Human Behavior and the Social Environment: Groups, Communities, and Organizations Macro Level Textbook by Katherine Van Wormer and Fred H. Besthorn Third Edition at Salem State University SWK 261

Superordinate goals

In psychology, super-ordinate goals refer to goals that require the cooperation of two or more people or groups to achieve, which usually results in rewards to the groups. They're goals that can be achieved only if the conflicting groups come together and strive to achieve a common objective, being receptive to each other's ideas. This motivates them to dissolve their differences and develop a team spirit to reach a common goal. Following are some examples of super ordinate goals. Social organizations are formed to accomplish specific goals, such as the acquisition of valued resources necessary for the survival of the group in question. Crucial to this process is the recognition that some goals are more important than others, and that some people are better equipped than others to aid in their acquisition. As a consequence, hierarchies of both people and goals are frequently established to facilitate group functioning, whether that group is a small social unit such as a family, or a larger cultural, religious, or political group. Online Psychic Readings - #1 Accurate Online Psychic Site. #1 Accurate Online Psychic Site. No Risk. New Visitors Get $10 Free! psychics.com | Sponsored▼ This pursuit of specific goals sometimes results in conflict when a goal involves a valued resource that cannot be shared by competing subgroups. Hostilities are further exacerbated by self-categorization, which uses status or physical attributes to characterize "in-group" people (those like me) and "out-group" people (those not like me) for the purpose of treatment or differential allocation of resources. Such self-categorization occurs in (1) nation-states that compete for human and natural resources, (2) corporations that compete for customers and sales, and (3) other groups that are physically distinguishable and that compete for services and opportunities within the same society. This conflict between groups has no simple cause, and no totally effective solution. Nevertheless, Muzafer Sherif (1958) did demonstrate that it is possible to achieve harmony between opposing social groups, by introducing what he called "superordinate goals." These are goals for both groups that can be achieved only through the cooperation of both. Report Advertisement In Sherif's "Robbers Cave" experiment (so named for its site, Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma), boys attending a summer camp were, in the first phase of the study, divided into two groups that functioned independently of each other. In the second phase, the groups opposed each other, participating in competitive and frustrating activities in which only the winning group could have valued resources. The experiment demonstrated that (1) members developed unfavorable attitudes and derogatory stereotypes of the out-group, (2) social distance developed to the point of mutual avoidance, and (3) hostile attacks sometimes occurred. In the final phase of the experiment, the technique—superordinate goals—proved effective in reducing tension between groups by introducing goals that were shared by members of both groups and required collaborative efforts. Kids Desks at Overstock™ - Styles to Match Every Space Save Big on Quality Kids Desks. Everyday Free Shipping Over $45 & Easy Returns! overstock.com/Desks/Kids | Sponsored▼ Several recent studies have identified aspects of Sherif 's technique that contribute to the effectiveness of superordinate goals in reducing conflict. One of the most critical aspects is the ability of superordinate goals to create a sense of shared identity. John Dovidio and colleagues (2001) intervened in the functioning of two groups to change people's conceptions of their membership from that of diverse membership (in different groups) to common membership in a single, more inclusive group. The study revealed that if members of different groups are induced to conceive of themselves more as a single, superordinate group rather than as two separate groups, attitudes toward former out-group members will become more positive. Thus, cooperative relationships between groups, such as those established in Sherif 's Robbers Cave study, can reduce bias not only by ameliorating realistic group threat, but also by establishing a more inclusive, superordinate group identity (Gaertner et al. 2000). There is little doubt among scholars regarding the ultimate benefits of the pursuit of superordinate goals rather than goals peculiar to nationalistic or individualistic interests. Superordinate goals enable people from opposing sides to come together and work toward a common end. In the everyday work environment, for example, the alignment of employer and employee goals with regard to job security can minimize conflict (Worchel and Simpson 1993). Within corporations there are superordinate goals that emphasize, in the words of AT&T's slogan, "being the best." The adoption of such a common goal has served to boost morale as well as minimize labor-management conflict. Superordinate goals also can be introduced to minimize group conflict at the level of large social groupings; at the global level these include activities such as space exploration, medical research, pollution control, and nuclear disarmament (Frank 1983). BIBLIOGRAPHY Dovidio, John F., Samuel L. Gaertner, Yolanda F. Niemann, and Kevin Snider. 2001. Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Differences in Responding to Distinctiveness and Discrimination on Campus: Stigma and Common Group Identity. Journal of Social Issues 57 (1): 167-188. Frank, Jerome D. 1983. Nuclear Arms and Violence toward Children: Sociopsychological Aspects of the Nuclear Arms Race. Political Psychology 4 (2): 393-408.

