IDC1, WGU-IDC 1
performance-based approach
instruction and collection of data from students to revise instruction. Instructional process seen as a system purpose to bring about learning.
quality of your test items and instruments
depends on the quality of your performance objectives, which in turn depends on the quality of your goal statement and resulting task analysis.
instructional goal
describes what the learners will be able to do when they complete the instructional unit. It describes how the learners will use and apply the knowledge and skills in the real world.
Mager's Performance Objective: Part 1
"Graduate students will be able to evaluate cognitivism in various learning environments"
Mager's Performance Objective: Part 3
"and then develop instructional strategies that support cognitivism."
Mager's Performance Objective: Part 2
"by evaluating its characteristics, its differences from Behaviorism and Constructivism, and the environments in which cognitivism might not be appropriate"
Ways to gather data for Task Analysis
-Literature Research -Interview SME -Developer Model (walking through actual steps or simulations) -
Wiggins Theory of Backwards Design
-also called backwards planning -the teacher starts with classroom outcomes and then plans the curriculum, choosing activities and materials that help determine student ability and foster student learning.[6]
Cognitive Learning Theory
-assumes most human behavior to be very complex and controlled primarily by persons internal mental processes rather than external stimuli and reinforcements. -Learning has occurred when students have incorporated new info into memories to allow new capabilities. -Instruction is organizing and providing sets of info, examples, experiences, and activities to guide, support, and augment internal mental process of students. Cognitive learning presumes that psychological factors are important for influencing how one behaves.
Behavioral Objectives
-behavioral objective states learning objectives in "specified, quantifiable, terminal behaviors -A - Audience - the student B - Behavior - answer correctly C - Condition - after having completed the unit, on a post test D - Degree - 90% correct -To develop behavioral objectives a learning task must be broken down through analysis into specific measurable tasks. The learning success may be measured by tests developed to measure each objective.
Task Analysis-What the designer needs to do
-defines content -steps identified -see from learner perspective -goal to be addressed sets the focus -learners prior knowledge and skills need to be considered
Behaviorist Learning Theory
-developed by B. F. Skinner -Three basic assumptions are held to be true: -First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. -Second, the environment shapes behavior. -And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. -For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning. Behavioral learning assumes that people's environment (surroundings) cause people to behave in certain ways.
Inductive Learning
-learning by example -- where a system tries to induce a general rule from a set of observed instances - involves classification -also called discovery or inquiry teaching *dont know outcome before beginning
Constructivist Learning Theory
-main view point is learning is a unique product "constructed" by each individual learner combining new and existing knowledge and experiences. -Learning is intertwined with experiences and the primary role of the teacher is to create appropriate learning environment. -Learning is based on interactions with authentic representations of real practices.
5 purposes for Needs Assessment
-optimal performance level -actual performance -feelings (how feel about training, confidence, job) -Cause (is lack of skill, environment, improper/no incentives, unmotivated) -Solution
4 types criterion reference assessments
...
Components of a Systems Approach Model
1- Identify instructional goal: decide what new skill or info the student should have 2- Conduct instructional analysis: determine step by step what skills are needed to complete the goal. Decide entry skills needed for learners to be successful. 3- Anlyze learners and contexts: context in which learners will learn and context in which they will use new skills. Learner's current skills, preferences, and attitudes. Characteristics of instructional setting and setting where they will eventually use the skills. This step shapes succeeding steps (especially strategy) 4- Write performance objectives: specific statements of what learners will be able to do at completion of instruction based on analysis from previous steps. 5- Develop assessment instruments: develop assessments based on objectives to measure learners ability to perform. Relate kind of skills described in objectives to assessment requirements. 6- Develop instructional strategy: Pre instructional: stimulate, motivate, and focus attention New Content: examples, demonstration, active learning participation Follow Through: relate new skills to real-world application. 7- Develop and select instructional materials: guidance for learners, instructional materials, and assessment. These can be created or use existing one. 8- Design and conduct formative evaluation of instruction: collect data to identify problems with instruction OR opportunities to make instruction better. Formative Evaluation: help create and improve instructional process and products. 3 types of formative evaluation: 1-one to one evaluation 2-small group evaluation 3-field trial evaluation 9- Revise instruction: last step in design and development process and 1st step in repeat cycle. Data from evaluation can identify difficulties of learners. Revise instruction and re examine validity of instructional analysis (assumption about entry skills and characteristics of learners). Designer constantly making revisions in previous steps based on what learning along the way.
Steps of Goal Analysis
1- decide learning domain 2- identify major steps for learner to demonstrate goal achieved
Why the Systems Approach is successful
1- the required focus, at the outset, on what learners are to know or be able to do when instruction is concluded. 2-interlocking connection between each component. 3-it is an empirical and replicable process.
Stages of Backward Design
1-Identify Desired Results 2-Determine Acceptable Evidence 3-Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction
The instructional design process consists of....
