Human services
But when someone behaves in a manner that is solely driven by their feelings and desires,
they are often deemed immature, volatile, and impulsive. This is not because their emotions are wrong, or inherently evil, but because their values and principles may not be sufficiently defined and/or developed to contain or regulate their emotions. So they act out impulsively—say things they don't mean, or behave in ways that are self-or-other destructive
Human service practitioners often have mandated clients on their caseload—
those clients who are required by some legal requirement to seek mental health treatment. mandated to receive certain types of mental health treatment as a part of a criminal case. Examples include clients who are legally mandated to complete a batterers' intervention program, to complete a parenting class, or to attend a drug and alcohol treatment program. If a mental health provider works for an agency that has a contract to provide legally mandated services, they are typically required to submit periodic progress reports to the court, including whether the client has failed to comply with the requirements of the court.
theoretical orientations
a set of guiding principles - to guide your decision-making and interactions with client and client systems
Human Services Board Certified Practitioner
a voluntary professional certification
A part of aid provision
the evaluation of poor women's situations to determine whether they were worthy of aid. To accomplish this goal, the COS employed volunteer friendly visitors, primarily Christian women from the middle to upper classes, who visited the homes of those in need, and evaluated the root causes of their poverty.
the Great Depression in 1929
the first time that the federal government recognized the necessity of a national social welfare program, poor care was primarily handled by families, churches, and private charities. influenced how the leaders of early American society believed poverty should be addressed.
Mary Richmond
the general secretary of the Baltimore COS, had a far more compassionate attitude toward the poor. She was a fierce advocate for social justice and social reform, and believed that charities could employ good economics and compassionate giving at the same time. Richmond became well known for increasing public awareness of the COS movement and for her fundraising efforts. Richmond is credited for contributing to the development of the modern case management model through her conceptualization of social diagnosis, a process involving friendly visitors assessing clients and their environments. Social diagnoses enabled the visitor to identify sources of power and barriers to self-sufficiency (
considered the beginning of one of the most significant social movements in U.S. history.
the opening of the Hull House, the first settlement house in the United States
Feudalism
the primary system structure in medieval Europe, where the nobility controlled the monarchy's land in exchange for military service, while the peasants or serfs worked the land in exchange for housing, a share of the produce, and protection. England's primary method of caring for the poor. 11th-15th century. similar to slavery
The human services discipline is built upon a
theoretical foundation that reflects the values of the profession.
A client who shares this type of disclosure—denying any outright plan to commit suicide, but appearing to manifest many signs of suicidal behavior—can present quite a clinical challenge, because it
requires that the counselor take a clinical risk. If the counselor takes no action, the client may indeed commit suicide; if the counselor breaks confidentiality and the client was not really at risk for suicide but just expressing feelings of temporary despair, then the counselor-client relationship might be seriously damaged. Because confidentiality laws in most states do not bar professional discussions among practitioners within the same agency, clinical dilemmas such as these are most appropriately explored in clinical supervision, where a team of counselors discusses the risks and benefits involved with each possible response.
Essentially a HIPAA notification must inform clients that they have the right to
see and obtain a copy of their health records, have corrections added to their health information, and receive a notice about how their protected information may be used and shared. Clients also have the right to decide whether to provide permission to providers prior to information being shared (for marketing purposes, for instance), receive a report on when and why protected information was shared, and how to file a complaint with a covered entity or the U.S. government if clients (or patients) believe their rights under HIPAA were violated.
Involuntary disclosure of privileged communication generally occurs in three types of situations:
(1) when a client is legally mandated to receive mental health treatment and does not comply, (2) when clients pose a danger to themselves or others, and (3) in cases of suspected child abuse, maltreatment, and neglect.
there are universal moral principles that exist across almost all cultures
(e.g., sexually abusing a child is always considered morally wrong) and there are relative moral principles where one must consider the appropriateness of a certain behavior within situational context (e.g., killing someone in self-defense) or one's culture—shared values among a community of people (e.g., burping in public or eating with one's hands).
Adolescents and mature adults have developed abstract reasoning abilities and thus have the cognitive ability to grasp the various shades of gray involved in a moral dilemma.
. Kohlberg also theorized that the capacity for moral reasoning did not necessarily mean that someone would behave morally. Thus someone may have the cognitive ability to apply moral reasoning but may still behave immorally.
recognize the role of the fertilizer and the harvester in counseling relationships
. These are the counselors who come into the lives of clients after the seeds have already been planted. The fertilizer is the practitioner who helps the client do the hard work, the productive work. This is no easy task, but the counselor often has the benefit of seeing the results of the seed planting and intervention strategies. The harvester is often the most gratifying role of a human service professional because the client is ready to make the necessary changes for a healthier life, recognizes past negative patterns in relationships and choices, can better navigate challenges they've experienced in their environment, and has the necessary insight and motivation to effect true change.
Maslows hierarchy of needs
1. Self actualization 2. Self esteem 3. Love and belonging 4. Safety and security 4. Physiological needs
By using Change.org to facilitate their campaign, they were able to collect
1.4 million digital signatures and 2.1 million comments in less than 10 weeks, successfully countering the very powerful anti-EPA lobbyists. Change.org asserts that the Clean Air Protection campaign resulted in the most signatures and largest number of comments ever submitted to a federal agency (Change.org, n.d.). MoveOn.org has also been used successfully by a number of cyberactivists, ranging from restoring funding to a popular music program at a local high school to stopping the passage of anti-gay legislation (MoveOn.org, n.d.).