Zimbardo (Robber's Cave Experiments)

Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment revealed how social roles can influence our behavior. We look at how it was conducted and what we can learn from it. The Stanford Prison Experiment was a landmark psychological study of the human response to captivity, in particular, to the real world circumstances of prison life. Subjects were randomly assigned to play the role of "prisoner" or "guard". Those assigned to play the role of guard were given sticks and sunglasses; those assigned to play the prisoner role were arrested by the Palo Alto police department, deloused, forced to wear chains and prison garments, and transported to the basement of the Stanford psychology department, which had been converted into a makeshift jail. Several of the guards became progressively more sadistic - particularly at night when they thought the cameras were off, despite being picked by chance out of the same pool as the prisoners. The experiment very quickly got out of hand. A riot broke out on day two. One prisoner developed a psychosomatic rash all over his body upon finding out psychology department, which had been converted into a makeshift jail. Several of the guards became progressively more sadistic - particularly at night when they thought the cameras were off, despite being picked by chance out of the same pool as the prisoners. The experiment very quickly got out of hand. A riot broke out on day two. One prisoner developed a psychosomatic rash all over his body upon finding out that his "parole" had been turned down. After only 6 days (of a planned two weeks), the experiment was shut down, for fear that one of the prisoners would be seriously hurt. Although the intent of the experiment was to examine captivity, its result has been used to demonstrate the impressionability and obedience of people when provided with a legitimizing ideology and social and institutional support. It is also used to illustrate cognitive dissonance theory and the power of seniority/authority. It can be argued that the conclusions that Professor Zimbardo and others have drawn from the Stanford Prison Experiment are not valid. Professor Zimbardo acknowleges that he was not merely an observer in the experiment but an active participant and in some cases it is clear he was influencing the direction the experiment went. For example, Professor Zimbardo cites the fact that all of the "guards" wore sunglasses as an example of their dehumanization. However, the sunglasses were not spontaneously chosen as apparel by the students; they were given to them by Professor Zimbardo. The student "guards" were also issued batons by Professor Zimbardo on their first day, which may have predisposed them to consider physical force as an acceptable means of running the "prison". Professor Zimbardo also acknowleges initiating several procedures that do not occur in actual prisons, such as blindfolding incoming "prisoners", making them wear women's clothing, not allowing them to wear underwear, not allowing them to look out windows, and not allowing them to use their names. Professor Zimbardo justifies this by stating that prison is a confusing and dehumanizing experience and it was necessary to enact these procedures to put the "prisoners" in the proper frame of mind. However, it opens the question of whether Professor Zimbardo's simulation is an accurate reflection of the reality of incarceration or a reflection of Professor Zimbardo's preconceived opinions of what actual incarceration is like.

Social Conformity

A change in a person's behavior or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of people. Because people generally want to be liked and seek approval from family and friends.

Goals and examples of Restorative Justice

A form of community justice that reflects community values. One of its major goals is to restore the torn fabric of a community and to restore a sense of wholeness to all those affected by crime. Victims, offenders, and communities are the three central parties involved in this process. Reconciliation enables victims to express themselves and for offenders to understand the harm done by criminal acts. Examples: Reparations made in 1988 by US Congress to Japanese Americans for revoking their freedom in World War II and the truth-telling and public confessions for crimes committed under the apartheid regime in South Africa.

Prejudice

A learned phenomenon, transmitted from generation through socialization processions. A preconceived and unjustified negative attitude. Prejudgment on the basis of a defined characteristic such as race, ethnicity, religion, or gender. (pg. 65)

Stigma

A strong lack of respect for a person or a group of people or a bad opinion of them because society disapproves of the person or group. Example: People who use food stamps don't work and abuse the system. Ex: All homeless people are drug and alcohol addicts and are lazy. Social Stigmas include negative judgments on a person based on their appearance, physical disability, sexual orientation, religion, and ethnicity.

