hum 4 final

Declaration of the Rights of Man & of the Citizen | Article 4

"Liberty consists in being able to do anything that does not injure another; thus the only limits upon each man's exercise of his natural rights are those that guarantee enjoyment of these same rights to the other members of society." - Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, Article 4

Declaration of the Rights of Man & of the Citizen | Article I

"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights." - Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, Article I

Schiller, On the Aesthetic Education of Man

"On the Aesthetic Education of Man" is a philosophical work by German poet and philosopher Friedrich Schiller. In the work, Schiller argues that aesthetic experience and beauty are essential to human development and freedom. He asserts that through the experience of beauty, humans can escape the limitations of their individual self and transcend to a state of universal humanity. Schiller also argues that beauty can help to reconcile the oppositions between the individual and the social, the sensuous and the rational, and the natural and the artificial. He suggests that a society that values and cultivates aesthetic experience can create a more harmonious and free society. Schiller's work had a significant impact on the development of German Romanticism and contributed to the idea of art as a form of cultural and political critique.

On the Social Contract, Book 1: Justification of Authority | Description of State

"This act of association produces a moral and collective body composed of as many members as there are voices in the assembly, which receives from this same act its unity, its common self, its life, and its will. This public person...takes the name republic or body politic, which is called state...when it is passive, sovereign when it is active,"

Kant, "What is Enlightenment?" | Summary

"What is Enlightenment?" is an essay by Immanuel Kant that explores the concept of Enlightenment and its implications for individuals and society. Kant defines Enlightenment as the "freedom to use one's own intelligence," emphasizing the importance of reason and critical thinking. He argues that Enlightenment is necessary for individuals to break free from the "self-incurred tutelage" of religious and political authorities and to think for themselves. Kant also discusses the importance of public discourse and the free exchange of ideas in promoting Enlightenment ideals. He suggests that a well-educated and informed citizenry is necessary for the functioning of a just and equitable society. Overall, "What is Enlightenment?" is a philosophical exploration of the nature of individual autonomy and the role of reason in promoting social progress. It has had a significant impact on modern philosophical thought and has been influential in the development of modern democratic societies.

Sieyes, "What is the Third Estate?" | Summary

"What is the Third Estate?" is a political pamphlet written by Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes in 1789, just before the French Revolution. In the pamphlet, Sieyes argues that the Third Estate, which refers to the common people of France, is the most important and deserving of political power, despite its lower social status. He criticizes the idea of the First and Second Estates, which are comprised of the clergy and nobility, respectively, as outdated and irrelevant to modern society. Sieyes argues that the Third Estate is responsible for the majority of the work and productivity in France and therefore should have a greater say in government. He also suggests that the Third Estate has the potential to transform France into a more egalitarian society, with equal opportunities and rights for all citizens. Overall, Sieyes' pamphlet was highly influential in shaping the political discourse leading up to the French Revolution, and it emphasized the importance of democratic principles and popular sovereignty.

Frederick Douglass, "What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?"

"What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?" is a speech delivered by Frederick Douglass on July 5, 1852, in Rochester, New York. In the speech, Douglass critiques the hypocrisy of celebrating American independence and freedom while millions of enslaved African Americans remain in bondage. He argues that the Fourth of July is not a celebration of freedom for slaves, but rather a reminder of their continued oppression and suffering. Douglass also criticizes the moral blindness and intellectual dishonesty of those who defend slavery while invoking the ideals of liberty and justice. He asserts that true freedom and equality cannot be achieved until slavery is abolished and all people are granted equal rights and opportunities. Overall, Douglass' speech is a powerful condemnation of the institution of slavery and a call to action for Americans to confront the injustice and hypocrisy of their society.

What stands in the way of solving the political problem Schiller proposes to solve?

"[T]he physical man is actual, and the moral man only problematical" and it is not obvious how to effect a transition from the former to the latter (e.g., how "to create a third character").

Schiller points the way toward a solution of the political problem (to be worked out in later letters) by recommending that you

"give the world on which you are acting the direction towards the good, and the quiet rhythm of time will bring about its development. You have given it this direction, if by your teaching you elevate its thoughts to the necessary and eternal, if by your actions or your creations you transform the necessary and eternal into the object of its impulses".

According to Locke, the primary purpose of laws is to protect people's property. In light of this, the executive branch of government should enact laws that

- do not take away one's property without their consent - are designed to promote the good of the people - apply to all in the same way

In Chapter 5, Locke introduces his conception of property. Which of the following are theses Locke endorses:

- Because everyone owns their own body, they also own whatever they have "mixed their labour with". - Labor turns public goods into private property. - I cannot make something mine if in doing so, there would not be enough left for others. - I cannot make something mine if it cannot be of any use to me. - The invention of money "altered the intrinsic value of things" because money doesn't spoil and one can always make use of more money.

In Chapters 2 and 3, Locke argues that there are reasons to leave the state of nature and enter civil society. Those reasons are:

- Because human beings are not good judges in their own cases (due to their partiality toward themselves), they are not well-suited to enforce their own basic natural rights. - Without positive laws and judges with authority to appeal to, human beings in a state of nature will tend to be in a state of war with each other.

Lessing, The Education of Humankind | Intellectual Background: Conceptions of History

- Biblical chronology → the Bible should be our guide; God's word to human beings explains to us the narrative of our life - Stages of history are derived from Biblical events - Creation - Flood - Babel - Exodus - Jesus's birth, death, and resurrection - Second Coming of Christ and Judgment Day - Structure of time: beginning, middle, end

Kierkegaard, "Fear and Trembling"

- "Fear and Trembling" is a philosophical work by Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. The book is centered around the story of Abraham and his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac as commanded by God, and Kierkegaard uses this story as a means to explore the nature of faith, ethics, and the individual's relationship with God. - Kierkegaard argues that faith requires a "teleological suspension of the ethical," meaning that in certain circumstances, ethical norms and duties must be set aside in order to fully obey God's will. This concept challenges traditional ethical theories and suggests that true faith involves a radical leap of faith beyond the confines of rationality and morality. - Kierkegaard also distinguishes between two types of faith: the "Knight of Faith" and the "Knight of Infinite Resignation." The Knight of Faith is someone who has fully surrendered their will to God and is willing to take the leap of faith, while the Knight of Infinite Resignation is someone who has given up on their own desires but has not fully embraced faith. - Overall, "Fear and Trembling" presents a radical interpretation of faith and the relationship between the individual and God, and it has been highly influential in the development of existentialist thought.

Wordsworth "Ode: Intimations of Immortality"

- "Ode: Intimations of Immortality" is a poem by William Wordsworth that reflects on the nature of childhood and the loss of innocence as individuals grow into adulthood. The poem is structured around the idea that in childhood, individuals have a sense of connection to a higher spiritual realm that is lost as they age. - Wordsworth argues that the experience of childhood gives individuals an innate sense of wonder and joy, which he calls "intimations of immortality." This sense of transcendence is linked to the idea that as children, individuals are more in touch with nature and the spiritual world. - As individuals age and lose this connection, they experience a sense of loss and melancholy. However, Wordsworth suggests that this loss can be partially overcome through memories of childhood and the contemplation of nature. - Overall, "Ode: Intimations of Immortality" is a reflection on the role of childhood in shaping individual identity and spirituality, and the importance of reconnecting with the natural world in order to regain a sense of transcendence and wonder.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

- 1749-1832 - Sturm und Drang, German Classicism, and German Romanticism - "Storm and Stress" → distinctive, heavy emotional movement - Main figure of 3 major literary movements

Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Section 2 | Main Ideas

- A goodwill alone is an unconditional good - It's not the consequences of the actions performed by the goodwill that are good: Its the willing itself; But what kind of willing is it? - How do we know what the nature of my will is so that we can judge whether or not it is good or bad? - You're not a good person if you're selfishly trying to promote your own happiness - If you act out "self-love" that's not going to make you a good person - Trying to be happy as your fundamental principle → selfish - What's the principle then? - In order to help us think about what the principle would be, then we should identify the actions that we praise: Actions that violate our duties are not good; not praiseworthy, no moral worth; What about actions that are consistent with our duty? Do we praise all of these actions?: Not necessarily (i.e. a shopkeeper gives proper change → would we praise this?); If the reason that the action is performed is not because of an immediate inclination but a mediate inclination then this is a selfish action; Imagine you have an immediate inclination to give proper change to children. It's not about best business interests. → does this have moral worth? Not really either - So then when will an action really have moral worth?: When your desires say you should do something else and you do the right thing anyways; do your duty not because of any inclination but rather because its your duty, that's when an action has moral worth; Its clearest that an action is done from duty if you don't have any inclinations that go in the same direction - We can't trust desires because they are going to get caused in all sorts of ways; not reliable lead to actions that are consistent with my duty: The only reliable lead to actions that are consistent with my duty is DUTY - Duty: not desire-based; out of self-respect and respect for others: Kant glosses this feeling of respect out of respect for the law; There is a law that determines that we must respect others; Actions have moral-worth if respect is for everyone; We need to think about what kind of law would be the right law that our feeling of respect would be directed towards; - Categorical imperative - The principle is "act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can and will that it will become a universal law": You can't make an exception of yourself; The law is the expression that "people shouldn't do this" - "I knew my actions were wrong but I convinced myself that normal rules don't apply. I thought only about myself..." - Tiger Woods

What is it that makes Abraham's faith so difficult?

- Abraham, not God, is supposed to murder Isaac. - Isaac represents the significance of Abraham's life. - Abraham did not take consolation in any possible rewards in a future life (heaven). - Abraham could not take the easy way out and kill himself instead of his son. - Neither Abraham nor anyone else can understand why Abraham is supposed to kill Isaac.

Ancient Science vs. Modern Science

- Ancient science, as practiced in civilizations such as ancient Greece and Rome, was largely based on philosophy and deductive reasoning. Ancient scientists sought to understand the natural world through abstract reasoning, logic, and intuition, rather than through observation and experimentation. They believed that the natural world was governed by a set of fundamental principles and laws that could be discovered through reason alone. - In contrast, modern science is based on the scientific method, which involves empirical observation, hypothesis testing, and experimentation. This approach began to emerge during the Scientific Revolution, as scientists such as Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton challenged the prevailing Aristotelian view of the universe and developed new methods for understanding the natural world. Modern science is characterized by its emphasis on observation, experimentation, and the development of testable theories and hypotheses. - Another key difference between ancient and modern science is the role of technology. Ancient scientists had limited access to advanced tools and instruments, which made it difficult to conduct precise measurements and observations. In contrast, modern scientists have access to a wide range of sophisticated technologies, including microscopes, telescopes, and computers, which have greatly expanded our ability to observe and understand the natural world.

In Chapter 2, Locke says that in the state of nature reason obligates every one in such a way that: "being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions". With this statement and in the surrounding passages, he claims that:

- Because God has created all human beings, they are God's property, and therefore they are not authorized to destroy either themselves or each other. - Because we have an obligation to preserve ourselves, we also have an obligation to preserve others as well, unless it is a matter of self-preservation (e.g., in a life-or-death competition). - In the state of nature, all human beings have the right to enforce their basic natural rights to life, health, liberty, and property by punishing those who would infringe on them and demanding reparation for the damages caused.

Structure of the Social Contract

- Book I: The nature of political authority Authority is based on convention (social contract) not on nature or force; What the social contract must be → distinctive of the modern period; disagreements on how it should be - Book II: Properties of the sovereign Inalienable, indivisible, its limits; On law, the legislator, and the people - Book III: On Government Has a will on its own; On the general structure of government; On specific forms of government; On the decline of government; Further features of government - Book IV: Miscellaneous Topics; Voting and election; On civil religion - Man has no natural authority over man - Force does not give rise to right - Conventions are the sole basis of all legal authority among men → the only way that political authority can be justified is that if we have a social contract

Match the name of the character with the description that fits them best. (CANDIDE)

- Candide: naive and highly susceptible to the influence of others - Pangloss: an eternal optimist, who argues from his philosophical views to reality rather than reverse - Martin: an eternal pessimist, who overlooks Cacambo's goodness - Cunegonde: the main female charcter - Cacambo: Candide's trusted servant

Lessing, The Education of Humankind | Intellectual Background: Reason and Revelation

- Consistent vs. inconsistent - If inconsistent: Choice of one over the other Skepticism about reason (Fideism, pure belief) Skepticism about revelation (Reimarus and Hume) - If consistent: No overlap Overlap (partial or complete) Reason proves what revelation reveals Revelation intimates what reason can't prove

Rousseau

- Context: 18th Century France and Europe Pessimistic view of climate at the time - Provides an analysis on how we've gotten to this state - Things can be better, but we have to agree on a different social contract - The social contract that Hobbes/Locke proposed is not a good idea - Rousseau believes his social contract is a good idea - Rousseau is a questionable person but has insightful beliefs - Born in Switzerland - Has a motto that if the rest of the world could be run like Geneva, we would be in good shape - Money laundering - Second Discourse → Discourse on Inequality - Written in response to the academy question "What is the origin of inequality among men? And is it authorized under natural law?" - How do you bring people together? ART → can be apolitical - Is the inequality that we find today necessary? Justified? Can we get rid of it? If so, how? - We live in a society where there is great inequality → how did it get to be this way? Was it inevitable or could we have avoided it? - Two sides of human beings: Physical powers, Mental powers - These are relatively equal among people - What are our primitive needs and desires in the state of nature? - Thirst, hunger, sleep Water, food, shelter - How hard is it to satisfy these in the state of nature? - Easy to satisfy these 3 desires → 100% satisfaction on life in the state of nature - We desire positional goods → built into the nature that a majority of people will not be satisfied - Needing the esteem of others is complicated because that is not under your control at all - The good in your life depends on the esteem and positional goods of others - Money buys you the power to show other people that you are rich - We can get rid of the bad parts of inequality → political equality - Some inequality is inevitable and natural - Some are man-made, artificial - Social contract targets political inequality - All of this depends on Rousseau's description on the state of nature → accurate? Compared to Hobbes and Locke? Rousseau believes they misdescribe humans in the state of nature; takes civilized man and puts them back into nature and attributes them to things that they wouldn't naturally have → physical being and moral properties (intellectual properties) - Only have in civilized society - The only way we can get rid of miserable inequality is by moving forward - Social contract will tell us how to do this

Rousseau and the Enlightenment

- Criticisms: Precursor to the Romantics Denial of progress Pessimistic analysis of contemporary society Greater stress on historical dimension Organic (rather than mechanistic) metaphors - Advocacy: Stress on autonomy and freedom Acceptance of reason → can't just go back to the state of nature; use reason in better ways Critical of religion (in some forms, political authorities, superstition) Critical of (current) institutions

David Hume

- David Hume takes up a radical stance → believe that God DOESN'T exist b/c then it is very clear about what human's duty is - All based on our sensory experience; this is why you have to spend so much time in the lab → need empirical evidence to justify whatever scientific theory you are working on - Considers an argument based on testimony If you believe something without empirical evidence, you are just guessing → higher chance of being wrong If you have a lot of strong evidence → you should hold your belief strongly 1) Portion your belief to your evidence 2) A law of nature is that which has the best possible empirical evidence in its favor in terms of quality and quantity 3) A miracle is just a violation of the laws of nature - We should not believe that miracles occur b/c we have all this empirical evidence that is against miracles

