Human Geo Chapter 11

Animal Domestication 3

Across world, only round 40 species of animals ever been domesticated, most of these were domesticated long ago. Humans looked for 4 traits in animals they domesticated: diet, temperament, growth rate, and size. Herbivores or animals who graze grass are easiest to domesticate. Domesticating omnivores and meat eaters makes less sense, bc have to raise animals to be eaten by other animals. Animals with docile temperaments and herd mentality like cattle easier to domesticate than aggressive, independent animals like tigers. DOmesticating animals that grow quickly also makes more sense than investing decades into animals that take several years to reach adulthood, like elephants. Animals for domestication also chosen for their size so would produce enough meat to make work of domestication worthwhile. Modern attempts at animal domestication failed bc of probs with animal's diet, growth rate, breeding, disposition, or social structure. Ex, several experimental station on savanna trying to find ways to domesticate Africa's wildlife. In E Africa, farmers attempting to domesticate land to make it serve as source of meat and stable protein source.

Organic Agriculture-

Approach to farming and ranching that avoids the use of herbicides, pesticides, growth hormones, and other similar synthetic inputs. It is growing globally in terms of land devoted to it (69.8 mil hectares), num of organic farmers (2.9 mil), and market value of organic food ($97 bil). Organic foods sold at highest rates in US, Germ, France, and China. Australia, Argentina, and China have most land in organic production.

Poultry and Hogs: Agribusiness 3

Bc of agribusiness, shelves of urban supermarkets in US, with range and variety of products, world apart form contest quest in some areas for sufficient, nutritionally balanced food. Global network of farm production is oriented to 1-5th of world's pop that is highly urbanized, wealthy, and powerful. Few farmers in distant lands have real control over land-use decisions, for higher income peeps in global econ core play disproportionate role in deciding what will be bought at what price. The colonial era may have come to an end, but as map of ag regions reminds us, its imprint remains strong.

The World Map of Climates:

Before can study distribution of ag in world today, need to examine distribution of climate zones. All of elements of weather-absorption of sun's energy, rotation of Earth, circulation of oceans, movement of weather systems, and jext stream- produce a pattern of climates represented in map, and those climate patterns have profound impact on what can be grown where. Rice and oil palm grown in tropical latitudes. Soybeans, sunflowers, and corn grown at mid-latitudes. Wheat grown on poleward side of mid-latitudes both N and S of equator.

Conversion of Farmland to Nonfarm Use 2

Conversion of productive farmland to urban, suburban, and rural residential, retail, and office use and infrastructure is not confined to US. The Eu Environmental Administration reported that when ag lands have been converted to artificial surfaces, often for housing. Though productivity on remaining ag land risen bc of tech, irrigation, pesticides, fertilizers, and engineered seeds, loss of productive farmland will have ripple effect on land use, especially forests. Bc of combination off pressure on ag land and climate change, more forestlands being converted to ag lands. Results not ideal. Cutting and burning forestland removes carbon dioxide sinks and releases large quantities of carbon dioxide into atmosphere. Bc soils in forests dif from oils in productive farmlands, planting in newly converted frostlands can require more pesticides, fertilizers, and irrigation, makes additional strain on global water supply.

Urban Agriculture-

Cultivating land or raising livestock in small plots in cities, generally on converted brownfield or on rooftops. While not captured by formal ag statistics or maps, food grown this way plays vital role in lives of billions of peeps. Even city-dwellers in many parts of world involved in urban ag. By cultivating land or raising livestock in small posts near homes, in rooftop gardens, or community gardens on converted brownfields or abandoned residential areas, urban farmers incresing ag production in food deserts.

Monoculture-

Dependence on production of a single agricultural commodity With shifting cultivation, farmers avoid monoculture, more taxing on soil and makes more difficult for community to build nutrient-rich diet. Instead, farmers plant diversity of crops, for self-consumption and trade in local markets.

Animal Domestication 1

Domestication of animals, or adopting wild animals for human use, began round 10,000 ye ago, also in Fertile Crescent. Archae study bone fragments and tools to identify where domestication of animals began. Researchers found, ex, that goat bones became smaller over time as farmers domesticated them. In Fertile Crescent, farmers first domesticated goats round 8000 bce, followed by sheep round 7500 bce. Soon after, peeps in some region domesticated pigs and cattle. Round same time, farmers domesticated chickens in SE Asia. SE Asians also domesticated several kinds of pigs, water buffalo, some waterfowl (ducks and geese). In S Asia (E India and W Burma) farmers domesticated cattle. In Central Asia, farmers domesticated yaks, horses, some species of goats, and sheep. In ANdean highlands, early Amerians domesticated llama and alpaca, along with species of pig and turkey. Some species of animals may been domesticated almost simultaneously in diff places. Dogs & cats attached themselves to human settlements very early (may have been first animals to be domesticated) and in widely separated regions. Single, specific hearths can be pinpointed only for few animals, including llama and alpaca, yak, turkey, and reindeer.

Arid Climates-

Include true desert and steppe or semi-arid. True deserts receive almost no precipitation, and semi-arid regions receive v little precipitation. Semi-arid regions found next to deserts.

Ethanol and Biodiesel: Government Impacts 3

Ethanol refineries generally located close to areas of corn production, helps reduce the cost of transporting biomass from cornfields to refineries. Countries that produce most corn stover (remnants of corn plants after harvesting) are concentrated in Corn Belt, stretching from N Dakota, S Dakota, and Nebraska east through Minnesota and Iowa to Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana. Biodiesel refineries located coles to high soybean-production counties in several cases in Great Plains, Midwest, and Mississippi River region, bc 57% of biodiesel in US comes from soybean oil. But, soybean production areas don't explain location of all biodiesel refineries on map. Biodiesel refiners on W coast and E coast are located closer to pop centers, whether plenty of used cooking oil is available for producing biodiesel. SOme locations on map are close to livestock production centers, including hog production in Carolinas and Virginia and chicken prediction in S and Delmarva peninsula, bc animal fats are also used to produce biodiesel.

Polar Climates-

Include tundra and icecap climates and are found poleward of snow climates or at v high elevations. Polar location means temps are cold through year. As result, plant life doesn't break down and nourish soil during year, and layer of permafrost (frozen ground) exists year-round.

Green Revolution-

Intensified agriculture that uses engineered seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation to increase intensive agricultural practices. (use of biotech to make disease-resistant, fast-growing, high-yield seeds, and fertilizers and pesticides, and result been a large increase in crop production, especially in staple crops like rice, corn, and wheat.) Also known as Third Agricultural Revolution because of fundamental ways biotech changed ag.

Primogeniture-

Land ownership inheritance practice where land is passed down to the eldest son. In areas where land is divided among heirs, though, considerable fragmentation can occur over time. This is norm throughout much of Asia, Africa, and S Europe, and most of the allotted Indian reservations in US. Farmers in these areas tend a variety of scattered small plots of land. In some places, land reform initiatives consolidated landholdings to degree, but fragmentation still common in many parts of world.

Long-lot Survey-

Land survey system that divides Earth into narrow parcels stretching back from rivers, roads, or canals. Commonly found in France or places of French settlement, including Quebec and Louisiana. One of most distinctive regional approaches to land division can be found in Canadian Maritimes and in parts of Quebec, Louisiana, and Texas, where this survey system was implemented. The long-lot survey system spread from France through relocation dif with French migrants to Quebec then Louisiana.

Metes-and-Bounds-

Land survey system that relies on descriptions of land ownership and natural features such as streams or trees. Commonly found on the east coast of the United States. Portions of US and Canada have dif cadastral pattern, reflecting diff ideas of how land should be divided and used. Among msot signif is this survey approach adopted along east coast, uses natural features like rivers and trees to demarcate irregular parcels of land.

Plantation Agriculture: 2

Occasionally, producing countries consider forming a cartel to present a united front to importing countries and to gain better price, as oil-producing counties did during 1970s. Such collective action difficult to coordinate, as wealthy importing countries can buy products from countries not mems of cartel. Also, if group of countries controls exports of goods, non-producing countries can make incentives for their own production of goods. Ex. Though cane sugar accounts for 75% of commercial world sugar crop each year, farmers in US, Eu, and Russia also produce sugar from sugar beets. Sugar beets already yield 25% of annual world sugar harvest, and core countries could incentivize higher production.

Hunting, Gathering, and Fishing 1

Size of hunting and gathering clans varied according to climate, seasonal shifts, and resource availability. Communities were adept at tracking migration cycles of fish and land animals. Using tools and fire, hunter-gatherers altered their enviro to establish more reliable food supplies. What peeps hunted or gathered depended on where they lived.

Explain the Map of Global Agricultural Production 2

Spatial expansion of modern commercial ag began in 18th and 19th ct when Eu became market for ag products from round world. Eu countries manufactured and sold in their colonies the finished products made from imported raw materials. Cotton grown in Egypt, Sudan, India and other countries colonized by Eu was bought cheaply, imported to Eu factories, and made into clothes- many of which were then exported and sold, often in the very colonies where the cotton had been grown in first place. Major changes in transportation and food storage, especially refrigeration, further intertwined ag production and food-processing regions round world. Beef industry of Argentina, ex, secured world market when invention of refrigerated ships made it possible to transport highly perishable commodity over long distances. More than 80% of fruits and vegs sold in US supermarkets arrive through cold chain. Eu colonial powers required farmers in their colonies to cultivate specific crops. One major impact of colonial ag was establishment of monoculture throughout much of colonial world. Colonies became known for certain crops, and colonizers came to rely on their crops. Farmers in Ghana still raise caco; those in Mozambique still grow cotton; and Sri Lankans still produce tea.

Cold Chain-

System of harvesting produce that is not quite ripe and ripening it by controlling temperature from the fields to the grocery store.

