HY 115 Final Exam

Jan van Helmont

About the Magnetic Healing of Wounds Willow Experiment

mind-body dualism

Minds and bodies are: 1) equally fundamental 2) entirely independent 3) mutually irreducible Minds can be defined as spirit or soul

Hipparcus

Used solar eclipse to estimate distance to the moon and determined lunar cycle to within one second of our modern value Determined solar year within 7 minutes of our modern value Discovered "procession of equinoxes" Earth cannot be moving because no parallax

Margaret Lucas Cavendish

Why should we think that all material is composed of materials

The Intuition/Deduction Thesis

We know some things by intuition alone; still, others are knowable by being deduced from intuited propositions

Cynics

Become dependent on nature, not humans, but fight for the dignity of all humans Virtue is the only thing that matters Lovers of being poor

Charlemagne

Brief periods of stability under the first Holy Roman Empire Exchange with Africa and Asia trading networks Reforms to attain Roman levels of education, writing, money, etc (didn't work)

Plato

Senses can deceive, so stick with extrapolations from the first principles Learning is just remembering a priori knowledge Focus on epistemology and metaphysics Concerned with ideal forms (heaven) Heavenly things are ideal so must move in circles only

Christian Huygens

Shows there is diffraction in light Made double diffraction image Speed of light is finite and propagates like a ripple in a pond Convinced Hooke against Newton's theory of light Theory of gravity

Desaguliers

Taught popular courses about Newton -practicality/instruments -priority of engineering -formal mathematics based on geometry -Newton the genius -corpuscles/non-contact forces -mechanism of the natural world based on the glory of God--> natural theology

heliocentrism

The belief that the sun was the center of the solar system and that the earth rotated around it

Aristotle

The senses are all we have A posteriori knowledge, empiricism Start from the first principles (self-evident things) but use observations to get to the individual cases Method: collected everything known about a subject at the time, evaluated it, then said what held up or didn't Focused on the physical stuff around us-- re-emphasis on empiricism

Heraclitus

The universe is made of fire/logos Everything is constantly changing Change is the only reality The world is becoming

Skeptics

The wise man asks 3 questions: 1. What things are and how they are constituted 2. How we are related to these things 3. What ought to be out attitude towards them They answer: 1. Things are indistinguishable 2. Unmeasurable 3. Undecideable You can believe pretty much anything you want, as long as you don't hold it too passionately

Stephen Gray

This scientist studied electrical conduction and performed crazy experiments to test conduction.

Emilie du Chatelet

Translated Newton's Principia from Latin into French Influenced Marpertuis (Newtonian political party)

Socrates

What are we? Becoming-- material stuff Being-- the eternal "goods" Humans have internal essences, which are the bridges between the material realm of becoming and the spiritual realm of being

Levoisier

Worked on rusting metals, made incredibly precise scales Burning phosphorus--> air must be fixing onto burning phosphorus while phlogiston was released

vitalism

there are laws unique to living bodies "poison is in the dose"-- living things that fight to stay alive, reject the poison, while sickness is killed by poison/balance is restored Van Helmont: mechanical change is superficial Life is special; it requires special forces or substance to explain it Life is one of the fundamental energies or forces in the universe (electricity, magnetism, light, etc)

induction

to get to the real, move from individual observation to general regularities, principles, even bias

Edmund Halley

proved Newton's idea that comets are subject to the same orbital laws of motion as planets comet would return every 76 years

inverse square law

quantity/strength of x is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source of x x = 1/distance^2

extramission

rays travel from eyes to objects, interpreting them and making them visible

intramission

rays travel from objects to eyes, are admitted and processed through humors or cells of the body

Ancient astronomy

retrograde motion of the planets eclipses making the solar and lunar calendars work

three elements of alchemy

salt, mercury, sulfur

Timaeus

(Plato) The universe is a series of nested spheres that rotate World has lots of mathematical and musical harmonies Knowledge transforms the knower; therefore, study both the causes and meanings at nature; nature teaches us how to live

humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements

phlogiston

A hypothetical substance thought to be formed when things are burned—obsolete.