Romanticism

- Different proposal to make progress - Focus on the individual and what is specific to the individual: Also focus on community and how we are defined within our community; Each community is different too; Unity amidst differences - What makes me significant is not my rationality, which all humans have, but instead it's more important to identify other features → particular individual commitments - Focus on the differences between communities and the relationships between them - Everybody should be treated differently because people are different → respect differences → harmonious relationship - How do you do this? NOT by acting according to a law that treats everyone the same b/c the law doesn't discriminate - They don't have a law that tells you how to act - You have to sense difference between people and creatively react accordingly - HISTORY is going to matter - Suspend the moral law → examine your relationship with God or political leader instead - Organic metaphors of living things → communities → united - Romanticism was characterized by a focus on emotion, imagination, and individual expression. Romantic thinkers believed in the power of the individual to create and transform the world, and rejected the strict rules and conventions of society. They emphasized the importance of nature, and often sought to escape from the constraints of civilization. They also believed in the importance of intuition and the irrational, and celebrated the beauty and mystery of the world.

Goethe's The Sufferings of Young Werther | Literary Form

- Epistolary novel - Subjective perspective of main character dominates - Editorial intervention - Provides information excluded by epistolary form - Provides independent moral framework - De-glamorizes suicide

Hume's argument assumes which of the following premises:

- Experience has very firmly established the laws of nature. - The testimony in favor of the existence of miracles is suspect in several respects and is thus not strong. - One should proportion one's belief to the testimony. - A miracle is a violation of the laws of nature.

Lessing, The Education of Humankind | First Stage of Development: Childhood

- God gave us the OT as a primer for religious instruction in our childhood - Means of Instruction: - Idolatry & images - Only punishment & rewards are effective - No knowledge of immortality of soul - Later, reciprocity between reason & revelation - Positive & negative features of primer - Exercises, allusions and hints; clothing added to abstract → obstacles removed - Every primer is only for a certain age

On the Social Contract, Book 3: On the Structure of Government

- Government is a body intermediate between subjects and the sovereign for: - Mutual communication → public deliberation - Execution of laws and preservation of liberty - Balance of dangers in general - If the agent of the government is a single person, the danger is that he will act on his private will rather than according to the general will - If the agent of the government is large in number then the execution of business will be slowed and opportunities missed

Lessing and the Enlightenment

- Heavy emphasis on Reason: Esp. natural religion (vs. positive); The development of reason in man is progressive - Reason is universal: Natural religion is the same for all - Stops short of extreme positions: Attributes (minimal) role to positive religion; Accepts rationality of religious belief

On the Social Contract, Book 1: Justification of Authority

- How can authority be justified? - What can we be coerced to do? - Who can we be coerced by? - How can we justify the coercion? - We need to have a proper sense of what human beings are like and how that's consistent with rights - Freedom is absolutely essential for human beings - There are all these expectations from others that subjugate and enslave us - Man has no natural authority over man - Force does not give rise to right - Conventions are the sole basis of all legal authority among men → the only way that political authority can be justified is that if we have a social contract

What would an Enlightenment attitude towards religion be?

- Hume → if you follow the scientific method and be a reasonable person, then evidence suggests that you should not believe in God's existence Claims it is not reasonable to accept faith - Kant → develop rational capacities to do the right thing → ties in w/ morality One condition on whether you deserve to be happy → depends entirely on you → "are you a good person" → decided based on your decision to pursue personal happiness, self-interest vs. treat others w/ respect → when it comes down to it, what are you going to do? When you decide you'll see that certain actions are wrong → how do you deserve to be happy? → this is super important to us → our ability make our own decisions depends on how we act - Locke → natural rights; if the government doesn't protect your rights, then you have the right to defend yourself

In Chapter 9, Locke claims that the primary reason for consenting to leave the state of nature and entering civil society is to better preserve property. The state of nature is deficient in this regard because:

- If the application of laws to particular cases is not determined by a known and indifferent judge, men will be governed by passion and revenge and make poor decisions of how the law applies to their own cases. - If an individual does not have sufficient power to enforce the law as it applies to their own case, then one's right to punish transgressors and demand reparation will be compromised. - If the law is not public knowledge, men will not want to allow it as a law that binds them in their particular case.

Kant, "What is Enlightenment?" | Main Ideas

- If we just follow reason, we will be able to make progress - What are our cognitive capacities? - We need to be careful of what kinds of claims we have knowledge of and what kind of claims might go beyond our knowledge - A theory of everything → in science we want to be able to explain every single natural phenomenon - We can't make progress regarding claims that we are limited in knowledge of - What happens if our reason is limited? Or what happens when there are certain subject matters that reason can't pronounce? - Not as naive as first generation of the Enlightenment - We need to think for ourselves - Immaturity → self-incurred; if we're in a state where we are immature and its our own fault - Have the courage to think for yourself!

Goethe's The Sufferings of Young Werther | What's the point?

- Importance of feelings - Is the central figure Werther or Lotte? - Fundamental choice that a woman needs to make? Functional, enlightenment husband vs. the exact opposite

Lessing on Positive and Natural Religion

- In EoH, it points us to the right doctrines, making it easier for natural religion - But, inner truth of all natural religion is the same - Best pos. Religion contains fewest conventions

Rousseau remarks that the "passage from the state of nature to the civil state produces quite a remarkable change in man". The changes are:

- Instead of being ruled by one's natural desires, one can be master of himself by obeying a law one has prescribed to oneself. - Instead of focussing solely on himself, he develops his faculties, broadens his ideas, and his feelings are ennobled. - Man loses the right to pursue whatever he wants (limited by what one can manage), but gains civil liberty (limited by the general will) and proprietary ownership.

How is Johannes de silencio different from Abraham?

- Johannes would have been embarrassed to get Isaac back again, while Abraham would have been joyful. - Johannes could not accept the absurd paradox that God would both require Abraham's sacrifice and spare Isaac, whereas Abraham can accept that. - Johannes is a Knight of Infinite Resignation, while Abraham is a Knight of Faith.

Locke, Second Treatise of Government (chp. 1-5)

- John Locke's Second Treatise of Government, Chapters 1-5, explores the concept of political power and the origins of political authority. - In Chapter 1, Locke argues that political power is derived from the people, and governments exist to protect the natural rights of individuals. - In Chapter 2, Locke discusses the state of nature, where individuals have freedom and equality, but also face the risk of violence and conflict. - In Chapter 3, Locke asserts that the social contract exists between the people and the government, where the people agree to give up some of their natural rights in exchange for protection and security. - In Chapter 4, Locke argues that the government's authority is limited and that it has a duty to protect the natural rights of its citizens. - Finally, in Chapter 5, Locke explores the concept of property rights and argues that individuals have a natural right to property and that the government must protect these rights.

Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Section 1 | Main Ideas

- Kant is addressing our moral status as human beings: What should we do and not do? There are limits on what we can/cannot do; We have an obligation to help people in need - Goal: Clarify the nature of moral obligation: Think about everyday examples (what drives our thought); Nothing extravagant - What is unconditionally good?: The goodwill is unconditionally good; what is unconditionally good is the good will What is good no matter what? Under any condition? What is goodwill? If it is dependent on something else, then it is not unconditionally good Not money, not power, what about happiness? And health? - More important than happiness is whether or not you're a good person: You must keep into perspective how you're thinking about your happiness and what kind of person you are - What kind of person should we be? - It's the willing itself that makes the goodwill good - What makes the goodwill good is not all the effects of your actions, but rather the nature of your actions - It's the principle of the matter that's important

Lessing's Conception of History

- Lessing continues to adhere to a biblical chronology: Beginning, middle and (still obscure) end; Stages are defined by religious events or evidence; What is important is the rationality of humans - Lessing adds a developmental account of reason for the human race: Lessing conceives of history as progressive; Development of reason is more basic, since the ultimate purpose of religious instruction is to do his duty on the basis of reason

Thomas Hobbes

- Lived through the civil war → the worst - Believed in the scientific revolution → wanted a rational justification not theological - What would life be like in a state of nature? - Life is going to be nasty, brutish, and short - Every man for himself - You need an agreement and a enforcement mechanism → Social Contract - The rational thing to do is give up your rights to kill others, as long as there is protection from other people killing you - There needs to be a stronger, more powerful enforcement mechanism that keeps people in line and enforce this contract - The ruler has to be very powerful and a deterrent

Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Section 2 | Categorical Imperative

- Moral obligations take the form of something we "should" do - Imperatives: "should" or "ought" statements - Contrasts categorical imperative with hypothetical imperatives (normative force depends on something else (i.e. particular desire)) - Moral obligations are NOT hypothetical → their normative force obtained regardless of the dependent → act in accordance with categorical imperatives - It's okay to treat people as means but not ONLY as means: You can't use people

Goethe's The Sufferings of Young Werther | Outline of Major Themes

- Nature: Nature (enjoying himself) vs. social life Freedom vs. constraint Nature is an active force and source vs. something to be mastered Werther's emotional connection to nature (weather connected w/ his emotions) Transformation in Werther's attitude Anticipation of Romantic Conception - Social groups: Nobility (Werther doesn't really get along with them) Bourgeoise (too complicated/high standards) Peasants (gets along with well) Children (great) - Suicide: Werther's "justifications" Suicide is inevitable? Natural consequence of disease (8-12) Relieve suffering (3-16) Gain eternal freedom Atonement for sin (11-24, 12-20) Sacrifice (12-20) - Goethe's critical stance: Be a man, don't do that - Multiple instances of foreshadowing - Only possible resolution?

On the Social Contract, Book 3: On the Structure of Government | Specific forms of government

- On Democracy (majority rule): Impracticable, requires (too many) specific conditions (small homogeneous state) - On Aristocracy (plurality less than majority): Elective aristocracy is best, but the danger if nation large - On Monarchy (one person rules): Private will has greater sway and dominates more easily, and gaps and variability in leaders

Lessing, The Education of Humankind | Third Stage of Development: Maturity/Adulthood

- Only hints of this kind of instruction - Purpose is clear: man is to do his duty, do the right thing because it is right and not because of arbitrary rewards: Reduction of Christian religion to secular ethics

On the Social Contract, Book 1: Justification of Authority | Clarification of the Social Contract

- Private vs. common interests? - General will vs. the will of all - The general will considers only the public good, whereas the will of all is simply the sum of what each private citizen wants - Property rights - Right of first occupant vs. proprietary ownership - Equality - "Instead of destroying natural equality, the fundamental compact substitutes a moral and legitimate equality to whatever physical nature may have been able to impose" - Comparison with Hobbes's and Locke's social contract - Rousseau suggests that we give up everything besides our own individual rights that everyone else has - Balance Sheet: Losses: - Natural liberty (limited by individual's force) - Possession (force or right of first occupancy) Gains: - Civil liberty (limited by the general will) - Proprietary ownership (based on a positive title) - Moral liberty (obedience to a law on - Freely coerced by laws b/c consenting

Lessing, The Education of Humankind | Intellectual Background: Reimarus

- Professor in Hamburg - Reimarus's (radical) religious views: - Any rational being is Christian - Only proper basis for Christianity is reason - Mysteries have corrupted Christianity - Attack on positive religion: - No miracles - Biblical criticism → standard way of reading the Bible as God's word is wrong; he believed it was clearly written by people who had contexts; should not be read literally but should be approached with critical thinking - Distinction between Christ and Christians

Lessing, The Education of Humankind | Second Stage of Development: Youth

- Religious instruction via NT: Means of instruction; Punishments & rewards have been outgrown - Christ is the first practical teacher of the immortality of the soul - Duty and freedom are now ideals: Our freedom is more important than punishments and rewards - Relation between reason and revelation: What had been taught as revelation can be proven via reason; New revealed doctrines can prove reason on

Rousseau's Main Ideas

- Rousseau's main question: What is the nature of political authority? - It rests on a social contract whereby all renounce their rights to everyone else for their mutual preservation - This act creates a general will/body politico that aims for the common good, while still preserving the individual freedom and autonomy of all. - It produces a remarkable transformation in human beings; they are defined by their relationship to others with whom they form a body politic - Rather than a very individualistic way w/ private interests, Rousseau has a much more social lens; When I engage with a social contract, I become a citizen and thus have political equality. I redefine myself in such a way that I also have the kind of equality I'm looking for and I still retain my freedom.

In Section 11, Hume objects to the argument on the following grounds:

- The existence of evil and disorder is inconsistent with the existence of a perfect God. - Our observation of the world, which is finite, does not give us reason to infer that its cause must be infinite (e.g., be infinitely powerful, infinitely knowledgeable, and infinitely good). - The evidence supports the existence of a plurality of causes as much as it does a single cause. - Even if we were justified in inferring to the existence of an infinite God, we cannot infer to the existence of any effects (e.g., in the future) that we have not seen previously.

Key Differences between the Enlightenment and Romanticism

- The role of reason: Enlightenment thinkers believed that reason was the key to understanding the world and improving society, while Romantic thinkers believed in the power of emotion and imagination. - The role of nature: Enlightenment thinkers saw nature as a resource to be harnessed and controlled, while Romantic thinkers saw nature as a source of inspiration and a refuge from civilization. - Attitudes towards tradition: Enlightenment thinkers rejected traditional authority and dogma, while Romantic thinkers often celebrated the past and valued tradition as a source of inspiration. - Attitudes towards the individual: Enlightenment thinkers emphasized the importance of individual freedom and human rights, while Romantic thinkers celebrated the unique qualities of the individual and the power of personal expression.

At the beginning of Chapter 2, Locke writes: "To understand political power right..., we must consider what state men are naturally in, and that is, a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their possessions and persons as they think fit ... without asking leave or depending on the will of any other man. A state also of equality, wherein all the power ... is reciprocal." In this passage, Locke is claiming that:

- To understand political power properly, one has to understand what human beings are like in a state of nature. - In a state of nature, human beings are free and equal. - In this context, to be free means that one has the right to act without having to get permission from other human beings. - In this context, to be equal means that because they belong to the same species, human beings are not subordinate to each other unless God has appointed one person to be in charge.