Western society has evolved from the time when the
APA once considered homosexuality to be a mental disorder. The APA's historic stance on same-sex relationships would be considered highly unethical in today's culture. West (2002) discussed the importance of "ethical mindfulness" in evaluating the ethical nature of mental health practices, citing several real-world examples of questionable ethical practices, including the failure to inform clients of their rights, as well as the risks of engaging in the counseling process (informed consent), the use of real clients in therapist educational videotapes, and other ethical issues appropriate for discussion and evaluation.
addams
Addams also advocated on a local and national level for labor laws that would protect the working-class poor, who were often exploited in factories with sweatshop conditions. She also worked alongside Ida B. Wells, an African American reformer, confronting racial inequality in the United States, such as the extrajudicial lynching of black men (Addams, 1909).
Poor Care in the Industrial and Progressive Eras: 1776 to 1920s
After independence in 1776, poor care remained minimal, consisting primarily of free land grants, pensions for widows, and aid to disabled veterans. There was very little formal social welfare legislation passed at the state or federal levels until the early 1900s. And even those early laws provided minimally, primarily for some groups of children and the disabled on the state level. One of the first federal social welfare efforts was the Civil War Pension Program, passed in 1862, which provided aid to Civil War Veterans and their families. Unemployment benefits were offered in most states by about 1929, and a program offering veterans benefits, consisting primarily of medical aid, was instituted after World War I.
Hull House
America's first settlement house in 1889. welfare agencry started by addams
intersectionality
An individual or population's risk of marginalization, oppression, and exploitation increases with the interconnectedness or intersectionality of multiple vulnerabilities.
he DSM-5 shifted away from the DSM-IV's multi-axial system toward a more dimensional approach. Disorders that used to be diagnosed on three different axes:
Axis I (clinical disorders), Axis II (personality disorders and mental retardation), and Axis III (general medical conditions), are now recorded on one axis. Psychosocial and environmental stressors used to be recorded on Axis IV, but are now reflected in clinical descriptions. Axis V used to reflect the client's Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF). clinicians are now encouraged to evaluate a client's mental and psychosocial functioning within a separate assessment of the client's severity and disability.
a family genogram, developed by Dr. Murray Bowen and based on a theory he developed in 1978, called family systems theory (Bowen, 1978).
Bowen's family systems theory postulates that individuals can best be understood within the context of their familial environments. A family system is composed of individuals operating as interdependent components that impact the other components. Patterns of behaving and functioning, including relational patterns with self and others, not only impact other members of the system but are also transmitted from one generation to the next.
Types of Macro Practice- community development
By engaging residents, community leaders, local politicians, and other community organizations, addressing crime in the community; educational concerns, such as low state test scores and developing an after-school program to combat juvenile delinquency; bringing new businesses to the community to create jobs for community members; or rallying community leaders to develop more open spaces, such as parks, in densely populated neighborhoods.
philosophical belief system was rooted in John Calvin's doctrine of predestination, which emanated from the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.
Calvin wrote about the nature of God's control over the world and how this control was exercised, primarily in the form of who God would allow into heaven (the elect) and who he would condemn to hell (the condemned). According to Calvin's doctrine, a person's salvation was predestined by God and based solely on God's grace, not by what people did in their lives (whether they were essentially good or bad). Thus even though all people were called to faith and repentance, not all people would be allowed into heaven.
a description of case management includes the following tasks:
Collaborate with professionals from other disciplines Identify community resources Utilize a social services directory Coordinate delivery of services Participate as a member of a multidisciplinary team Determine local access to services Maintain a social services directory Participate in case conferences Serve as a liaison to other agencies Coordinate service plan with other service providers
In 1945 Corrie ten Boom, a Christian woman living in occupied Holland, decided to hide Jews in her attic because she believed that was most consistent with her Christian values. But she also chose to lie to the Nazi officers who came to her door questioning her, even though she believed lying to be wrong (ten Boom, Sherrill, & Sherrill, 1974). Corrie's value of fighting injustice was in conflict with her value of honesty. In order to make the most ethical decision in the face of competing values, she had to choose the higher value—the more important value. What did she value more?
Corrie and her family are lauded as heroes, behaving in the highest moral fashion, refusing to stand by and do nothing as an evil regime slaughtered millions of innocent people. We know that now, but did Corrie have the same confidence? Corrie took a risk, and although she paid dearly, history has proven that she was correct in her ethical decision-making.
differences between case management and direct counseling services.
Direct practice with clients is focused more on an individual's psychological growth and the development of emotional insight and personal growth, whereas case management involves coordinating services with other systems impacting the life of the client.
tudor poor laws
England responded to these changing dynamics and the associated problems by passing several relief laws. Tudor Poor Laws placed responsibility for dealing with the poor at the local level and reflected a complete intolerance of idleness. Local police scoured the cities in search of beggars and vagrants, and once found, a determination was made between those who could not work—the worthy poor, and those who were able-bodied but refused to work—the unworthy poor.
Colonial America: 1607 to 1775
English and Scottish colonization of North America began in 1607 in Virginia and continued through most of the 1700s until independence. Because there was no existing infrastructure in the original 13 British colonies, poor relief consisted primarily of mutual kindness, family support, and distant help from England. Self-sufficiency was a must, and life was not easy on the frontier. There was a dramatic rise in the population between 1700, when there was an estimated population of about 250,000, and 1775 (just prior to the revolution and independence), when there was an estimated 2.5 million settlers (Lemon, 1990). As the population increased, so did the need for a more formal and organized system of poor care.
study by the Pew Research Center's Internet and American Life Project found that about 66 percent of social media users have used a social media site, such as Facebook or Twitter, for civil engagement and political purposes.
