Honors U.S. History Final Review

Ch. 11 #5 How did the Indian policies of the United States government affect the relationship between settlers in the West and Native Americans?

As conflicts escalated with Native Americans, Congress took action. In 1867 Congress formed an Indian Peace Commission, which proposed creating two large reservations on the Plains, one for the Sioux and another for Native Americans of the southern Plains. Federal agents would run the reservations, and the army would deal with any groups that refused to report or remain there. The Indian Peace Commission's plan was doomed to failure. Although negotiators pressured Native American leaders into signing treaties, they could not ensure that those leaders or their followers would abide by them. Nor could anyone prevent settlers from violating their terms. The Native Americans who did move to reservations faced many of the same conditions that drove the Dakota Sioux to violence—poverty, despair, and the corrupt practices of American traders.

Ch. 13 #3 Describe the social issues and problems that resulted from rapid urbanization, and what some social movements did to address these issues.

In the largest cities, congestion became a severe problem. Chicago responded by building an elevated railroad, while Boston, followed by New York, built the first subway systems. The political machine, an informal political group designed to gain and keep power, came about partly because cities had grown much faster than their governments. New city dwellers needed jobs, housing, food, heat, and police protection. In exchange for votes, political machines and the party bosses who ran them eagerly provided these necessities.Opponents of political machines, such as cartoonist Thomas Nast, blasted corrupt bosses. Defenders argued that political machines provided necessary services and helped assimilate new city dwellers.

Ch. 9 #4 How did the Emancipation Proclamation change the way people viewed the Civil War?

On September 22, 1862, Lincoln kept his promise. He publicly announced that he would issue the Emancipation Proclamation freeing all enslaved persons in states still in rebellion after January 1, 1863. In this proclamation, Lincoln declared "that all persons held as slaves within said designated States . . . are, and henceforward shall be free; and that the Executive Government of the United States . . . will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons." The Proclamation freed enslaved African Americans only in states at war with the Union. Yet, by its very existence, it transformed the conflict from a war to preserve the Union to a war of liberation.

Ch. 9 #7 What roles did women play during the Civil War? How did the Civil War changed opinions about women's capabilities?

Women participated in the war effort by managing family farms and businesses. They also made contributions on the battlefield by serving as nurses to the wounded. Before the war, most army nurses were men. During the Civil War, women took on many of the nursing tasks in army hospitals. Many women volunteered to care for wounded soldiers and raised money to send medical supplies to army camps. Although Southern women were encouraged to stay at home and make bandages and other supplies, many founded small hospitals. Some even braved the horrors of the battlefield. The Civil War was a turning point for the nursing profession in the United States. The courage and energy shown by the women also helped break down the belief that women were weaker than men.

Ch. 23 #7 What contributions did women performers make to the shaping of American culture in the 1950s?

Women performers saw an increase in roles in television, supported by the increase in American households beginning to have a place in every household. Early television programs included comedies, variety shows, and action programs. In 1953, Lucille Ball and her husband, Desi Arnaz, starred in one of the medium's most popular shows ever, a comedy called I Love Lucy. One episode attracted an audience of 44 million viewers—more than for the presidential inauguration the following day.

Ch. 25 #1 Explain the events leading up to the Brown v. Board of Education decision and summarize the Supreme Court's ruling.

After World War II, the NAACP continued to challenge segregation in the courts. From 1939 to 1961, the NAACP's chief counsel and director of its Legal Defense and Educational Fund was African American attorney Thurgood Marshall. After the war, Marshall focused his efforts on ending segregation in public schools. In 1954, the Supreme Court decided to combine several cases and issue a general ruling on segregation in schools. One of the cases involved a young African American girl named Linda Brown, who was denied admission to her neighborhood school in Topeka, Kansas, because of her race. She was told to attend an all-black school across town. With the help of the NAACP, her parents sued the Topeka school board. On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.

Ch. 13 #7 Define patronage and explain the spoils system. Then explain why many Americans believed that civil service reform was needed.

After candidates won election and took office, they fired all of the people who worked for the government, and gave the jobs to people who had supported their election. This practice of rewarding political supporters with government jobs is known as patronage. Supporters of patronage claimed it was necessary to ensure that government workers stayed loyal to the elected representatives of the people. But after the Civil War, many Americans came to believe patronage made the government inefficient and corrupt. Congress passed the Pendleton Act, requiring that some jobs be filled by competitive written exams, rather than by patronage. This marked the beginning of professional civil service—a system where most government workers are given jobs based on qualifications rather than on political affiliation.

Ch. 19 #6 Explain the idea of the Social Security system, why it was passed, and how it is supposed to function.

After passing the Wagner Act, Congress began work on one of the United States's most important pieces of legislation. This was the Social Security Act, which provided some financial security for older Americans, unemployed workers, and others. Roosevelt and his advisers viewed the bill primarily as an insurance measure. Workers earned the right to receive benefits because they paid special taxes to the federal government, just as they paid premiums in buying a life insurance policy. The legislation also provided modest welfare payments to others in need, including people with disabilities and poor mothers with dependent children.