1. Identification of a problem that you believe instruction will help to improve 2. Needs analysis to learn more about the target population and the need for instruction (needs analysis) 3. Goal statement that identifies the desired state of how you want your target population to perform after your instructional unit. 4. Learner analysis to learn more about unique characteristics of the learners so you can build your instructional strategies to accommodate these special learners. 5. Task analysis (also referred to as a goal analysis or instructional analysis chapters 3 and 4 of Dick and Carey). The task analysis identifies all of the content, knowledge and skills that you must teach in order to accomplish the goal of instruction. 6. Then the performance objectives that are the learning statements of what students will learn as identified in the task/goal analysis. 7. Your assessments are then the evaluation of how well the student has learned the performance objectives and the tasks identified in the task analysis.
What are the parts of Mager's three-part performance objectives? Give an example of each.
1. The first part describes the skill identified in the instructional analysis, describing what the learner will be able to do. BEHAVIOR "identify the location of a point on the scale in decimal form by estimating between 2 tenth divisions to the nearest hundredth." 2. The second part of an objective describes the prevailing conditions while a learner carries out the task. CONDITION "given a scale marked off in tenths." 3. The third part of an objective describes the criteria to be used to evaluate learner performance. CRITERIA "report the reading to within ±.01 units." Examples: 1. In a workteam meeting (CN), manage the line of discussion (B) so the meeting stays on track (CR). 2. Using a web search engine (CN), use Boolean operators (B) to narrow the number of relevant hits by half (CR). 3. From memory (CN), describe the emergency response procedure when a gas detection indictor goes off (B), exactly as detailed in the company policy manual (CR).
What are the four components of a complete goal statement?
1. The learners 2. What Learners will be able to do in the performance context 3. The performance context in which the skills will be applied 4. The tools that will be available to the learners in the performance context.
Problem statement should address:
1. What the problem is. 2. What you would be teaching to address a problem 3. What outcomes you would like to see 4. Who you would be teaching.
Task Analysis- Critical Incident approach
2 questions to ask SME: 3 instances you were successful with task? 3 instances you were not successful with task? * work best with situations that change from instance to instance (like interview)
What are Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction?
1. gaining learner attention 2. motivating learner 3. stimulating recall of prior knowledge or past experiences 4. providing overview of lesson informing learner of objectives 5. presenting, explaining, or demonstrating knowledge/skills 6. practicing with supervision 7. summarizing information to be learned 8. assessing learning providing feedback and performance correctness 9. enhancing retention and transfer
Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction
1.Gain attention: e.g. present a good problem, a new situation, use a multimedia advertisement, ask questions. This helps to ground the lesson, and to motivate 2.Describe the goal: e.g. state what students will be able to accomplish and how they will be able to use the knowledge, give a demonstration if appropriate. Allows students to frame information, i.e. treat it better. 3.Stimulate recall of prior knowledge e.g. remind the student of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson (facts, rules, procedures or skills). Show how knowledge is connected, provide the student with a framework that helps learning and remembering. Tests can be included. 4.Present the material to be learned e.g. text, graphics, simulations, figures, pictures, sound, etc. Chunk information (avoid memory overload, recall information). 5.Provide guidance for learning e.g. presentation of content is different from instructions on how to learn. Use of different channel (e.g. side-boxes) 6.Elicit performance "practice" let the learner do something with the newly acquired behavior, practice skills or apply knowledge. At least use MCQ's. 7.Provide informative feedback , show correctness of the trainee's response, analyze learner's behavior, maybe present a good (step-by-step) solution of the problem 8.Assess performance test, if the lesson has been learned. Also give sometimes general progress information 9.Enhance retention and transfer : e.g. inform the learner about similar problem situations, provide additional practice. Put the learner in a transfer situation. Maybe let the learner review the lesson.
Ways to collect data
1.Review existing data 2.Conduct interviews 3.Conduct observations 4.Facilitate focus group meetings 5.Surveys and questionnaires
What does a goal or task analysis tells me?
A goal or task analysis informs the learners about what they will be able to do when they complete the instructional unit.
Content standard
A goal statement that identifies the knowledge and skills to be learned in the content areas.
Concept:
A mental construct represented by a word. Example: democracy, economic system.
Backward design
A process for designing a curriculum or unit by beginning with the end in mind and designing toward that end.
Essential question:
A provocative question designed to engage student interest and guide inquiry into the important ideas in a field of study.
What is Scope and Sequence in Education?
A scope and sequence in education refers to the breadth and depth of a specific curriculum. For instance, the scope is how much you are going to teach of a subject over the course of a semester or year. The sequence is the order you are going to teach the lessons in.
Achievement target:
A specific educational goal.
Standards based education
A systems approach to instruction is a powerful tool for planning successful standards-based education because of the tight alignment among learning outcomes, student characteristics, instructional activities and assessments.
Authentic assessment task:
A task designed to simulate or replicate important, real-world challenges, such as asking a student to use knowledge in contexts where the purposes, audiences, and situational variables are genuine.