Cognitive Dissonance

A term coined by Festinger, was the concept that guided his research. This term refers to the state of two pieces of information in conflict. What the researchers found was that the pressures within the group for members to prove their faith in the prophecy were profound. Eight members went so far as to make irreversible decisions, such as to quit their jobs and sell their possessions. The group's expectations were that they would be picked up by a flyer saucers on the appointed date. When the first date arrived with incident, surprisingly, the group cohesion strengthened as members operated on the defensive. Proselytizing in search of additional converts increased. But when another failure of prediction that the world would end took place, some members drifted away. In general, the researchers found when the group members stayed together when disconfirmation occured it maintained their belief and accepted the rationalization that they were being spared, whereas person who were isolated grew angry and disillusioned.

Role Theory

According to Erving Goffman the social imperative is to impress other people, the struggle to manage impressions, is an abiding drive in human relations.

Elements of the Deaf Community

All cultures, including Deaf culture have four components: language, behavioral norms, values and traditions. For Deaf culture, vision plays a significant role in each of the four components. People who are Deaf rely strongly on their vision to communicate and gather information

Adaptation

Defined by Germain (1991) as an active process of self-change or environmental change or both. It is not, she informs us, a mere passive adjustment to circumstance. Adaptation comes about as human beings strive for the best person-environment "fit" possible between their needs and capacities and the requirements of the environment. People may adapt to stress in the physical environment, such as shortage in the usual food supply, or to the cultural realm for instance, lack of fluency may mean finding a food substitute, such as grain or fish instead of meat. It may also entail geographical location and/or learning the language of the dominant culture. The family's adaptation may be positive in reducing the stress, consistence with Germain's positive formulation; or adaptation, as we see it, may be stress-inducing and counterproductive. Example: An unhealthy adjustment to change would be an adolescent joining a gang to fit in with his new surroundings. Parents drinking as a mean of self-medication in regards to pressures of their own.