Ch. 17 #4 Identify four major scientific discoveries or technological innovations that occurred in the 1920s and explain how each improved the standard of living in the United States.

After the Wright brothers' first successful flight in 1903, the aviation industry began developing. Leading the way was American inventor Glenn Curtiss, who invented ailerons—surfaces attached to wings that could be tilted to steer the plane. Ailerons made it possible to build rigid wings and much larger aircraft. In 1913, American engineer Edwin Armstrong invented a special circuit that made it practical to transmit sound via long-range radio. The radio industry began a few years later. As indoor plumbing became more common, Americans' concern for hygiene led to the development of numerous household cleaning products. New appliances advertised as labor-savers—such as electric irons, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and refrigerators—changed the way people cleaned their homes and clothing and prepared meals. The auto industry also spurred growth in the production of steel, petroleum, rubber, plate glass, nickel, and lead.

Ch. 19 #3 Describe the different perspectives on government regulation of business among Roosevelt's advisors. Why did Roosevelt assemble an administration made up of so many people with differing viewpoints?

Although he alone made the final decision about what policies and programs to pursue, Roosevelt depended on his advisers for new ideas. He deliberately chose advisers who disagreed with one another because he wanted to hear many different points of view. One influential group of President Roosevelt's advisers supported the belief that if the government agencies worked with businesses to regulate wages, prices, and production, they could lift the economy out of the Depression. A second group of advisers, who distrusted big business and felt business leaders had caused the Depression, wanted government planners to run key parts of the economy. A third group of advisers supported former president Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" philosophy. They wanted Roosevelt to break up big companies and allow competition to set wages, prices, and production levels. This group of advisers also thought that the government should impose regulations to keep economic competition fair.

Ch. 23 #10 Explain how the lives of minorities differed from those of white middle-class Americans during the 1950s.

Although more than 3 million African Americans had migrated from the South to Northern cities, long-standing patterns of racial discrimination kept many of them poor. In 1958, African Americans' salaries, on average, were only 51 percent of what whites earned. Much of the nation's Hispanic population also struggled with poverty. By the middle of the 1900s, Native Americans—who made up less than one percent of the population—were the poorest ethnic group in the nation.

Ch. 24 #1 Even though Democrats controlled Congress, why was President Kennedy unable to pass all of the New Frontier programs he had proposed?

Although the Democrats had majorities in both houses of Congress, Kennedy was unable to push through many of his programs. His narrow victory had not helped many Democrats get elected. Those who did win, therefore, felt that they owed him nothing. In addition, Southern Democrats—a large part of the Democrats in Congress— saw Kennedy's program as too expensive and, together with Republicans, were able to defeat many of Kennedy's proposals.

Ch. 9 #1 How did a weak central government effect the Confederate States?

Although the South had no organized opposition party, President Jefferson Davis still faced many problems. The Confederate constitution emphasized states' rights and limited the central government's power. This commitment to states' rights often interfered with Davis's ability to conduct the war. Although many Southern leaders supported the war, some opposed Jefferson Davis when he supported conscription and established martial law early in 1862.

Ch. 21 #9 What was the significance of the Battle of the Bulge?

As the Allies advanced toward the German border, Hitler decided to stage one last desperate offensive. His goal was to cut off Allied supplies coming through the port of Antwerp, Belgium. The attack began just before dawn on December 16, 1944. Six inches (15 cm) of snow covered the ground, and the weather was bitterly cold. Moving rapidly, the Germans caught the American defenders by surprise. As the German troops raced west, their lines bulged outward, and the attack became known as the Battle of the Bulge. Eisenhower ordered General Patton to the rescue. Three days later, faster than anyone expected in the midst of a snowstorm, Patton's troops slammed into the German lines. As the weather cleared, Allied aircraft began hitting German fuel depots. On Christmas Eve, out of fuel and weakened by heavy losses, the German troops driving toward Antwerp were forced to halt. Two days later, Patton's troops broke through to the German line. Fighting continued for three weeks, but the United States had won the Battle of the Bulge. On January 8, the Germans began to withdraw, having suffered more than 100,000 casualties. They had very few resources left to prevent the Allies from entering Germany.

Ch. 21 #5 Why was the Battle of Midway a turning point in the war?