On the Social Contract, Book 4: Miscellanea

- Voting and Elections: The relevant considerations are people's opinions on the common good, not what may be in their own best interest - On Civil Religion: Relation between politics and religion historically (first, theocracy, then Christianity) - Three religions: religion of 1) man, 2) citizen, 3) priest → all have their faults Third has nothing to be said for it. Second unites but is based on lies and superstition. First is best but has no relation to body politic (worries it is not sufficiently robust to bring us all together) States should promote a purely civil profession of faith

Goethe's The Sufferings of Young Werther | Plot

- Werther arrives in a new place, meets and falls in love with Lotte (even though he knows she's engaged with Albert) - Albert arrives, Werther's unhappiness and departure Werther returns, increased woes, climax - Climax: Kiss, Suicide, Resolution - Plot only plays a minor role - Few external incursions

Goethe's The Sufferings of Young Werther | Main Characters

- Werther: Talenged, isolated, emotionally volatile, protagonist Mentally ill (severe depression) - Lotte: Idealized woman of virtue Talented, educated Ambiguity in affections Likes werther, empathizes with him, but also likes albert who she is engaged with - Albert: Representative of enlightenment values Reliable, makes sure people get what they need Despite friendship, incapable of understanding Werther

On the Social Contract, Book 2: Properties of the Sovereign

- What is a law? - Universality of will and of object - It wouldn't be legitimate to say that someone has power over another - Dangers regarding laws - Populace must "be made safe from the seduction of private wills" and judge what the common good truly is. It needs a guide. - We need to figure out what the common good is and the public deliberation is an important part of that. However it is helpful to have someone to articulate what the common good is. We need someone what the general will really is as opposed to some private interest that may appear as common goods - Difficult tasks for the legislator - Laws must fit the people to whom they apply

On the Social Contract, Book 1: Justification of Authority | The "True Foundation of Society"

- What is the difference between master-slave and ruler-people relations? - What is the difference between society as it currently exists and what would things be like if we had a legitimate political authority? - There's a different relationship between subduing and ruling - Aggregation vs. association - Slaves dont have any relationship with each other but there is an important relationship between those who rule - Private interests vs. public goods - No rivalry over public goods (air, streets, lampposts) - In a ruler-people relation, therese going to be an important role of public goods - Individuals vs. body politic - What is the act whereby a people becomes a people (a body politic)? - Public deliberation → we've got to come together and think about what would be good for others interests - Unanimous consent (not simply majority) - Majority rule is a "convention and presumed unanimity on at least one occasion"

On the Social Contract, Book 3: On the Structure of Government | The Abuse & Death of Government

- What might cause the government's degeneration? - Dissolution of government (through prince or magistrates usurping power) - Rousseau's pessimism about the duration of states follows from his analysis - Organic metaphors (body politic, life, etc).

Presuppositions of modern science

- Where is the authority of these laws coming from? - Presupposes which features matter (quantitative vs. qualitative) - What properties are relevant about human beings?

Locke does not think that the fact that most human beings are born as members of a civil society is a good objection to his view that we are members of a civil society only if we consent to being members. Locke responds to this objection:

- by distinguishing between explicit and tacit consent and noting that implicit consent suffices for membership in a civil society - by noting that as soon as one enjoys the benefits of a government (e.g., by having possessions that are protected by the government), one has given one's tacit consent to it.

When Schiller writes: "When therefore Reason introduces her moral unity into physical society, she must not injure the multiplicity of Nature. When Nature strives to maintain her multiplicity in the moral structure of society, there must be no rupture in its moral unity", he is

- expressing the idea that there must be a harmony between the individual and the state and that prioritizing the one over the other cannot work. - expressing the conditions that have to be met to solve the political problem that motivates his project

In "Is there such a thing as a teleological suspension of the ethical?", Kierkegaard maintains that

- faith is not only paradoxical, but also cannot be thought at all (in the sense that we cannot make good sense of it). - the individual as the particular person he or she is is superior to and not subordinate to the universal (human nature). - the individual is who he or she is by virtue of an absolute relationship to the absolute (God). - the fact that Abraham does not murder Isaac, but rather is fully prepared to sacrifice him is an example of the teleological suspension of the ethical.

When Hume considers whether one can infer future effects from an unobserved cause, which of the following examples does he consider:

- half-finished buildings - footprints in the sand

Enlightenment

- progress, science (laws), secularization - Presupposition of scientific method → anyone can perform it; anyone can come up with the laws of nature; geared towards the laws of nature - Important concept b/c laws have a universal scope → apply to everything universally and equally - Given that it applies to everyone equally → then why is there inequality? Look to the laws of nature (both political and moral) - Whether we make progress or not depends on us → the laws that we make; doesn't have to be God's laws that are representative - The notion of a law presupposes that the law governs everything provided that it has one particular feature - We have REASON and RATIONALE → legislate the moral law and consent to laws being proposed - The Enlightenment was characterized by a focus on reason, science, and rationality. Enlightenment thinkers believed in the power of the human mind to understand the world and solve problems. They emphasized the importance of individual freedom and human rights, and rejected traditional authority and dogma. They also believed in progress and the idea that society could be improved through scientific and rational methods.

The Declaration of Independence...

- provides an extensive list of grievances that show why it is reasonable for them to think that King George III is a tyrant. - lists the various appeals that they have made to King George III to redress the injustices they have suffered. - makes clear that the colonists are committing their possessions, their honor, and their lives to the cause.

The New Testament differs from the Old Testament, according to Lessing, because

- punishments and rewards have been outgrown. - it teaches of the immortality of the soul - duty and freedom are now ideals

Rousseau describes three different kinds of religion and notes the advantages and disadvantages of each. Match the religion with its advantages and disadvantages

- religion of the man: this religion reveals men to be children of the same God and thus brothers, but the bonds that unite them are weak - religion of the priest: two leaders, two homelands, and two sets of contradictory duties, and thus breaks up social unity - religion of the citizen: makes laws sacred and unifies people, but it makes them intolerant and superstitious

The structure of Candide can be plausibly understood as consisting of:

- several parts: each part is determined by Candide's interactions with one main figure (Pangloss, Martin, Cunegonde, Martin, etc.) - three parts: the old world (10 chapters), the new world (10 chapters), and the old world again (10 chapters) - two parts: before and after Eldorado

What truths do the authors of the Declaration of Independence hold to be self-evident?

- that purpose of governments is to secure certain unalienable rights. - that government derives political authority from the agreement (consent) of the people governed - that the people have the right to abolish the government if it does not serve its purpose. - that all men are created equal and are endowed with certain unalienable rights. - that the people have the right to institute a new government.

Rousseau argues that the government invariably destroys the body politic (and thus the general will), because

- the body politic is a body just the like a human body where it is natural that old age and, eventually, death destroy it: "Just as the private will acts constantly against the general will, so the government makes a continual effort against sovereignty. The more this effort increases, the more the constitution is altered. And since there is here no other corporate will that, by resisting the will of the prince, would create an equilibrium with it, sooner or later the prince must finally oppress the sovereign and break the social treaty. That is the inherent and inevitable vice that, from the birth of the body politic, tends unceasingly to destroy it, just as old age and death destroy the human body" (p. 212) - the government is run by human beings with private wills who will attempt to get their way: "Just as the private will acts constantly against the general will, so the government makes a continual effort against sovereignty. The more this effort increases, the more the constitution is altered. And since there is here no other corporate will that, by resisting the will of the prince, would create an equilibrium with it, sooner or later the prince must finally oppress the sovereign and break the social treaty. That is the inherent and inevitable vice that, from the birth of the body politic, tends unceasingly to destroy it, just as old age and death destroy the human body" (p. 212)

The overall tenor of Locke's argument is to show that political power is rooted in

- the consent of the people - the natural rights of people

Kant's primary intended audience in "What is Enlightenment?" is

- the reading public - King Frederick the Great

Rousseau argues that countries can have different forms of government because

- the surplus of labor produced in different countries varies. - monarchies, oligarchies, and democracies have different needs. - climates have different effects on those governed and on the kind of government that they need. - different forms of government have different ends (e.g., governing subjects so as to make them happy, or making them miserable so as to govern them)

When the Declaration of Independence announces that the thirteen colonies are "Free and Independent States", it means that

- the thirteen colonies are free from each other in that each one has the power to do what any other nation can do. - the thirteen colonies are free from King George's rule

In the pre-modern period, there were 3 kinds of sources of evidence

1) Common sense → the sun rises + sets 2) Aristotle → science was a matter of determining what causes what; many of the explanations are qualitative; qualitative differences → different types of forms → different causes - Efficient causation (push/pull) - Formal cause (relevant shape that points to what happens) - Material cause (what something is made of) - Final cause (purpose/goal) 3) The Bible → the biblical narrative is crucial because it is the book that reveals God's purpose and intention for us; distinguishes us from creatures

Why does Candide leave Eldorado?