Persevering on the Lake Traverse Reservation, South Dakota 1

US gov used Dawes Act in 1887 to change ownership on NA reservations. Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Oyate communally owned the Lake Traverse Reservation. In 1891, the US gov passed a congressional act to allot the reservation lands and open "surplus" lands to non-Indians. US gov counted the num of tribal memes and surveyed the land using the township and range system. Allotted 160 acres to each tribal mem and divided reservations 918,779 acres to 309,914 acres allotted to tribal members and 608,866 acres opened for non-Indians. On April 15, 1892, non-Indians perched on horseback round reservation, waiting for reservation to officially open, They quickly snapped up glacially rich land. Allotment of reservation had no regard for where trib's historical burial grounds or sacred places were. Completely disrupted econ system by moving individuals apart on small acreages. And had no thought for future of tribe. Within gen, each 160-acre plot land would be divided mong allottee's descendants. And each of these would again be divided. Today, land ownership on reservation is checkerboarded. After gens of splitting inheritance, tribal memes who have land often have tiny plots too small to farm. Despite allotment and assimilation, NA persevere, and Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Oyate tribal gov made new job opps at tribally-owned businesses, including gas stations, casinos, and manufacturing plant called Dakota Western, produces plastic and biodegradable trash can liners and garbage bags. A return to subsistence ag has taken hold in parts of world where farmers feel that production for global market not benefited them financially or culturally. Ex. Indigenous peeps in S Mexican states of Oaxaca, Chipas, and Guerrero largely returned to subsistence ag. Zapatista farmers have in effect chosen to withdraw from national econ, some weaning themselves off expensive chemical fertilizers and subsisting on corn they can grow, harvest, and barter.

Sustainability of Agriculture 1

Commercial ag produces signif enviro changes. Ex. growing demand for protein-rich foods and more efficient tech leading to overfishing in many regions of world, and in many places, fish stocks declining at alarming rate. From mid century to late 1980s, fish harvest from oceans and seas increased 5fold, there seemed to be no limit to it. Countries quarreled over fishing rights, poorer countries leased fishing grounds to richer ones, fleets of trawlers piled oceans, international attempts to regulate fishing industries flailed. Then in 1970s and 1980s, overfishing began destroying fish stocks. Fish and shellfish pops depleted. Total annual catch also declining and may already be beyond point of recovery. Much of damage already done, and fishing industries in many parts of world reported dwindling harvest and missing species. On land too, the industrialization and commercialization of ag accelerated pace and extent of ag's impact on enviro. If travel to Mediterranean Eu today, see landscape reflects clearing of forests in ancient times to facilitate ag and trade, and evidence of terraces cut into hills many centuries ago. In recent times, one land been cleared and land that under cultivation ever more intensively used.

Sustainability of Agriculture 3

In recent decades, popularity of fast food chains serving hamburgers led to deforestation of wooded areas to open additional pastures for beef cattle, notably in C and S America. But livestock racing extremely land, water, and energy intensive process. Signif land must be turned over to cultivation of cattle feed, and animals themselves need extensive grazing areas Also, by stripping away vegetation, animals can promote erosion of riverbanks, with implications for everything from water quality to wildlife habitat. Ag production changed drastically since First Ag Rev. Now, ag products, even perishable ones, shipped round world. Ag has industrialized, and large-scale agribusiness replaced sall family farms to produce most of food. Major commonality between ancient ag and modern ag remains: need to change. Trial and error norms of early plant and animal domestication; same processes at play in biotech-driven ag of contemporary era.

Agriculture-

Purposefully growing crops and raising livestock to produce food (for humans), feed (for livestock), and fiver (for textiles). Idea to move from hunting and gathering to domesticating plants and animals developed independently in different hearths. Transition from hunting and gathering to farming marks beginning of First Agricultural Revolution.

Sustainability of Agriculture 2

Signif ag driven changes to enviro go beyond simple clearing of land. Range from soil erosion to changes in organic content of soils to presence of chemicals in soils and groundwater (herbicides, pesticides and antibiotics and growth hormones from livestock feces). In places where large commercial crop farms dominate, greatest concerts often center on introduction of chemical fertilizers and pesticides into enviro- and soil erosion. And as seen, movement toward GMO crops carried with another set of enviro concerns. Growth of organic farming and move toad use of local foods in some communities can benefit enviro. But such initiatives had only modest impacts on majority of world's peeps and places. Telling sign is that organic movement has had little effect on production of staple foods on which bills of peep depend. Large corp entities playing increasingly prominent role in organic movement- raising concerns bout standards and rendering illusory ideal of independence organic farmer engaged in sustainable ag. Smaller farms argue are priced out of market by subsidies favoring large farms and by failure of most agribusinesses to incorporate enviro and health costs of large-scale, intensive farming into production costs. The enviro impacts of large-scale intensive ag can be v severe when ag movies into marginal enviros, happened with expansion of livestock herding into arid or semiarid areas. Natural vegetation in these areas can't always sustain herds, especially during prolonged droughts. As result, ecological degradation and, in some areas, desertification is result.

Palatial Layout of Agriculture Around Towns and Cities:

Once agricultural goods are produced, they need to be transported from fields to consumers. Agricultural goods like milk, fresh meat, and produce are perishable, susceptible to spoiling in transit, As patterns of production emerged round cities and towns, goods that were heavy to transport and highly perishable were produced within a short drive of the city center. Social scientists noticed geo patterns of land used based on the perishability of products and cost of transport.

Organic Agriculture: Consumer Demand 1

Comparing num of hectares in organic production to num of organic producers gives idea of whether organic production is intensive or extensive. India has most organic producers (835,200) but only 1.78 mil hectares of land in organic production. Indian organic farmers producing on small plots, using lot of labor and not lot of tech. India has .46 organic producers per hectare of organic farmland. US has fear organic producers (14,217) and more land (2.03 mil hectares) in organic production. American organic produces producing on larger plots, using less labor and more tech. US has .007 organic producers per hectare of organic farmland. Sales of organic food in US went from under $200 mil in 1980 to $8 bil by 2000 and $40 bil by 2017. IN 2000, sales of organic food reached tipping point, more organic food purchased in supermarkets than in health food stores. Organic foods sold in 3 out of 4 conventional grocery stores and approximately 20,000 natural food sites in US, with increasing demands for organic andmail products like meats and dairy.

Coffee: Fair Trade 1

Consider case of coffee, one of most important luxury crops in modern world. Coffee first domesticated in present-day Ethiopia, but today grown primarily in Middle and S AMerica, where round 70% of world's annual production is harvested. In early 18th ct, coffee virtually unknown in most of world. After petroleum, coffee now 2nd most valuable legally traded commodity in world. US buys more than ½ all coffee sold in world markets annually, and W Eu most of rest. Image of guy shown as proud Colomnian peasant who handpicks beans by day and enjoys coffee at night. Image contrary to reality of much coffee prediction in LAin America. In most cases, coffee produced on enormous, foreign-owned plantations, where picked by local laborers who hired at very low wage rates. Most coffee sent abroad, if coffee pickers drink it, probs of imported and instant variety.

Food Oasis-

Convenience stores located in food deserts where fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and lean, fresh meats are available at affordable prices. Walgreens recognized in 2011 that 45% of stores in areas that don't have access to fresh food. Walgreens committed to turning at least 1,000 of stores into food oasis sites, locations where fresh fruits and veggies, whole grains, and lean, fresh meats available at affordable prices. Walgreens opened first store in Chicao and headquarters in Chicago suburb. Building on this history. Walgreens opened first 10 food oasis sites in food sears in Chicago, Most recent presorst show Walgreens falling far behind goal of opening 1,000 food oasis stores. While Walgreens has larger % of grocery sales in US than Trader Joes or Natural Abundance, most groceries sold at Walgreens packaged food not fresh. Found that rural food deserts lack not only larger grocery stores, also public transportation to reach larger grocery stores. Found that since 1980s, in rural areas of US a restructuring of food retail industries occurred such that local grocery stores that once served small rural communities have been closed and replaced with larger national chains in regional trade centers. Geographers found one major diff between food deserts in urban and rural areas. In urban ones, obesity rates increased and rate of fruit and veggie consumption decreased with increasing distance from grocery stores. Rural areas didn't have similar correlations between distance and obesity rates and fruit and veggie consumption. Rural residents may have access to fresh fruits and veggies in personal or neighbors' gardens. This diet combines with manual labor in support of agricultural econ to keep obesity rates lower than expected in rural food deserts.

Examine the Challenges of Feeding Everyone 2

Finding your way out of food insecurity and undernourishment not easy. Undernourished peeps rarely have capacity to make independent choices and act intentionally to affect change, to combat poverty and political and social issues at the root of undernutrition and famine. In landmark work on vulnerability, Michael Watts and Hans Bohl have 3 interrelated causes of food insecurity: 1. Declining control over local food resources 2. Lack of political power 3. Political- Economic structures

Snow Climates-

Found closer to poles, include humid continental and subarctic. Humid continental climates found in US upper Midwest, S Canada, and W Russia. Humid continental climate areas in middle of continents. Land heats and cools more quickly than water, so temps more extreme in humid continental regions than other parts of world. WInters quite cold and summers can get quite hot. Subarctic climates found poleward of humid continental regions.

The Impact of the Rise of States on Agriculture 2

From 1500 to 1950, Eu powers sought to "modernize" economies of their colonies by ending subsistence farming and integrating farmers into colonial systems of production and exchange. Methods included both taking land and implementing tax systems to force farming. By demanding that farmers pay taxes, forced subsistence farmers to sell some of their produce to raise cash to pay taxes. Colonial powers also compelled many subsistence farmers to devote some land to a crop like cotton that would be sold on world market, bringing them into comercial econ. Encouraged commercial farming by conducting soil surveys, building irrigation systems, and establishing lending agencies that provided loans to farmers. Bc it was difficult to squeeze sellable quatintes of surplus form subsistence farming areas, colonizers also designed forced cropping schemes. If farmers in subsistence are cultivated certan acreage for food crops, were required to grow specified acreage of cash crops too. Whether this crop would be grown on old land or newly cleared land was farmers' decision. If no new lands available, farmers would have to give up food crops for compulsory cash crops. In many areas, severe famines resulted and local econs were disrupted from push for cash crop production.