Back at Pearl Harbor, the code-breaking team now learned of the plan to attack Midway. With so many ships at sea, Admiral Yamamoto transmitted the plans for the Midway attack by radio, using the same code the Americans had already cracked. Unaware that they were heading into an ambush, the Japanese launched their aircraft against Midway on June 4, 1942. The Americans were ready. The Japanese ran into a blizzard of antiaircraft fire, and 38 planes were shot down. As the Japanese prepared a second wave to attack Midway, aircraft from the American carriers Hornet, Yorktown, and Enterprise launched a counterattack. The American planes caught the Japanese carriers with fuel, bombs, and aircraft exposed on their flight decks. Within minutes, three Japanese carriers were reduced to burning wrecks. A fourth was sunk a few hours later, and Admiral Yamamoto ordered his remaining ships to retreat. The Battle of Midway was a turning point in the war. The Japanese navy lost four large carriers—the heart of its fleet. Just six months after Pearl Harbor, the United States had stopped the Japanese advance. The victory was not without cost, however. The battle killed 362 Americans and 3,057 Japanese.

Ch. 20 #8 Why did the United States not waive its immigration quotas to allow more Jewish refugees into the country?

By 1938, one U.S. consulate in Germany had a backlog of more than 100,000 visa applications from Jews trying to leave for the United States. Following the Nazi Anschluss, some 3,000 Austrian Jews applied for U.S. visas each day. Most never received visas to the United States or to the other countries where they applied. As a result, millions of Jews remained trapped in Nazi-dominated Europe. Several factors limited Jewish immigration to the United States. Nazi orders prohibited Jews from taking more than about four dollars out of Germany. United States' immigration law, however, forbade granting a visa to anyone "likely to become a public charge." Customs officials tended to assume that this description applied to Jews, because Germany had forced them to leave behind any wealth. High unemployment rates in the 1930s also made immigration unpopular. Few Americans wanted to raise immigration quotas, even to accommodate European refugees. Others did not want to admit Jews because they held anti-Semitic attitudes. The existing immigration policy allowed only 150,000 immigrants annually, with a fixed quota from each country. The law permitted no exceptions for refugees or victims of persecution.

Ch. 20 #5 When Japan invaded China in 1937, what justification did Roosevelt use to authorize the sale of arms to the Chinese even though the Neutrality Act of 1937 made it illegal to sell arms to countries fighting a war?

Despite the government's stand on neutrality, President Roosevelt supported internationalism, the idea that trade between nations creates prosperity and helps prevent war. He warned that the neutrality acts "might drag us into war instead of keeping us out," but he did not veto the bills. When Japan invaded China in July 1937 without declaring war, Roosevelt claimed the Neutrality Act of 1937 did not apply. He authorized the sale of weapons to China, warning that the nation should not let an "epidemic of lawlessness" infect the world.

Ch. 18 #9 Describe the measures some farmers took in an attempt to raise prices on agricultural goods.

During the agricultural boom that took place during World War I, many farmers had heavily mortgaged their land to pay for seed, equipment, and feed. After the war, prices sank so low that farmers began losing money. Creditors foreclosed on nearly one million farms between 1930 and 1934. They took ownership of the land and evicted families. Some farmers began destroying their crops, desperately trying to raise prices by reducing the supply. In Nebraska, farmers burned corn to heat their homes. Georgia dairy farmers blocked highways and stopped milk trucks, dumping the milk into ditches.

Ch. 22 #11 Compare the Eisenhower Doctrine with the Truman Doctrine. What action took place following the establishment of the Eisenhower Doctrine?

Eisenhower and Dulles worried about Nasser's links to the Soviets and feared he was laying the groundwork to take control of the Middle East. In late 1957, Eisenhower asked Congress to authorize the use of military force whenever the president thought it necessary to assist Middle East nations resisting Communist aggression. The policy came to be called the Eisenhower Doctrine. It essentially extended the Truman Doctrine and the policy of containment to the Middle East. In July 1958, Eisenhower's concerns appeared to be confirmed when left-wing rebels, believed to be backed by Nasser and the Soviets, seized power in Iraq. Fearing his government was next, the president of Lebanon sought help. Eisenhower ordered 5,000 marines to Beirut, the Lebanese capital. Once the situation stabilized, the U.S. forces withdrew.

Ch. 18 #6 What impact did the Dust Bowl have on farmers living on the Great Plains?

Farmers soon faced a new disaster. The Great Plains were very dry with high winds. Topsoil was held in place by deep rooted prairie grasses that preserved moisture in times of low rainfall. The Homestead Act had encouraged large-scale settlement of the region, and as the population grew, tractors and combines came into widespread use. Much of the Great Plains were extensively deep-plowed making the topsoil susceptible to rapid erosion. Deep-plowing was not a problem for many decades, as the Great Plains experienced higher than normal rainfall from the late 1800s to the 1920s. But when crop prices dropped in the 1920s, many farmers left their fields uncultivated even as temperatures had begun to climb and rainfall had begun to decline. In the early 1930s, a severe drought hit, and there was nothing anchoring the soil or retaining moisture. The soil turned to dust. Human and physical geographic factors had combined to create a disaster. Winds blew the arid earth aloft, blackening the sky for hundreds of miles. Dust buried crops and livestock. Humans and animals caught outdoors sometimes died of suffocation when the dust filled their lungs. During most of the 1930s, an average of 50 dust storms a year hit the Plains.