Performance task:
A task that uses one's knowledge to effectively act or bring to fruition a complex product in which one's knowledge and expertise are revealed.
Summary of Learning Components
A. Preinstructional activities 1. Gain attention and motivate learners 2. Describe objectives 3. Describe and promote recall of prerequisite skills B. Content presentation 1. Content 2. Learning guidance C. Learner participation 1. Practice 2. Feedback D. Assessment 1. Entry skills test 2. Pretest 3. Posttest E. Follow- through activities 1. Memory aids for retention 2. Transfer considerations
Social Activism Learning Theory
Albert Bandura proposed that social learning occurred through four main stages of imitation: close contact imitation of superiors understanding of concepts role model behavior Social learning suggests that a combination of environmental (social) and psychological factors influence behavior. Social learning theory outlines three requirements for people to learn and model behavior including attention: retention (remembering what one observed), reproduction (ability to reproduce the behavior), and motivation (good reason) to want to adopt the behavior.
Academic prompt
An assessment of academic content or skill with a response to a specific situation/topic
Phases of ID (Cognitive)
Analyze: Needs, goals, content,learners, learner context, performance context. Design: objectives, assessments,instructional strategies Develop: instructional materials,assessments, course management.
What is criterion-based assessment?
Assessment that evaluates the learner on a set of stated criteria for success.
ARCS
Attention, Relevance, Confidence, & Satisfaction
What is Brain-Based Learning?
Based on structure and function on brain As long as brain is not prohibited from fulfilling It's normal processes learning will occur.
Is a "measurable action verb" a condition, behavior or criteria (which type of performance objective?)
Behavior
Which Learning Theory? "Learners in a corporate setting come to the training classroom to learn how to use a new database. Each of the trainees has a computer with access to the database. The trainer demonstrates each step for using the database as the learners perform the same steps on the computers at their workstations.
Behaviorism
What is Behaviorism? When is it appropriate to use instructional strategies that support Behaviorism?
Behaviorism equates learning with changes in either the form or frequency of observable performance. For example, when presented with a math fl ashcard showing the equation "2 + 4 = ?" the learner replies with the answer of "6." Th e equation is the stimulus and the proper answer is the associated response. Th e key elements are the stimulus, the response, and the association between the two. The focus is not on the learner and what the learner needs to best gain knowledge, but what the environmental factors are. Memory is not typically addressed in behaviorism, "rentention" is based on use vs nonuse of a particular concept. Transfer refers to the application of learned knowledge in new ways or situations, as well as to how prior learning affects new learning. Behaviorism can help with lower level skills on Bloom's, but cannot help with acquiring higher level skills. Instruction is structured around the presentation of the target stimulus and the provision of opportunities for the learner to practice making the proper response. Implementation of Behaviorism based instructional strategies would be appropriate when teaching kids desired basic skills such as multiplying and dividing with decimals, or performing operations with integers. These are lower level skills, but are still vital to be able to use at a mastery level when teaching higher level
Example of Attitudes Goal
Choose to maximize personal safety while staying in a hotel.
Goal
Clear statement of what the learner will be able to do.
Which Learning Theory? "You have just been promoted to Chief Academic Officer and have to present your new department's annual strategic planning documents to the Board. You have never met the board and need to know their names and backgrounds before your presentation next week.
Cognitivism
What is Cognitivism? When is it appropriate to use instructional strategies that support Cognitivism?
Cognitivism is the leraning theory that states that learners are active in the learning process and are actively trying to understand the environment. Knowledge consists of organized sets of mental structures in the mind. New learning is also based upon using prior knowledge. Learning occurs on the basis of what students already know and how they gain new information. Learners are more centralized to the learning process than they are with Behaviorism. Knowledge coming into the mind is like putting a new book into your mind - library. Cognitivism is something that the mind naturally goes through. Cognitivism is learner process based rather than external stimuli based. The learner is encouraged to use appropriate learning strategies. Memory is more vital in the learning process, and teachers are responsible for providing structures to help facilitate the retention of the new learning. When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in diff erent contexts, then transfer has occurred. Specifi c instructional or real-world events will trigger particular responses, but the learner must believe that the knowledge is useful in a given situation before he or she will activate it. When to use Instructional Strategies: Emphasis on structuring, organizing, and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing [use of cognitive strategies such as outlining, summaries, synthesizers, advance organizers, etc.] should organize information in such a manner that learners are able to connect new information with existing knowledge in some meaningful way.
Parts of objectives
Condition Behavior Criteria
Which Learning Theory? "The V.P. of Training at a major health care company asks four members of the instructional design team to try-out a new authoring tool (software) he/she is considering for purchase. Each member of the team must submit a memo to the V.P. providing an evaluation of the software and recommendation to purchase or not to purchase.
Constructivism
What is Constructivism? When is it appropriate to use instructional strategies that support Constructivism?