Functional Differentiation Within Agricultural Villages 2

Functional dif of buildings within farm villages (like the functional zonation of cities-where dif areas of the city play dif roles and function dif) is more elaborate in some societies than others. Protection of livestock and storage of harvested crops primary functions of farm villages, and in many villages where subsistence farming is prevailing way of life, storage palaces for grains and their food is constructed with much care as best-built house. Moisture and vermin must be kept away from stored food; containers of grain often stand on stilts under carefully thatched roof or behind walls made of carefully maintained sun-dried mud. In India's villages paddybin made of mud (in which rice is stored) often stands inside house. ALso, livestock pens often attached ot houses, or as in Africa, dwellings are built in a circle surrounding corral. Functional differentiation of buildings is greatest in W cults, where single farmstead may contain as many buildings as an entire hamlet elsewhere in world. A prosperous North American farm likely to include 2 story farmhouse, a stable, a barn, and various outbuildings, including ships to store farm implements and tools, and silos for grain storage. Space these structures occupy can exceed that used by entire villages in Japan and other agrarian regions where space is at greater premium.

Outcomes of the Green Revolution 1

Gree Rev had positive and neg outcomes. Promise of increasing food production in world where more than 800 mil peeps undernourished led many peeps to view Gren Rev only in positive terms. Other worry bout social changes, health risks, and enviro hazards. Large-scale monocropping often part of Green Rev agriculture can make farms vulnerable to changes in climate or infestation of pests. Also, higher input of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticide that go along with Green Rev ag can lead to reduced organic matter in soil and to groundwater pollution. Green rev also worked against interests of many small-scale farmers who lack resources to acquire genetically enhanced seed and necessary chemical inputs to grow them. One particularly vocal opponent of Green Rev been a failure. Led to reduced genetic diversity, increased vulnerability to pests, soil erosion, water shortages, reduced soil fertility, micronutrient deficiencies, soil contamination, reduced availability of nutritious food crops for local pop, displacement of vast num of small farmers from their land, rural, impoverishment,and increased tensions and conflicts. Beneficiaries been agrochemical industry, large petrochemical comps, manufactures of ag machinery, dam builders, and large landowners.

Origins of the Green Revolution: 1

Green rev began in N America in 1930s, when ag scientists in Midwest experiments with tech manipulated seed varieties to increase crop yields. In 1940s, American philanthropists interested in combating hunger funded research on crops in Mexico, trying to find hybrid seeds would grow better. American ag scientist Borlaug developed wheat grain resistant to fungus common in Mexico. Disease-resistant wheat grew on tall stalk, made it topple before it fully grew. Borlaug crossed disease-resistant wheat with Japanese dwarf wheat to make dwarf wheat that grew dependably in Mexico that Mexico became self-sufficient in grain production. Realizing that tech could help combat global hunger, Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation funded research to additional staple grains, including rice. In 1960s, the focal point of Green REv shifted to India, when scientists in Philippines crossed dwarf Chinese variety of rice with Indoneasin variety and made IR8. New rice plant had several desirable properties, like developing more grains of rice on each head and growing stronger stem that didn't collapse under added weight of bigger head.

Equatorial climates-

Hot or very warm and generally humid. Eq rainforests have no dry season. Tropical savanna and tropical monsoon are grouped bc they both have distinct dry season and wet season. Boht climate zones wet when subsolar point (sun's direct rays) are nearby and dry when subsolar point is in opposite hemisphere.

Animal Domestication 2

Humans used relatively small animals they domesticated first for milk, eggs, meat, and hides. Used larger animals as beasts of burden, or sources of meat or providers of milk. Integrated use of domesticated plants and animals eased work burden for early farmers. Animal waste fertilised crops, animals pulled plows, and crops fed animals. Advantages of animal domestication stimulated rapid diffusion of livestock raising among places linked by trade. Through domestication and in captivity, animals changed from their wild state. In early animal domestication, peeps chose more docile, often smaller goats, pigs, and cattle to breed. Possibly, first domesticated animals attached themselves to human settlements either to scavenge for food by foraging through garbage or seek protection from predators. Interaction with relatively calm or easily calendar wild animals likely helped humans think they could keep, corral, and tame animals. Archea research indicated that when animals like wild cattle penned in corral, physically changed, In wild, physically strong animals survived. In corrals, animals protected from predators, enabling calmer, more docile, and sometimes weather animals to survive. Animals that successfully bred in corrals lived longer than those who didn't.

Hunting, Gathering, and Fishing 2

Hunter-gatherers migrated to take advantage of cyclical movements of animals and to avoid exhausting supply of edible plants in any one area. In Pacific NW, after summer salmon runs, NA hunted deer during fall and in spring, taking advantage of seasonal movements to trap deer where they crossed rivers or in narrow valleys. During winter, peeps lived off dried meat and other stored foods. Addition to hunting game on land, hunter-gatherers harvested shellfish, trapped fish by cutting off small patches of standing water from open sea, and invented tools to catch fish, including harpoons, hooks, and baskets.

Fertile Crescent-

Region in Mesopotamia and Anatolia where agriculture began. Growing seed crops involves seed selection, sowing, watering, and well-timed harvesting. Innovation of seed crop ag developed in more than one hearth at diff times. First hearth was Fertile Crescent, includes land between Tigris and Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq and extends west to Syria.

The Second Agricultural Revolution-

A cluster of advances in breeding livestock, agricultural technology, and seed production to increase food, feed, and livestock production that took place in Europe in 1700s and 1800s. To fuel industrialization and urbanization that happened from 1700s on, peeps needed to make 2nd ag rev, moving beyond subsistence farming to generating surpluses needed to feed thousands of peeps working in factories instead of on ag fields. Like Industrial Rev, 2nd one included series of innovations, improvements, and techniques developed in dif places at dif times, together significantly improved production of crops and livestock. In 1700s British and Dutch invented seed drill, improved livestock breeding methods, consolidated land into larger farms, and began using new crop rotation systems. Seed drill enabled farmers to avoid wasting seeds and to plant in rows, making it simpler to distinguish weed from crops. Also, gives encouraged land consolidation to increase scale of production. GB's Enclosure Act encouraged consultation of fields into large, single-owner holdings, Farmers increased size of their firearms, pieced together more contiguous parcels of land, fenced in land, and instituted crop rotation. Also improved their methods of soil preparation, fertilization, crop care, and harvesting.

Genetically Modified Organisms 2

A major debate developed round GMOs. Proponents argue that GMOs can help feed expanding world pop and hard evidence of neg consequences to their use is lacking. Opponents contended that GMo comps releasing orgs into enviro without adequate understanding of their enviro, health, or socioeconomic consequences. Nother concern is impact of pollen dispersal from GMOs on other organisms and potential -for disease-resistant plants to supr evolution of superpests. Some regions embrace genetically engineered crops, others banned them. US largely been in former camp, though is growing movement to require labeling of products containing GMOs and growing demand for organic products. Expansion of organic ag in US been, in part, reaction to growth of GMOs. Ideological resistance to genetically engineered foods is strong in W Europe. Ag officials in most W European countries declared GMOs to be safe, but labelong is required, and is strong public reaction against GMOs based on combined concerns bout health and taste. In lower income regions, seeds cultural commodity, reflecting agricultural lessons learned over gens. Farmers resist invasion of foreign, genetically engineered crops. In their search for new markets, major GMO comps promote their products in global periphery and semiperiphery.

Von Thunen Model-

A model that explains the location of agricultural activities in a spatial pattern of rings around a central market city, with profit-earning capability the determining where a crop or good is produced in reference to the market. (including the ring of forest) often described as the first effort to analyze spatial character of econ activity. Agricultural production that matches von Thunen's model not solely result of distance and transportation costs, but, and some of von Thunen's assumptions only rarely hold true. Round any given city, can find differences in climate, precipitation patterns, access to transportation, topography and soil quality that farmers factor into the goods they produce. Core, dairy farming, forests, grains and field crops, ranching and lives

Mechanization and Advances in Breeding 2

Advances in breeding livestock enabled farmers to develop new breeds were either strong milk producers or good for beef. Most common breeds of dairy cattle found in N America trace lineage back to 2nd ag rev in Europe. In 1700s and 1800s, Eu farmers bred dairy cattle to adapt to dif climates and topography. Innovations in machinery that occurred with INdustrial Rev in late 1800s and early 1900s helped sustain 2nd Ag Rev. Railroad helped move ag into new regions including Great PLains. Major role that railroads and ag played in changing landscape of region from NA communal hunting and ag lands to individual, homestead farms. Railroad comps advertise in Europe to attract immigrants to Great PLains region, and railroads took new migrants to railroad-built towns.

Shifting Cultivation-

Agricultural practice based on clearing and farming land for a time before moving on to new parcel and allowing first to fill in with native vegetation. (Clearing and burning a plot of land, farming it for 2 to 10 years, then moving on to a new field while leaving the plot to regenerate. Shifting cult is most common in tropical and subtropical regions where soils stay fertile for few years after vegetation is cut down and burned. Once stripped of their natural vegetave cover and deprived of constant input of nutrients from decaying vegetation matters on forest floor, soils in these regions can quickly lose their nutrients as rainwater reaches out organic matter. When this happens, farmers leave field to regenerate and move to nother parcel of land.

Genetically Modified Organisms 1

Agricultural scientists alter chemical makeup of crops and modify genes of plants to make genetically engineered (GE) seeds and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Farmers been experimenting with hybrid crops and crossbreeding livestock since first ag rev. Difference today is that genetic modification involves splicing together genes from dif species to make new plants. According to Grocery Manufacturers of America, GMOs now found in 75% of all processed foods in US. US leads world in production of genetically engineered crops. Since 1996, present of planted acres genetically engineered to be herbicide tolerant or insect resistant grown from below 20% to over 80%. Genetically engineered seeds planted on 88% of corn acres (up form 25% in 2000), 90% of soybean acres (up from 54% in 2000, and 85% of cotton acres in US.