Examples include liking, posting, and reposting content about civic, social, and political issues on their social media account; encouraging others to take action on an issue; joining a politically related group on a social media site; and following an elected official or political candidate on a social media site
Cultural Influences on the Perception of Ethical Behavior
Garcia et al. note that not all cultures value autonomy equally—many cultures operate on a very interdependent basis, thus ensuring that clients making decisions completely independently may not be appropriate in some cultural contexts. The normative nature of behaviors is also perceived differently from culture to culture. what appears clearly unethical in retrospect may have seemed quite ethical when the decision was being made. Thus, taking the time to understand behavior from the actor's perspective is imperative, despite its challenging nature.
Developing a better social support network is another example of a generalist intervention goal.
Health social support systems assist clients in becoming emotionally independent and self-reliant.
Mandated Reporting of Child Abuse
Human service professionals are mandated reporters, and as such they are required by federal and state statute to report all cases of suspected child abuse, maltreatment, and neglect to the appropriate authorities. The requirement to report suspected child abuse is established by federal law, but the circumstances under which a report is made is stipulated by state law. Mandated reporters include any professional who comes into contact with children as a part of their professional duties. ` needs not be certain that a child is being abused; rather if they have a reasonable suspicion of abuse, they are required to make a report, which in most states involves calling a toll-free child abuse hotline facilitated by a county or state child welfare agency.
Max Weber
In his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Max Weber described in detail the vast influence of Calvin's doctrine on European and American society. According to Weber, Calvin theorized that since everyone deserved to go to hell anyway, that was the lot they should accept, and those who were saved from condemnation were blessed by the grace of God.
virtually all behaviors occur on a continuum.
It is only when a particular behavior occurs frequently enough, and at an intensity level high enough to interfere with normal daily functioning for a significant amount of time, that it becomes the subject of clinical attention.
Kitchener's model is based on five assumptions that Kitchener maintains need to be at the heart of any ethical evaluation.
Kitchener's model can, in a sense, be used as a "litmus test" when attempting to determine whether a certain action or behavior is in fact unethical.
boundaries
One rule is that I try to avoid overfunctioning in the counseling relationship. If I start to feel exhausted and burned out, I ask myself if I am working harder than my client. This does not mean that I do not advocate for my clients, or that I do not assist my clients in performing various tasks, but what it does mean is that I recognize that I am not helping my clients if I am doing the work for them. Overfunctioning is often rooted in impatience and a need to see progress more quickly.
cyberactivism
Online advocacy is referred to by many different names. Macro-level practitioners use the Internet in a variety of ways to engage in cyberactivism. more successful than traditional forms of activism because it's less expensive, faster, allows for far broader dissemination of information, and increases the ease of engagement.
The first session with a client is often spent conducting an intake interview for a psychosocial assessment—a report that includes comprehensive information about clients and their needs that will be relied upon when developing an intervention and treatment plan.
Psychosocial assessments can take on many forms depending in large part on the types of services being offered and the client's needs, but generally they include basic demographic information about the client (e.g., age, marital status, number of children, and ethnicity), the nature of the identified problem(s), employment status, housing situation, physical health status, medications taken, history of substance abuse, criminal history, history of trauma, any history of mental health problems (including depression, suicidal thoughts, or other mental illness), and any history of mental health services.
NOHS ethical standards specify the requirements and competencies human service professionals are required to maintain.
Specifically, standards 17 through 21 deal with issues related to cultural competence, focusing in particular on anti-discrimination, cultural awareness, self-awareness relating to personal cultural bias, and requirements for ongoing training in the field of cultural competence.
Tarasoff decisions as a foundation for duty-to-warn laws
Tarasoff I found that a therapist has a duty to use reasonable care to give threatened persons a warning to prevent foreseeable danger. Tarasoff II was more specific in referencing the therapist's duty and obligation to warn intended victims, if necessary, to protect them from serious danger of violence.
Mental health providers in the United States use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) to diagnose the mental and emotional disorders of their clients.
The DSM-5 is a classification system developed by the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2013) that includes criteria for mental and emotional disorders, such as schizophrenia, depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, and personality disorders such as narcissistic personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder (sociopathy).
The Elizabethan Poor Laws
The Tudor Poor Laws were replaced by the Elizabethan Poor Laws of 1601, a set of laws that established a system of poor relief for England and Wales. the belief that the primary responsibility for provision of the poor resided with one's family, that poor relief should be handled at the local level, that vagrancy was a criminal offense, and that individuals should not be allowed to move to a new community if unable to provide for themselves financially.
Iatridis (1995) has defined several skills necessary for effectively integrating social policy practice.
The first skill involves the human service professionals' ability to understand the nature of social policy, including what it is, how it develops, its influences and effect on society, as well as how social welfare policies are most often implemented. The second skill involves the ability to view policy practice from a systems perspective, where policy practice is seen as a part of a greater whole. In other words, human service professionals engaged in policy practice must be able to link issues confronted in direct service to structural problems. Another equally important skill involves the human service professionals' commitment to improving social justice within society by working toward a more equitable distribution of the community's resources. Those who engage in policy practice also research various social issues in an attempt to determine the short- and long-term effects of new policies and legislation.
Kitchener's ethical model
The model's assumptions are that all ethical behaviors are presumed to be based on: (1) autonomy, (2) beneficence, (3) nonmaleficence, (4) justice, and (5) fidelity
There are several online advocacy platforms used by many cyberactivists as a tool for engaging in macro-level activities online.