Culture and Cultural Values

Culture - the sum total of social patterns passed from generation to generation. Knowledge of culture and cultural history provides important perspectives for understanding human behavior.Language (even accent) can be used to construct and maintain oppression of a subordinate group.America is a pluralistic, multicultural society. Hispanic and Asian populations growing 10 times the pace of whites who are not Hispanic, U.S. Census Bureau (2005).Culturally focused prevention necessary for at risk populations. Cultural competence - knowledge of client's culture and customs from diverse cultural backgroundsThree aspects of cultural competence: need to understand and take responsibility for our own beliefs and attitudes need to learn about and expand multicultural experiences use our knowledge to become proponents of multiculturalismEthnicity and Family Therapy, McGoldrick et al. (2005) - spells out norms and folkways, differences in communication styles for dozens of cultural groups.NASW (2017) Code of Ethics - includes special section on cultural competence and social diversity. Ethnocentrism is the paradox that as we learn to take pride in our culture, we come to think that our culture is superior to those of other groups.Cultural imperialismoccurs when the dominant group universalizes its experience and culture and uses them as the norm."One Nation" Anthropologist Margaret Mead; Culture as a macrosystemCulture has form and pattern, structural inequalities and social class hierarchy."The related patterns of the environment, the resources, the people's belief about what they do, and the relationships between the larger group and themselves are all part of the system out of which individuals structure their behaviors" (Van Wormer & Besthorn, 2017, p. 140)Dual perspective of culture provides an alternative lens. Dual PerspectiveThe individual within the "immediate" environmentAddressing the structural barriers in the "larger" environment that disproportionately impact vulnerable and oppressed groups Cultural ValuesMake for cohesion and solidarity that help ensure the continuity of group lifeBehavior or belief can only be correctly evaluated in the light of its meaning to the people who practice it Work vs. leisureEqual opportunity vs. equalityMobility vs. stabilityCompetition vs. cooperationIndividualism vs. collectivismIndependence vs. interconnectednessMaterialism vs. SpiritualityNuclear family vs. extended familyMoralism vs. compassion America values a strong work ethicMax Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of CapitalismMartin Luther, John CalvinUnited States work 2,000 hours average per year, Germany 1,444 and France 1,545Leisure time : U.S. 10 days, Japanese 18, Chinese 15, British and Australian 25, German and Spanish 30.Korean work ethic - high suicide rate In U.S., stress on opportunity- counterpart of inequalityRoad to upward mobility is to "play by the rules"Early education a key factor in successSome achieve enormous success - others fail miserably.The Other America, Michael Harrington (1962)Equality - means sharing the wealth between the haves and the have-nots.U.S. system of equality--mass education, informal language and dress, absence of aristocracy or titles. Admiration of a "self made man", ideology of "rags to riches"U.S.-- richest 1% own 1/3 of nation's wealth. Bottom 80% have just 16 %. About 31% of black households have zero wealth.Institutionally based vs residually based (safety net) society.Means-tested programs become stigmatized programs.Scandinavian value of equality American ideology promotes a belief in progress - up the corporate ladder.deTocqueville(1835) -- saw a nation in constant motion, every change seeming an improvementAmericans as seen by foreigners-- "brash and risk-takers"In recession less mobility; more families doubling up; unemployed youths living at home Americans taught from childhood to compete.Pupil competition as spur to learn and to perpetuate the beliefs of market economy.Arabic principal: "taarradhin" means " I win, you win"Chinese - no equivalent word for personality. The concept of self is virtually unknown in most Asian cultures.Norway and other Scandinavian countries - egalitarianism, horizontally oriented. "Samarbeid"in Norwegianliterally meaning "to work together," permeates every aspect of their culture.U.S. - vertically oriented. Individualism—one of the most sacred American philosophies.Post WWII era favored strong government intervention.African American values on the collectivist end of the scaleProgressive periods in the U.S. compared to today's conservative times Collectivism as the norm in Norway and Japan Independence closely relates to individualism in the United States.Codependency as a major flawU.S. leads or "goes it alone" globallyInterconnectedness and indigenous culture First Nations Peoples in North America—role of elders in the community Materialism—consider marketing and consumer spendingAlternative value of spiritualitySalvation: Black People and Love by bell hooks (2001) tells of obsession with material gain that has affected the black family.Strong religious character in America, noted in various studies comparing U.S. and European attitudes. U.S. Gallup poll survey - 85% said religion important, 2/3 reported membership, 1/3 attend weekly services. Geographical mobility breaks up extended ties.Kinship arrangements very different in the non- industrialized world.Various cultural aspects—description of Mexican attitudes Moralism is the tendency to be judgmental about affairs and events.International comparisons on several issues: www.worldvaluessurvey.org. British view—strange in America that gun control, stem cell research, seen as moral issues.Retribution rather than rehabilitation - shown in highest imprisonment rates in the world in the U.S.