Benjamin Franklin

American intellectual, inventor, and politician He helped to negotiate French support for the American Revolution. Imponderable fire in object relative to object mass Self-repellant means electrical fire/fluid would spread to fill space and would remain balanced by attraction to "gross" matter at the broadest point Invented lightning rod-- reduces power of lightning, makes it less dangerous/deadly

Law of Equal Areas

An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of the planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time

Johannes Kepler

Assistant to Brahe; used Brahe's data to prove that the earth moved in an elliptical, not circular, orbit; Wrote 3 laws of planetary motion based on mechanical relationships and accurately predicted movements of planets in a sun-centered universe; 1)Planets move in eliptical orbits, conical sections with one focus at the point of the sun 2) Re-introduces equants: speed of planet changes-- not uniform circular motion 3) Magnets + a mind must be summoned Demolished old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy Heliocentrism The universe is constructed according to Pythagorean mathematical laws

Ontology

the study of being

Metaphysics

the study of the nature of reality

preformation

all life, especially human life, was "preformed"

statistics

determinism without certainty (extension of mechanism)

Ethics

the principles of right and wrong that guide an individual in making decisions

Scientific Revolution

A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs. geocentrism --> heliocentrism Change in the structure of patronage (people paying others to see stuff)

rationalism

you come into the world already knowing-- knowledge is innate (Cartesian Method)

scientific method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

Avicenna

Al Qanon (canon of medicine) Translated encyclopedia of all medical knowledge available

Stoics

Monotheist, virtue guy, but emphasized the importance of reason an natural philosophy Avoid desire, fear, pleasure, pain "Keep calm and carry on" You're doing good when you're at harmony with nature

quadrivium

arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music

Cartesian Pyramid

(upside down pyramid) 1 (bottom/point). "Cogito, ergo sum" = "I reason" 2. A perfect reasoner exists 3. Certain "clear and distinct" ideas 4 (top). Everything else

Antiperistasis

the medium keeps the motion going

Archimedes

water displacement--> crown made of gold

Baconian Method

1. Awareness of a problem-- asking questions about the obvious 2. Observation (induction) 3. Organization/Classification (induction) 4. Assumption of universality and regularity 5. New observations against assumptions (deduction) 6. Verification

The four causes

1. Material Cause 2. Formal Cause 3. Efficient Cause 4. Final Cause

Blaine Pascal

"Pascal's Wager" regarding the existence of God

Skeptical Chymist

(Boyle) First book about modern chemistry About social class Bring intellectual training into working on chemicals-- rationality is distinguishing marks of intellectuals and now, chymists Prop 1- everything is made of little stuff Prop 2- it is not impossible that the tiny stuff is combined together Prop 3- chemistry shows us that the world is made of 3/4/5 of these larger clumps Prop 4- These 3/4/5 basic things are elements and everything is made of them

Treatise of Man

(Descartes) Body is a machine; bodily functions are just mechanical processes

Two New Sciences

(Galileo) Tearing down Aristotelian physics 1. Mechanics gives new authority over scholastics (void vs. vacuum) 2. Mechanics of materials (density vs. weight; solid vs. hollow cylinders; animal bones of different sizes) 3. Acceleration 4. Motion of projectiles is a combination of "uniform horizontal motion/inertia" and a "naturally accelerated vertical motion" (gravity)

Principia Mathematica

(Newton) If experiments didn't disprove hypotheses, he accepted it Was okay with occult forces

Republic

(Plato) How should we order the state and the individual property?

Giovanni Cassini

The earth is not a perfect sphere, it is a prolate spheroid

Euclid

geometry

vitreous electricity

glass

trivium

grammar, logic, rhetoric

materialism

nature is material or corporeal; self-moving corporeal nature

Intuitive perspective

overlapping diminution of scale for shortening atmospheric perspective

Platonic solids

tetrahedron (fire), hexahedron (earth), regular octahedron (air), regular dodecahedron (aether), regular icosahedron (water)

Robert Boyle

Chemist Apologist for mechanism Appreciation for Cartesian rationalism to empirical Britain New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its Effects

William Harvey

Circulation of Blood Anti-spontaneous generation but also pro-preformation

Nicolas D'Oresme

Coordinate system (latitude and longitude) Acceleration/plotting Earth rotating on its own axis (maybe)

Joseph Black

Creating an antacid "magnesia alba" First time anyone tried to conduct controlled, quantitative experiments recognizing different kinds of air