Food Desert-

Area characterized by a lack of availability of affordable, fresh, and nutritious food. Malnourishment in form of obesity or undernourishment can be linked to living in food desert. Urban food deserts typically found in low-income neighborhoods where medium-size and large grocery stores largely absent. Only grocery stores within easy reach are convenience stores offering processed, energy-dense but nutrient-poor food. Rural food desserts can cover large expanses. Rural areas often lack local grocery stores or public transportation to major towns with stores. White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity, led by Michelle Obama reported that 23.5 mil Americans live in food desserts, including 6.5 mil kids. Consumers in urban food deserts more likely to purchase unhealthy foods like chips, sugar cereals, and snack cakes, bc are cheaper than fresh fruits and veggies. USDA made Food Access Research Atlas at scale of US accessible online. Can zoom into certain cities or states and map food deserts in rural and urban areas. Atlas maps distance to grocery stores at dif increments, main zones of .5 and 1 miles for urban areas and zones of 10 or 20 miles for rural areas. Also maps low-income Census tracts, and Census tracts where more than 100 households don't have vehicle. Food deserts in rural and urban areas overlap frequently with race, bc disadvantaged minorities often have lower incomes. Census tracts where most peeps are AA, also Census tracts classified as food deserts.

Conversion of Farmland to Nonfarm Use 1

As world pop increases and footprints of cities continue to grow, developers convert fertile, productive farmlands to housing, retail, offices, and infrastructure. In 1800s and early 1900s, cities near productive farmlands often grow bc farmers could supply food to residents. Rapid suburban growth after WWII and urban sprawl since 1980s converted farmland to urban development. Recently found that over 70% of urban development and round 54% of low-density residential development occurred on ag land between 1992 and 2012. Mapped lands by PVR value (productivity, versatility, and resiliency), and found that land with high PVR value more likely to be developed. In that time period, 11 mil acres of productive farmland in US, a size equivalent to 47% of state of Indiana, were converted to nonagricultural use. Conversion of farmlands to housing developments not confined to areas close to major cities that could become suburbs. Expendable wealth and desire to have place to get away from it all have led highly productive commercial ag areas to be converted to regions for second homes. On Delaware, Maryland, Virginia area in US, ex, where poultry production concentrated, price of land rose as city-dwellers from Penn, DC, Maryland, and New York bought land on Eastern Shore to build second homes. Once new residents settled on peninsula, demanded higher enviro standards. But rising land prices and stricter enviro standards impact cost of chicken production. As urban pop continues to grow and expendable wealth increases, more ag lands will be converted to second homes, especially on coastlines or idyllic country landscapes.

Compare and Contrast the Three Agricultural Revolutions:

Before beginning of ag, peeps hunted, gathered, and fished for food. Then during First Agricultural Revolution, occurred 10,000 ye ago, farmers successfully planted and grew crops and domesticated animals. This was the beginning of ag. Domesticating plants and animals required effort, observation, and resiliency as early farmers learned which wild plants they could grow and what animals they could tame. During Second Agricultural Revolution, between 18th and 20th ct, both pop and ag yields increased dramatically. Third Agricultural Revolution, better known as Green Revolution, focuses on genetically modifying seeds and changing land-use techniques to increase yields for a global pop that's quickly multiplying.

Hunting, Gathering, and Fishing 3

Before developing ag, hunter-gatherers worked on perfecting tools, controlling fires, and adapting environments to their needs. First tools used in hunting were simple clubs, tree limbs that were thin at one end and thick and heavy at other. Over time, hunter gatherers used bone and stone and made spears, making hunting more effective. By fashioning stone into hand axes and later handling axes, hunters could skin their prey and cut meat. Hunter gatherers used axes to cut down trees and build better shelters and tools. Early humans communities also became adept at using fire for controlled burns. First opportunities to control fire were offered by natural conditions like lightning. Archae digs of ancient settlement sites suggest that peeps captured fire caused naturally and worked to keep fire burning continuously. Later, peeps learned to spark it by rapidly rotating wooden sticks in a small hole surrounded by dry tinder and fanned by oxygen. Fire became focal point of settlements and tools both for cooking food and for driving hunted animals off a cliff or into a ravine to be killed.

Origins of the Green Revolution: 2

Building on success of IR8, in 1982, scientist made IR36, bred from 13 parents to make genetic resistance against 15 pests. WIth growing cycle of 110 days under warm conditions, farmers could grow 3 crops per year in some places. By 1992, IR36 most widely grown crop on Earth and in Sep 1994, scientist made strain of rice even more predictive. Green Rev also brought new high-yield varieties of wheat and corn from US to other parts of world, particularly S and SE Asia. India became self-sufficient in grain production by 1980s and Asia saw 2/3rds increase in rice production between 970 and 1995. These drastic increased in production stemmed from new seed varieties, also form use of fertilizers, pestiest, irrigation, and signif capital improvements.

Commercial Agriculture: 1

By far, largest areas of commercial ag lie outside tropics. Dairying is widespread at N margins of midlatitude-particularly in NE US and in NW Europe. Commercial gardening is found in E and SE US and in widely dispersed in small areas where enviro are favorable. Only one form of ag mentioned in image refers to particular climactic zone: Mediterranean ag. As map shows, this kind of specialized farming occurs only in areas where dry summer Mediterraban climates prevails: along shores of Mediterraean Sea, in parts of California and Oregon, in central Chile, at South Africa's Cape, and in parts of SW and S Australia. Farmers here grow special combinations of crops: grapes, olives, citrus fruits, figs, certain vegs, dates, and others. From these areas come many wines. These and other commodities exported to distant markets bc Mediterranean products ten to be popular and command high prices.

Drug Agriculture 1

Certain important ag activities cannot easily be mapped at global scale and don't appear in image. One of these activities is cultivation of crops turned into illegal drugs. Bc of high demand for drugs-particularly in global econ core-farmers in periphery often find it more profitable to cultivate poppy, cocaine, or marijuana plants than to grow standard food crops. Cultivation of these plants has increased steadily over past several decades, and now constitute important source of revenue for parts of global econ periphery. Coca, source of plant cocaine, grown widely in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. Other half of world's cultivation of coca occurs in Colombia alone. Heroin and opium derived from opium poppy plants, grown predominantly in SE and S Asia, especially in Afghanistan and Myanmar. UN reported that 74% of world's opium production took place in Afghanistan. US-led overthrow of Taliban in Afghanistan in 2001 made power vacuum in country and opportunity for illegal drug production to quickly rebound (the austere Taliban gov had virtually eradicated opium production in Afghanistan by 2001). Most opium production in Afghanistan today occurs in 5 unstable S provinces.

Plantation Agriculture: 1

Colonialism profoundly shaped non subsistence farming in many lower income countries. Colonial powers implemented ag systems to benefit their needs, practice that has tended to lock lower income countries into production of 1 or 2 cash crops. Cash crop farming has benefit of providing cash to the periphery, even if conditions of sale to core are unfavorable. In Caribbean whole national econ depended on sugar, was introduced by Eu colonizers in 1600s. Caribbean countries wanted to sell sugar at highest possible price. But not in position to dictate prices bc sugar is produced by many countries round world, and by farmers in global econ core. Govs in core place quotas on imports of ag products, including sugar, and subsidize domestic production of same commodities within own country.

Subsistence Agriculture:

Map of world ag labels 4 types of subsistence ag: shifting cultivation, intensive subsistence- wet rice dominant, intensive subsistence- wet rice not dominant, and pastoral nomadism. In some regions that are labeled as subsistence, that label doesn't tell whole story. Ex. in SE Asia, rice is grown on small plots with lot labor, so that subsistence and export production occur sibe by side. Despite region's signif rice exports, most SE Asian farmers are subsistence farmers. Thus, SE Asia appears on map as primarily subsistence grain-growing area.

Examine the Challenges of Feeding Everyone 1

Dispute these initiatives, the battle against hunger and undernourishment far from won. WOrld Food Program identifies several causes of hunger globally: - Poverty trap: Peeps who can't afford food become weaker, which makes it more difficult to find or keep job, making cycle of poverty and hunger. - Lack of investment in agriculture infrastructure: Countries that lack infrastructure to keep produce cold at point of harvest until it can be shipped globally by cold chain, and countries that lack infrastructure like roads to move food are at disadvantage in production and consumption. -Climate and weather: Natural disasters have longer-lasting impacts in peripheral countries Climate change is making extended droughts, exacerbating threats from ew pests, altering growing conditions for traditional crops. -War and displacement: Conflict disrupts agriculture. Refugees and internally displaced peeps from arming areas no longer live on their farms and can't produce crops. -Unstable markets: Fluctuating and unpredictable food prices make it diffusion to access healthy foods consistently. -Food wastage: Bout 1/3rd of all food produced globally is never consumed.

Von Thunen: 2

Even if Von Thunen's model doesn't always work, general pattern makes intuitive sense, and can find support for it at certain scales and in certain cities. If you drive east out of Denver on major highway, cannot miss a certain zonation that puts dairying and market gardening nearest the city, cash grains like corn and soybeans in the nexxt zone, more extensive grain farming and livestock raising beyond, nad cattle ranching in the outermost zone. This pattern doesn't work in all directions. It is truncated by Rocky Mountains to W and other urban areas of Colorado to N and S. Thus von thunen's model is general guideline but not consistently confirmed bc how and where peeps live often differ from assumptions of his model. Even when ag production doesn't conform to concentric rings of von thunen's model, his underlying concern with interplay of land use and transportation costs still explains many ag patterns. Fresh flowers grown in Caribbean for sale in NYC could be viewed as application of von Thunen model on larger scale, for it is less expensive to grow flowers in Caribbean and ship them to NYC than it is to grow them in other locations.