Two of the most popular are MoveOn.org and Change.org, MoveOn.org describes itself as a service for busy but concerned citizens who want to assert their collective power. Its motto is "Democracy in Action," and its mission is to elevate the voices and power of real people in the political process. Change.org describes itself as the world's largest online platform allowing everyday people to transform their worlds on a local, national, and global level. Its motto is "The World's Platform for Change," and its mission is to use technology to empower users to create the change they want to see.
the Internet's ability for mass mobilization, and the creation of what researchers are calling smart mobs,
allows community organizers and political activists to reach hundreds of thousands of people (in some cases, millions) in a matter of minutes, something not possible in the pre-Internet era.
what is protected
any information that is placed in a client's file is protected, as are conversations our clients have with us. Any information about clients that is in electronic form is protected, as well as any billing information.
A case manager might coordinate services with a
client's school social worker, the housing authority, the local rape crisis center, or even a court liaison, all in an attempt to meet the needs of the client who is interacting in some manner with each of these systems. The goal of the case manager is to assist the client in plugging in to necessary and supportive social services within the community and to learn how to improve the reciprocal relationship or transaction with each of these social systems. These efforts have many purposes and goals, but chief among them is the caseworker's proactive attempt to strengthen and broaden the client's social support network.
A counseling technique called the Task-Centered Approach, an intervention strategy developed by the School of Social Services at the University of Chicago (Reid, 1975), works well with
clients who feel paralyzed in response to the challenges of various psychosocial problems and crises. Treatment is typically short, lasting anywhere between two and four months, and is focused on problem solving. The client and counselor or caseworker define the problems together and develop mutually agreed-upon goals. Each problem is broken down into smaller and more easily manageable tasks. Goals can be as tangible
Human services psychosocial evaluations use a strengths-based approach or perspective, which means that while
clients' needs are identified, their strengths are as well. This practice perspective helps the counselor avoid seeing the client from a pathological perspective, focusing solely on their deficits, while viewing clients as having inherent strengths, such as resiliency
case management is defined as the
coordination of services and advocacy for clients and involves human service professionals working with other professionals to coordinate an array of services for the client that diminishes fragmentation and service gaps
Mezzo level
counseling practice with groups.
Effective intervention strategies are based on
counselors' ability to build a positive alliances and mutual trust with their clients. They also are based on the counselors' having the freedom and space to state their observations about their clients and granting them this same freedom and space.
Empowerment strategies are used in most macro practice approaches focusing on civic issues, such as social and economic development that involves
creating liaisons between community organizations and community members. Partnering with those within the community who are most impacted by the identified problems is vitally important since an empowerment approach presumes that community members are experts at solving their own problems and just need guidance, resources, and political power.
Macro practice involves addressing and confronting social issues on a community and societal level that can act as barriers to getting one's basic needs met by
creating structural change through social action of some type. The most basic themes involved in macro practice include advocating for social and economic justice and human rights for all members of society to end human oppression and exploitation (
Most mental health experts recognize that one of the best opportunities for personal growth is a
crisis, due to the possibility of shaking up long-standing and entrenched maladaptive patterns of behavior.
A good assessment defines problems that the client is experiencing,
develops a needs assessment to determine where the client's strengths and deficits lie, ascertains the client's social support system, and develops an appropriate treatment plan. It is also important to reassess the client at various points in the counseling process to monitor new or previously masked issues, and to make sure that treatment goals are consistent with the assessment.
generalist intervention goals include assisting clients with emotional regulation, teaching them how to
effectively manage their emotions, particularly intense emotions, rather than acting on them in an unhealthy way. For instance, clients can be taught how to sit with their emotions, despite the discomfort this may involve, rather than getting angry and behaving in an impulsive manner.
HIPAA Privacy Rule stipulates how patients'
electronic health information and records are to be kept private. Covered entities include insurance companies (including contractors and subcontractors), health care providers (including mental health care providers), and health care clearinghouses. Entities that are not covered under HIPAA include life insurers, employers, schools and school districts, and state agencies such as child protective service agencies and law enforcement agencies.
Some of the current at-risk and oppressed populations include
ethnic minorities, immigrants, and refugees (particularly those who do not speak English), indigenous people, older adults, women (particularly women of color), children in foster care, prisoners, the poor, the homeless, single parents, LGBTQ+ populations, members of religious minorities, and the physically and intellectually disabled.
at-risk population can include any group of individuals who are vulnerable to
exploitation due to lifestyle, lack of political power, financial resources, and societal advocacy and support, and generally, lack of a powerful voice in society.
Many human service practitioners working as paraprofessionals will not be
formally diagnosing clients,
Genograms use a variety of symbols designed to indicate
gender, the type of relationship (married, divorced, etc.), and the nature of the relationships (cut off or enmeshed). Traumatic events, such as deaths, divorces, and miscarriages, are noted, as are the family's responses to these events (e.g., losses are openly talked about, never discussed, or denied). Typically, shameful events are also relevant, such as out-of- wedlock births (particularly relevant in earlier generations), abortions, extramarital affairs, domestic violence, alcohol abuse, sexual abuse and assault, and job losses. Traumatic events are often kept secret, but can affect family members for generations to come. The shame of an extramarital affair and an out-of-wedlock birth that was hushed up several generations back can have a profound effect on how emotions are handled and how feelings are communicated.
intergenerational relational patterns include
how feelings are managed (are anger and grief expressed openly?), how communication is handled (is open communication embraced or is it threatening to the family system?), how discipline is meted out to children (authoritarian? authoritative? permissive?), even whether families are generally open or closed systems (are outsiders, such as new partners, accepted with open arms, or are they treated with wariness and caution?). Relational styles also tend to be passed down from generation to generation, such as the types of behaviors that are most likely to result in alliances (and enmeshment) or estrangement from the family.
