HY 115 Final Exam
Jan van Helmont
About the Magnetic Healing of Wounds Willow Experiment
mind-body dualism
Minds and bodies are: 1) equally fundamental 2) entirely independent 3) mutually irreducible Minds can be defined as spirit or soul
Hipparcus
Used solar eclipse to estimate distance to the moon and determined lunar cycle to within one second of our modern value Determined solar year within 7 minutes of our modern value Discovered "procession of equinoxes" Earth cannot be moving because no parallax
Margaret Lucas Cavendish
Why should we think that all material is composed of materials
The Intuition/Deduction Thesis
We know some things by intuition alone; still, others are knowable by being deduced from intuited propositions
Cynics
Become dependent on nature, not humans, but fight for the dignity of all humans Virtue is the only thing that matters Lovers of being poor
Charlemagne
Brief periods of stability under the first Holy Roman Empire Exchange with Africa and Asia trading networks Reforms to attain Roman levels of education, writing, money, etc (didn't work)
Plato
Senses can deceive, so stick with extrapolations from the first principles Learning is just remembering a priori knowledge Focus on epistemology and metaphysics Concerned with ideal forms (heaven) Heavenly things are ideal so must move in circles only
Christian Huygens
Shows there is diffraction in light Made double diffraction image Speed of light is finite and propagates like a ripple in a pond Convinced Hooke against Newton's theory of light Theory of gravity
Desaguliers
Taught popular courses about Newton -practicality/instruments -priority of engineering -formal mathematics based on geometry -Newton the genius -corpuscles/non-contact forces -mechanism of the natural world based on the glory of God--> natural theology
heliocentrism
The belief that the sun was the center of the solar system and that the earth rotated around it
Aristotle
The senses are all we have A posteriori knowledge, empiricism Start from the first principles (self-evident things) but use observations to get to the individual cases Method: collected everything known about a subject at the time, evaluated it, then said what held up or didn't Focused on the physical stuff around us-- re-emphasis on empiricism
Heraclitus
The universe is made of fire/logos Everything is constantly changing Change is the only reality The world is becoming
Skeptics
The wise man asks 3 questions: 1. What things are and how they are constituted 2. How we are related to these things 3. What ought to be out attitude towards them They answer: 1. Things are indistinguishable 2. Unmeasurable 3. Undecideable You can believe pretty much anything you want, as long as you don't hold it too passionately
Stephen Gray
This scientist studied electrical conduction and performed crazy experiments to test conduction.
Emilie du Chatelet
Translated Newton's Principia from Latin into French Influenced Marpertuis (Newtonian political party)
Socrates
What are we? Becoming-- material stuff Being-- the eternal "goods" Humans have internal essences, which are the bridges between the material realm of becoming and the spiritual realm of being
Levoisier
Worked on rusting metals, made incredibly precise scales Burning phosphorus--> air must be fixing onto burning phosphorus while phlogiston was released
vitalism
there are laws unique to living bodies "poison is in the dose"-- living things that fight to stay alive, reject the poison, while sickness is killed by poison/balance is restored Van Helmont: mechanical change is superficial Life is special; it requires special forces or substance to explain it Life is one of the fundamental energies or forces in the universe (electricity, magnetism, light, etc)
induction
to get to the real, move from individual observation to general regularities, principles, even bias
Edmund Halley
proved Newton's idea that comets are subject to the same orbital laws of motion as planets comet would return every 76 years
inverse square law
quantity/strength of x is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source of x x = 1/distance^2
extramission
rays travel from eyes to objects, interpreting them and making them visible
intramission
rays travel from objects to eyes, are admitted and processed through humors or cells of the body
Ancient astronomy
retrograde motion of the planets eclipses making the solar and lunar calendars work
three elements of alchemy
salt, mercury, sulfur
Timaeus
(Plato) The universe is a series of nested spheres that rotate World has lots of mathematical and musical harmonies Knowledge transforms the knower; therefore, study both the causes and meanings at nature; nature teaches us how to live
humanism
A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements
phlogiston
A hypothetical substance thought to be formed when things are burned—obsolete.