Farms and Farmers 1

Examining proportion of peeps employed in ag gives us idea of whether ag is more commercial (intensive) or subsistence (extensive) in country. India is 2nd largest ag producer in world (after China) with its ag goods valued at $358,905 mil and 42.74% of its labor force employed in ag. US is 3rd largest ag producer in world with its ag goods valued at more than $32.7 bil. Share of US labor force employed in ag is much smaller at only 1.66%. Same amount of ag production requires more labor in India than in US, pointing to more commercial (intensive) approach to ag in US. 2 other counties with similar total production have similar dif in how labor intensive their ag production is. Ag goods produced in UK are valued at 24.6$ bila nd in Malaysia is $23.6 bil. Diff in labor with 1.1 % of UK and 11.01% of Malaysian labor force employed in ag. In this case, UK is using more commercial methods of ag production than Malaysia.

Indoor Vertical Farms-

Factories where produce is grown hydroponically without soil. Also known as plant factories, which rely on growing produce hydroponically, without soil. Sensors throughout building constantly collect data and gather it to Cloud. Companies like Microsoft developing AI systems to help farmers analyze data and change conditions for optimal crop yields. These plant factories located close to city centers, use space efficiently, and require serious tech investments. Next step is automation, which use robotics to harvest fresh produce from indoor vertical farms and deliver it to a customer in city same day.

Food Security:

Identities 4 major issues affect food security worldwide: 1. Varying abilities to balance production and consumption across regions and countries 2. Accelerating conversions of ag land to urban uses 3. Increasingly energy-intensive food production methods in world of shrinking fossil fuel resources 4. Expanding use of food crops for biofuel production. 1st issue highlights fact that where ag goods are produced doesn't overlap with where goods are consumed. 2nd and 4th issues both pint to how we use agricultural lands. Converting farmlands to suburbs and using productive farmland to grow crops like soybeans that are destined for biofuels reduces amount of productive land available for growing food for peeps and feed for livestocks. 3rd issue points to fluctuating price factors that products weigh. Each price factor impacts farmers' bottom line and ability to maintain their operation, whether they using hydrocarbons (fossil fuels) to run implements and irrigation systems; buying farm insurance; taking out loans for operations, equipment, or land; taking out bridge loan to stay afloat; selecting expensive drought-resistant seed or less expensive seedl selecting and applying fertilizers and pesticides; or buying or renting land.

Von Thunen: 1

In 1800s, german farmer, Johann Heinrich von Thunen (1783-1850), experienced 2nd Ag Rev firstand: He farmed an estate not far from town of Rostock, in NE Germ. Studying spatial patterns of land use round his town and similar towns, he noted that as he moved away from a town, one commodity or crop age way to another. He also noticed that this process occurred without any visible change in soil, climate, or terrain. When he mapped the patterns, found that each town was surrounded by set of concentric rings within which ag goods were grown. Closest to town, farmers generally produced commodities that are perishable and commanded high prices, like dairy products and strawberries. In this zone, much effort would go into production, in part bc of the value of the land closer to the city. In von Thunen's time, the town was still surrounded by a belt of forest that provided wood for fuel and building, but immediately beyond the forest, the ringlike pattern of agriculture continued. In the next ring, crops were less perishable and bulkier, including wheat and other grains. Still farther out, farmers raised livestock for meat, hides, and other products. Von Thunen used his observations to build a model of the spatial distribution of ag activities round settlements. He made assumptions. Assumed that terrain was flat, that soils and other enviro conditions were same everywhere, and that there were no barriers for transportation to market. Von Thunen assumed that cost of transportation would be greater at distances farther from market and cost of transportation would be added to cost of production crop or commodity. With these assumptions, transportation costs and accessibility would determine how farmers used land.

Types of Agricultural Villages 2

In hilly regions of Eu, villages frequently clustered on hills, leaving level land for farming. Often an old castle sits atop hill, so in earlier times, site offered protection and land conservation. In many low-lying areas of W Europe, villages located on dikes and levees, so often take on linear characteristic. Villages oriented along roads or rivers also have this characteristic. Where there is space, a house and outbuildings may be surrounded by small garden; with farms and pasturelands just beyond. In other cases, villages may take on characteristics of clusters. May have begun as small hamlet at intersection of two roads and developed by accretion. Eu version of East Afriacn circular village,with its central cattle corral, is round village or rundling. This layout was first used by Slavic farmer-herdsmen in E Eu and later modified by Germanic settlers. In many parts of world, farm villages were fortified to protect their inhabitants against marauders. 10,000 ye ago, first farmers in Fertile Crescent faced attacks form horsemen of Asia's steppes and clustered together to ward off this danger. In Nigeria's Yorubaland, farmers would go out into surrounding fields by day, but retreat to protection of walled villages at night. Villages as well as larger towns and cities in Europe, were frequently walled and surrounded by moats. When the pop became so large that peeps had to build houses outside the original wall, new wall would be built to protect them as well. Walled villages still exist in rural areas of many countries- reminders of a turbulent past.

Coffee: Fair Trade 2

In past few decades, though, coffee prediction undergone changes as more consumers demand fair trade coffee and more coffee producers seek fair trade certification. Aim of fair trade is to raise income of certified producers by reducing number of actors in supply chain. Coffee producers form democratically run cooperatives that, if certified, can be registered on International Fair Trade Coffee Register. Coffee importers then purchase fair trade coffee directly from registered cooperatives. Being registered guarantees coffee producers fair trade pierce of $1.4 per pound of coffee (plus bonuses of $.3 per pound for organic). When organic ag bears fair trade certification, some producers in periphery and semiperiphery benefit substantially, though also have abide by rules established in core. Over 1.3 mil farmers and workers in 70 countries, mainly in periphery and semiperiphery, connected to 1150 fair trade-certified producer organizations worldwide. Fair trade campaign pressured Starbucks into selling fair trade coffee each year. Amounts to just 5% of total purchases, but it is largest purchaser of fair trade coffee in world. Other retailers followed suit; ex, all espresso sold at Dunkin' Donuts in NA and E fair trade certified. Fair trade coffee available at large retail outlets and under corporate brands at Target, Walmart, and Sam's Club. Corporate embrace of fair trade coffee has boosted movement considerably, though it has also raised concerns bout corporate co-optation of fair trade standards. Push for fair trade production shows how social movements can influence ag. And fair trade goes beyond coffee. Dozens of commodities and products, ranging form tea, bananas, fresh-cut flowers, and chocolate to soccer balls, can be certified fair trade.A according to Fair Trade International, consumers spent more than $6.5 bil on fair trade-certified products in 2012.

The Impact of the Rise of States on Agriculture 1

In process of colonizing much of world between 16th and 20th ct, Europeans divided world into states or countries. Under international law, states are territories with defined borders. Meaning of land and its ownership changed with rise of state system. Land became system of control and power. Change has greatly impacted hunter-gatherers and subsistence farmers. Relatively small groups of hunter-gatherers who migrate cyclically often move across country borders and are experiencing pressures to change their livelihoods. In many cases, state pressures hunter-gatherers to settle in one place and farm. Some nongov orgs encourage settlements by digging wells or building medical buildings, permanent houses, or schools for hunter-gatherers. Even hunter-gatherers who continue to use their knowledge og seeds, roodts, fruits, betties, insects, and animals gather and trap goods need for survival do so in context of highly interconnected econ world.

Warm Temperate Climates-

Include humid subtropical. If know local climate in Atlanta or Nashville or Jacksonville, understand why climate is humid. Moist and generally warm bc just outside tropics. Marine west coast and Mediterranean climates along coasts and found next to each other bc are created by same conditions. Both marine west coast and Mediterranean climates experience wet winters and dry, hot summers.

Township and Range System-

Land survey system that divides Earth into square parcels called townships 96 miles by 6 miles), each of which has 36 sections (1 mile by 1 mile). Commonly found west of the Appalachian Mountains. Prevailing survey system used through much of US, one that appears as checkerboards across ag fields, is federal rectangular survey system (township and range system), with farms spaced by sections, half sections, or quarter sections. US gov adopted rectangular survey system after American Rev. Designed to facilitate settlement of non-indians in farmlands of interior of US, system imposed a rigid checkerboard pattern on land. Imprint of rectangular survey system is evident in Canada too, where gov adopted similar cadastral system as it sought to allocate land in Prairie provinces.

Hunger-

Living on less than the daily recommended 2100 calories the average person needs to live a healthy life. Now, enough food is produced worldwide to feed the pop, but in face of inadequate distribution systems & widespread poverty, food security looms as signif issue for 21st ct. While news stories focus on starving pops in wake of wars and natural disasters, acute emergencies account for less than 8% of global hungry. Chronic undernourishment is much greater prob, impeding childhood development, weakening immune systems, and undermining the social fabric of communities. Globally, 11% of pop or around 815 mil went hungry in 2016. Undernourishment is key factor in deaths of 45% of children worldwide who don't live to age 5. In response to widespread undernourishment and famine, in 1985 US Agency for International Development made Famine Early Warning System, collaborates with other orgs worldwide to monitor food stores and predict food insecurity. Many govs and nongov orgs provide food aid to peeps in need. UN World Food Program is largest source of food aid in world. Delivers food that is tailored to meet nutritional needs based on pop in certain locations. Typical food basket includes staple food like wheat flour or rice, protein (often lentils or other legumes). Vegetable oil, sugar, and salt.