Kurt Lewin's small group experiments

Father of Social Psychology he came up with Gestalt Theory- A Part of a Whole for example you might hear people talk about their reality which is a part of a whole, in contrast to the reality (which represents the whole.) To Lewin behavior was determined by a person defining reality and how their personal reality responded and interacted with others. An individual's behavior is driven by their needs or underlying forces. One of the most interesting pieces of work in which Lewin was involved concerned the exploration of different styles or types of leadership on group structure and member behaviour. This entailed a collaboration with Ronald Lippitt, among others (Lewin et. al 1939, also written up in Lewin 1948: 71-83). They looked to three classic group leadership models - democratic, autocratic and laissez-faire - and concluded that there was more originality, group-mindedness and friendliness in democratic groups. In contrast, there was more aggression, hostility, scapegoating and discontent in laissez-faire and autocratic groups (Reid 1981: 115). Lewin concludes that the difference in behaviour in autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire situations is not, on the whole, a result of individual differences. Reflecting on the group experiments conducted with children he had the following to say: There have been few experiences for me as impressive as seeing the expression in children's faces change during the first day of autocracy. The friendly, open, and co-operative group, full of life, became within a short half-hour a rather apathetic looking gathering without initiative. The change from autocracy to democracy seemed to take somewhat more time than from democracy to autocracy. Autocracy is imposed upon the individual. Democracy he has to learn. (Lewin 1948: 82) This presentation of democratic of leadership in groups became deeply influential. Unfortunately, as Gastil (1994) notes, Lewin and his colleagues never developed their definition beyond this rough sketch. This has left them open to the charge that their vision of democratic leadership contains within it some worrying themes. In particular Kariel (1956, discussed by Gastil 1994) argued that the notion is rather manipulative and élitist. What is more there has also been some suggestion that Mao's mass-line leadership in China, 'used a model like Lewin's to mask coercion under the guise of participative group processes' (discussed by Gastil 1994). Such a possibility would have been disturbing to Lewin, whose commitments and intentions were democratic. He argued that democracy could not be imposed on people, that it had to be learnt by a process of voluntary and responsible participation (1948: 39). However, the problem becomes clearer when he discusses the nature of democratic leadership at moments of transition. Change needed to be facilitated and guided. To instigate changes toward democracy a situation has to be created for a certain period where the leader is sufficiently in control to rule out influences he does not want and to manipulate the situation to a sufficient degree. The goal of the democratic leader in this transition period will have to be the same as any good teacher, namely to make himself superfluous, to be replaced by indigenous leaders from the group. (Lewin 1948: 39) There are some elements here that ring a little of Rousseau's view of the tutor's role in Emile. Is it up to the leader to manipulate the situation in this way - or is there room for dialogue? 'T' groups, facilitation and experience In the summer of 1946 Kurt Lewin along with colleagues and associates from the Research Center for Group Dynamics (Ronald Lippitt, Leland Bradford and Kenneth Benne became involved in leadership and group dynamics training for the Connecticut State Interracial Commission. They designed and implemented a two-week programme that looked to encourage group discussion and decision-making, and where participants (including staff) could treat each other as peers. Research was woven into the event (as might be expected given Lewin's concern for the generation of data and theory). The trainers and researchers collected detailed observations and recordings of group activities (and worked on these during the event). Initially these meetings were just for the staff, but some of the other participants also wanted to be involved. At the University of Iowa (he was a Jew and grew up in authoritarian Germany) and was introduced to the democratic political system in the U.S. Study with subjects boys age 10 and 11 in groups of five. Democratic leadership decisions were made by the majority rule, autocratic strict discipline was imposed and Laissez-Faire the boys and worked as the liked. In the Democratic-led group the boys took the the most initiative and had the most fun. The boys in the Laissez-Faire group were unproductive altogether.

Gemeinschaft vs. Gesellschaft- Coined by Ferdinand Tonnies a German Sociologist who was a major contributor in Sociology in 1887

Gemeinschaft- The ideal of a close-knit community, typical rural life, everyone knows each other and sense of togetherness. Maintained through moral persuasion, gossip, and gestures. Gesellschaft- Impersonal mass of society Modern urban life, most people are strangers and relationships are governed by social roles. Maintained through formal techniques, laws, and legally defined techniques.

Role

In sociology, the behavior expected of an individual who occupies a given social position or status. A role is a comprehensive pattern of behavior that is socially recognized, providing a means of identifying and placing an individual in a society. Examples: Mother, Father, Daughter, Son, Sister, Brother, Doctor, Nurse, Teacher, Student, Minister/Priest/Rabbi. Settings: Schools, hospitals, churches, home, restaurants, movies, malls, concert stadium, company, factory ect.