Case management is likely one of the most common activities for
human service professionals in their professional practice, often consuming more than 50 percent of their time
social change is accomplished through macro practice,
including community development, community organizing, and policy practice. Thus, although direct practice is important, working with entire systems to promote positive structural change on all fronts is equally important.
General systems theory
is based on the premise that various elements in an environment interact with one another, and that this interaction (or transaction) has an impact on all elements or components involved.
One of the primary functions of ethical values is to
keep us on a good moral track, particularly when we find our ethical values at odds with our emotional desires and urges.
human service professionals do not inherently view human behavior from a disease perspective, using the DSM-5 can influence practitioners to view their clients from a
pathological perspective
According to federal legislation called the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 or, more commonly, the HIPAA Privacy Rule,
patients have the right to have their personally identifiable medical and mental health information remain confidential and protected.
The human services profession is grounded in the notion that
people are a part of larger systems and that to truly understand the individual one must understand the broader system this individual is operating within (e.g., ecological systems theory, person-in-environment).
human service professionals' responsibility to society, which includes
remaining aware of social issues that impact communities, and initiating social action when necessary by advocating for social change.
meeting goal expectations through a variety of intervention strategies specific to the actual problem, but can include
planning for obstacles, role-playing (where the client can actually act out difficult situations in the safety of the counselor's office as a way of practicing communication), and mental rehearsal—similar to role-playing but involving the client thinking or fantasizing about some specific situation, such as an upcoming job interview or a difficult confrontation (Reid, 1975). Revisiting original goals and evaluating client progress are also powerful tools in helping clients experience a sense of personal mastery and empowerment as they are helped to recognize and acknowledge their progress.
Macro level
practice on a societal level.
human service professionals often use assessment tools to evaluate their clients' mental health functioning and psychosocial needs. Assessment tools may consist of
psychological inventories, such as Beck's Depression Scale or the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, which can be facilitated by any mental health professional, or may involve the use of psychological testing, such as an IQ test, or the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which must be facilitated by a licensed psychologist or psychiatrist.
Cultural competence is
reflective of a counselor's ability to work effectively with people of color and ethnic minority populations by being sensitive to their needs and recognizing their unique experiences. Cultural competence is a required component of working in the human services field.
generalist intervention strategy involves perceptual reframing—
reframing a client's perception of a situation, emphasizing the importance of viewing various events, relationships, and occurrences from a variety of possible perspectives. considering the intentions of a boyfriend or the prospects of getting a better job, or even whether good things can happen to good people, many people tend to gravitate toward negative assumptions, particularly during times of crisis.
Another strategy often used by cyberactivists is called
swarming, the virtual organizing of multiple wired groups and individuals for advocacy purposes—signing a petition, making phone calls, emailing, or attending an offline demonstration—seemingly spontaneously. T
DSM-5 uses criteria based on symptoms, whereas medical conditions are diagnosed based on
the etiology (cause or origin) of the disorder.
Policy practice is a narrower form of community practice in which the human service professional works within
the political system to influence government policy and legislation on a local, state, federal, or even global level.
the worthy poor
those who could not work
attempted to develop what is called evidence-based practice with regard to cultural competence,
to date there remains very little research on what constitutes cultural competent practice.
human services fields have moved away from community work, other disciplines have moved in to fill the gap, such as
urban and public planners and the political sciences. This shift in priorities has resulted in the human services profession often being out of the loop of community building and organizing efforts
Cunningham, Foster, and Henggeler (2002) surveyed counselors who considered themselves culturally competent and found a
vast difference in terms of which counseling methods they believed were most effective with culturally diverse clients.
primary goal of human services
assist people in achieving self-sufficiency and reaching their optimal level of functioning.
macro level work
giving oppressed and marginalized populations a voice and extending them political and social power within society. by advocating for changes in laws and various policies
The ethical standards that govern the human services profession depend on
different factors such as the human services professionals' level of education, professional license (including whether they have one), and the state in which they practice.
positive psychology movement
focuses on people's strengths rather than viewing people from a pathological perspective.
Micro level
practice with individuals
human services profession is bound by both a set of
professional standards set forth by the National Organization for Human Services (NOHS), as well as applicable state and federal laws pertaining to specific practice settings, such as mental health, health care, school, and child care settings.
unworthy poor.
those who were able-bodied but refused to work
human service practitioner is the primary tool
for intervention,
The primary principle of Bronfenbrenner's theory is that
individuals can best be understood when evaluated in the context of their relationships with the various systems in their lives, and understanding the nature of these reciprocal relationships will aid in understanding the individual holistically.
two types of charitable provision:
indoor relief and outdoor relief.