Cadastral System-

Method of land survey through which land ownership and property lines are defined. Flying from W coast of US to E coast, if you have window seat, see major imprint ag makes on cultural landscape. Green circles standing out in grain belts of country places where center pivot irrigation system rotate to provide irrigation to circle or crops. Checkerboard pattern on landscape reflects system used in most country. Pattern of ownership seen in landscape reflects cadastral system Cadastral system adopted in places where settlement could be regulated by law and impose remarkable uniformity across land. Many parts of world don't have cadastral systems, so field patterns are irregular. But whether regular or irregular, societies with property ownership have parcels of land divided into neat, clearly demarcated segments. Size and order of theos parces heavily influenced by land partition schemes, and rules bout property inheritance. In systems where one child inherits all land-like theos associated with traditional Germanic practice of primogeniture, parcels tend to be larger and farmers work a single plot of land. This is norm in N Europe and in principal areas of N Eu colonization- Americas, S Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

Commercial Agriculture: 2

Mixed crop and livestock farming is widespread in more humid parts of midlatitudes, including much of E US, W Europe,and W Russia, but also found in S America and S Africa. Commercial grain farming prevails in drier parts of midlatitudes, including S prairie Provinces of Canada, Dakotats and Mondana in US, and Nebraska, Kansas, and adjacent areas. Spring wheat (planted in spring and harvested in summer) grows in N zone, and winter wheat (planted in autumn and harvested in spring of following year) is used in S area. An even larger belt of wheat farming extends from Ukraine through Russia and Kazakhstan. Argentinian and Australian wheat zones smaller in area, but their exports are important component of world trade. Even a glance at image reveals wide distribution of livestock ranching, raising of domesticated animals to make meat and byproducts like leather and wool. Also to large cattle-ranching areas in US, Canada, and Mexico, much of Brazil and Argentina is devoted to ranching, also with large tracts of Australia and New Zealand, and S Africa. Mays see a Thunian pattern here: livestock ranching on periphery and consumers in cities. Refrigeration has overcome prob of perishability, and high volume has lowered unit cost of transporting beef, lamb, and other animals.

Columbian Exchange-

Movement of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas among Africa, Europe, and Americas across the Atlantic. Began with Spanish and Portugese exploration in late 15th ct. Trade pattern, called triangular trade network, brought new seeds and livestock to teach continent. Through Columbian Exchange, new crps came to Europe from trade with Africa and Akericas. DIffusion of crops and seeds greatly accelerated bt worldwide trade and communications and networks established with development of European exploration.

Ethanol and Biodiesel: Government Impacts 1

Much of corn produced in US and sugar in Brazil is converted to ethanol and used for fuel. 2 countries account for 85% of ethanol produced worldwide.. IN 2018, 38% of all corn produced in US was processed into fuel instead of food or feed. Ethanol production tool in Brazil and US in 1970s when price of oil rose and price of corn and sugar dropped. In 1980s, when price of oil fell again, federal and state gov subsidized ethanol production. Current fed ethanol subsidy in US gives ethanol blenders a tax credit of $.45 for every gallon of ethanol blended with gas,a t cost to taxpayers in taxes not paid of $5.7 bil annually. While ethanol and biodiesel renewable fuels that burn cleaner than gas, each comes with several enviro concerns. Chief concern is that not all products use to make fuels are efficient. Efficiency by acre of ethanol and biodiesel depends on product used to make fuel. Biggest source of ethanol in US is corn, but num of gallons per acre from corn is much lower (401 gall/acre) than for switchgrass (1150 gallons/acre). Most biodiesel in US is derived from soybeans, yield 59 gallons of biodiesel per acre.

Plantation Agriculture: 3

Multinational corps have tenaciously protected their econ interests in plantations. In 1940s and 1950s, Guatemalan gov began agrarian reform prog that entailed renting unused land from foreign corp to landless citizens at low appraised value. The United Fruit Comp, an American firm with extensive holdings in courtney, greatly concerned by this turn of events. Comp had close ties to powerful individuals in American gov. In 1954, US supported overthrow of gov of Guatemala bc of stated concerns bout spread of communism. Ended all land reform initiatives, but led many commentators to question degree to which UFC was behind coup. Except for President Dwight Eisenhowr, every individual involved in decision to help topple Guatemala's gov had ties to comp. THis ex illistarates inextricable links between econ and political motivations- and raises questions bout degree to which multinational corps based in wealthy countries influence decisions bout politics, ag, and land reform in other parts of world.

Outcomes of the Green Revolution 2

No easy matter to weigh enormous increase in food production occurred in placed adopted green rev approaches against types of social enviro issues highlighted. 2005 report in Scientific American contends that many small farmers not benefited from Green Rev. Supply driven strategies from Green Rev may not help subsistence farmers who must play their strengths to compete in global marketplace. Average size of fam farm less than 4 acres in India, 1.8 in Bangladesh and ½ acre in China. Smaller farmers in poor competitive position, and position further undermined by fact that few large corps with seed patents for biotech altered grains and virtual monopoly of needed chemical inputs have tremendous power over ag production process. Also, ended for capital from West to implement Green Rev tech led to shift away from production for local consumers toward export ag. In process, local places become subject to changing circumstances of global econ, and downward fluctuation in price of given crop can make enormous prob for places dependent on the scale of that crop. Despite neg impacts of Green Rev, proponents question why anyone would argue against reducing famine and starvation and feeding ever-growing world pop. Researchers at International Rice Research Institute, with help from $18 bil grant form Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, bred genetically modified "Green Super Rice" does not have to be transplanted as seedlings, but can be seeded directly in the paddy soil. Charting of genome of rice (12 chromosomes that carry all of plant's characteristics) making it possible to transform rice genetically so that it will continuously acquire more new properties that could make it resistant to wider spectrum of diseases and pests. Dozens of Green Super Rice varieties being planted in several countries, and new varieties in development.

Organic Agriculture: Consumer Demand 2

Organic foods now 5.7% of all food sales in US, up from 3.4% in 2010. Growth rate so strong that some predict organic sales will approach 10% within a decade. Denmark already hit 13.3% of total food sales. Sweden, Switz, Austria follow with 9,1, 9.0, 8.6% of total food sales in organic. Farmers who can gain organic certification form gov or internationally recognized 3rd party are increasingly at competitive advantage. Organic farming helped some farmers extract themselves from major corporate farming interests. But, largest organic food seller in US, WhiteWave Foods, subsidiary of Danone, ranked 24 on list of largest food producers in country's second largest organic food producer, Hain Celestial Group, stands at 64 on list of largest producers overall. 3rd largest is General Mills, likely familiar for cereals and ranked 10 on lost. Organic movement has some clear enviro benefits, particularly in reducing levels of synthetic chemicals in soil and water. Putative health and taste advantages help ensure continued growth of organic movement.

Columbian Exchange:

Places known now for growing certain crops, like Idaho and Ireland for potatoes, hawaii for pineapples, and Colombia for coffee, not places where they originated. Corn grown in American Corn Belt diffused from Central America. During Columbian Exchange, Portugese traders carried corn across Atlantic into Africa and Europe where became staple in some regions. White potatoes associated with Ireland and Idao came from Andean highlands. Brought to Europe in 1600s, where became staple in Ireland and N European Plain. Also, bananas associated with Central America came from SE Asia and variety of yam. Colombian exchange brought many new crops to places with similar climates, soils, and topography. Farmers found crops that could grow in places that previously didn't support agriculture, bringing new lands that were previously defined as marginal into cultivation. System of trade didn't only include seeds, Eu also forcibly enslaved Africans and moved them across Atlantic to labor on plantations in Americas. European migration brought diseases to America, infecting and killing mills of indigeous peeps, overturning civilization, and dispossessing Natives of their land. Columbian Exchange not only changed landscape of crops among Europe, Africa, S America ,and N America, also set up system of unequal exchange that foundational to globalization.

Plant Domestication:

Plant domestication changed plants themselves. Farmers chose seeds from largest, hardiest plants to save for planting next year. Over time, domesticated plants grew larger than counterparts in wild. By analyzing seeds, archae can determine which plants grew in abundance and dates when were commonly grown. Farmers in Fertile Crescent grew wheat and barley. Farming began in more than one hearth. Farmers domesticated several crops, including yams and rice, independently, each experimenting with spreading seeds and growing crops. Ex, SE Asians domesticated rice, yams, beans, and sugarcane. Indus Civilization grew wheat, barley, and mustard. Farmers in Central America grew avocados, tomatoes, and cotton. Archae research on ag is ongoing, and scientists revise timeline of what crops were grown, where first grown, and when. Researchers debate whether ag developed independently in each hearth or if crop domestication diffused from certain hearths to others. Ag increased food security and changed civilizations. Growing enough grain to store a surplus enabled peeps to settle permanently in one place and make villages and towns. Peeps could do jobs other than farming, including working as artisans, metalworkers, soldiers, shamans, and lears. Trade of surpluses, handmade goods, and resources grew among ag hearths. Civilization grew and built great structures from Egyptain pyramids in Nile to Angkor Wat in SE Asia.

Extensive Agricultural Practices-

Production of agricultural goods primarily by hand with low use of fertilizers and high use of human labor. Use less capital and larger areas of land to cultivate what traditionally been lower yield. Applying bid rent theory, extensive ag takes place farther from city center, where land values low relative to labor capital. Crops grown extensively include grains like wheat and rice and tubers like yams, taro, cassava, and potatoes. Modern ag, especially in large ag countries like US and Canada, challenge traditional conception of extensive ag. Fares who put mils of $ into seeds, fertilizers, GPS-guided combines, drones, and data using a combination of intensive practices, including high tech and high capital, and extensive practices, including more remote, expansive fields. Result is high yield, often even in adverse conditions like drought.

Intensive Agricultural Practices-

Production of agricultural goods using fertilizers, insecticides, and high-cost inputs to achieve the highest yields possible. Often occur closer to cities where land values are high.. With rapid growth of world cities and expansion of big data and artificial intelligence, intensive ag is rapidly growing near major cities. One form is indoor vertical farms.

Plantation Agriculture-

Production system based on a large estate owned by an individual, family or proportion, and organized to produce a cash crop. When cash crops grown on large estates, use this term. Plantations colonial legacies that persist in peripheral, primarily tropical, counties along with subsistence farming. Plantation ag continues in S and SE Asia and China. Laid out to make bananas, sugar, coffee, and cocoa in Middle and S America, rubber, cocoa, and tea in W and E Africa, tea in S Asia and rubber in SE Asia, plantations have outlasted period of decolonization and continue to provide specialized crops to wealthier markets. Many of most productive plantations owned by Eu or American individuals or corps.

Ethanol-

Renewable fuel made from plant material called biomass. It is added to round 98% of all gas sold in US. It is used more frequently in colder climates bc it has properties that prevent it and gas its mikex with from freezing in cold temps. Grains, other plant life, veg oils, and animal fats can be converted to fuel, either ethanol or biodiesel.