Benjamin Franklin
American intellectual, inventor, and politician He helped to negotiate French support for the American Revolution. Imponderable fire in object relative to object mass Self-repellant means electrical fire/fluid would spread to fill space and would remain balanced by attraction to "gross" matter at the broadest point Invented lightning rod-- reduces power of lightning, makes it less dangerous/deadly
Law of Equal Areas
An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of the planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time
Johannes Kepler
Assistant to Brahe; used Brahe's data to prove that the earth moved in an elliptical, not circular, orbit; Wrote 3 laws of planetary motion based on mechanical relationships and accurately predicted movements of planets in a sun-centered universe; 1)Planets move in eliptical orbits, conical sections with one focus at the point of the sun 2) Re-introduces equants: speed of planet changes-- not uniform circular motion 3) Magnets + a mind must be summoned Demolished old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy Heliocentrism The universe is constructed according to Pythagorean mathematical laws
Ontology
the study of being
Metaphysics
the study of the nature of reality
preformation
all life, especially human life, was "preformed"
statistics
determinism without certainty (extension of mechanism)
Ethics
the principles of right and wrong that guide an individual in making decisions
Scientific Revolution
A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs. geocentrism --> heliocentrism Change in the structure of patronage (people paying others to see stuff)
rationalism
you come into the world already knowing-- knowledge is innate (Cartesian Method)
scientific method
A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.
Avicenna
Al Qanon (canon of medicine) Translated encyclopedia of all medical knowledge available
Stoics
Monotheist, virtue guy, but emphasized the importance of reason an natural philosophy Avoid desire, fear, pleasure, pain "Keep calm and carry on" You're doing good when you're at harmony with nature
quadrivium
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music
Cartesian Pyramid
(upside down pyramid) 1 (bottom/point). "Cogito, ergo sum" = "I reason" 2. A perfect reasoner exists 3. Certain "clear and distinct" ideas 4 (top). Everything else
Antiperistasis
the medium keeps the motion going
Archimedes
water displacement--> crown made of gold
Baconian Method
1. Awareness of a problem-- asking questions about the obvious 2. Observation (induction) 3. Organization/Classification (induction) 4. Assumption of universality and regularity 5. New observations against assumptions (deduction) 6. Verification
The four causes
1. Material Cause 2. Formal Cause 3. Efficient Cause 4. Final Cause
Blaine Pascal
"Pascal's Wager" regarding the existence of God
Skeptical Chymist
(Boyle) First book about modern chemistry About social class Bring intellectual training into working on chemicals-- rationality is distinguishing marks of intellectuals and now, chymists Prop 1- everything is made of little stuff Prop 2- it is not impossible that the tiny stuff is combined together Prop 3- chemistry shows us that the world is made of 3/4/5 of these larger clumps Prop 4- These 3/4/5 basic things are elements and everything is made of them
Treatise of Man
(Descartes) Body is a machine; bodily functions are just mechanical processes
Two New Sciences
(Galileo) Tearing down Aristotelian physics 1. Mechanics gives new authority over scholastics (void vs. vacuum) 2. Mechanics of materials (density vs. weight; solid vs. hollow cylinders; animal bones of different sizes) 3. Acceleration 4. Motion of projectiles is a combination of "uniform horizontal motion/inertia" and a "naturally accelerated vertical motion" (gravity)
Principia Mathematica
(Newton) If experiments didn't disprove hypotheses, he accepted it Was okay with occult forces
Republic
(Plato) How should we order the state and the individual property?
