humanities chapter 1

What was the most important religious idea of the New Kingdom of ancient Egypt? Which pharaoh is most associated with this concept?

A major reform of the Egyptian religious system was introduced by the pharaoh Amenhotep IV who replaced the traditional worship of multiple deities with one sole deity, Aton-Ra.

In general terms, what is most striking about Egyptian culture over the centuries?

A striking characteristic of Egyptian culture is its unity and consistency over the centuries.

Which of these can also be found in lesser-developed human societies?

All can be found in lesser-developed societies, and it is the co-occurrence of most of these characteristics that is thought to determine the degree of "civilization" of a particular society. That said, a written form of communication is a particularly significant marker of the complexity of a society.

Describe Egyptian social structure. How could a person or a family ascend the social ladder?

Egyptian society was highly stratified, with a small but powerful upper class dependent upon slaves. Most of the members of society were slaves or farm laborers. By becoming professional soldiers and serving well, a family could over generations rise in position in Egyptian society.

Describe Egyptian religious thought. What is the name for the Egyptian sacred texts? Who are Osiris, Isis, and Horus? What do they symbolize?

Egyptians believed that all would be given immortality (in a very literal sense) in the next world as a reward for leading a virtuous life. Egyptian sacred texts are articulated in the Book of the Dead. The major deities are Osiris, the king of the underworld who judges the dead, his wife and sister Isis, the protecting mother goddess, and Horus, their son, who symbolizes the afterlife.

According to the text, what is the relationship between the emergence of war and the development of agriculture?

Farmers' improved ability to store food and accumulate wealth provided neighboring communities with motives to make raids, thus leading to war.

What was the goal of the journey of Gilgamesh?

Gilgamesh wanted to find the key to immortality.

Who was the first great architect known to history? What did he build?

Imhotep, the first great architect known to history, designed the earliest pyramid for his master Zoser.

What was the subject of the cuneiform inscribed on the "Stele of Hammurabi"?

Inscribed on the Stele of Hammurabi are the codes, believed to have been dictated by the sun god to the king, which were to be referred to when handling issues of social justice, particularly that of relationships between family members.

How did the focus of Mycenaean art and architecture differ from that of the Minoans?

Mycenaean art, unlike that of the Minoans, focused on death and war. They built large fortressed palaces and richly furnished tombs. Similar to the Minoans, the walls of the Mycenaean palaces were decorated with frescos; however, in contrast with the vivacity of the Minoans, these works are characterized by a solemn, dignified style.

How was national unity maintained despite these differences? What role did religion play in maintaining this unity?

National unity was maintained through a strong central government controlled by the pharaoh, whose power was further consolidated by the belief in his divinity. Moreover, this power was cemented by a priesthood which disseminated the national religion throughout the Upper and Low Nile regions through a strict adherence to traditional rituals and arts.

Which Queen of this period is the subject of perhaps the most famous of all Egyptian portraits? Who was her husband?

Queen Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaton, was the subject of some of the most famous pieces of art during this period. They show a grace and elegance that contrasts with the heavy, serious style seen in the official portraits of the Middle Kingdom.

What role did religion play in Sumerian culture? How did this change over time? And upon what did the Sumerians based their religion?

Religion played a central part in all aspects of Sumerian culture, and the gods reflected natural phenomena. As communities became larger and more complex, priests gained ruling power and constructed temples which were centers of the cities.

How do scholars traditionally divide the history of ancient Egypt?

Scholars traditionally divide the history of ancient Egypt into four major periods: the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, and Late Period. The period preceding this is called Predynastic. These divisions were first established by Manetho in his work A History of Egypt (c. 280 B.C.E.).

What were the subjects of the wall reliefs of the Assyrian palaces at Nimrud and Nineveh?

Several of the carvings depict religious subjects; however, the palaces were also decorated with hunting scenes as well as battle scenes, especially scenes portraying the battles which occurred near the fall of the Assyrian Empire.

Why did Sir Arthur Evans refer to the early civilization of Crete as Minoan?

Sir Arthur Evans' excavations initially sought to discover the veracity of the myth of King Minos as well as the existence of his kingdom. When he (and other archeologists) successfully uncovered a civilization that predated the Mycenaeans, he called them Minoans.