Constructivism is a theory that equates learning with creating meaning from experience. Humans create meaning as opposed to acquiring it. Learners do not transfer knowledge from the external world into their memories; rather they build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions. Knowledge emerges in contexts within which it is relevant. it is essential that content knowledge be embedded in the situation in which it is used. it is critical that learning occur in realistic settings and that the selected learning tasks be relevant to the students' lived experiences. Clearly the focus of constructivism is on creating cognitive tools which refl ect the wisdom of the culture in which they are used as well as the insights and experiences of individuals. To be successful, meaningful, and lasting, learning must include all three of these crucial factors: activity (practice), concept (knowledge), and culture (context) constructive learning environments are most eff ective for the stage of advanced knowledge acquisition, where initial misconceptions and biases acquired during the introductory stage can be discovered, negotiated, and if necessary, modi- fi ed and/or removed. It is most appropriate to use Constructivism strategies when higher level skills are needed for the task. Performance tasks would be an example of a Constructivist activity.
Needs Assessment Steps
Contact Supervisors Inform them what will be assessing Write assessment instrument Obtain approval Administer assessment Analyze data Recommend action
Instructional Strategies
Content clustering and sequencing Learning components Student groupings Delivery system/media
Example of Verbal Information Goal
Describe the 5 parts a flower.
Terminal objective
Describes the condition for Performing the goal at the end of instruction.
Example of Intellectual Skills Goal
Determine the distance of 2 specifice places on a state map.
Delivery system (of instruction)
Examples: Large group lecture Telecourse Computer based Self paced Site based
According to the design theory Backward Design, what is the difference between factual details versus big ideas/essential questions?
Factual details are specific details that are usually singularly defined. An essential question is a broad question that does not have a singular answer, but many different answers. The essential question can be continually built upon through an instructional unit as students are provided different learning opportunities centralized around the essential question.
Gagne's theory is put into practice
First of all, the instructor determines the objectives of the instruction. These objectives must then be categorized into one of the five domains of learning outcomes. Each of the objectives must be stated in performance terms using one of the standard verbs (i.e. states, discriminates, classifies, etc.) associated with the particular learning outcome. The instructor then uses the conditions of learning for the particular learning outcome to determine the conditions necessary for learning. And finally, the events of instruction necessary to promote the internal process of learning are chosen and put into the lesson plan. The events in essence become the framework for the lesson plan or steps of instruction."
What are generative topics?
Generative topics: 1. Central to a given discipline or subject area 2. Connect readily to what is familiar to students, and to other subject matters 3. Engaging to students and to teachers 4. Accessible to students via multiple resources and ways of thinking
Entry skills test
Given before instruction Assess student mastery of prerequisite skills
Describe an assessment that would be appropriate for measuring Task 1 and/or the subtasks.
Giving the graduate student a case study asking to identify what environment would be needed for Cognitivism to be effective.
Match goal to subskill analysis
Goal Subskill analysis Intellecutal skill Hierarchial Psychomotor skill Hierarchial Verbal Info Cluster Attitude Hierarchial and/or Cluster
Needs Analysis
Goal of instruction *Dont write about solution here
Why do we write goal statements?
Goal statements are written so that the effect of the implemented instruction that will take place can be measured against specific outcomes with specific circumstances and tools that are available to the learners.
What is a performance objective for Task 1 on the study guide using Mager's three part format.
Graduate students will be able to evaluate cognitivism in various learning environments by evaluating its characteristics, its differences from Behaviorism and Constructivism, the environments in which cognitivism might not be appropriate and then develop instructional strategies that support cognitivism.
Types of Subordinate skills analysis
Hierarchial Approach
Components of Systems Approach Model
Identify Instructional Goal (s) Conduct Instructional Analysis Analyze Learners and Contexts Write Performance Objectives Develop Assessment Instruments Develop Instructional Strategy Develop and Select Instructional Materials Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction Revise Instruction Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation
Major purpose of instructional analysis
Identify skills and knowledge that should be included in instruction.
Desired State
Include what students should be able to do and how learning will be assessed.
Goal Statement
Includes: who learners are what learners will do how demonstrate correct performance (tools/context) how will take to other classes
Cognitivism
Info into mind(pre instruction activities, engage and get excited) Knowledge Conversion (practice, make meaningful) Sensory-short term mem- long term mem
Match data source to information needed
Info needed Data Source Entry skills Interview, observation, test data Prior Knowledge Interview, observation Attitudes Interview, observation Motivation Interview, observation, Quest Ed & ability level Interview, observ, test data,record Learn Pref Interview, observation, Quest Group Charc Interview, observation,records
ID
Instructional Design umbrella term to include all phases of the ISD process
Learner Analysis
Instructional strategies
Media selection according to domain of learning
Intellectual skills:Interactive media (instructor,peer tutor, mentor, trainer, computer based smartsystem) Verbal Information: eliciting responses (compare responses to correct answer) Psychomotor skills: learning executive routine (simulators or real equipment and feedback from peer or instructor) Attitude: observe someone highly regarded doing something they get rewarded for (telvision, video, role playing)
Which type of assessment measures prior knowledge?