Giovanni Cassini
The earth is not a perfect sphere, it is a prolate spheroid
Euclid
geometry
vitreous electricity
glass
trivium
grammar, logic, rhetoric
materialism
nature is material or corporeal; self-moving corporeal nature
Intuitive perspective
overlapping diminution of scale for shortening atmospheric perspective
Platonic solids
tetrahedron (fire), hexahedron (earth), regular octahedron (air), regular dodecahedron (aether), regular icosahedron (water)
Robert Boyle
Chemist Apologist for mechanism Appreciation for Cartesian rationalism to empirical Britain New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the Air, and Its Effects
William Harvey
Circulation of Blood Anti-spontaneous generation but also pro-preformation
Nicolas D'Oresme
Coordinate system (latitude and longitude) Acceleration/plotting Earth rotating on its own axis (maybe)
Joseph Black
Creating an antacid "magnesia alba" First time anyone tried to conduct controlled, quantitative experiments recognizing different kinds of air
Tycho Brahe
De Nova Stella- observation of a supernova in the constellation of Cassopeia Built Uraniborg- most advanced observatory/lab of its time (indoor plumbing, own observatory, chemical laboratory, clock room, printing press) Even though he was wrong about a lot, he made the most accurate naked eye observations and discovered 700+ new stars
Priestley
Discovery of "dephlogisticated air"-- oxygen
Robert Hooke
Produced experiments that made other people famous Made an air pump-- original idea was from Strato
Lavosier + LaPlace
Reflections on Phlogiston and Method of Chemical Nomenclature Dephlogisticated air = oxygen
Francis Bacon
Reform of education through new empiricism Struggle against tradition in the fight for new, certain, humanist knowledge Human systems of knowing: the spider vs. the bee Rejection of Aristotelian philosophy New Organon: Idols of the: 1) Tribe 2) Cave 3) Marketplace 4) Theatre
Pythagoras
Everything is numbered One ultimate number = tetractys
violent motion
Everything moves in straight lines unless acted upon by another force
Galileo
He was the first person to use a telescope to observe objects in space. He discovered that planets and moons are physical bodies because of his studies of the night skies. "Bible gives God body parts/emotions" (metaphorical) Went in front of the Inquisition twice due to suspected heracy
Augustine of Hippo
Interpretation must be: 1. Rational 2. Consistent 3. Preserve the text 4. Linked with current knowledge
Epicureans
Revival of atomism Empiricists, but not sure Aristotelian methods can prove anything
Rene Descartes
Revival of the ancient emphasis on innate knowledge and reasoning from that which is intuited Inverted pyramid of knowledge: build up trustworthy knowledge structure from an absolutely secure base meditations = assaults on the reliability of sense data parhelia = assault on the senses 1) illusions, optical and otherwise 2) dreaming: can we be certain we're not doing it? 3) what if God is a mean trickster?
The Restoration
King Charles II-- "religious toleration"; secret clerical societies; populariztion of coffeehouses
Simplicius of Cilicia
Last of the classical Neoplatonists: Aristotle commentator To be a good Christian, you must act out of your spirit, not your flesh (ignore your desires)
Theophrastus
Leads Lyceum for 36 years --> extends Aristotle's work in botany and mineralogy Why do men have nipples?
Plotinus of Lycopolis
Life is made from "the one" Not material, but still has to make everything that is material We are a trinity: 1. Mind 2. Body 3. Spirit
Thomas Aquinas
Major integrator of Aristotle into the medieval university structure Summa Theologiae- sets standard for the method of knowledge: hypothesis, test, theory, test, law Natural law, deduction, senses can be subordinate to faith, so use them Proof of existence of God: 1) "immovable motor" 2) first cause 3) noticing varying levels of human perfection and determining that a supreme, perfect being must exist 4) ability to reason is from God
Georg Stahl
Map of ingredients to mix stuff (early version of the periodic table) Combustion is a loss of phlogiston
Ptolemy
Map of the ecliptic-- based on Mallus' glob olkoumene--> the space where all people live tetrabiblios- roman astrology
Isaac Newton
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy Laws of motion and physics Optics Reflecting telescope Differential calculus/"fluxions" Theories of light/color Theory of matter in motion/kinematics + theory of universal gravity
Pierre Louis Maupertuis
Measured latitude/longitude-- proved Newton's theory of earth to be in the shape of an obloid spheroid correct
Pliny the Elder
Military Commander and Scientist Naturalis Historia
John Philoponus
Rivalry with Simplicius Origins of the universe: On the Eternity of the World Against Proclus; On the Eternity of the World Against Aristotle Nature of light and heat-- heat must be friction (light rubbing against heat); can't see light; both have something to do with each other Impetus theory Rejected the notion that material is bad
Parmenides
Nothing is changing Basic principle is solid being/essence Stasis is the only reality Everything is eternal, unchanging essence The world is being
Astrolabe
Observation-- how the sky looks at a specific place at a given time Calculation-- when a star will rise and set almost anywhere