Outdoor relief consisted of
money, clothing, food baskets, and medicine, provided in the homes of those who were considered the worthy poor, most often widows, the disabled, and the aged
human service profession is rooted in
social justice movements, professionals focus as much on the role of society in the lives of clients and client groups as on personal behaviors and functioning levels. T
The NOHS has also been significantly influential in developing the scope and parameters of human service professional functions and competencies, some of which include:
• Understanding the nature of human systems, including individuals, groups, organizations, communities, and society, and how each system interacts with others. • Understanding conditions that promote or limit optimal functioning of human systems. • Selecting, implementing, and evaluating intervention strategies that promote growth and optimal functioning, and that are consistent with the values of the practitioner, client, agency, and human services profession. • The development of process skills that enable human service professionals to plan and implement services, including the development of verbal and oral communication skills, interpersonal relationship skills, self-discipline, and time management skills.
a client will sign an authorization to release information—
a legal document that provides all relevant information about what information can be released, how it is to be released, and for what purpose it is being released.
Cycle of Poverty
a phenomenon where poor families remain impoverished because they have no ancestors who can transmit the intellectual, social, and cultural resources necessary to lift them out of poverty.
NOHS website states that its purpose is to connect educators, students, practitioners, and clients within the field of human services.
Although it has no enforcement powers, NOHS members agree to abide by a set of ethical standards, which can be used as a guideline for resolving ethical dilemmas they face with clients and within the community-at-large. Those who can use the NOHS code of ethics include human services professionals working in community agencies, researchers, administrators, students in academic programs focusing on human services, and faculty in human services programs.
When clients pose a danger to themselves or others,
a counselor has a duty-to-warn and a duty-to-protect
Disenfranchised populations
a group of people often considered to lack power in society, with no political voice. Examples include refugees, some immigrant groups, and other populations that have experienced social exclusion
The Development of Moral Reasoning Ability
alue systems can be based on the values of one's family of origin, on one's culture, or on one's religious beliefs. But Lawrence Kohlberg (Gibbs, 2003) theorized that an individual's ability to reason morally relys on the ability to reason intellectually. In other words, in order for people to really grasp the nature of moral behavior, they needed to first have the cognitive capacity to do so.
the disciplines focusing on the human services (NOHS and NASW) tend to focus
as much on macro responsibilities (communities and the broader society) as on the individual client. there is no reference to advocacy for social justice on a societal level.
Duty-to-warn laws have been greatly influenced by a tragic event that occurred on the University of California, Berkeley,
campus when a student disclosed his intent to kill his girlfriend to a campus psychologist
Generalist counseling services may include
case management, such as talking with clients about their feelings and experiences, interviewing clients during an intake process, facilitating a support group, and talking with people who call a crisis hotline. Generalist practice may also include more therapeutic counseling if the human service professional has a license to provide professional counseling services.
why it is important to understand the relationship between ethical values and emotions is that people often use their emotions to justify their unethical or immoral behavior:
cheating on a test is wrong, unless the test is too hard and we hate our teacher; adultery is wrong, unless we're in a loveless marriage, and are extremely lonely, and fall hopelessly in love with someone else; lying is wrong, unless we need the day off from work and will only get paid if we're sick;
virtually all aspects of the helping relationship will include an evaluation not only of the
client's personal dynamics (e.g., personal coping strategies, mental health, resilience, personal motivation, personality style), but also of societal dynamics that are potentially impacting the client and the client's environment (e.g., structural racism, historic oppression and marginalization, gender bias, poverty). The focus on social justice in a broader context is important because it highlights the macro focus of human services, with the recognition that society and its social structures play a significant role in the mental and physical health of its members.
Kohlberg discovered that those who had not developed sufficient
cognitive reasoning ability had difficulty considering contextual factors when determining the most ethical course of action. As a result they often cited external factors, such as the negative consequences of a behavior, as their reasoning for why stealing the drug was morally wrong, but they had difficulty exploring the more nuanced nature of moral behavior.
the ecosystems theory
conceptualizes an individual's various environmental systems as overlapping concentric circles, indicating the reciprocal exchange between a person and various environmental systems. Although there is no official recognition of varying levels of systems in ecosystems theory
To test his theory, Kohlberg
conducted interviews presenting subjects of all ages with what he called moral dilemmas, and asking for their opinions about the most moral course.
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979)
developed the ecological systems theory, which conceptualizes an individual's environment as four expanding spheres, each with increasing levels of interaction with the individual.
The Council for Standards in Human Service Education (CSHSE) was established in 1979 for the purposes of
ensuring excellence in human service education at the associate, baccalaureate, and master's levels, through the guidance and direction of educational programs offering degrees specifically in human services.
A professional set of ethical standards is typically based on a set of
ethical values that stipulate what behaviors and practices are considered acceptable and which are not and also provides general guidance in managing ethical dilemmas.
Jane Addams and the Settlement House Movement: 1889 to 1929
focusing on social injustice. Addams was a social justice advocate and a social reformer who started the settlement house movement in the United States with the opening of the Hull House in Chicago. Addams used a relational model of poverty alleviation based on the belief that poverty and disadvantage were caused by problems within society, not idleness and moral deficiency. Addams advocated for changes within the social structure of society in order to remove barriers to self-sufficiency, which she viewed as an essential component of a democracy
The first COS
founded in Buffalo, New York, in 1877 and served as a sort of umbrella organization for other charities by assisting in the coordination and oversight of relief services to the poor. The COS philosophy focused on self-sufficiency and reducing dependence. Therefore, outdoor relief, such as cash assistance, was discouraged because it was considered harmful to the beneficiary based upon the belief that material relief would encourage dependence and laziness, thus ultimately increasing poverty. embraced many of the principles of social Darwinism, as well as the concepts of the unworthy and worthy poor.
Historically oppressed and marginalized groups
groups of individuals who have experienced intergenerational oppression, often due to some defining characteristic because of race, gender, age, social status, and so forth and are then excluded from the activities and benefits of mainstream society.
