independent variable and what it does do alter it, such as the amount of water altering the growth or height of the plant/seeds.
Define an isotope and explain what makes isotopes radioactive. What are radioactive isotopes' uses in biology?
An isotope is an element with a different number of neutrons than the regular one. An isotope become radioactive when it has the tendency to lose particles, the nucleus decays spontaneously giving off particles and energy. This radiation can be dangerous living organisms but are also beneficial in biological research and medical diagnosis.
matter
Anything that occupies space and has mass.
structure of an atom
Atoms have protons and neutrons in their nucleus which is surrounded by the electron cloud (made of electrons) creating energy levels. Each atom wants their outer energy level to be stable and will lose, take or share electrons with other atoms in order to do so.
Describe the characteristics of lipids. Atoms involved? Monomer's name? Monomer structure? Polymer's name? Uses?
Atoms involved: CHO Monomer's name: glycerol and fatty acids Monomer structure: Glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains Polymer's name: triglyceride Uses: energy storage, insulates, cushions, main component of cell membranes. -hydrophobic
Describe the characteristics of carbohydrates. Atoms involved? Monomer's name? Monomer structure? Polymer's name? Examples? Uses?
Atoms involved: CHO Monomer's name: monosaccharide Monomer structure: C6H12O6 Polymer's name: polysaccharide examples: starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin Uses: Quick energy, cell walls, exoskeletons
Describe the characteristics of nucleic acids. Atoms involved? Monomer's name? Monomer structure? Polymer's name? Uses?
Atoms involved: CHONP Monomer's name: nucleotide Monomer structure: sugar, amino acid, phaphate group Polymer's name: DNA & RNA Uses: code for proteins
Describe the characteristics of proteins. Atoms involved? Monomer's name? Monomer structure? Polymer's name? Uses?
Atoms involved: CHONS Monomer's name: Amino Acid Monomer structure: (Study on sheet) Polymer's name: polyeptide Uses: Structures, movement,cell I.D., enzymes
vesicles
Buds of ER or Golgi. Transports material to new location, or out of the cell.
Chemical equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6+6O2-------->6CO2+6H2O glucose+oxygen----energy released--->carbon-dioxide+water
chemical equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6+6O2---->6CO2+6H2O+ATP
reactants of Calvin Cycle
CO2 (when combined with RuBP), ATP and NADPH
grooming in cellular respiration
CO2 is released and NAD+ takes electrons and becomes NADH
products of cellular respiration
CO2, water and ATP
smooth ER
Canals and tubes made of membrane, lacks ribosomes. Makes LIPIDS. And regulates and transports calcium ions and processes toxins
rough ER
Canals and tubes made of membrane, outer surface studded with ribosomes. Makes PROTEINS. And transports materials in the cell.
four main classes of macromolecules
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids
organic compounds
Carbon-based molecules are organic compounds.
structure of carbon
Carbon=ORGANIC Carbon only has 4 electrons in it's outer shell, so it can make up to 4 bonds.
enzymes v. catalysts
Catalysts: anything that speeds up chemical reactions Enzymes: protein catalysts
fluid mosaic
Cell membrane is made of many moving liquid parts
exocytosis
Contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior of the cell through fusion of the vacuole membrane and the cell membrane
photosystem 1
Converts low energy electrons and NADP to excited electrons and NADPH. -occurs on the thylakoid membrane
central dogma of molecular biology
DNA --Transcribed--->RNA---translated----> Proteins
pH scale
Describes how acidic or basic a solution is, ranges from 0 (most ACIDIC to 14 (most BASIC). Each unit represents a tenfold change of H+ concentration. *Based off the amount of H+ in water when it ionizes, which is 1x10^(-7) which is translated to 7 on the scale (water/neutral).
structure of enzyme-substrate interaction
Each enzyme has a specific shape that fits with only one type of substrate
isotonic
Equal solute concentration inside and outside a cell
facilitated diffusion v. active transport
Facilitated diffusion: -passive transport -H--->L concentration -no energy required Active transport: -L--->H concentration -requires ATP
saturated fatty acid
Fats with the maximum number of hydrogen, not kinky, fit tightly together.
stages of the cell cycle in order
G1, S,G2,M (G0),cytokinesis
products of Calvin Cycle
G3P , ATP and NADP+
nucleus
Has an envelope with pores (to let RNA leave), plasm inside (nucleus), nucleolus in the middle which contains chromatin, thus DNA. Controls the cell, eating, reproduction, growth.
example of a controlled experment
Having two of the same pots with the same soil and seeds, but adding the different variable of water to only one pot.