Though happy, he did not think that he was special enough.

Voltaire, Candide

Candide is a novel by Voltaire that satirizes the optimistic philosophy of Leibniz. The story follows the young man Candide, who is indoctrinated with the philosophy that "all is for the best in this best of all possible worlds." Candide experiences a series of calamities, including being expelled from his home, witnessing the brutality of war, and experiencing natural disasters. Through his experiences, Candide comes to question the optimistic philosophy he was taught, and the novel satirizes the idea that the world is perfect and benevolent. The story also touches on themes such as religious hypocrisy, greed, and corruption. Despite the many tragedies he endures, Candide eventually comes to the conclusion that the best course of action is to cultivate one's own garden, which is often interpreted as a metaphor for the importance of personal responsibility and self-reliance. The novel is known for its biting satire, wit, and philosophical commentary on human nature and the nature of the world.

At the very end of Section 10, Hume suggests (albeit without insisting) that the universe is of "so singular and so particular of a nature" that it is after all completely reasonable to infer both to the existence of God and to a "future state", since the objections he had raised against these inferences were based on empirical principles that are quite dissimilar to the universe as a whole.

FALSE

In Section 10 of Hume's Enquiry, he argues not only that we shouldn't believe in miracles, but also that miracles are impossible, i.e., cannot happen.

FALSE

What is the most basic point that Voltaire is trying to make in Candide?

He wants to expose the grave and widespread injustices that are happening throughout the world.

Schiller, On the Aesthetic Education of Man, Letters 21-24

In Letters 21-24 of "On the Aesthetic Education of Man," Friedrich Schiller argues that aesthetic education can help to create a free and harmonious society. He suggests that the pursuit of aesthetic experience can help individuals to overcome the limitations of their individuality and connect with a universal humanity. Schiller also discusses the importance of education in cultivating the aesthetic sense, particularly in children, and asserts that aesthetic experience can help to develop a sense of morality and virtue. He argues that society should prioritize the cultivation of beauty and art to create a more harmonious and free society. Additionally, Schiller discusses the role of art in cultural and political critique, asserting that art can be a powerful tool for challenging oppressive systems and advocating for change. Overall, Schiller's Letters 21-24 emphasize the importance of aesthetic experience and education in creating a more just and free society.

Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Section 1 | Summary

In Section 1 of the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Immanuel Kant argues that moral actions must be performed out of duty rather than for personal gain or inclination. He believes that the morality of an action depends not on its consequences or the character of the person performing it, but on the intention behind the action. Kant argues that the only thing that is inherently good is a good will, or a will that is motivated by a sense of duty and a commitment to moral principles. He distinguishes between actions that are morally required, morally permissible, and morally prohibited, and suggests that the moral law is based on the principle of universality, which requires that moral rules apply equally to all individuals. Overall, Kant's argument in Section 1 sets the groundwork for his ethical theory, emphasizing the importance of rationality and duty in moral decision-making.

Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (sect. 10)

In Section 10 of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, David Hume discusses the idea of miracles and argues that they are not a reasonable basis for belief in a religion. Hume defines a miracle as a violation of natural law, and he asserts that it is more reasonable to believe that the natural law has not been violated than to believe in a miracle. He argues that miracles are typically reported by people who have a vested interest in promoting a particular religion, and that there is often no independent verification of the miracle. Hume also asserts that the laws of nature are established by experience, and that the evidence for a miracle must be stronger than the evidence for the natural law that it violates. Ultimately, Hume concludes that belief in miracles is not a reasonable basis for belief in a religion, and that a religion should be based on reason and evidence rather than on supposed supernatural events.

Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (sect. 11)

In Section 11 of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, David Hume discusses the relationship between religion and morality. He argues that there is no necessary connection between the two, and that moral principles can be derived from reason and experience rather than from religious belief. Hume asserts that morality is based on the sentiment of humanity, and that this sentiment is a natural and universal aspect of human nature. He argues that the principles of morality are self-evident and do not require religious authority to be recognized as valid. Hume also contends that religious beliefs can sometimes be harmful to morality, as they may encourage fanaticism and intolerance. In conclusion, Hume suggests that reason and experience should be the basis for moral principles, rather than religious dogma.

Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Section 2 | Summary

In Section 2 of the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Immanuel Kant continues to develop his ethical theory by examining the concept of the good will in more depth. He argues that the good will is the only thing that is intrinsically valuable and that other things, such as intelligence or happiness, are only valuable insofar as they are used for good moral ends. Kant also introduces the concept of the categorical imperative, which is a universal moral principle that requires individuals to act in such a way that their actions could be made into a universal law. He argues that the categorical imperative is the ultimate source of moral obligation and that it requires individuals to treat all people as ends in themselves, rather than as means to an end. Finally, Kant argues that the moral law is not dependent on the existence of God or any other external authority, but is instead a product of human reason and rationality. Overall, Section 2 of the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals builds on Kant's earlier arguments, providing a more detailed account of his ethical theory and the role of reason and duty in moral decision-making.

Rousseau, On the Social Contract

In the Social Contract, Jean-Jacques Rousseau argues that society and government are based on a social contract between citizens and the state. He believes that the purpose of government is to protect the general will, or the common good, of the people. Rousseau contends that the people should have a direct say in the government through participation in democratic processes, rather than through representatives who may not truly represent the interests of the people. He argues that individual liberty is necessary for a just society, but that it must be balanced with the needs of the collective. Rousseau also discusses the importance of education in creating a society of citizens who are capable of participating in government and making informed decisions. Overall, On the Social Contract is a philosophical exploration of the nature of government and the relationship between the state and the people, and it is considered one of the foundational texts of modern political theory.

When Schiller writes "we must indeed, if we are to solve that political problem in practice, follow the path of aesthetics, since it is through Beauty that we arrive at Freedom", what is the political problem that needs to be solved?

Instead of submitting to the demands of utility (e.g., the economic demands of the business world), we must determine what the destiny of human beings should be and what laws we should live by.

Locke, Second Treatise of Government (chp. 8-11)

John Locke's Second Treatise of Government, Chapters 8-11, explore the concept of political authority and the role of the government in protecting individual rights. - In Chapter 8, Locke argues that the legislative power is the supreme authority in a government and that it must act in the best interest of the people. - In Chapter 9, Locke discusses the relationship between the legislative and executive powers and the need for checks and balances to prevent abuse of power. - In Chapter 10, Locke argues that the people have the right to overthrow a government that fails to protect their rights and freedoms. - Finally, in Chapter 11, Locke discusses the role of religion in politics and argues that the government has no authority over an individual's conscience or religious beliefs. He also asserts that religious tolerance is necessary for a stable and peaceful society.

On the Social Contract, Book 1: Justification of Authority | The Fundamental Problem and the Solution: Social Contract

Problem: "Find a form of association which defends and protects with all common forces the person and good of each associate, and by means of which each one, while uniting with all, nevertheless obeys only himself and remains as free as before" (164) How can one be free and yet be governed by law? Solution: - What is the nature of the social contract? - "The total alienation of each associate, with all of his rights, to the entire community" - Since all relinquish all rights, it is equal for all. Since equal, no one will want to make it burdensome. - Since rights are given to all, they are given to no one. - Since I have the same right to X as X has over me, I get as much as I give, plus greater force for my preservation. - "Each of us places his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will and we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole," (164).