How did the "Amarna art" of the pharaoh Akhenaton differ from conventional Egyptian art?

The "Amarna art" created during the reign of the pharaoh Akhenaton had greater lightness and more naturalism, depicting physical characteristics in detail. Scenes were often relaxed and even humorous.

What is the difference between the conceptual style and descriptive style of art?

The "conceptual" style of art portrays figures in an idealized, symbolic, or highly stylized manner whereas the "descriptive" style of art seeks to portray figures realistically as they appear to the eye.

What are the six characteristics of civilized societies and of "civilization" mentioned in the textbook?

The 6 characteristics of civilization are: 1. urban life 2. a system of government 3. distinct social classes 4. tools and specialized skills which lead to the rise in manufacturing 5. a written form of communication 6. a shared system of religious belief

What civilization (ruled by Cyrus the Great) conquered the Assyrian Empire? How far east did the Persian Empire extend? How far west? Around 330 B.C.E., who conquered the Persians?

The Assyrian Empire was conquered by two tribes: the Persians and the Medes. The Persians, later taking full control, extended their Empire from the Mediterranean to the Indus River. They were subsequently conquered by Alexander the Great c. 330 B.C.E.

When did Babylonian civilization emerge? Who was its greatest ruler and what famous work is attributed to him?

The Babylonian civilization unified Mesopotamia c. 1800 B.C.E. The most famous Babylonian king was Hammurabi who wrote The Law Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest attempts to create social legislation.

Who succeeded the Babylonians? When was the height of the Assyrian civilization?

The Kassites defeated the Babylonians, who subsequently fell to the Assyrians. The Assyrians formed the last great Mesopotamian culture, which reached its height between 1000 and 612 B.C.E.

Where and what was the Labyrinth? What was the Greek myth of the Minotaur, Theseus, and Ariadne?

The Labyrinth was in Knossos, Crete, and in it was a Minotaur-half man and half bull-to whom seven boys and girls were regularly sacrificed. According to legend, Theseus killed the Minotaur, freed the children, and escaped with King Minos' daughter, Ariadne.

How do the regions of the Upper Nile and Lower Nile differ?

The Lower Nile is a broad, flat, and fertile region, opening into the Mediterranean Sea and thus allowing for contact with a variety of peoples and cultures. The Upper Nile region is isolated. The only fertile areas are along the river, with high cliffs surrounded by desert.

Who succeeded the Minoans and when? Where were their largest settlements?

The Minoans were succeeded by the Mycenaeans between 1500-1600 B.C.E. Their largest settlements were in the southern part of Greece known as the Peloponnesus, and in the northern areas of Athens and Thebes.

How did the Sphinx influence Classical Greek art and mythology?

The Sphinx would later be used as a motif for divine mystery by Classical Greeks in both art and mythology, as seen in the story of Oedipus.

Explain the development of the Sumerian system of writing and how it was used to benefit society.

The Sumerians developed the cuneiform system of writing, in which wedge-shaped signs were engraved into clay tablets to be dried and stored. This enabled the increasingly complex market systems to record transactions.

Who were the Sumerians? Where did they live?

The Sumerians were early agricultural communities which settled in the Fertile Crescent, the area between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers.

What war provided the background for Homer's Iliad and Odyssey?

The Trojan War provided the background for Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.

What was the most common subject of the art of the Cyclades islands?

The art of the Cyclades islands was dominated by the production of marble statues ranging in height from a few inches to nearly life-sized. These statues usually depicted a female figure with folded arms and were often buried with the dead.

who was the central figure of Minoan religion?

The central figure of Minoan religion was the mother goddess associated with fertility.

. What development during the Neolithic period made possible the growth of communities and villages?

The discovery of farming and crop cultivation as well as improved techniques in farming and grain storage made the growth of stable communities and villages possible.

How have Egypt and Mesopotamia influenced western art and culture?

The early Greeks were influenced by Egyptian art and architecture, and they in turn influenced the development of our western culture. A more direct influence of the Egyptians on western culture has been via the recent Egyptian discoveries made by archeologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which have excited the imaginations of modern artists, architects and writers.