Biodiesel-

Renewable fuel made from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease. It is used in warmer climates bc its components can freeze and crystallize in cold weather.

Ethanol and Biodiesel: Government Impacts 2

Scientists don't agree on net energy savings or cost of ethanol or biodiesel over hydrocarbons like oil. Dozens of variables that are difficult to quantify go into calculations of energy and water use for production. Land use is first variable. Fields of corn can be carbon dioxide sink bc plants use carbon dioxide to grow through photosynthesis. But actual production and then burning of corn release carbon dioxide. BC ethanol is plant based, burning ethanol still maps carbon dioxide, but most studies agree that burning ethanol releases less carbon dioxide than burning hydrocarbons does. Another concern with biofuel is that ethanol burns less efficiently than gas. Gas produces more miles per gallon than ethanol. Takes energy to refine both fuels, but takes less energy to make biodiesel than does to make ethanol. How much more water used for ethanol and biodiesel production depends on where corn or soybeans planted. If are planted in rain-fed cornfield, do little to deplete aquifers or divert rivers. If are planted in irrigated fields, switching land use to more corn and soybeans to meet demands for biofuels leads to much higher water consumption rates.Consumptive water use is a measurement of the gallons of water needed to refine gallons of fuel. In rank order from least to most, requires 1.0 gallon of water to produce 3 gallons of soy biodiesel, 1.5 gallons of water to produce 3 gallons of oil, nad 3 gallons of water to produce 4 gallons of ethanol.

Poultry and Hogs: Agribusiness 2

Selective breeding has produced gaster-growing, bigger chickens, which housed in enormous broiler hoses that are largely mechanized. Broiler houses are concentrated in NW Arkansas, N Georgia, and Delmarva Peninsula (Delaware, Maryland, and Virgina), Piedmont areas of N Carolina, and Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. Lanegran shows that farmers who manage these operation involved in manufacturing as much as in farming. As likely spend their time talking to bank officers, overseeing repair of equipment, and negotiating with vendors as are to tending their animals. Thus, symbolize blending of rural and urban wealthier parts of world and interconnections between rural places and distant markets. Poultry ex inot unusual. During 1990s, hog production on Oklahoma and Texas panhandles increase rapidly with arrival of corp hog farms. In 1992, US Census of Ag counted just over 31,000 hogs marketed in Texas County, Oklahoma, just 4 years later panhandle plastered with proliferating pork places, and Texas County alone produced 2 mil higs. Was epicenter of an era that produced 4 mil hogs, 4% of national total and 1-7th as many finished hogs as entire state of Iowa. Availability of inexpensive water and natural gas Oklahoma panhandle enticing for corp hog farms, which require both. The reasonable price of land and accessibility to growing metropolitan markets of S and w also made the region built a processing plant, and production (both by farms owned by crop and owned privately) increased to meet the demand.

Subsistence Agriculture-

Self-sufficient agriculture that is small scale and low technology and emphasis food production for local consumption, not for trade. (growing only enough food to survive) Was norm throughout most of human history. Subsistence farmers help land in common and shared any surplus among memes of the community. In subsistence farming communities, accumulation of personal wealth generally restricted. Traditions and festivals often made to redistribute surplus form fams who had bountiful production to those who didn't. Traditional subsistence ag declined with European colonization. As Europeans colonized other lands and settler pop expanded, used treaties and force to acquire lands owned by subsistence ag communities. Colonizers and eventually countries that replaced them including US and Canada) legally changed land ownership from communal to individual. This shift from large areas of land owned communally to particular plots of land owned by individuals undermined economic system of subsistence agriculture and left lasting consequences that still felt in communities today.

Shifting Cultivation:

Shifting cult is sustainable form of ag in places where land is abundant and pop is relatively sparse. Term slash and burn suggests that farmers are drivers of deforestation in tropics but not case. In tropical forest regions of Africa, farmers allow fields to sit for 30 years to can replenished before allowed to farm again. In South AMerica and SE Asia, farmers leave fields for 10 to 20 years before farming again. If pop of village practicing shifting cult grows too large or distance to usable land becomes too great. Part of village's pop can establish new settlement in nother part of forest.

Impact on Women:

Shifting from subsistence ag to commercial ag in Third Ag Rev has had dramatic impacts on rural areas. Land-use patterns, land ownership arrangements, and ag labor conditions all changed as rural residents cope with shifting econ, political, and enviro conditions. In Latin America, dramatic increase in production of cash crops (export crops like fruits and coffee) occurred at expense of crop production for local consumption. In process, subsistence farming been pushed to ever more marginal lands. In Asia, where Green Rev had greatest impact, production of cereal crops (grains like rice and wheat) has increased for both foreign and domestic markets. In sub-Saharan Africa, total commercialized ag increased, but African farms remained relatively small and dependent on extensive manual labor. What the regional-scale analysis doesn't tell us is how these changes have affected rural communities. These changes can be environmental, economic, and social. Recent study in Gambia shown how changing ag practices altered not only rural enviro and econ, also relations between men and women. Over last 30 ye, international development assistance to Gambia led to ambitious projects designed to convert wetlands to irrigated ag lands, making possible year-round production of rice. By late 1980s, virtually all of country's suitable wetlands been converted to year-round rice production. This transformation made tensions within rural households bc lands women traditionally used for fam subsistence were converted to commercialized farming plots. Also, when rice production turned into year-round occupation, women found themselves with less time for other activities crucial for household maintenance. This sitch underscores fact that in Africa, as much of periphery, ag work is overwhelmingly carried by women. In sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, 60% of all employed females work in ag sector. Geographical perspective helps to shed light on how changes in ag practices throughout world not only alter rural landscapes, also affect fam and community relationships.

The Impact of the Rise of States on Agriculture 3

Subsistence land use continues to give way to more intensive farming and cash cropping- even to mechanized farming here equipment does much of actual work. Societies from S America to SE Asia being profoundly affected. Land was once held communally being parceled out to individuals for cash cropping. In process, small landowners often squeezed out, leaving land in hands of wealthier farmers and owners of commercialized farming operations. Too long, govs focused on how to tempt subsistence farmers into wanting cash by availability of suitable consumer goods. In interest of progress and modernization, subsistence farmers been pushed away from traditional modes of livelihood, even though many aspects of subsistence farming may be worth preserving. Regions with shifting cultivation may not have neat rows of plants, carefully turned soil, or precisely laid-out fields. Yet shifting cultivation conserves forest and soil; its harvest often substantial, given enviro limitations; and requires better organization than one could assume. Also requires substantially less energy than more modern techniques. No surprise that shifting cult been sustained method of farming for thousands of years.

Mechanization and Advances in Breeding 1

Successful innovations fueled more advancements. By 1830s, European farmers using new fertilizers on crops and giving artificial feeds to livestock. Increased ag output in primary economic sector made it possible to feed much larger urban pops, enabling growth of secondary economic sector (manufacturing). Farmers were limited in production not by what they could sow (plant), but by what they could reap (harvest) bc harvesting required much more time and labor than planting. Harvesting involved laborers cutting grain with scyth, followed by more laborers bundled grains into bales. Mechanical reaper pulled by horses and cut and bundled grain. Invention diffused quickly during 1840s, reportedly increasing yields of individual farmers by least 10x. Company eventually became International Harvester and not Case IH, one of largest ag implement comps in world today.

Drug Agriculture 3

Supply of marijuanna in US traditionally came from Mexico and Canada. But an increasing amount consumed in US is grown in US. Since 1996, total of 16 states- mostly in W- have legalized marijuana for medicinal purposes, and in 2013 Colorado and Washington legalized it entirely (though they forbid consumption in public places and have placed additional restrictions on cultivation for personal use and amount of marijuana peeps can purchase). Marijuana production at $40 bil with cali, Tennessee, Kentucky, Hawaii, and Washington the top 5 production states despite fact medicinal marijuana not legal in Tennessee or Kentucky. Marijuana production has more than monetary impact. Marijuana grown indoors consumes massive amounts of electricity. The cost of indoor production includes grow lamps are kinds used in operating rooms, dehumidifiers, air conditioners, electric generators, water pumps, heaters, carbon dioxide generators, ventilation systems, and electrical control systems. Studies estimate that energy used to produce marijuana in US costs round $6 bil year (round 1% of all power consumed in US). Marijuana grown outdoors has much lower energy costs than marijuana grown indoors. Growers may plant crops on public lands using only energy from sunlight, especially in W, bc remote location of public lands makes detection elss likely. Also, land is public and not owned by any one person to whom a crop could be traced.

Agency- Vulnerability-

The belief an individual has in their ability to affect change in their life. Probability of destruction of life or property from a hazard or crisis. Farmers in vulnerable ag areas, like S Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, have less say over local food production and hand over decision making to agribusiness, including seed and fertilizer suppliers. Politically, farmers have little agency if their governments are corrupt to the political system has institutional inefficiencies. Governments that actively make policies to disempower or disadvantage certain groups as a means of control set the stage for food insecurity and famine.

Poultry and Hogs: Agribusiness 1

The commercialization of crop protection and new ag tech changed hwo ag goods grown and have sparked rapid growth of agribusiness: the businesses that provide vast arrays of goods and services to support the ag industry. As part of networks of agribusinesses, farms tied to extensive web of production and consumption. Agribusinesses also helps concentrate ag industries bc fewer farmers produce more to take advantage of econ of sale in order to compete in agribusiness. Both trends revealed in development of poultry industry in US. Early in 20th ct, poultry production in US was highly disaggregated, with many farmers raising few chickens as part of multifaceted farming operations. Over past 50 ye, though, poultry production changed. Today, farmers on Delmarva Peninsula east of D.C., account for 8% of poultry production in US, and do so by contracting and working directly with foul major poultry comps. Today, chickens produced by large agribusiness companies operating hatcheries, feed mills, and processing plants. They supply chciks and feed to the farmers. The farmers are responsible for building a house and maintaining proper temp and water supply. Once week comps fill feed bins for farmers, and guarantee them a price for the birds. Comps even collect market ready birds and take away for processing and marketing. Most of nation's poultry supply is handled by half dozen very large corps that control process from chicks to chicken pieces in stores.