Generalist practice is a theoretical approach used to
helping individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. But before I describe the underpinnings of the generalist practice model, it will be useful to describe what generalist practice is not. we are not referring to specific theoretical modalities, such as psychoanalysis or Adlerian therapy. Rather, we are referring to basic skills and capacities that can be used with a broad range of clients and client systems.
Human services
helping people meet their basic needs that for whatever reason cannot be met without outside assistance, allowing people and communities to function at an optimum level. fills the gap with social work
In the section on human service professionals, the standards are organized by categories pertaining to responsibilities to clients, responsibilities to community and society, responsibilities to colleagues, responsibilities to the profession, and responsibilities to employers. Overall, the general theme of these ethical standards centers on respect for the dignity of others, doing no harm, honoring the integrity of others, and avoiding exploitation of others, particularly clients and students, by recognizing power differentials within society.
his is accomplished through maintaining self-awareness, engaging in all aspects of one's professional and personal life honestly and ethically, and developing an awareness of past and current global dynamics, particularly those involving the marginalization and oppression of others.
completed an associate, baccalaureate, or a master's program in human services
human service professionals, practitioners, or generalists.
Herbert Spencer
influential social Darwinists. an English sociologist and philosopher who actually preceded Darwin in applying concepts of natural selection to the social world. Spencer coined the term survival of the fittest (a term often incorrectly attributed to Darwin) in reference to the importance of human competition for resources in securing the survival of what were considered the fittest members of society.
Human service practitioners use their tools of
instincts, their compassion, and their insights along with their interpersonal or people skills to affect meaningful change in the lives of their clients.
The Heinz dilemma, one of the more popular of Kohlberg's moral dilemmas,
involved a woman who had cancer and was close to dying. The dilemma was that there was only one drug that could save her life and the local druggist, who discovered the drug, was charging 10 times what the drug costs him to make, making the drug beyond Heinz's financial ability to pay. Heinz was able to raise half the cost of the drug and pleaded with the druggist to either lower his cost or let him pay the other half later, explaining that his wife will die without the drug. The druggist refuses, citing his desire to make money from the drug. In order to save his wife, Heinz breaks into the laboratory, steals the drug, and saves his wife's life. Kohlberg would then ask the subjects whether Heinz's actions were moral or immoral and why.
The Council for Standards in Human Service Education
is the only organization that accredits human service educational programs and also offers continuing education opportunities for human service professionals and educators, networking opportunities, an informational website, and various professional publications.
The strengths perspective
it encourages the practitioner to recognize and promote a client's strengths rather than focusing on deficits. The strengths perspective also presumes clients' ability to solve their own problems through the development of self-sufficiency skill development and self-determination.
The CSHSE requires that curriculum in a human services program cover the following standard content areas:
knowledge of the human services field through the understanding of relevant theory, skills, and values of the profession, within the context of the history of the profession; the interaction of human systems; the range and scope of human service delivery systems; information management; common planning and evaluation methods; appropriate interventions and direct service delivery systems; the development of students' skills in interpersonal communication; client-related values and attitudes; and students' self-development.
theoretical orientations and frameworks (also called theoretical models)
make assumptions about human nature and what motivates people to behave in certain ways under certain conditions.
Informed consent involves disclosing to clients the
nature and risks of the counseling relationship prior to their engaging in these services. before beginning any formal relationship with a client, the client and the human service practitioner must first agree on the purpose, goals, and nature of the helping relationship. Clients must also be informed that they have the right to terminate the helping relationship at any time they choose (with the exception of mandated clients).
. Abraham Maslow (1954) developed a theoretical model focusing on
needs motivation, theorizing that people self-actualize naturally, but are motivated to get their most basic physiological needs met first (e.g., food and oxygen) before they are motivated to meet their higher-level needs. According to Maslow, most people would find it difficult to focus on higher-level needs related to self-esteem if they were starving or had no place to sleep at night.
Examples of a human service practitioner's responsibility to the public and society include an
obligation to provide services without discrimination or bias (Standard 10); the awareness of local, state, and federal laws and the advocacy for changes if such laws violate a client's or client group's rights (Standard 12); an awareness of social and political issues that impact clients of diversity (Standard 14); and the advocacy for social justice to eliminate oppression (Standard 16). Examples of a human service practitioner's responsibility to colleagues include avoiding the duplication of services (Standard 19) and responding to the unethical or problematic behavior of another human service professional (Standard 21).
In the human services field, though, many professionals, particularly those with Associate of Arts (AA) degrees and Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS) degree
provide generalist counseling services.
Charity Organization Societies: 1870 to 1893
often considered one of the forerunners of the modern social services profession, marked one of the first organized efforts within the United States to provide charity to the poor. The COS movement began in England in 1869, in response to increased urbanization and immigration and common frustration with the current welfare system, which consisted primarily of disorganized and chaotic almsgiving. The COS movement was started by Rev. S. Humphreys Gurteen, who believed that it was the duty of good Christians to provide an organized and systematic way of addressing the plight of the poor in a manner that would increase self-sufficiency and personal responsibility.
the person-in-environment (PIE) approach
often used as a basic orientation in practice because it encourages practitioners to evaluate individuals within the context of their environment. Clients are evaluated on a micro level (i.e., intra- and interpersonal relationships and family dynamics) and on a macro (or societal) level (i.e., the client is an African American male youth who lives in an urban community with significant cultural oppression).