What was the first great literary work of ancient Mesopotamia?

The first great literary work of Mesopotamia was the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Where can the oldest paintings of humankind be found (c. 15,000-13,000 B.C.E.)?

The oldest cave paintings have been found in Lascaux, France and Altamira.

In what way was the practice of goddess worship in the various cultures of early history passed down from the Iron Age to the Greeks (figures 1.3. 1.5 and 1.28)?

The practice of goddess worship-as seen in the Paleolithic period with the Venus of Willendorf, the Middle Egypt period in the cult of Isis, and the fertility-mother goddess of the Minoans-was carried forward by the Greeks in the Iron Age in the worship of the goddesses Artemis, Hera, and Demeter, all of whom perpetuated the belief in the sacredness of fertility, whether in human, animal or agricultural terms.

What was the purpose of the pyramids of the Old Kingdom? What colossal statue stood next to the pyramids at Giza?

The pyramids were built to perpetuate the memory of the departed upper classes and to underscore their power. The Sphinx stands next to the pyramids at Giza.

How were the rulers of ancient Egypt entombed?

The rulers of ancient Egypt were embalmed (mummified) and entombed in massive funerary monuments filled with food, figurines which symbolized servants (shawabtis), and other necessities and adornments.

. What visual art is even older (c. 28,000-23,000 B.C.E.) than the paintings you gave as your answer for question 4? What was the subject of these oldest statues and statuettes?

The statuettes of female fertility figures, such as the Venus of Willendorf, are the oldest representations in visual art.

. Where does the term Semitic come from? Who are considered to be Semitic peoples? What are some Semitic languages?

The term Semitic comes from the name Shem, one of the sons of Noah. Semitic peoples are those who speak a Semitic language. Speakers of Semitic languages include Assyrians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Phoenicians and Jews (Hebrew, Arabic and Maltese are among the Semitic languages).

What three universal questions are raised in The Epic of Gilgamesh?

The three universal questions dealt with in the Epic of Gilgamesh are: a) Is all human achievement futile in the face of death? b) Is there a purpose to human existence? c) How can the purpose of human existence be discovered?

What are the two major historical periods in Mesopotamian culture?

The two major periods of the Mesopotamian culture are divided between the Sumerians and the Semites who differed racially and linguistically.

What were the two most important archaeological discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann? According to Schliemann, what city was buried beneath the Roman city of Ilium?

The two most important archaeological discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann were the remains of Ilium and the Royal Grave Circle, both accompanied by quantities of gold, silver and bronze. According to Schliemann, Troy was buried beneath the Roman city of Ilium.

What type of building was the most important structure of the towns and cities of ancient Mesopotamia?

The ziggurat was the most important structure in the towns and cities of ancient Mesopotamia.

What practices of the Neanderthals are considered an indication of the existence of religious beliefs?

They carefully buried their dead and placed funerary offerings in the graves.

Why is it more difficult to generalize about ancient Mesopotamian culture than about ancient Egyptian culture? (And which of the following two words is more applicable to Ancient Mesopotamia: unity or diversity?)

Unlike Egyptian culture, which was unified for over 3000 years, the Mesopotamian culture is made of several succession of peoples, the most prominent being the Sumerians, the Akkadians, and the Assyrians.

What was the subject of the story told by Utnapishtim in The Epic of Gilgamesh?

Utnapishtim recounts the story of the great flood as known in Babylonia.

In the relief Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and Three of Their Children, a. Is the pharaoh shown as all-powerful? b. What is the object depicted at the top center of the relief?

a. Akhenaton is shown as a member of the royal family, but not as all-powerful. He, like his family, is depicted absorbing the rays of the sun. b. The central object is the sun, the manifestation of the god Aton, who Akhenaton served. This relief demonstrates that divine power comes to the royal family through Aton.

What features characterize art in the Middle Minoan period? How does this differ from Egyptian and Mesopotamian art?

he art of the Middle Minoan period is characterized by its liveliness and color and its celebration of nature, as seen in pottery, jewelry, seal stones, and frescos. Unlike Egyptian and Mesopotamian art, the Middle Minoans showed no interest in creating monumental art, preferring instead to focus on creating small, even miniature, works of great skill.