Tycho Brahe

De Nova Stella- observation of a supernova in the constellation of Cassopeia Built Uraniborg- most advanced observatory/lab of its time (indoor plumbing, own observatory, chemical laboratory, clock room, printing press) Even though he was wrong about a lot, he made the most accurate naked eye observations and discovered 700+ new stars

Priestley

Discovery of "dephlogisticated air"-- oxygen

Robert Hooke

Produced experiments that made other people famous Made an air pump-- original idea was from Strato

Lavosier + LaPlace

Reflections on Phlogiston and Method of Chemical Nomenclature Dephlogisticated air = oxygen

Francis Bacon

Reform of education through new empiricism Struggle against tradition in the fight for new, certain, humanist knowledge Human systems of knowing: the spider vs. the bee Rejection of Aristotelian philosophy New Organon: Idols of the: 1) Tribe 2) Cave 3) Marketplace 4) Theatre

Pythagoras

Everything is numbered One ultimate number = tetractys

violent motion

Everything moves in straight lines unless acted upon by another force

Galileo

He was the first person to use a telescope to observe objects in space. He discovered that planets and moons are physical bodies because of his studies of the night skies. "Bible gives God body parts/emotions" (metaphorical) Went in front of the Inquisition twice due to suspected heracy

Augustine of Hippo

Interpretation must be: 1. Rational 2. Consistent 3. Preserve the text 4. Linked with current knowledge

Epicureans

Revival of atomism Empiricists, but not sure Aristotelian methods can prove anything

Rene Descartes

Revival of the ancient emphasis on innate knowledge and reasoning from that which is intuited Inverted pyramid of knowledge: build up trustworthy knowledge structure from an absolutely secure base meditations = assaults on the reliability of sense data parhelia = assault on the senses 1) illusions, optical and otherwise 2) dreaming: can we be certain we're not doing it? 3) what if God is a mean trickster?

The Restoration

King Charles II-- "religious toleration"; secret clerical societies; populariztion of coffeehouses

Simplicius of Cilicia

Last of the classical Neoplatonists: Aristotle commentator To be a good Christian, you must act out of your spirit, not your flesh (ignore your desires)

Theophrastus

Leads Lyceum for 36 years --> extends Aristotle's work in botany and mineralogy Why do men have nipples?

Plotinus of Lycopolis

Life is made from "the one" Not material, but still has to make everything that is material We are a trinity: 1. Mind 2. Body 3. Spirit

Thomas Aquinas

Major integrator of Aristotle into the medieval university structure Summa Theologiae- sets standard for the method of knowledge: hypothesis, test, theory, test, law Natural law, deduction, senses can be subordinate to faith, so use them Proof of existence of God: 1) "immovable motor" 2) first cause 3) noticing varying levels of human perfection and determining that a supreme, perfect being must exist 4) ability to reason is from God

Georg Stahl

Map of ingredients to mix stuff (early version of the periodic table) Combustion is a loss of phlogiston

Ptolemy

Map of the ecliptic-- based on Mallus' glob olkoumene--> the space where all people live tetrabiblios- roman astrology

Isaac Newton

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy Laws of motion and physics Optics Reflecting telescope Differential calculus/"fluxions" Theories of light/color Theory of matter in motion/kinematics + theory of universal gravity

Pierre Louis Maupertuis

Measured latitude/longitude-- proved Newton's theory of earth to be in the shape of an obloid spheroid correct

Pliny the Elder

Military Commander and Scientist Naturalis Historia

John Philoponus

Rivalry with Simplicius Origins of the universe: On the Eternity of the World Against Proclus; On the Eternity of the World Against Aristotle Nature of light and heat-- heat must be friction (light rubbing against heat); can't see light; both have something to do with each other Impetus theory Rejected the notion that material is bad

Parmenides

Nothing is changing Basic principle is solid being/essence Stasis is the only reality Everything is eternal, unchanging essence The world is being

Astrolabe

Observation-- how the sky looks at a specific place at a given time Calculation-- when a star will rise and set almost anywhere

Andreas Vesalius

On the Fabric of the Human Body Humans are just machines

Franz Anton Mesmer

On the Influence of Planets on the Human Body Use of magnets to treat patients

St. Augustine

On the Literal Interpretation of Genesis: Delineates 3 classes of vision: 1) Corporeal/physical: what one sees with eyes/body; here: looking at a prayer book 2) Imaginative/spiritual: images in dreams or imagination; here: vision of devotion to virgin 3) Intellectual/spiritual: abstract concepts with no basis in form; no correlation in art