Farms and Farmers 2

The data on labor force in ag are even more interesting if look at definition provided by World Bank: "share of persons working age who were engaged in any activity to produce good or provide services for pay or profit in ag sector (Ag, hunting, forestry, and fishing)". The 1.1% of UK's labor force employed in ag includes those who provide services to producers. Many of these workers include research scientists for universities, workers for seed comps, or workers for producers of chemicals (antibodies, pesticides, and herbicides). Lobbyists for industry groups like wheat producers and cattle ranchers, and engineers who design, sell, and repair farm implements, are also part of ag labor force. In US, total ag production is at an all-time high, but proportion of labor force in ag is at an all-time low. Mechanization and efficiencies made by new tech led to signif decrease in num of workers needed in ag production. In 1950, one farmer produced enough to feed 27 peeps; now, one farmer in US produces enough to feed 144 peeps. Mechanization of ag goes beyond machinery like combines and harvesters. New tech include hybrid seeds and genetically engineered crops, pesticides, and herbicides, all designed to increase yields. The drive toward econ efficiency has meant that between 1910 and 2017, num of farms in US fallen and then tapered off, while amount of land in ag has syed relatively consistent. As result of two trends, average size of farms (acres in production) inUs has risen. US currently has bout 2.05 mil farms in operation with average size of 444 acres (compared to 135 acres in 1935). OF 2.05 mil farms, 2.8% classified as large and produce 29% of all ag goods, and 88.8% are classified as small and produce 25.8% of all ag goods. While tend to think of farms as fam farms or corp farms,most corp farms are owned by fams. Nonfam farms account for 2.2% of all farms and produce 12.6% of all ag goods.

Bid Rent Theory-

The premise that the price and demand for land will go up the closer it is to the central city. Holds that price and demand for land will go up closer is to central city. Ag, retail, manufacturing, and residential will all compete for land closest to central city, driving up cost. In ag, bid rent theory helps understand whether farms will use intensive ag practices or extensive ag practices. Intensive ag practices use great deal of capital relative to land area framed, where extensive ag practices use less capital. Another way of thinking bout production of ag products round towns and cities is to consider the cost of land. Land values are generally higher closer to central city and lower farther away from city. Cost of land affects what farmers produce bc where land values high, farmers want to grow valuable crops like market produce that will help them pay for rent on land. Where land values low, farmers grow more common crops that end a lot of space to grow, like grain.

First Agricultural Revolution-

The transforming of societies form hunting and gathering to purposeful raising of food, feed, and fiber. Geos debated how and why farming began. Did it begin out of necessity, bc too little food to hunt and gather, or out of luxury, bc food made available through hunting and gathering gave ppl to experiment with growing crops? Jared Diamond believes that scarcity forced ppl into farming, competition forced ppl to become resourceful and grow own food. Some believed that luxury more likely, that reliable food supply made opportunity for peeps to experiment with raising plants or investing time to domesticate animals.

Agricultural Villages:

Though 20th ct has witnessed unprecedented urban growth thorough world, 1/2 of world's peeps still reside in villages and rural areas. IN China, 43% of 1.4 bil peeps live in rural areas. In India, with pop of over 1.3 bul, between 60 and 70% of peeps live in places gov defines as non-urban. Small rural settlements are home to most of inhabitants of Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and other countries of global econ periphery, including theos in Africa. Ag villages remain one of most common forms of settlements. In core regions of world econ, by contrast, ag has taken on very dif forms, and true farming villages, in which farming or providing services for farmers are dominant activities, are disappearing. In US,, where farming once leading econ activity, less than 2% of labor force remains engaged in ag, and pop of most rural villages and towns is mix of farmers and peeps who commute to work in urban areas.

Types of Agricultural Villages 1

Traditionally, peeps who lived in villages either farmed surrounding land or provided services to those who did farming. The were closely connected to land, and most of their livelihoods depended, directly or indirectly, on cultivation of cultivating nearby farmland. Geos have derived classification of ag villages based on layout that gives us an idea of what peeps who build villages valued. All pattern in image are ex of nucleated villages, or villages clustered round central point, or nucleus. Nucleated settlements by far most prevalent rural residential pattern in ag areas round world. When houses are ground together in tiny clusters or hamlets, or in slightly larger clusters we call villages, their spatial arrangements also has significance. Houses in Japanese farming villages, ex, so tightly packed together that only narrowest passageways remain between them. This village form reflects pressures to allocate every possible sq foot of land to farming. Villages are nucleated so peeps don't use land where crops could grow. In populous Indonesian island of Java, villages located every ½ mile or so along rural roads, and settlement there also defined as nucleated.

Drug Agriculture 2

US gov polices have affected production of illegal drugs in Latin America. During 1980s and 1990s, US gov worked with local authorities to crack down on coca production in Colombia. As result, much of drug production and trafficking moved N to N Mexico. In June 2005, Mexican criminal gangs exert more influence over drug trafficking in US than any other group. Mexicans now control 11 of 13 largest drug markets in US. Marijuana and opium production in Mexico is on rise, and US DEA (Drug Enforcement Agency) is concerned bout high potency of marijuana coming out of Mexico and Canada. Despite Afghanistan's dominance as heroin producer, most heroin (derived from opium) consumed in W US comes from opium grown in Mexico, whereas heroin consumed in E US comes from opium in Colombia. Drug cartels that oversee drug trade brought crime and violence to places where they hold sway. There are areas in Rio de Janeiro where official police have little control, and drug lords have imposed reigns of terror over swaths of countryside in parts of Central and S America, SW Asia, SE Asia, and elsewhere. Drug trade depends on voracious appetite for mind-altering substances in N America and Europe in particular.

Malnutrition-

Undernutrition, inadequate vitamins, or obesity resulting from diet. WHO says it has many forms, including undernutrition (wasting, stunting, underweight), inadequate vitamins or minerals, overweight obesity, and resulting diet-related noncommunicable diseases. Worldwide, 462 mil adults underweight and 224 mil kids under age 5 underweight. Of kids under 5 who are underweight, 17 mil are severely wasted, 52 mil are wasted, and 155 mil are stunted. Also worldwide, 1.9 bil and 41 kids are overweight or obese.

Explain the Map of Global Agricultural Production 1

Understanding global ag patterns requires looking at more than market location, land use, and transportation costs- factors analyzed by von Thunen. Must also consider effects of dif climate and soil conditions, variations in farming methods and tech, the role of govs and social norms, and lasting impacts of hist. Commercial farming come to dominate world's econ core, and some places in semiperiphery and periphery. Commercial farming is ag of large-scale grain producers and cattle ranches, mechanized equipment , and factory-type labor forces. It is world apart from traditional farms of Asia and Africa.

Unequal Exchange-

Uneven relationship between low labor costs and high-value products. Makes an unevenness in wealth in capitalist world econ. Those who produce food, first enslaved Afriacns now farm workers, receive little income compared to those who process food into products and trade it globally. Ex, coffee farmer may sell beans for $1.50 pound, but when you buy it it's $9 a pound. Large coffee comps buy beans, roast them, brand them, sell them to retail outlets that mark price for customers. System of unequal exchange dates back to Eu colonialism and beginnings of capitalist world econ.

Functional Differentiation Within Agricultural Villages 1

Villages everywhere display certain common qualities, including evidence of social stratification and differentiation of buildings. The range in size and quality of houses, representing their owners' wealth and standing in the community, reflects social stratification. Material well-being is the chief determinant of stratification on W commercial ag regions, where it translates into more elaborate homes. In Africa, as in most other places, higher social position on community associated with more impressive house. House of chief or headman may not only be more elaborate than others, but also in more prominent location. In India, caste still strongly influences daily life, including village housing; the manors of landlords, often comprising large welled compounds, stand in striking contrast to the modest houses of domestic workers, farm workers, carpenters, and craftspeople. The poorest people of the lowest castes live in small, one-room, wattle and thatch dwellings. In Cambodia, buildings in stilt villages built throughout Mekong Basin look similar.

Describe the Spatial Patterns of Agriculture:

Whatever time period or process involved, ag leaves a distinct imprint on cultural landscape, form land surveys to land ownership to land use. Globalization made an imprint on landscapes and agribusiness. What produced where is not simply a product of enviro and locally available plants; modern geo of ag depends on factors ranging form climate and gov regulations to tech and shifting global consumption patterns.

World Map of Agriculture:

When comparing world map of ag with distribution of climate types across world, can see the correlation between climate and ag. Ex. drier lands rely on livestock ranching, moisture climates characterized by grain production. Understanding major ag regions requires looking at enviro and social variables.

Analyze How Commercial Agriculture Operates:

With modern ag and food production, possible for many peeps to put farming largely out of their minds. As result of industrialization of ag and improvements in transport, consumers come in contact with farmers less frequently than in prev gen. On freezing cold winter day in Ohio, can purchase fresh strawberries from Chile. Consumers can also purchase highly processed foods with long shelf lives and forget where the item was purchased, less kink of the farm work that went into the ingredients. The commodity chains involved in ag production and delivery increasingly complex and interconnected. Label on strawberries can say grown in Chile but imagining exactly how you strawberries produced, whether in field, greenhouse, urban farm, is increasingly difficult in system of globalized, commercial ag.

The Third Agricultural Revolution: The Green Revolution:

World pop grew rapidly in 1900s and ag comps, researchers, and farmers made new tech designed to expand ag production to feed growing pop. Goal not necessarily to expand amount of arable land. But find ways to increase productivity of land existed and to make seeds that grow in more marginal lands. Can think bout 3 ag revs by considering critical factor that spurred eac rev. 1st depended on change in human effort. 2nd hinged on improving tech with innovations like seed drill. 3rd focuses on engineering seed and land. With 3rd, farmers genetically engineer seeds to grow in certain circumstances (wind and drought), intensively use tech and irrigation, and expand use of land, by not leaving it fallow or by farming marginal land.