Ch. 17 #6 How did women's roles change during the 1920s? What caused these changes and what were the effects?

Having won the right to vote in 1920, many women sought to break free from traditional roles. Women who attended college often found support to pursue careers. Many working-class women took jobs because they needed the wages, but work was also a way to break away from parental authority and establish financial independence. Romance, pleasure, and friendship became linked to successful marriages. Women's fashions changed during the 1920s: women "bobbed," or shortened, their hair and wore flesh-colored silk stockings. Some women, known as flappers, smoked cigarettes, drank prohibited liquor, and wore makeup and sleeveless dresses with short skirts. Many professional women made major contributions in science, medicine, law, and literature. In medicine, Florence Sabin's research led to a dramatic drop in death rates from tuberculosis. Public-health nurse Margaret Sanger believed that families could improve their standard of living by limiting the number of children they had. She founded the American Birth Control League in 1921 to promote knowledge about birth control. During the 1920s and 1930s, the use of birth control increased dramatically, particularly in the middle class.

Ch. 11 #4 How did the economic impact of the Homestead Act contribute to the close of the frontier in the late 19th century?

In 1862, the government encouraged settlement on the Great Plains by passing the Homestead Act. For a small registration fee, an individual could file for a homestead—a tract of public land available for settlement. A homesteader could claim up to 160 acres of land and receive title to it after living there for five years. With their property rights assured and the railroads providing lumber and supplies, more settlers moved to the Plains. Most settlers did indeed make a fresh start, adapting to the difficult environment of the Plains. Water from their deep wells enabled them to plant trees and gardens. Railroads brought lumber and brick to replace sod as a building material, coal for fuel, and manufactured goods from the East, such as clothes and household goods. Small-scale farmers rarely became wealthy, but they could be self-sufficient. Typical homesteaders raised cattle, chickens, and a few crops. The real story of the West was about ordinary people who settled down and built homes and communities through great effort.

Ch. 22 #5 How did Senator McCarthy's accusations of Communist influence affect domestic life and intensify Cold War tensions?

In 1949, the Red Scare intensified as the Soviet Union successfully tested an atomic bomb, and China fell to communism. To many Americans, these events seemed to prove that the United States was losing the Cold War. In February 1950, little-known senator Joseph R. McCarthy gave a speech to a Republican women's group in West Virginia. Halfway through his speech, McCarthy made a surprising statement when he claimed: "While I cannot take the time to name all the men in the State Department who have been named as members of the Communist Party and members of a spy ring, I have here in my hand a list of 205 that were known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping the policy of the State Department." The Associated Press sent the statement nationwide. Reporters at an airport asked McCarthy to see his list. McCarthy replied that he would be happy to show it to them, but unfortunately, it was in his bag on the plane. In fact, the list never appeared. McCarthy, however, continued making charges. McCarthy proclaimed that Communists were a danger at home and abroad. He distributed a booklet accusing Democratic Party leaders of corruption and of protecting Communists. McCarthy often targeted Secretary of State Dean Acheson, calling him incompetent and a tool of Stalin. He also accused George C. Marshall, former army chief of staff and secretary of state, of disloyalty. The prevailing anxiety about communism made many Americans willing to accept McCarthy's claims.

Ch. 23 #4 Summarize the actions by the Eisenhower administration that improved transportation both on land and waterways.

In 1956 Congress passed the Federal Highway Act, the largest public works program in American history. The act provided for a $25 billion, 10-year project to build more than 40,000 miles (64,400 km) of interstate highways. Congress also authorized the construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway. This project included building a series of locks along the St. Lawrence River that would allow ships to travel from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.

Ch. 25 #11 What conditions led to riots in urban African American communities in the 1960s?

In 1965, approximately 70 percent of African Americans lived in large cities. Even if African Americans had been allowed to move into white neighborhoods, many were stuck in low-paying jobs with little chance of advancement. In 1960, only 15 percent of African Americans held professional, managerial, or clerical jobs, compared to 44 percent of whites. The average income of African American families was only 55 percent of that of the average income for white families. Almost half of African Americans lived in poverty, with an unemployment rate typically twice that of whites. Poor neighborhoods in the nation's major cities were overcrowded and dirty, leading to higher rates of illness and infant mortality. Juvenile delinquency rates rose, as did the rate of young people dropping out of school. Complicating matters even more was a rise in the number of single-parent households. - their overall treatment from society and the racism that was still present

Ch. 8 #8 How did the split of the Democratic Party affect the outcome of the 1860 election, as well as the Southern states' decision to secede from the Union?

In April 1860, with the South in an uproar, Democrats held their convention in Charleston, South Carolina, to choose their nominee for president. The debate over slavery in the territories finally tore apart the Democratic Party. Northern delegates wanted to support popular sovereignty, while Southern delegates wanted the party to uphold the Dred Scott decision. They also wanted to endorse a federal slave code for the territories. This split improved the Republicans' chances to win the election. Some Southerners may have intended this, hoping that a Republican win would convince Southern states to secede. Others, including many former Whigs, feared for the Union. They created the Constitutional Union Party, and campaigned on a position of upholding both the Constitution and the Union.