How does electron configuration influences an atoms behavior?
If the outer energy level is unstable, meaning it has less than 8 electrons (or less than 2 if the first), then it will lose, take, or share electrons with other molecules in order to do so.
solution
Liquid consisting of a uniform mixture of two or more substances.
chloroplasts
Located in the cells of the mesophyll Chloroplasts: photosynthesis, takes energy from the sun (free) and converts it into chemical energy stored in sugar, or glucose. Structure: Has an outer membrane, inner membrane space, an inner membrane (where photosynthesis takes place). The inner membrane contains stroma, (fluid and aqueous solution where calvin cycle occurs), granum (stacks of,) thylakoids (where light reactions occur, photosystems and ETC).
lysosomes
Made of digestive enzymes. Enclosed in a membrane sac. Uses enzymes to break down organelles, digest wastes. Also destroys bacteria in white blood cells. A specific lysosome, peroxisome breaks down fatty acids and makes H2O2 from converting hydrogen to oxygen, so breaks this (H2O2) to H2O and O.
hypertonic cell
Means that a cell has a higher solute concentration inside than it does outside the membrane
hypotonic cell
Means that a cell has a lower solute concentration inside than it does outside the membrane
what happens in the oral cavity
Mechanical digestion occurs when teeth grind food into smaller pieces. -Amylase is an enzyme that is secreted from the salivary glands which breaks down carbohydrates into monosaccharides -the food bolus is pushed to the pharynx
relationship between polymers and monomers
Monomers make up polymers.
Compare the structures of plant and animal cells.
PLANTS: cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole. ANIMALS: cilia, flagella (some), centrioles, small vacuoles BOTH: mitochondria, lysosomes (but plants only have peroxisome), centrosomes, smooth/rough ER, cytoskeleton (microtubules), ribosomes, golgi apparatus, cytoplasm,nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear envelope, plasma membrane.
steps of photosynthesis
Photosystem 2 Electron Transport Chain: Photosystem 1 ETC 2 product: NADPH and ATP for calvin cycle
What are the differences between qualitative and quantitative observations?
Qualitative use your senses to observe the results. (Sight, smell, touch, taste and hear.) Quantitative observations are made with instruments such as rulers, balances, graduated cylinders, beakers, and thermometers. These results are measurable.
vacuoles
Sac made of membrane, found in the center of plant cells, and around animal cells. Helps the cell grow by absorbing water. Stores, wastes to keep from contamination, and helpful nutrients.
Golgi apparatus
Stacks of membrane sacs, has a receiving and shipping end. Modifies substances, packages material fro transportation, releases them (vesicles).
solute
Substance that is dissolved, i.e. salt
cohesion
Tendency for molecules to stick together, much stronger in water than any other molecule.
atomic mass and number How would you determine the atomic mass?
The atomic number is the number of protons within an atom. The mass number of an atom is the amount of protons in addition to the amount of neutrons in an atom. (P+N)
adhesion
The clinging of one substance to another.
solvent
The dissolving agent, i.e. water
diffusion
The flow of solutes across a membrane
purpose of upper and lower limits to cell size
The lower limit is that the cell must be able to house internal structures and DNA to reproduce and the upper limit is that the cell's size is limited by the distance materials need to diffuse in. -the smaller the cell the easier it is to get in and out fast (i.e nutrients), bigger cells take a longer time and they're inefficient
plant cell when placed in hypertonic solution
The vacuole will shrivel but the cell won't shrivel and die because of the cell wall
animal cell when placed in a hypotonic solution
The water outside the cell will move inside and the cell will eventually burst
plant cell when placed in a hypotonic solution
The water outside the cell will move inside the cel but the cell will not burst because of the cell wall.
animal cell when placed in a hypertonic solution
The water will move outside of the cell and shrivel
How many of each independent and dependent variables could be used in an experiment? Why?