Legislative guidelines typically stipulated that
only pregnant women, individuals who were extremely ill and unable to work, or any person over the age of 60 were justifiably poor. The worthy poor were treated more leniently, such as having government authorization to beg (typically in the form of a letter of authorization), or they were given other forms of sustenance, such as food assistance. If a person was found to be able-bodied and unemployed (the unworthy poor) they were often determined to be vagrant, which was punishable by whippings, naked parading through the streets, being returned to the town of birth, or incarceration. Repeat offenders were often subjected to having an ear cut off or even death
Without ethical guidelines to help us navigate the various situations we will likely encounter in the helping professions, we're all at risk of the influence of
personal biases, conflicting values, and emotional desires. Ethical principles in the human services profession are foundational to the continued development of this discipline that strives to objectively, professionally, and compassionately meet the complex needs of the most vulnerable members of society. Without such guidelines, we are at risk of exposing clients to potential harm and even revictimization.
Social Darwinism
philosophy that significantly influenced how poverty and the poor were perceived, as well as how they should be treated. Social Darwinism involved the application of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection to the human social world. Darwin's theory, developed in the mid-19th century, was based on the belief that environmental competition—a process called natural selection—ensured that only the strongest and most fit organisms would survive (allowing the biologically fragile to perish), thus guaranteeing successful survival of a species. those in society who suffered from poverty and other forms of misfortune were merely victims of their own biological inferiority, and their demise was necessary for the survival of society as a whole. In other words, the poor should be allowed to perish, and attempts at intervention could harm society.
Dennis Saleebey
primary theorist who contributed to the strengths-based practice approach in social work. developed several guiding principles for practitioners that promote client empowerment. one of the first theorists to apply the strengths perspective to the area of chronic mental illness, where practitioners encourage clients to recognize and develop their own personal strengths and abilities. This was a revolutionary approach since the prevailing approach to working with the chronically mentally ill population was based on a medical model, involving a pathological approach to treatment where clients were viewed as sick.
the evaluator would examine whether the
professional permitted clients to act of their own free will (autonomy), whether the professional's actions were intended to benefit the client (beneficence), whether the professional's actions did harm to the client (nonmaleficence), whether the actions were carried out in a manner that respected the rights and dignity of all involved parties (justice), and whether the actions reflected loyalty and commitment to the client (fidelity).
Examples of a human service practitioner's responsibility to the profession include
promoting cooperation among related disciplines (such as psychology and social work) (Standard 29) and the promotion of continuing professional development. An example of responsibility to self includes human service practitioners' awareness of their own cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and biases (Standard 34). And finally, a few examples of human service practitioners' commitment to students include high standards of scholarship and pedagogy, staying current in the field (Standard 39) and appropriately monitoring students' field placements (Standard 41).
The preamble of the NOHS Ethical Standards for Human Service Professionals states that its purpose is to
provide human service professionals and educators with guidelines to help them manage ethical dilemmas effectively. The guidelines are broken down into two sections, with section one focusing on standards for human service professionals, and section two focusing on standards for human service educators.
Examples of a human service practitioner's duty to clients includes the
recognition of the client's strengths (Standard 1); the right to confidentiality, except in cases where this right may be limited, such as in cases of harm to self or others (Standard 3); the obligation to avoid having sexual or romantic relationships with clients (Standard 6); avoiding imposing personal biases and values on clients (Standard 7); and the protection of client records and information electronically (Standard 9).
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory can assist human service professionals in
recognizing a client's need to prioritize more pressing needs over others, and can also explain why clients in crisis may appear to resist attempts to help them gain insight into their situations, choosing instead to focus on more basic needs.
Ethics
references to a set of guiding principles or moral values. In a professional context, ethics often refers to a set of standards that provide guidance to individuals within a particular discipline with the goal of assisting them in resolving ethical dilemmas they may face in the process of engaging in their business practices.
Situations involving voluntary disclosure of privileged communication include the
release of information at the request of the client to other treatment providers or insurance companies.
the lens that we use to evaluate the ethical nature of a behavior is often determined by the outcome—
something that we don't have the benefit of knowing (or any control over)—when making our decisions. This explains why some people who are initially perceived as highly unethical are later considered heroes, while other people, who authentically believe they are behaving ethically, end up going to prison.
The NOHS (2015) also mandates the client's right
to privacy and confidentiality, because it assures that whatever clients share with their counselors will not be shared with others. confidentiality is a legal mandate in every state in the nation. Thus, most mental health professionals offering counseling services must by law maintain confidentiality or face professional sanctions that could include the loss of their professional license.
Indoor relief
was provided for the unworthy poor—those deemed able-bodied but who did not work (vagrants, indigents, and criminals). Indoor relief consisted of mandatory institutionalization in workhouses or poorhouses, where residents were forced to work. Workhouses were designed to be harsh, with the hope that they served as a deterrent for those individuals who either lacked the skill or desire to work and become self-sufficient.
The term generalist practice refers to a model of
working with people in a helping capacity that focuses on basic skills involved in the helping process. is based on certain assumptions about the nature of generalist practice. The first assumption is that generalist practice involves a basic skillset and goes beyond our natural inclinations and abilities (although certainly relies on them). The second assumption is the recognition that all interventions occur within an ethical framework based on adopted ethical guidelines and standards. The third assumption is that clients (individuals, families) and client systems (groups, organizations, and communities) operate within systems, and therefore certain assumptions can be made about the nature of a client's or client system's functioning within their respective environments. Finally, an assumption is that human service practitioners use problem-solving approaches and intervention strategies that are well researched, planned, and effective (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2015).