Ch. 10 #1 Why do you think President Lincoln offered amnesty to most Southerners, but he did not offer it to former Confederate officials or military officers?

In December 1863, President Lincoln offered a general amnesty, or pardon, to all Southerners who took an oath of loyalty to the United States and accepted the Union's proclamations concerning slavery. When 10 percent of a state's voters in the 1860 presidential election had taken this oath, they could organize a new state government. Certain people, such as former Confederate government officials and military officers, could not take the oath or be pardoned. In March 1865, in his Second Inaugural Address, President Lincoln spoke of ending the war "[w]ith malice toward none, with charity for all." President Lincoln wanted a moderate policy to reconcile the South with the Union instead of punishing it for treason.

Ch. 22 #1 What decisions were made at Yalta, and what role did they play in the emergence of the Cold War?

In February 1945, with the war in Europe nearly over, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta—a Soviet resort on the Black Sea—to plan the postwar world. Several agreements reached at Yalta later played an important role in causing the Cold War. A key issue discussed at Yalta was Poland. Shortly after the Germans had invaded Poland in 1939, the Polish government fled to Britain. In 1944, however, Soviet troops drove back the Germans and entered Poland. As they liberated Poland from German control, the Soviets encouraged Polish Communists to set up a new government. As a result, two governments claimed the right to govern Poland: one Communist and one non-Communist. President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill both argued that the Poles should be free to choose their own government. Stalin, however, quickly pointed out that every time invaders had entered Russia from the west, they had come through Poland. Eventually, the three leaders compromised. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to recognize the Polish government set up by the Soviets. Stalin agreed it would include members of the prewar Polish government, and free elections would be held as soon as possible.

Ch. 26 #7 What were the "teach-ins," and what viewpoints were represented among war protestors?

In March 1965, a group of faculty members and students at the University of Michigan joined together in a teach-in. They discussed the issues surrounding the war and reaffirmed their reasons for opposing it. In May 1965, 122 colleges held a "National Teach-In" by radio for more than 100,000 antiwar demonstrators. A Teach-in was an extended meeting or class held to discuss a social or political issue. People opposed the war for different reasons. Some saw the conflict as a civil war in which the United States should not interfere. Others saw South Vietnam as a corrupt dictatorship and believed defending it was immoral.

Ch. 17 #1 What did President Warren Harding mean when he promised a "return to normalcy" and what policies did his administration pursue to promote economic growth and prosperity?

In his campaign, Harding promised "a return to normalcy" following the war. For Harding and his administration, a "return to normalcy" meant an end to progressive experimentation, an end to high taxes on the wealthy, and an end to government intervention in the economy. In particular, it meant an end to the economic controls imposed during World War I. The Harding administration committed itself to restoring economic growth and prosperity by getting the government out of the economy. His genial manner endeared him to the nation. People applauded the easygoing atmosphere of the Harding administration, replacing the reform and war fervor of President Wilson's last years.

Ch. 18 #2 What is monetary policy and which organization controls monetary policy in the United States? What is the main tool the organization uses to try to regulate the American economy?

In practice, the Federal Reserve uses open market operations to influence short-term interest rates, which is the primary tool of monetary policy.

Ch. 24 #7 Describe how Cold War tensions were intensified by the space race.

Kennedy worried that Soviet successes in space might convince the world that communism was better than capitalism. Less than six weeks after the Soviet flight, the president went before Congress and declared: "I believe this Nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon." Kennedy's speech set in motion a massive effort to develop the necessary technology. In 1962, John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth. Six years later, the United States sent three men into orbit in a capsule called Apollo. The capsule was launched using the Saturn V, the most powerful rocket ever built. The Saturn V gave both Apollo and its lunar module--which astronauts would use to land on the moon--enough velocity to reach the moon.

Ch. 15 #1 What progressive issue eventually led to the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment? What was the impact on American society of the campaign for the Eighteenth Amendment and related reforms?

Many progressives blamed alcohol for many of society's problems. Society at the time tended to view drinking alcohol as acceptable for men, not women, and men consumed the vast majority of all the alcohol produced. As a result social-welfare progressives focused on the problems that alcohol abuse created for women. Settlement-house workers knew that wages were often spent on alcohol instead of the family, and that drunkenness often led to physical abuse, illness, poverty, and abandonment. From these concerns emerged one of the major women's issues of the era, the temperance movement, which advocated that people stop, or at least moderate, their alcohol consumption. When the temperance movement began, it concentrated on reducing alcohol consumption. Later it pressed for prohibition—laws banning the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages. Despite significant opposition, especially from working-class voters, support for prohibition grew steadily. By 1916, nineteen states had introduced some form of prohibition on alcohol, and leaders of the prohibition movement began to push for a constitutional amendment banning the manufacture, transportation, or sale of alcohol in all of the United States. In 1919, the amendment was ratified. It went into effect in January 1920.