Interview target learners and/or supervisors. Observe other teachers in the content area in a performance setting. Use a pretest such as the one used to determine skills.
Which type of assessment measures entry-level skills?
Interviewing your target learners, and/or supervisors. Giving a pretest with problems that determine mastery of a certain skill or skillset.
How to collect data for learner analysis
Interviews of learners, teachers or administrators. Observation surveys/questionnaires Pretests
Some examples of Essential Questions
Is there enough to go around (e.g., food, clothes, water)? •Are mathematical ideas inventions or discoveries? •Does art reflect culture or shape it? •Who owns what and why? •What do we fear?
Why is it important to identify entry-level skills?
It is important to identify entry-level skills since new learning will be built upon the foundations of what students already know in relation to the content. If misconceptions are present, then the new learning will be built upon the misconceptions.
Why is it important to measure prior knowledge?
It is so important to measure prior knowledge since learners build new learning upon whatever knowledge they currently have. This has implications on whether or not the new learning will meet the instructional goal since new learning on a misconception could very well be different from the goal.
Criterion reference assessments
Items that directly measure skills described in performance objectives Sometimes called Objective reference
Components of the Instructional System
Learner Instructor Instructional materials Learning evironment All interacting to to achieve goal of learning.
What is the value of conducting a Learner Analysis?
Learner Analysis helps us shape our instruction and also how the instruction is delivered, accounting for the specific grouping of learners that we will have. This can also determine what instructional strategies should be used and if the strategies should be behavioral, cognitive, or constructivism based.
Which four intelligences, from Gardenr's Multiple Intelligences, do you think would be most important to consider in your work setting (or area of expertise)?
Logical, Spatial, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal
Data analysis
Look for patterns-current state determine desired state
Review existing data
Much of the data required for the analyses may already be documented in other sources. including policy directives, manuals, handbooks, courses, personnel reviews, and course evaluations to gather relevant data. reviewing multiple sources enables the Instructional Development Team to cross-check the validity of the data. The Instructional Development Team should ensure that only the most stable and current versions of any documents are used.
Guiding principles of brain-based learning include the following:
Multiple complex and concrete experiences are essential for meaningful learning and teaching. Before students can make memories or learn, someone must capture their attention. Brains are structured to remember novel events that are unexpected. Surprise can be used to bring students' brains to attention. The more regions of the brain that store data about a subject, the more interconnections there are.
Ways to record data gathered for Task Analysis
Notes Camera
Procedural Analysis
One step in the process may need to be be further broken down. Instead of put the jack under the car. We would need to further break that task down into subtasks.
What is an instructional Problem?
One that you believe can be solved through instruction and not through other means (not through technology, personnel and policy).
Verbal information
Only one way to give information give specific response to specific question List of topics to be learned rather than steps EX. given list of cities name the states Verbage clue that it is a verbal information goal: list, describe, state
Task Analysis- Topic analysis approach
Outline layers * work best with concrete concept and highhly structured
Task Analysis
Performance objectives
Planning for Constructivist Learning Environment (CLE)
Planning for learning environment Planning for learning engagement Planning learning guidance Planning authentic assessment
Intellectual skills
Problem solving task requires learner to do some unique cognitive activity learner must be able to solve a problem with previously unencountered example. Intellectual skills: discrimination forming concepts applying rules solving problems manipulate symbolic information Ex. given a bank statement and checkbook, balance check book
Facilitatin a student's direction of thought (e.g., hints) to help the learner stay on track toward knowledge acquisition is which of Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction?
Providing Learning Guidance
Example of Psychomotor skills Goal
Putt a golf ball.
three fundamental elements of brain based learning
Relaxed alertness - a low threat, high challenge state of mind Orchestrated immersion - an multiple, complex, authentic experience Active processing - making meaning through experience processing
Providing opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge in a real setting in order to help the learner feel as though a skill/concept is useful or beneficial is which component of Keller's ARCS Model?
Satisfaction Attention Relevance Confidence Satisfaction
What is the scope of Instruction? How do you determine an appropriate scope for an instructional unit?
Scope is what will be covered in relation to a particular concept. You determine an appropriate scope of instruction by analyzing what would be best for learners based on their need. This can be done with a needs analysis of learners and will be based upon their current level of understanding and prior knowledge leading up to the content that is being taught.
Learner centered assessments important for
Showing student progress Instructional quality
Which Instructional strategies that support Cognitivism are examples of the instructor actively communicating his/her knowledge.
Students listen to the instructor as he/she describes the battle of Gettysburg.
Who are the people you would ask to participate in a focus group and why?
Students-they are the ones who the problem is ultimately affecting and you can gather information on their attitudes Teachers-They are the ones that implement instruction and can give information about what works and what does not work. Administrators-Can provide information on what parents share with them as issues and struggles students have across the board academically, not in just one class. Parents-can speak into attitudes on work completion at home and what obstacles are prevalent.
SME
Subject matter expert
What is a task analysis (goal analysis/instructional analysis)?