According to Lessing, the Old Testament maintains that only punishments and rewards are effective.

TRUE

According to Locke, the only way to leave the state of nature and enter civil society is by giving one's consent, and once a body politic has been formed by means of a plurality of people giving their consent, this body has the power to act as a body according to the will of the majority (unless there was an express agreement otherwise).

TRUE

Hume endorses the principle that one should proportion one's belief to the evidence. Thus, if you have strong evidence in favor of a certain claim, you should hold it firmly, whereas if you have very little evidence in favor of a certain claim, you should hold it less firmly. (This principle lies at the foundation of natural science.

TRUE

In Fear and Trembling, Johannes de silentio (John of Silence) notes (in the Preface) that he is not attempting to go beyond faith, and is therefore not professing any philosophical system. And in the Prelude, he retells the story of Abraham in such a way as to make the nature of Abraham's faith clear.

TRUE

In addition to Hegel's thought, Kant's moral philosophy, with the Categorical Imperative applying unconditionally to all, is an expression of what Kierkegaards characterizes as "the ethical".

TRUE

In the second half of Part II of Section 10, Hume claims that the conclusion to be drawn from his argument against rational belief in the existence of miracles is limited to those miracles that would be a proper foundation for a system of religion. He acknowledges that it can be rational to believe in the existence of miracles otherwise.

TRUE

Kant holds that a human being is not only subject to the moral law but also gives the moral law to himself/herself.

TRUE

Kant thinks that duty, what we are obligated to do, morally speaking, can be expressed in the form of a Categorical Imperative as follows: act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.

TRUE

Kant thinks that human beings are ends in themselves, which means that it is wrong to use them solely as means to your ends.

TRUE

Lotte is faced with a choice between Werther and Albert and has difficulty deciding.

TRUE

Rousseau objects that Locke's and Hobbes's descriptions of the state of nature are based on human desires that can be produced only by society (e.g, ideas of private property).

TRUE

Schiller thinks that the ancient Greeks, who naturally harmonized with the state and within themselves, can provide a role model for solving the political problem that Europe faced at the time, which arose from the intellect creating divisions that destroyed the natural unity of the Greeks.

TRUE

The authors of the Declaration of Independence claim that King George III ruled over the colonies as an absolute despot/tyrant.

TRUE

The primary argument that is at issue in §11 of Hume's Enquiry claims that God must exist because the order of nature displays marks of intelligence and design and it would be extravagant to attribute the cause of such features to chance or to mere matter.

TRUE

Werther feels more at home in nature than he does in society.

TRUE

Rousseau is concerned that people are in agreement about what the public good is and how it should be promoted. If there are vast differences between the private wills of individuals which then taken precedence over the general will, it leads to the decline of the state.

TRUE: "The more harmony reigns in the assemblies, that is to say, the closer opinions come to unanimity, the more dominant too is the general will. But long debates, dissensions, and tumult betoken the ascendance of private interests and the decline of the state". (p. 226)

The Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence is a document adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, declaring the 13 American colonies independent from British rule. The document begins with a preamble, which sets forth the principles of natural rights and popular sovereignty. It asserts that all people are created equal and are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The Declaration then goes on to detail a list of grievances against the British government, including violations of individual rights, unfair taxation, and a lack of representation in government. The document concludes with a bold assertion of the colonies' right to independence and self-government, and it is signed by the representatives of the 13 colonies. The Declaration of Independence is a seminal document in the history of the United States, and it has been influential in shaping ideas of liberty, democracy, and human rights around the world.

Declaration of the Rights of Man & of the Citizen | Summary

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is a document adopted by the French National Assembly in 1789 during the French Revolution. The document asserts that all men are born free and equal in rights, including the rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. It also declares that the purpose of government is to protect these rights and that sovereignty resides in the people. The declaration further states that individuals have the right to participate in government, either directly or through representatives, and that taxation should be based on the principle of consent. The document also affirms the principles of freedom of speech, religion, and the press, and declares that law should apply equally to all citizens. Overall, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was a significant step toward modern democratic ideals, and it has been influential in shaping political discourse and constitutions around the world.

Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (pp. 45-92)

The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality by Jean-Jacques Rousseau is a philosophical work that explores the concept of inequality in human society. Rousseau argues that inequality is not a natural state of being, but rather a product of the development of human civilization. He traces the progression of society from a state of nature to the emergence of private property and social hierarchy, which he views as the main sources of inequality. Rousseau also criticizes the development of the arts and sciences, which he sees as a further source of inequality and oppression. He suggests that the only way to restore equality in society is to return to a state of nature or a society based on cooperation and shared resources. Rousseau emphasizes the importance of education and moral values as means of creating a just and equal society. The discourse is a critique of modern society and a call for a return to a more primitive state of human existence.

Lessing, The Education of Humankind

The Education of Humankind is a philosophical work by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing that explores the role of education in human society. Lessing argues that education is essential for individuals to develop their own intellect and become fully realized human beings. He emphasizes the importance of critical thinking and free inquiry, rejecting the idea of dogmatic belief and the unquestioning acceptance of authority. Lessing also discusses the importance of education in promoting social progress and the development of democratic institutions. He argues that a well-educated citizenry is necessary for the functioning of a just and equitable society. The Education of Humankind is an influential work in the history of educational philosophy, and its ideas have had a lasting impact on the development of modern educational systems.

The Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution was a period of major advancements in science, technology, and philosophy that took place in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century. This period marked a significant shift from ancient to modern science, with a new emphasis on empirical observation and experimentation as the basis for scientific inquiry.

Goethe's The Sufferings of Young Werther Summary

The Sufferings of Young Werther is a novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe that tells the story of a young artist named Werther who falls deeply in love with a woman named Lotte, who is already engaged to another man. Werther becomes increasingly despondent and depressed as he realizes that his love for Lotte is hopeless. He eventually takes his own life, and the novel explores themes of unrequited love, existential despair, and the struggles of youth. The novel is written in an epistolary form, with Werther's thoughts and feelings revealed through his letters to a friend. The Sufferings of Young Werther is considered a key work of the Sturm und Drang movement, which emphasized individualism and emotional intensity. The novel has had a significant cultural impact, with Werther becoming a symbol of romanticism and a cultural icon for young people in particular. New inner world is revealed - Fundamental Ambiguity: In Goethe In us

US Constitution

The United States Constitution is a written document that outlines the fundamental principles and laws that govern the United States. It was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and has been amended 27 times since its adoption. The Constitution creates a federal system of government with three branches: the legislative, executive, and judicial. It establishes a system of checks and balances, in which each branch of government has the power to limit the others to prevent abuse of power. The Constitution also outlines the powers and responsibilities of the federal government, including the power to levy taxes, regulate commerce, and provide for the common defense. Additionally, the Constitution protects individual rights and freedoms, including freedom of speech, religion, and the press, the right to bear arms, and the right to a fair trial. The Constitution is considered the supreme law of the land and has had a profound impact on the development of American democracy and the rule of law.

What is the difference between the will of all and the general will?

The general will considers only the public good, whereas the will of all is simply the sum of what each private citizen wants: "the general will is always right and always tends toward public utility. ... There is often a great deal of difference between the will of all and the general will. The latter considers only the general interest, whereas the former considers private interest and is merely the sum of private wills." (p. 172).

According to Rousseau, what are human beings like in a state of nature?

They have relatively simple desires (for food, drink, and rest), which are easy to satisfy.

The name of Werther's correspondent is

Wilhelm

In Chapter 1, Locke clarifies that he conceives of political power as:

a matter of having the right to make laws and to enforce them: ""Political power, then, I take to be a right of making laws with penalties of death, and consequently all less penalties, for the regulating and preserving of property, and of employing the force of the community, in the execution of such laws, and in the defence of the common-wealth from foreign injury; and all this only for the public good" (p. 8)

Lessing views the Old Testament as

a primer that is useful for human beings when their reason is not well-developed.