Ch. 21 #1 What was the "Double V" campaign? Which African American leader took steps to expand economic opportunities for African Americans in industry? What did he begin to organize and how did President Roosevelt respond?

Not all African Americans wanted to support the war. As one African American college student noted: "The Army jim-crows us. . . . Employers and labor unions shut us out. Lynchings continue. We are disenfranchised . . . [and] spat upon. What more could Hitler do to us than that?" Nevertheless, most agreed that they should support their country. One leading African American newspaper, the Pittsburgh Courier, launched the "Double V" campaign to urge readers to support the war to win a double victory over Hitler's racism abroad and racism at home. Under pressure from African American leaders, President Roosevelt ordered the armed services to recruit African Americans and to put them into combat. He also promoted Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., the highest-ranking African American officer, to the rank of brigadier general. In early 1941, the air force created its first African American unit, the 99th Pursuit Squadron. Trained in Tuskegee, Alabama, the pilots became known as the Tuskegee Airmen. Commanded by Lt. Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., the squadron helped win the Battle of Anzio in Italy. Three other Tuskegee squadrons protected American bombers as they flew to their targets. Known as the 332nd Fighter Group, these squadrons flew 200 such missions without losing a single member to enemy aircraft. Also, the African American 761st Tank Battalion was commended for service during the Battle of the Bulge.

Ch. 16 #6 What impact did the arrival of American troops have on the course of the war?

Nearly two million American troops marched into the bloody stalemate in the Western Front. Although the American "doughboys" were inexperienced, they were fresh and eager to fight. As the Americans began to arrive, many in Germany concluded that the war was lost.

Ch. 26 #2 Explain the difference between the two groups in Vietnam—North Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh and South Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem.

Negotiations to end the conflict were held in Geneva, Switzerland. The resulting Geneva Accords provided for a temporary division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh and the Vietminh controlled North Vietnam, and a pro-Western regime led by the fiercely anti-Communist Ngo Dinh Diem (ehn• GOH DIHN deh•EHM) held the South. French troops soon left, and the United States became the principal protector of the new government in South Vietnam. The accords called for elections to be held in 1956 to reunite the country under a single government. Diem refused to permit the elections, however, fearing Ho Chi Minh would win. Eisenhower approved of Diem's actions and increased American aid to South Vietnam.

Ch. 8 #5 Which political party formed in the mid-1800s was not a reaction to the slavery debate? Explain why.

Northern anger against the Democrats enabled the American Party—also known as the Know-Nothings—to make gains, particularly in the Northeast. The nativist Know-Nothings opposed immigration, especially of Catholics. Prejudice and fear of immigrants helped the American Party win many seats in Congress and state legislatures in 1854. Soon, however, the Know-Nothings suffered the same fate as the Whigs and split along sectional lines. Before long, the Republican Party absorbed many Northern Know-Nothings.

Ch. 20 #1 What did Hitler, Mussolini, and Stalin have in common?

One of Europe's first dictatorships arose in Italy. In 1919, Benito Mussolini founded Italy's Fascist movement. Fascism was an aggressive nationalistic movement that considered the nation more important than the individual. Fascists believed that order in society and national greatness came through a dictator who led a strong government and built an empire. After Lenin died in 1924, Joseph Stalin came to power. By 1926, Stalin was the new Soviet dictator. Stalin tolerated no opposition, targeting political enemies along with artists and intellectuals. He used concentration camps, which held nearly two million people by 1935. Prisoners were used as slave labor. Between 15 and 20 million people died under Stalin's rule, which lasted until his death in 1953. Adolf Hitler was a fervent nationalist who hated both the victorious Allies and the German government that had accepted their peace terms ending World War I. He became the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, or Nazi Party. The Nazis were one of many political parties that arose out of postwar Germany's political and economic chaos. (All three were dictators and nationalist, despite Russia and Italy being enemies)

Ch. 11 #1 How did the cattle industry boom affect the economy of the West?

Prior to the Civil War, ranchers had little incentive to round up the longhorns and move them to market. Beef prices were low, and moving cattle to eastern markets was not practical. But during the war, eastern cattle had been slaughtered in huge numbers to feed the armies of the Union and the Confederacy. After the war, beef prices soared. Also, by this time, railroads had reached the Great Plains, heading to towns in Kansas and Missouri. Ranchers and livestock dealers realized that if they could move their cattle to the railroad, the longhorns could be sold for a huge profit and shipped east to market.

Ch. 14 #5 What were the human geographic factors that led the United States to build a canal through Panama?