Task analysis is the collection of procedures for defining the content of an instructional unit. It Identifies the content required to solve the performance problem. Subtle steps that are needed to solve the problem are more easily identified since the analysis is step by step. And during the process the task designer has an opportunity to look through the lens of the learner themselves, and ultimately design instruction around what works for those learners.
What is the difference between Directed Instruction and Constructivism?
Teacher-centered (Directed Instruction) vs Student-centered (Constructivism)
How to know which task analysis approach to use:
The SME and environment will influence which to choose.
Core Principals of brain based Learning
The brain is a parallel processor, meaning it can perform several activities at once, like tasting and smelling. Learning engages the whole physiology. The search for meaning is innate. The search for meaning comes through patterning. Emotions are critical to patterning. The brain processes wholes and parts simultaneously. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception. Learning involves both conscious and unconscious processes. We have two types of memory: spatial and rote. We understand best when facts are embedded in natural, spatial memory. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat. Each brain is unique.
What are the components of an instructional package?
The components are the curriculum unit, materials, practice tasks, assessments, technology, and directions on how to use these materials. These materials are also referred to as the exportable unit of instruction.
Big ideas
The core concepts, principles, theories, and processes that should serve as the focal point of curriculum, instruction, and assessment
What should be included in a goal analysis?
The goal analysis includes who the learners are, what the learners will be able to do in the performance context (in the real world), where the performance context skills will be applied, and what tools will be available to the learners in the performance context.
Enduring understandings:
The important ideas or core processes that have lasting value beyond the classroom.
What are the key design questions in designing instruction for understanding?
The key design questions include what is worthy and requiring of understanding; what is evidence of understanding; and which learning experiences and teaching promote understanding, interest, and excellence.
What is the difference between Objectivism and Constructivism?
The main difference between Objectivism (Behaviorism/Cognitivism) is that objectivism lends itself well to learning basic skills and lower level learning tasks. Constructivism is great for when advanced concepts and higher level thinking skills are required.
Criteria:
The qualities that must be met for work to measure up to a content or performance standard.
What is sequence of instruction? How do you determine an effective sequence for an instructional unit?
The sequence of instruction is the order in which concepts are introduced. Typically in a math class, teachers will follow the Chapter structure of the text, but this doesn't always mean that it is the most appropriate sequence. You have to determine from the learner needs analysis what would be appropriate and from a skillset analysis what would logically make sense. For example, I would not want to teach balancing of equations that involve integer coefficients if I have not first introduced integer operations.
Facets of understanding:
The six different kinds of understanding identified in Understanding by Design: explanation, interpretation, application, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge.
Tryout population
Those students actually available, but they must be a part of the target population.
Target Population
Those we want to address with the instruction. Ex college students 6th graders
What is the primary purpose of conducting a Needs Analysis?
To gather initial information about a population that will provide data that can help in making decisions about how to solve a problem. It gives us information at the beginning of the effort to tell us what is needed to improve performance.
Domains of Learning
Verbal information Intellectual skills Psychomotor skills Attitude Cognitive
System with human components
When physiological and psychological characteristics are key components of a system, the system becomes less predictable and more difficult to manage for the desired result.
Success of Instructional System
all components ,ust interact effectively to bring about desired outcome. clear assessment of effectiveness of system mechanism to make changes if learning fails to occur.
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs. Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They communicate well through body language and be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real objects. Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in the background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia. Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities, seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing, computer conferencing, E-mail. Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught through independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials, diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners. Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture. Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games, investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details.
Constructivism- Strengths and Weaknesses
Weakness - in a situation where conformity is essential divergent thinking and action may cause problems. Imagine the fun Revenue Canada would have if every person decided to report their taxes in their own way - although, there probably are some very "constructive" approaches used within the system we have. Strength - because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better able to deal with real life situations. If a learner can problem solve, they may better apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation.
Cognitivism- Strengths and Weaknesses
Weakness - the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best way, or suited to the learner or the situation. For example, logging onto the internet on one computer may not be the same as logging in on another computer. Strength - the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency. - Logging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees; it may be important do an exact routine to avoid problems.
Behaviorism- Strengths and Weaknesses
Weakness -the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. - A worker who has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops production when an anomaly occurs because they do not understand the system. Strength - the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues of that goal. - W.W.II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy planes, a response which one would hope became automatic.
Pre test
What do they already know? to see if previously mastered skills
Learner Analysis
What need to know about learner? Gardner's Multiple Intelligences What variables in thsi population will affect achievement? modify strategies to enhance learning Age of learners?
Will an interview ever have more than one respondent?
Yes, it is important to find out information from multiple perspectives so that you can gain better insight into the needs of your students.
Need
a situation that occurs when what is acually happening is below that which is expected.
TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENTS
a. Informal Checks for Understanding b. Observation/Dialogue c. Quiz/Test
GRASPS
acronym (for authentic performance ass) -Goal: the goal of the performance task -Role: the role of the students as they carry out the performance task -Audience: the target audience to which the finished product/performance will be presented -Situation: the context -Product or Performance: the result of the performance task or activity -Standards for Success: the criteria by which the product/performance will be judged
Conduct interviews
active interchanges between the interviewer and the source(s). Sources could include other course managers, Subject Matter Experts (SMEs), instructors, top performers, and others that may be able to provide the information. can be conducted in person or by telephone, and can be conducted with one individual or a group of individuals
Deductive Teaching and learning
also called Direct Instruction -concept defines, examples shown and then practiced. -instructor guidance and feedback Examples: demonstration labs cookbooks *known outcome before beginning
Instructional Systems Development Steps ( ISD)
analysis design development implementation evaluation
Attitude
attitudinal goal Learner chooses to do something Probably will not be achieved by end of instruction-long term include behavior that will be exhibited when the attitude is demonstrated. Ex. choose to make lifestyle decisions that reflect positive lifelong health concerns.
Constructivism
branch of cognitive psychology that has had a major impact on the thinking of many instructional designers. Central point is the view of learning as a unique product "constructed" by each individual learner combining new info w/ existing knowledge and experiences. primary role of teacher is creating appropriate learning evironments- interactions with authentic representations of real practices.
The Conditions of Learning
by Robert Gagne 1965 cognitive info processing views of learning assume most human behavior to be very complex and controlled primarily by a person's internal mental processes rather than external stimuli and reinforcements
Performance Objectives-The Mager Format
characteristics to include in all instructional objectives: 1. Performance - An objective always states what a learner is expected to be able to do and/or produce to be considered competent. 2. Conditions - An objective describes the important conditions (if any) under which the performance is to occur. 3. Criterion - An objective describes the criteria of acceptable performance; that is, it says how well someone would have to perform to be considered competent. Ultimately, the Mager format includes the learner's actions, the learning conditions, and the criteria for assessing the learner's performance Example: Given a meter scale (condition), the learner is to be able to identify the value indicated by the position of the pointer (performance) as accurately as the construction of the meter will allow (criterion).
Entry level skills test
check before instruction
2 fundamental steps in Goal Analysis
clarify goal statement with kind of learning that will occur identify and sequence the major steps
Learning Context Analysis
compatability and adaptablity of site to learning objectives
Understanding by Design
conceptual framework, a design process, and a set of design standards which have been used in the development of the sample units planning template Wiggins and McTighe
Is a "parameters for behavior and/or resources needed for performance" a condition, behavior or criteria (which type of performance objective?)
condition
Needs Assessment
conducted to obtain information about a problem or a need
needs assessment
conducted to obtain information about a problem or a need in education or business.-educational need is the situation that occurs when student performance is below what is specified in a behavioral objective or state standards •Is there a need for instruction, or can the problem be solved by some other intervention? •What instruction should be developed to bridge the gap between the current state and the desired state?
Is a "minimum level of mastery" a condition, behavior or criteria (which type of performance objective?)
criteria
Design and conduct summative evaluation:
culminating evaluation of effectiveness of instruction is not part of the design process. This is done by independent evaluator.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS
d. Academic Prompt e. Performance Task f. Authentic Task g. Long-Term Project h. Portfolio
Performance Objectives
define the type of learning that will occur at the conclusion of instruction and how learning will be assessed
need
defined as the situation that occurs when what is actually happening is below that which is expected. Need can mean two different things: (1) discrepancy between actual and ideal situations or states of affair, and (2) discrepancy between groups or subgroups of people.
Macrostrategies include:
defining the performance objectives, writing lesson plans and tests, motivating learners, presenting content, engaging the student in learning, and administering the assessments.
WHERE
design tool for the planning of learning experiences and activities Acronym -Where is the unit headed and what is the purpose of day-to-day work? -Hook the students through engaging work that makes them more eager to explore key ideas -Explore the subject in depth, equip students with required knowledge and skill to perform successfully on final tasks, and help students experience key ideas. -Rethink with students the big ideas; students rehearse and revise their work. -Evaluate results and develop action plans through self-assessment of results
designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist stance
designer analyzes the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed. Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "world".
design from a constructivist approach
designer produces a product that is much more facilitative in nature than prescriptive. The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner. The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals.
ARCS Model of motivation - Keller
developed in response to a desire to find more effective ways of understanding the major influences on the motivation to learn, and for systematic ways of identifying and solving problems with learning motivation. learners are affected not only by extrinsic behavior factors but also by numerous intrinsic factors.
behavioral approach
effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a profession (knowing what tasks requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations, discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by strategies most frequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus-response, contiguity of feedback/reinforcement).