Stanley Milgram's Obedience Studies

In the the early 1960's Milgram had been Asch's graduate assistant in Psychology at Yale, and he considered Asch his more important scientific influence. This obedience research showed how far people would be willing to obey an authority figure. Milgram's interest in the study of obedience emerged out of the continuing identification with the mistreatment of fellow Jews at the hands of Nazi's. The fact that seemingly average citizens had failed to speak out and had blindly followed orders preyed on his mind. He recruited a random sample of white-collar and blue-collar workers to participate in a "teaching" experiment. Volunteers were told they would be testing the effects of punishment on learning. As each volunteer arrived, he or she was met by a stern-appearing man in a lab coat and introduced to the supposed subject of the experiment, the "learner," an older man who comments he has a heart condition. The man was strapped to a machine. The volunteer was taken to another room with the man in the lab coat and shown the "shock generator," a machine that supposedly would induce up to 450 volts of electricity. By throwing the successive switches when wrong answers were given, the "teacher" believed that he or she was delivering increasingly intense shocks each time the "learner" missed the question. The shocks were said to be painful but not to cause permanent harm. As the experiment began, the "teacher" heard the "learner" scream (the shrieks were actually on tape) and shout, "Let me out of here!" until finally, after a series of shocks, there was complete silence in the other room. "You must continue," instructed the technician. And in most cases the "teacher" did what he or she was told.

Total Institution

Is defined by Goffman as a "place of residence and work where a large number of like-situated institutions, cut off from the wider society for an appreciable period of time, together lead an enclosed, formally administered round of life." He argued that institutionalization was a mortifying experience that included isolation, invasion of privacy, regimentation, and labeling. If he wrote a book today he would probably focus on nursing homes instead of mental institutions (which closed down during the 1970's.)G

The impact of religious organizations on communities

National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI)•NAMI FaithNet http://www.nami.org/MSTemplate.cfm?Section=Calendar301&Template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=142981&MicrositeID=176•Religious communities are in a unique position to combat stigma and provide a message of acceptance and hope. Proclaiming the values of social justice, respect for all persons, and non-discrimination, faith communities can reach out to individuals and families affected by mental illness in many helpful ways. Sharing the message that all persons are worthy in the eyes of God, a faith community may be the only place where a person with a mental illness truly feels accepted, valued, and loved.•For people who find no other welcome in the larger community, being welcomed in a house of prayer by a concerned and caring community can make a critical difference for consumers with mental illnesses and their families. Churches, synagogues, and other places of worship can spread the message that serious mental illnesses are "diseases of the brain" and help families understand that "it's not their fault." They can open their doors and their hearts to consumers and be a supportive presence in their on-going recovery. Social Justice and Faith Communities•Interfaith Worker Justice•http://www.iwj.org/•"All major faith traditions believe that workers have a right to be paid a living wage, to stick together for better pay and working conditions and be treated with dignity by their employer. This is what holds us together and drives us forward in the fight for worker justice.

Why are families not supported by society?