Roosevelt believed that displaying U.S. power to the world would deter nations from fighting. He expressed this belief with a West African saying, "Speak softly and carry a big stick." His "big stick" policy was evident in the U.S. acquisition and construction of the Panama Canal. He and others believed that having a canal through Central America was vital to U.S. power in the world and would save time and money for commercial and military shipping. In 1889, a French company abandoned its efforts to build a canal in Panama. In 1902 Congress authorized the U.S. purchase of the French company's assets and the construction of a canal. (it connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans making it easy to trade and export goods)

Ch. 24 #11 Why did programs of the Great Society harken back to Roosevelt's New Deal and Truman's Fair Deal?

Some of the issues that the New Deal and Fair Deal aimed to end were still present, so the Great Society passed similar legislation in order to combat the same issues. By the summer of 1964, Johnson had convinced Congress to pass the Economic Opportunity Act, which attacked inadequate public services, illiteracy, and unemployment. The act established 10 new programs within a new agency, the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO). Many of the new programs were directed at young, inner-city Americans. Johnson's ambitious vision encompassed more than 60 programs initiated between 1965 and 1968, including Medicare and Medicaid. Medicare had strong support because it was offered to all senior citizens, about half of whom lacked health insurance. Medicare's twin program, Medicaid, financed health care for welfare recipients living below the poverty line. These programs reflected New Deal ideals by entitling categories of Americans to benefits. Great Society programs also strongly supported education. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 granted millions of dollars to public and private schools. Education efforts also extended to preschoolers through Project Head Start, for disadvantaged children who had "never looked at a picture book or scribbled with a crayon."

Ch. 10 #9 What constitutional amendments were the former Confederate states required to ratify before reentering the national Union? How was this demand perceived by southern Democrats?

The Fifteenth Amendment allowed many freedmen to take part in governing the South. At first African American leadership came from people who had been educated before the war. These included artisans, shopkeepers, and ministers. Many had lived in the North and fought in the Union Army. Aided by the Republican Party, these leaders delivered speeches to formerly enslaved people, drawing them into politics. Despite racism and oppression African Americans still faced, many went from being enslaved laborers to legislators and administrators within a few years. They were working in nearly all levels of government, from mayor to police chief to school commissioner to the state legislature, and even to Congress.

Ch. 10 #8 Why did Congress pass the Enforcement Acts?

The Ku Klux Klan's activities outraged President Ulysses S. Grant and congressional Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, Congress passed three Enforcement Acts to combat the acts of violence in the South. The first act made it a federal crime to interfere with a citizen's right to vote. The second put federal elections under the supervision of federal marshals. The third act, also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act, outlawed the activities of the Klan. Local authorities and federal agents, acting under the Enforcement Acts, arrested more than 3,000 Klan members throughout the South. Southern juries, however, convicted only about 600. Fewer served any time in prison.

Ch. 12 #9 In what ways did the laissez-faire economic policy change the structure of American business and how did these changes affect the government's relationship with business?

The freedom to form a corporation was one of the great benefits of the laissez-faire approach to economics in the later half of the 1800s. With the money raised from selling stock, corporations could invest in new technologies, hire large workforces, and purchase machines. This greatly increased their efficiency. They achieved economies of scale, in which the cost of manufacturing is decreased by producing goods quickly in large quantities. big corporations had several advantages. They could produce more goods at a lower cost and could stay open in bad economic times by cutting prices to increase sales. Rebates from the railroads further lowered their operating costs. Of course, this also led eventually to one of the major costs of laissez-faire economics: small businesses, many family owned, that could not compete with large corporations were forced out of business. (Laissez-faire meant no gov. interference)

Ch. 12 #5 What kinds of business practices caused some railroad owners to be accused of being "robber barons"?

The great wealth many railroad entrepreneurs acquired in the late 1800s led to accusations that they had built their fortunes by swindling investors and taxpayers, bribing officials, and cheating on their contracts and debts. Perhaps the most notoriously corrupt railroad owner was Jay Gould, who practiced "insider trading" and manipulated stock prices. Bribery occurred frequently, partly because government was so deeply entangled in funding the railroads. Railroad investors discovered they could make more money by selling free government land grants than by operating a railroad, and some bribed political representatives to vote for more grants.

Ch. 26 #11 What was Vietnamization? What was its purpose?

This process involved the gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops while the South Vietnamese assumed more of the fighting. He announced the withdrawal of 25,000 soldiers on June 8, 1969. At the same time, however, Nixon increased air strikes against North Vietnam and began secretly bombing Vietcong sanctuaries in neighboring Cambodia.

Ch. 8 #2 Why did some Northerners support popular sovereignty? Write a paragraph expressing whether you think that this position was or was not a betrayal of most Northerners' opposition to slavery.

The issue of slavery's expansion divided the nation along sectional lines. Many moderates began searching for a way to spare Congress from having to wrestle with the issue of slavery in the territories. Michigan senator Lewis Cass proposed that the citizens of each new territory should decide whether to permit slavery, an idea that came to be called popular sovereignty. This idea appealed to many in Congress. Many Northerners supported the idea, believing Northerners would settle most of the new territory and then ban slavery there.