Andreas Vesalius
On the Fabric of the Human Body Humans are just machines
Franz Anton Mesmer
On the Influence of Planets on the Human Body Use of magnets to treat patients
St. Augustine
On the Literal Interpretation of Genesis: Delineates 3 classes of vision: 1) Corporeal/physical: what one sees with eyes/body; here: looking at a prayer book 2) Imaginative/spiritual: images in dreams or imagination; here: vision of devotion to virgin 3) Intellectual/spiritual: abstract concepts with no basis in form; no correlation in art
Copernicus
On the Rotation of the Heavenly/Celestial Orbs/Spheres Created the first heliocentric model Helped fix the calendar again
Newton's theories of light/color
Particles streaming away from a luminous body; light composed of distinct particles that combine to create white light
Thales of Miletus
Predicted solar eclipse on 28 May 585 BCE Earth is a sphere Believed everything is reducible to a single element (water)
reflecting telescope
a telescope that uses a curved mirror to gather and focus light from distant objects
resinous electricity
amber
Paracelsus
anti-university Doctrine of Tria Prima: salt, mercury, sulfur "The poison is in the dose"
Alhazen
challenged Ptolemaic view of vision Intramission theory of optics Worked on diseases in eyes and learned eye mechanics --> Book of Healing
clinical medicine
characteristics > person reduction-- examination focused not on patients as 'wholes' but on malfunctioning parts
exoteric
complex instruments
Strato
disagreed with Aristotle on (v ∝ f/r) motion Maybe there is void (brass globe experiment)
electriks
elements carrying an invisible attractive force
John Dee
esoteric alchemy Rosicrucianism-- job was to find the original knowledge Adam had before he ate the apple
panpsychism
everything can think
hylozooism
everything is alive
atomism
everything is composed of tiny, invisible, indivisible "atoms"
Francis Hauksbee
experiments for the Royal Society Used mercury to create an electrik
Erastosthenes
figured out how big the earth was based on angles of the sun and the distance from the earth to the sun
Leucippus and Democritus
first to propose that matter was composed of small, indestructible particles
esoteric
focus on making life from non-life, transmuting elements, purity through ritual
Pierre Simon LaPlace
he gave Probability of theory, such as theory of errors. Principle of Sufficient Reason-- nothing that comes into existence does so without a cause
insulators
materials that prevent electric charges from flowing through them easily
Alchemy
medieval chemical philosophy based on changing metal into gold; a seemingly magical power or process of transmutation
empiricism
the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment. (Baconian Method) All knowledge is dependent upon sense experience
Mechanism
jobs of natural philosophy is to investigate "body" (matter) attempt to explain material world can only be in terms of matter and motion, not in terms of non-material causes of motion assumption is that God caused the initial motion and then the rules that made the motion continue "action at a distance" Life is not special, it is a grouping of dumb particles (corpuscles/atoms) that extend Humans possess minds/souls as well
epigenesis
life arises from formless matter inside an organism's womb
beadle
lower class man (butcher/barber) that prepped and cleaned up a body for anatomical demonstrations
conductors
materials that allow electric charges to flow through them easily
natural motion
motion associated with the nature of bodies everything has a right place Earth is lowest/densest, then water, air, fire is highest/"rarest" Straight motion
Galen of Pergamon
natural fluids-- disease is an imbalance of the fluids Fire = summer = bile (hot and dry) Air = spring = blood (hot and moist) Water = winter = phlegm (cold and moist) Earth = fall = black bile (cold and dry) Julian calendar
Law of Ellipses
path of the planets about the sun is an ellipse-- the center of the sun being locate at one focus
Imponderable fluids
phlogiston magnetism electricity life (?)
atomistic mechanism
pieces of things without any characteristics other than extension banging off each other, sometimes sticking, sometimes making things that appear to have properties other than extension
occult
scandalous/secret/spooky
Pythagoreans
secret cult for mathematics
Georg W Richmann
studied lightning, was struck in chest by lightning
William Gilbert
studied the electriks that caused magnetic forces
Epistemology
study of knowledge
Ralph Cudworth
the only celestial model that honors God is the one with the sun in the center of the universe and the planets moving around it gravity can act on stuff in the universe Theologian-- combined science and religion
"The Greek Miracle"
the breakthrough out of mythological explanations of natural phenomena into natural explanations of natural phenomena.
chromatic abberation
the property of a lens whereby light of different colors is focused at different places
The Innate Knowledge Theory
we have knowledge of some truths as part of our inborn rational nature-- Socrates
Cave parable
what we see is just shadows, the real is only to be found by exercising reason and contemplation
Rule of Dufay
you must insulate conductors from losing fluid into the ground