Poor communities disproportionately experience stress 2008 recession: 34% of young adult black males unemployed Low-wages, decline in manufacturing, rising housing costs, families with children are the fastest growing homeless population - 42% of the 700,000 persons found to be homeless are families (HUD, 2005). Has increased in 2008 recession. Economic globalization has important human rights implications--policies require that non-industrialized nations reduce their indebtedness to the world bans by reducing social welfare spending. Women perform two-thirds of the world's work but only earn one-tenth of all the income and own less than one-tenth of the world's property.Economic destitution makes young women ripe for sexual exploitation. Human rights violations occur at three levels: those done by the family, the community and the state. Sex trafficking Over one million women and children are trafficked each yearSex slavery, dowry deaths, death by stoning, genital mutilation, rape www.amnestyusa.org World Health Report (based on 48 surveys from around the world) found between 10-69% of women report having been physically assaulted by a partner. United States, 22% of wives report domestic violence. Wife beating is considered a man's right in many societies and the women interviewed agreed some beatings were justified- including burning dinner. Low rates in Japan-- 15% to over 60% in Peru, Ethiopia and Bangladesh. Kinship care - fastest growing child placement program in the United States. Advantages:stabilizing effect of the extended family and child's own racial or ethnic communities relative permanence familiarity of the child with the relatives and communityShared family care - established in Colorado Springs. Entire family moves in with a mentor family. Available in 10 states.Other empowering approaches - mutual aid associations and group/community approaches, "Generations of Hope" house, Healthy Start Form of restorative justice used in child welfare Involves the extended family in a solution-focused, strengths-based approach to solving problems related to child neglect and abuse Adapted from the Maori people and social service authorities of New Zealand Informal "around the table" non-adversarial process, includes a trained facilitator, involves the victim- their family and the community In criminal cases, family group conferencingstresses offenders' awareness of the human impact of their behavior provides offender the opportunity to take full responsibility Uses a narrative approach, engages the offender's family members and support system solicits the families' support in the process of the offender's making amends Children require care, yet the U.S. ranks among the lowest in the developed world in the early childhood care we provide. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, in a study conducted by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, the majority of American day care providers ranked fair or poor and only 10% were deemed of high quality. Yet Americans spend more on child care than other developed countries, and many of those countries are able to provide excellent child care. In addition, the cost of care has doubled since the 1980s, according to the Census Bureau. Just as bad, if not worse, the K-12 education we offer falls far short of our aspirations and of global norms, and the results are distressing. A massive overhaul could start with labor market compensation practices. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, child care workers earn even less than home health care workers. A smarter approach would be to treat those who care for children as professionals and to invest in the training and licensing requirements that would be needed to justify much higher rates of pay for those who care for our youngest citizens. Make Family Leave Universally Available. Family leave, including paternity leave, is essential for giving parents the support they need to care for their children. Right now, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics only 11 percent of U.S. employees receive paid family leave from employers. The one public policy that covers time off to care for new children, the Family and Medical Leave Act, laudable though it is, still excludes 40 percent of the workforce. And millions who are eligible and need leave don't take it, mainly because it's unpaid, but also because of the stigma and real-world negative consequences. Revise the Education Calendar. The standard school day is based on an outdated schedule. Other countries have children in schools for longer days and for a greater part of the calendar year, providing support for working parents and enrichment for children. Friedman's The Measure of a Nation indicates a correlation of nearly 90% between the number of school days and the results on a world-wide measure of reading, math and science. Revising the school calendar would be a benefit to children, to working parents, and to organizations that would, in the long run, have a better prepared workforce. Support Portable Health Care. In our study, the anticipated financial costs of childrearing negatively affected Millennials' plans for becoming parents. Given the rising costs of health care, working parents benefit greatly from health care policies that don't punish them for taking time off or moving Relieve Students of Burdensome Debt. Many young people simply can't envision a future in which they can afford to support children because they are carrying high levels of student debt. Require Public Service. Our study found that young people today, especially women, want to do work that helps others, despite their expectation that they will not be well compensated for it. And young women who expected their jobs 10 years in the future to provide the chance to serve others were significantly less likely to plan to become mothers. Young people are yearning to do work that benefits others. Our society could channel that enthusiasm and idealism by requiring a year of public service for postsecondary school youth, which would not only improve our workforce but would help all of us recalibrate what's really important. And it might help those young women who, as we observed, now foresee a tradeoff between social impact via one's career and motherhood, to envision instead a life in which they can serve both the family of humanity and a family with children of their own in the scope of their lifetimes. Of course, there are a lot of unknowns about what our current birthrate means for business. Some argue that in our neo-capitalist society, based as it is on information and finance, there is need for a smaller but more productive labor force. Families no longer need their children for farmhands and so society, and our increasingly automated manufacturing sector, no longer has the same demand for labor. On the other hand, an aging population with fewer workers could mean trouble sustaining social-security programs, projecting military power, and maintaining a high degree of innovation. But what we do know is that families centered on a single-earner father are no longer the norm. And yet our current institutions are still based on this outdated model. We, as a nation, need to focus on what children in our society require — nurturing. How can they get it if we do not provide the essential social and educational support that working parents need? All of this information is from https://hbr.org/2013/11/7-policy-changes-america-needs-so-people-can-work-and-have-kids

Purpose of Advocacy Letters?

Professional social workers are often called to advocate on behalf of their clients' best interests. Whether done through individual or collective means (often through social work agency environments), advocacy work seeks to address injustices that impact marginalized and oppressed client groups. The "advocacy letter" assignment allows you to examine an economic, social or political issue that you feel personally connected to. Writing an advocacy letter gives you a voice to encourage elected officials to take action on some specific issue. (Stated by Professor Lamont Simmons)

Spirituality

Spirituality is the search for the an ongoing process in which people affirm and modify their sacred constructs to securely locate themselves in time and space. •Embracing an idea of an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality.