There should not be more than two independent variables otherwise it is difficult to determine the influence of each upon the final results. There may be more than several dependent variables, because manipulating the independent can influence many different things.
unsaturated fatty acid
When there are less than the maximum number of hydrogen's, so has a double bond in the chain, which makes it kinky. This prevents to molecules from packing tight together. ex: olive oil
chlorophyll
absorbs and reflects different wave lengths of light to excite electrons
structure of ATP
adenosine attached to a sugar with three phosphate on the other side the farther the phosphate the more energy
aerobic events
after glycolysis when O2 is present
aerobic event
after glycolysis when O2 isn't present which will lead into fermentation
the electron transport chain
also known as oxidative phosphorylation, location and what happens
Structure of a controlled experiment
an experiment in which all outside conditions are kept the same throughout the experiment for each test
phospholipid bilayer purpose
barrier
catabolism
breaking down process
amino acids
building blocks of proteins, 20 different amino acids, humans can only synthesize 12 and must ingest the other 8
number covalent bonds formed by carbon,hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
carbon: 4 Hydrogen: 1 Oxygen: 2 Nitrogen:3
glycolipids
cell ID
polar
charged molecule
functions of photosynthetic pigments
chlorophyll absorbs and reflects different wave lengths of light to excite electrons
location of photosynthesis
chloroplasts
Difference between Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
chloroplasts: -*photosynthesis* -only in plants - converts free energy to chemical (energy from sun---> glucose) Mitochondria: -*cellular respiration* -both plant and animal cells -converts chemical energy to free (glucose--->ATP)
anaphase(mitosis)
chromatids are pulled apart, move to opposite poles
prophase (mitosis)
chromosomes visible, nuclear envelop disappears, cytoskeleton falls apart
interphase(cell cycle)
consists of g1, s, g2
plant cell walls
control the amount of water and help cell no swell and burst
DNA Polymerase
copies DNA
G1 (cell cycle)
cytoplasm grows, and the cell begins to mature
dehydration synthesis
dehydration synthesis removes a molecule of water to connect monomers (unlinked monomers have a hydroxyl group on one end and a hydrogen atom on the other, they lose these and create a covalent bond through dehydration)
cytokinesis (cell cycle)
division of cytoplasm
M (cell cycle)
division of the nucleus
role of coenzymes in cellular respiration
electron carriers FAD and NAD+ to become reduced and move electrons
ATP often referred to as an energy shuttle why?
energy from the sun is used
How is energy in glucose released during cellular respiration?
energy is released to make co2,water and ATP
what does cellular respiration
everything
photosystem 2
excites electrons carried by water molecules with photons from the sun. -occurs on the thylakoid membrane
how do plants produce oxygen
from photosynthesis -the carbon dioxide water and sunlight and converted in glucose which is used in cellular respiration. The oxygen is then released in the air
how does meiosis/fertilization/sexual reproduction create variation?
gene recombination and crossing over
reactants of cellular respiration
glucose and oxygen
sequence of cellular respiration
glycolysis, the kreb cycle, electron transport chain
mesophyll
green tissue in the interior of a plant leaf
why do cells need to divide?
growth,repair, replace
strict anaerobes
have to do anaerobic events
hydrolysis
hydrolysis is the reverse, it breaks these by adding a water molecule which splits into a hydroxyl group on one monomer and a hydrogen atom on the other.