Ch. 19 #9 Think about all of the changes that occurred during the New Deal, and then explain why 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression is a turning point in American history.

The onset of the Great Depression in 1929 was a major turning point in American history. The economic crisis of the Depression led to the New Deal, which fundamentally changed the relationship between the American people and the federal government. As a result of the Depression, the power of the federal government to intervene in the economy significantly increased. At the same time, the historical role of state governments and their relationship to the federal government began to shift as well. Increasingly the federal government took on a regulatory role that had previously been left to state governments. In addition, state governments began to look to the federal government as a source of additional funds to help them afford state programs and provide aid in difficult economic circumstances.

Ch. 12 #2 How did the development of technological innovations using electric power contribute to the economic development of the United States in the Second Industrial Revolution?

The revolution in electricity took another step forward when engineer George Westinghouse developed an alternating current (AC) system to distribute electricity over long distances using transformers and generators. With this innovation, electricity began to improve living standards rapidly. City streets became safer as streetlights were installed. Electric trolley cars improved commute times to work, and new electric devices in the home made domestic chores easier and less time consuming. AC current and transformers are still used today to distribute electricity. Cyrus Field laid a telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean in 1866, enabling faster communication between the United States and Europe. In 1874, Alexander Graham Bell began experimenting with ways to transmit sound via an electric current. In 1876, he succeeded. In 1877, Bell founded the Bell Telephone Company, which eventually became the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T). Bell's telephone transformed communications and helped improve the nation's standard of living. Businesses could place orders much more quickly and news of events that might shape business choices could be obtained in time for better decision making.

Ch. 25 #5 What made the sit-in strategy an effective form of protest?

The sit-in movement brought large numbers of idealistic and energized college students into the civil rights struggle. Many were discouraged by the slow pace of segregation. Sit-ins offered them a way to dictate the pace of change. At first, the leaders of the NAACP and the SCLC were nervous about the sit-in campaign. Those conducting sit-ins were heckled, punched, kicked, beaten with clubs, and burned with cigarettes, hot coffee, and acid. Most did not fight back. - helped segregate restaurants and other public places - done in 100 cities

Ch. 13 #1 How did the ethnic and religious groups from Eastern Europe contribute to shaping American culture in the late 1800s?

This wave of immigrants changed the culture of America's cities and the demographics of its workforce. Although every immigrant group had some of its members working in every type of job and profession available, certain patterns emerged. Skilled Italian bricklayers and stonemasons contributed to the construction of many homes, churches and buildings in American cities. Polish immigrants often became coal miners, meatpackers and steel workers. Jewish immigrants often worked in the garment industry or as common laborers, although many became merchants as well. Irish immigrants, often among the poorest to arrive in America, frequently ended up as railroad workers, miners, dockworkers, ditch-diggers, and factory workers. And members of all ethnic groups also headed west to settle the Great Plains as farmers and ranchers. By the 1890s, immigrants made up a large percentage of the population of major cities, including New York, Chicago, Milwaukee, and Detroit. Immigrants lived in neighborhoods that were often separated into ethnic groups, such as "Little Italy" or the Jewish "Lower East Side" in New York City. There they spoke their native languages and re-created the churches, synagogues, clubs, and newspapers of their homelands.

Ch. 16 #1 What were the major empires in Europe prior to World War I, and why did nationalism threaten the stability of Europe?

To protect itself, Germany signed alliances with Italy and with the huge empire of Austria-Hungary, which controlled much of southeastern Europe. This became known as the Triple Alliance. The new alliance alarmed Russian leaders, who feared that Germany intended to expand eastward. A common interest in opposing Germany and Austria-Hungary led Russia and France to sign the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894. Under the alliance, the two nations promised to come to each other's aid in a war against the Triple Alliance. By the late 1800s, nationalism, or a feeling of intense pride in one's homeland, had become a powerful idea in Europe. Nationalists place primary emphasis on promoting their homeland's culture and interests. They believe in the right of self-determination—the idea that those who share a national identity should have their own country and government. In the 1800s, nationalism led to a crisis in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe.

Ch. 14 #6 How did the Open Door Policy and dollar diplomacy affect the economy in the United States?

U.S. politicians and businessmen worried that China would be divided among the Europeans and Americans would not be allowed to do business there. President McKinley and Secretary of State John Hay both supported what they called an Open Door policy, which would allow all countries to trade with China. In 1899, Hay asked countries with leaseholds in China not to discriminate against other nations wanting to do business in their sphere of influence. Each nation responded by saying it accepted the Open Door policy but would not follow it unless all the others agreed. Once Hay had received assurances from all of the nations with leaseholds, he declared that the United States expected the other powers to uphold the policy. The policy helped the U.S. economy by ensuring that American companies could continue to trade with China.