Copernicus

On the Rotation of the Heavenly/Celestial Orbs/Spheres Created the first heliocentric model Helped fix the calendar again

Newton's theories of light/color

Particles streaming away from a luminous body; light composed of distinct particles that combine to create white light

Thales of Miletus

Predicted solar eclipse on 28 May 585 BCE Earth is a sphere Believed everything is reducible to a single element (water)

reflecting telescope

a telescope that uses a curved mirror to gather and focus light from distant objects

resinous electricity

amber

Paracelsus

anti-university Doctrine of Tria Prima: salt, mercury, sulfur "The poison is in the dose"

Alhazen

challenged Ptolemaic view of vision Intramission theory of optics Worked on diseases in eyes and learned eye mechanics --> Book of Healing

clinical medicine

characteristics > person reduction-- examination focused not on patients as 'wholes' but on malfunctioning parts

exoteric

complex instruments

Strato

disagreed with Aristotle on (v ∝ f/r) motion Maybe there is void (brass globe experiment)

electriks

elements carrying an invisible attractive force

John Dee

esoteric alchemy Rosicrucianism-- job was to find the original knowledge Adam had before he ate the apple

panpsychism

everything can think

hylozooism

everything is alive

atomism

everything is composed of tiny, invisible, indivisible "atoms"

Francis Hauksbee

experiments for the Royal Society Used mercury to create an electrik

Erastosthenes

figured out how big the earth was based on angles of the sun and the distance from the earth to the sun

Leucippus and Democritus

first to propose that matter was composed of small, indestructible particles

esoteric

focus on making life from non-life, transmuting elements, purity through ritual

Pierre Simon LaPlace

he gave Probability of theory, such as theory of errors. Principle of Sufficient Reason-- nothing that comes into existence does so without a cause

insulators

materials that prevent electric charges from flowing through them easily

Alchemy

medieval chemical philosophy based on changing metal into gold; a seemingly magical power or process of transmutation

empiricism

the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment. (Baconian Method) All knowledge is dependent upon sense experience

Mechanism

jobs of natural philosophy is to investigate "body" (matter) attempt to explain material world can only be in terms of matter and motion, not in terms of non-material causes of motion assumption is that God caused the initial motion and then the rules that made the motion continue "action at a distance" Life is not special, it is a grouping of dumb particles (corpuscles/atoms) that extend Humans possess minds/souls as well

epigenesis

life arises from formless matter inside an organism's womb

beadle

lower class man (butcher/barber) that prepped and cleaned up a body for anatomical demonstrations

conductors

materials that allow electric charges to flow through them easily

natural motion

motion associated with the nature of bodies everything has a right place Earth is lowest/densest, then water, air, fire is highest/"rarest" Straight motion

Galen of Pergamon

natural fluids-- disease is an imbalance of the fluids Fire = summer = bile (hot and dry) Air = spring = blood (hot and moist) Water = winter = phlegm (cold and moist) Earth = fall = black bile (cold and dry) Julian calendar

Law of Ellipses

path of the planets about the sun is an ellipse-- the center of the sun being locate at one focus

Imponderable fluids

phlogiston magnetism electricity life (?)

atomistic mechanism

pieces of things without any characteristics other than extension banging off each other, sometimes sticking, sometimes making things that appear to have properties other than extension

occult

scandalous/secret/spooky

Pythagoreans

secret cult for mathematics

Georg W Richmann

studied lightning, was struck in chest by lightning

William Gilbert

studied the electriks that caused magnetic forces

Epistemology

study of knowledge

Ralph Cudworth

the only celestial model that honors God is the one with the sun in the center of the universe and the planets moving around it gravity can act on stuff in the universe Theologian-- combined science and religion

"The Greek Miracle"

the breakthrough out of mythological explanations of natural phenomena into natural explanations of natural phenomena.

chromatic abberation

the property of a lens whereby light of different colors is focused at different places

The Innate Knowledge Theory

we have knowledge of some truths as part of our inborn rational nature-- Socrates

Cave parable

what we see is just shadows, the real is only to be found by exercising reason and contemplation

Rule of Dufay

you must insulate conductors from losing fluid into the ground