Albert is best viewed as

a representative of Enlightenment values

Overall, as a work of art, Candide is

a satirical work that hopes to expose the abuses of power in 18th century France

Which actions have moral worth, according to Kant?

actions that are done from duty

In the first chapters of On the Social Contract, Rousseau argues that political authority is based on

agreement: "the social order is a sacred right that serves as a foundation for all other rights. Nevertheless, this right does not come from nature. It is therefore founded upon agreement. The real question is what is this agreement." (p. 157).

According to Rousseau, the sources of the most significant kind of inequality are

artificial (due to human beings) and can be eliminated or reduced: "Since inequality is practically nonexistent in the state of nature, it derives its force and growth from the development of our faculties and the progress of the human mind, and eventually becomes stable and legitimate through the establishment of property and laws." (p. 91)

According to Kant, when an action has moral worth, why does it have moral worth?

because of the principle of volition that underlies the action.

What kind of inequality does Rousseau think is most significant?

economic inequality

All that is needed to achieve enlightenment is

freedom in the public use of one's reason: "For enlightenment of this kind, all that is needed is freedom. And the freedom in question is the most innocuous form of all -- freedom to make public use of one's reason in all matters. ... The public use of man's reason must always be free, and it alone can bring about enlightenment among men; the private use of reason may quite often be very narrowly restricted, however, without undue hindrance to the progress of enlightenment."

Hume concludes Section 10 by saying: "the Christian religion not only was at first attended with miracles, but even to this day cannot be believed by any reasonable person without one. Mere reason is insufficient to convince us of its veracity. And whoever is moved by faith to assent to it is conscious of a continued miracle in his own person which subverts all the principles of his understanding and gives him a determination to believe what is most contrary to custom and experience". It is consistent for him to say this because:

he is simply acknowledging that one does not have to be a reasonable person, as one can be hold certain beliefs on faith (even if doing so is irrational).

Lessing thinks that history is progressive because

human being's reasoning capacities improve over time

According to the first formulation of the Categorical Imperative, Kant thinks that it is wrong to borrow money knowing that you cannot pay it back because

it would be a contradiction if everyone were to make promises like that.

Kant conceives of human beings most fundamentally as

more than a machine insofar as they have an inherent dignity that must be respected: "Thus once the germ on which nature has lavished most case -- man's inclination and duty to think freely -- has developed within this hard shell, it gradually reacts upon the mentality of the people, who thus gradually become increasingly able to act freely. Eventually, it even influences the principles of governments, which find hat they can themselves profit by treating man, who is more than a machine, in a manner appropriate to his dignity."

What does Kant think is "good without limitation", i.e. is unconditionally good?

the good will

Kant's main message in "What is Enlightenment?" is that

one should think for oneself (and not be a lazy coward): "Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one's own understanding without the guidance of another. This immaturity is self-incurred if tis cause is not lack of understanding, but lack of resolution and courage to use it without the guidance of another. The motto of enlightenment is therefore: Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own understanding."

Kant thinks that the lack of enlightenment is the worst in

religious matters: "I have portrayed matters of religion as the focal point of enlightenment, i.e. of man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity. This is firstly because our rulers have no interest in assuming the role of guardians over their subjects so far as the arts and sciences are concerned, and secondly, because religious immaturity is the most pernicious and dishonourable variety of all. But the attitude of mind of a head of state who favours freedom in the arts and sciences extends even further, for he realizes that there is no danger even with respect to his legislation if he allows his subjects to make public use of their own reason and to put before the public their thoughts on better ways of drawing up laws, even if his entails forthright criticism of the current legislation."

The agreement that justifies political authority

requires that every person give up all their rights, and it produces a new entity, the general will, of which each person is then a member: "'Find a form of association that defends and protects with all common forces the person and goods of each associate, and, by means of which, each one, while uniting with all, nevertheless obeys only himself and remains as free as before.' This is the fundamental problem for which the social contract provides the solution. The clauses of this contract are so determined by the nature of the act... These clauses, properly understood, are all reducible to a single one, namely, the total alienation of each associate together with all of his rights to the entire community. For first of all, since each person gives himself whole and entire, the condition is equal for everyone; and since the condition is equal for everyone, no one has an interest in making it burdensome for the others. Moreover, since the alienation is made without reservation, the union is as perfect as possible, and no associate has anything further to demand. For if some rights remained with private individuals, in the absence of any common superior who could decide between them and the public, each person would eventually claim to be his own judge in all things, since he is on some particular point his own judge... Finally, in giving himself to all, each person gives himself to no one. And since there is no associate over whom he does not acquire the same right that he would grant others over himself, he gains the equivalent of everything he loses, along with a greater amount of force to preserve what he has. If, therefore, one eliminates from the social compact whatever is not essential to it, one will find that it is reducible to the following terms. Each of us places his own person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will; and as one, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole. At once, in pace of the individual person of each contracting party, this act of association produces a moral and collective body composed of as many members as there are voices in the assembly, which receives from this same act its unity, its common self, its life, and its will." (pp. 164-5)

Which one of the following is not one of Werther's reasons for committing suicide:

revenge

What does "a decent respect" require?

that those who are declaring independence also explain to all what is causing them to do so.

Rousseau argues that, appearances to the contrary, it is no contradiction to be both free and subject to law, because

the laws result from the general will, which we have freely consented to: "it is no longer necessary to ask who is to make the laws, since they are the acts of the general will; nor whether the prince is above the laws, since he is a member of the state, nor whether the law can be unjust, since no one is unjust to himself;, nor how one is both free and subject to the laws, since they are merely the record of our own wills." (p. 179).

According to Kant, duty can be defined as

the necessity of an action from respect for the law

One of the main topics of Lessing's Education of the Human Race is

the relationship between reason and revelation

Rousseau considers how I can be free if I am forced to act in conformity with laws that I voted against. He argues that it is possible for me to be free under these circumstances because

there is a difference between voting for a law and consenting to it: "Aside from the primitive contract [by means of which the general will is formed], the vote of the majority always obligates all the others. This is a consequence of the contract itself. But it is asked how a man can be both free and forced to conform to wills that are not his own. How can the opponents be both free and placed in subjection to laws to which they have not consented? I answer that the question is not put properly. The citizen consents to all the laws, even to those that pass in spite of his opposition, and even to those that punish him when he dares to violate any of them. The constant will of all the members of the state is the general will; through it they are citizens and free. When a law is proposed in the people's assembly, what is asked of them is not, to be precise, whether they approve or reject the proposition, but whether or not it conforms to the general will that is theirs. Each man, in giving his vote, states his opinion on this matter, and the declaration of the general will is drawn from the counting of votes. When, therefore, the opinion contrary to mine prevails, this proves merely that I was in error, and that what I took to be the general will was not so." (p. 227) - the general will is determined by the majority vote, not by my vote. - when I vote, I am not approving or rejecting the proposed legislation, but rather judging whether it conforms to the general will

According to Rousseau, human beings

were in some ways better off in the state of nature than in society at the time because there was less inequality.

What is it that makes a good will good?

what it wills

Hume points out that the basic inference that underlies the argument under consideration relies on the assumption(s) that

when we infer from an observed effect to an unobserved cause of that effect, one cannot attribute more to the cause than is minimally sufficient to bring about the observed effect.

According to the first formulation of the Categorical Imperative, Kant thinks that it is wrong not to help others in need because

you cannot will the principle on which you are acting as a (universal) law of nature, since you might need the help of others.