Hawthorne Effect

The Hawthorne effect is named after what was one of the most famous experiments (or, more accurately, series of experiments) in industrial history. It marked a sea change in thinking about work and productivity. Previous studies, in particular Frederick Taylor's influential ideas, had focused on the individual and on ways in which an individual's performance could be improved. Hawthorne set the individual in a social context, establishing that the performance of employees is influenced by their surroundings and by the people that they are working with as much as by their own innate abilities. The experiments took place at Western Electric's factory at Hawthorne, a suburb of Chicago, in the late 1920s and early 1930s. They were conducted for the most part under the supervision of Elton Mayo, an Australian-born sociologist who eventually became a professor of industrial research at Harvard. The original purpose of the experiments was to study the effects of physical conditions on productivity. Two groups of workers in the Hawthorne factory were used as guinea pigs. One day the lighting in the work area for one group was improved dramatically while the other group's lighting remained unchanged. The researchers were surprised to find that the productivity of the more highly illuminated workers increased much more than that of the control group. Related items Questioning the Hawthorne effect: Light work Jun 4th 2009 Idea: Empowerment Oct 27th 2008 Idea: Economies of scale and scope Oct 20th 2008 Idea: Hierarchy of needs Oct 13th 2008 The employees' working conditions were changed in other ways too (their working hours, rest breaks and so on), and in all cases their productivity improved when a change was made. Indeed, their productivity even improved when the lights were dimmed again. By the time everything had been returned to the way it was before the changes had begun, productivity at the factory was at its highest level. Absenteeism had plummeted. The experimenters concluded that it was not the changes in physical conditions that were affecting the workers' productivity. Rather, it was the fact that someone was actually concerned about their workplace, and the opportunities this gave them to discuss changes before they took place. A crucial element in Mayo's findings was the effect that working in groups had on the individual. At one time he wrote: The desire to stand well with one's fellows, the so-called human instinct of association, easily outweighs the merely individual interest and the logic of reasoning upon which so many spurious principles of management are based. Later in life he added: The working group as a whole actually determined the output of individual workers by reference to a standard that represented the group conception (rather than management's) of a fair day's work. This standard was rarely, if ever, in accord with the standards of the efficiency engineers. Fritz Roethlisberger, a leading member of the research team, wrote: The Hawthorne researchers became more and more interested in the informal employee groups, which tend to form within the formal organisation of the company, and which are not likely to be represented in the organisation chart. They became interested in the beliefs and creeds which have the effect of making each individual feel an integral part of the group.

Traditional Leadership Theories

Theories of Organizational StructureClassic BureaucraticGeneral SystemsNon-Hierarchical / ConsensualHuman Relations The Classic Bureaucratic Model•Mid 19th century - heavy industry and manufacturing in full swing. •Belief in and reliance upon mechanical systems. •Bureaucracy--very hierarchical - like a pyramid. Boss, middle management and workers at the bottom.Exec.Middle ManagementWorkers The Classic Bureaucratic Model•Merit pay tied to performance and productivity•Inherently monocratic•Feminist critique centered on exploitation Human Relations Model•Human relations model—a reaction against scientific management, stress on human relations in work•The Hawthorne effect - at the Western Electric Company, found organizations function best when managers pay positive attention to workers and honor the interests of the informal networks.•Organizations began to be open systems, adaptable, growing, and evolving. General Systems Models•1960s and '70's-- new technologies and growth•General systems theories used to construct models and conduct research on complex organizations and it's interaction with the environment.•Contingency School - organizations are in constant movement and contingent on a number of factors such as structure, leadership. No best way to run an organization. Non-Hierarchical or Consensual Models•Control rests with the members-employee-owners.•Primary goal to prevent or minimize alienation of workers by the larger, complex, hierarchical organizations•Characteristics:•decisions made after discussion by members •minimal rules •personal rather than formal relationships among members•leadership based on election, with rotations of leadership•non financial reward for leadership roles, and no winners or losers in decision making.

Sekentei

Translated, sekentei is defined as social appearance that causes an individual to worry about others' observations and evaluations of his or her behavior. It is believed that sekentei prevents Japanese family caregivers of elders from utilizing needed social services.