location of cellular respiration
in and around mitochondira
ECM (extracellular matrix)
interacting with other cells
Cytoskeleton
internal support
stages of meiosis in order
interphase(G1 and S), pro1,meta 1, ana 1, tele 1, cytokinesis 1, pro 2, meta 2, ana 2, tele 2, cytokinesis 2
free energy
kinetic energy
flagella
long tail used for locomotion
function of the coenzyme NADPH in photosynthesis
made from photosystems and is used to drop off electrons in the calvin cycle to make G3P
cholesterol
maintains fluidity
cofactors
minerals ex. Calcium- bone growth and reduces blood clotting
passive transport
movement of molecules down a gradient from a region of high concentration gradient to a low concentration gradient, requires no energy
Transmembrane Proteins
moves stuff through
simple diffusion
no membrane channels required
hydrophobic
non polar molecules (not soluble in water)
non-polar
not charged molecule
telephase (mitosis)
nuclear envelope form arounds chromosomes, chromosomes assemble at opposite poles, two identical cells with cleavege
monosaccharide
one glucose
chromatid
one side of the chromosome
facultative anaerobes
only do anaerobic events when they're unable to be aerobic
stomata
open pore that allows gas exchange
stroma
outside area of chloroplast where the Calvin Cycle takes place
pH of human blood
pH 7.4
diploid
paired chromosomes
fermentation
part of anaerobic respiration which is a catabolic process that produces a small amount of energy in the absence of oxygen
Process that moves food through the esophagus (also through intestines)
peristalsis
production of ATP during the light reactions of photosynthesis
photophosphorylation
Ligase
places okazaki fragments together
hydrophilic
polar molecules (water attracted)
phases of mitosis
prophase, metaphase,anaphase, telephase
receptor-mediated endocytosis
receptors regulate specific material that attach to the receptors and bring them into cell
glycoproteins
receptors, connect to the outside world
what type of cells go through G0
red blood cells, neurons, and muscle cells
G0 (cell cycle)
resting place, nothing happens
cilia
short small "hair like fragments" on outside of Eukaryotic cells for locomotion
enzymes
speed up chemical reactions
gametes
sperm and ovum (eggs)
metaphase (mitosis)
spindle fibers attach to chromosomes, metaphase plate forms,centrioles pull apart
grana
stacks of thylakoids
buffers
substances that minimize changes in pH. They accept H+ when it is in excess and donate it when it is depleted. *Biological fluids contain buffers.)
anti-parallel nature of DNA
sugars going in opposite directions (3'-5' or 5'-3')
DNA v. RNA
sugars: DNA: deoxyribose RNA: ribose nitrogen bases:DNA: A,G,C,T RNA: U,A,G,C double stranded(DNA) single stranded (RNA)
anabolism
the building process
G2 (cell cycle)
the cell is complete grown and prepares for mitosis (nucleus visible)
why is most of life on Earth solar-powered
the energy from the sun is used as photons in photosynthesis
how chemiosmosis generates ATP
the flow of chemiosmosis help ATP synthase to pump hydrogen ions to make the ATP
role of a control group in an experiment
the group which all of the others are compared to in the experiment
carbon fixation
the incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic molecules
reactants v. products of the light reactions in the calvin cycle
the light reactions from the photosystems create the reactants for the calvin cycle
why is the calvin cycle dependent on light reactions
the light reactions provide ATP and NADPH needed for the Calvin Cycle
chemiosmosis
the movement of hydrogen ions across an inner membrane though ATP synthase
metabolism higher v. lower
the rate of chemical reactions Higer metabolism=faster catabolic processes lower metabolism=slower catabolic processes
S (cell cycle)
the synthesis phase, cell copies all of its DNA (chromosomes)
evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis
the theory that nucleus is the product of endosymbiosis because the the nucleus has 2 membranes and everything has its own DNA
dependent variable
the variable that is determined by the independent
independent variable
the variable that the person doing the experiment controls and can change
how photosystems capture solar energy
they get the light captured from photons from the sun
goal of meiosis
to make gametes (sperm and egg)
goal of mitosis
to make somatic cells
chromosomes
two sister chromatids together at a centromere
haploid
unpaired chromosomes
Wavelengths of light that are most efficient for photosynthesis
visible light (v----g-----r) -v=shortest wavelength -r=longest wavelength
coenzymes
vitamins fat soluble- A,D,E,K water soluble- B and C
aquaporins
water channels proteins in certain cells use to facilitate rapid diffusion of massive amounts of water across a cell
chromatin
what is in chromatids coiled up
polar bodies
when cytoplasm divides unevenly, it forms a small haploid cell during oogenesis that can't be fertilized
thylakoid
where light reactions take place
nucleolus
where ribosomes are synthesized and assembled
carotenoids
yellow-orange pigments in a chloroplasts