Useful info to know about learner (Learner Analysis)
entry level skills (Pre-existing skills, knowledge, and attitudes (in general). prior knowledge (Level of knowledge regarding learning topic) attitudes toward content academic motivation (ARCS) educational and ability levels (Achievement and ability levels of the learners) general learning preferences group characteristics
Assessment Instruments
entry level skills test pre test practice test post test
Data for Performance context Analysis
environment: supervisors/instructors physical site social aspect relevance of skills in this setting Ex. School or classroom
constructivist strategies
especially suited to dealing with ill-defined problems through reflection-in-action Tasks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving, personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies) are frequently best learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g., situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation.
direct instruction
explicit ( fully and clearly expressed or demonstrated) teaching of a skill-set using lectures or demonstrations of the material, rather than exploratory models such as inquiry-based learning.
Surveys and questionnaires
forms that contain sets of questions designed to gather specific information from a targeted population. They gather data from a potentially large number of respondents. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large enough to allow statistical analysis of the results. typically designed to collect information from a random sample of respondents.
What is the Teaching for Understanding Framework?
four key ideas--based on the four questions: generative topics, understanding goals, performances of understanding, and ongoing assessment.
What is needs assessment?
gathers info to assist professionals in making data-driven and responsive recommendations about how to solve the problem. give info at begin about what is needed to improve performance.
brain based learning
guiding principles: -multiple complex and concrete experiences are essential for meaningful learning and strategies. -before can make memories or learn, someone must capture attention. -brains are structured to remember novel events that are unexpected. -more regions of the brain that stores data the more interconnections there are.
Cluster Analysis
identify information needed to perform the skill. used with Verbal information
Task Analysis- Procedural analysis approach
identify the steps to complete the task * work best with concrete concept and highhly structured
Hierarchial Approach
in order to learn how to perform problem solving skills the learner must first learn how to apply the rules that are required to solve the problem. Ask self: what mistake might a learner making trying to perfrom this step?
Learner Analysis
includes demographic info about the learner group you are analyzing. Additional Info: education level learning styles motivation entry level knowledge and skills prior knowledge and skills groups attitudes and/or motivation toward topic
Dick and Carey Model
incorporates bahaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist views.
empirical
information that is gained by means of observation and experiments.
Performance Objectives-The Gagné and Briggs Format
instructional objectives consists of five components: Situation Learned Capability Object Action Tools and Other Constraints The components of the Gagné and Briggs format match Mager's condition, performance, and criterion, only to add the object, or content, of the learning activity as well as any tools used. Example: Given a battery, light bulb, socket, and pieces of wire (situation), demonstrate (learned capability) the making of an electronic circuit (object) by connecting wires (action) to battery and socket (tools) and testing the lighting of the bulb (action). In response to a question (situation), the learner will state (learned capability) orally (action) three technological trends that will affect the future capabilities of navies (object). The answer is to be completed in three minutes (constraints/tools).
Psychomotor skills
involves coordination of mental and physical activity Ex. Set up and operate digital video camera
Conduct observations
involves watching as an individual completes a task, and taking detailed notes about what the individual actually does while performing the task. This method can provide valuable information about how a job is done, as well as information about problems an individual may have in completing the task, when used systematically. To ensure the accuracy of the data, it is advisable to observe the task being completed several different times by different individuals.
Inductive teaching and learning
is an umbrella term that encompasses a range of instructional methods, including inquiry learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based teaching, discovery learning, and just-in-time teaching. -teacher gives concrete instances and learners look for patterns or make generalizations.
Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning
knowledge comprehension application analysis synthesis evaluation
Learner-centered assessments
linked to the instructional goal and performance objectives and are congruent with traditional criterion-referenced assessments. This type of testing/assessing indicates to the teacher exactly how well the learners were able to achieve the intended performance objectives, and they indicate to the teacher/designer exactly which components of instruction were effective and which ones need to be analyzed for possible revision. Criterion referenced- linked to objectives
Post test
measure each one of the objective to determine learning. must meet criterion set before instruction
Facilitate focus group meetings
meetings with groups of people who are familiar with the job or subject matter. They are used to gather and dispense information quickly and to build rapport between the Instructional Development Team and personnel within an organization. Solicit opinions about actuals, optimals, attitudes, causes, and solutions Determine options and range of alternatives Prioritize information Make individuals aware of what is happening Build rapport and solicit support
Cognitive Strategies
meta processes we use to manage our own thinking about things and our own learning. Ex. Mentally repeating to self to remember name Figure out how to cluster, organize and remember a chapter for test.
ARCS Model
method for improving the motivational appeal of instructional materials three distinct features: First, to establish the connection with motivational theory, there are four motivational concepts: (1) Attention, (2) Relevance, (3) Confidence, and (4) Satisfaction. Second, to enhance the appeal of instruction, sets of strategies are included. Third,the ARCS Model utilizes a systematic design process. Keller emphasizes (1987a) that the ARCS Model is a problem-solving, empirical approach to applying motivation to instructional design. Motivation is not only the learner's responsibility but is also the instructor or designer's responsibility.
Performance Objectives-The ABCD Format
mneumonic: Audience Behavior Condition Degree Examples: Given all the basic shapes - cone, cylinder, cube, and sphere (condition), each second-semester geometry student (audience) will identify (behavior) orally each shape (degree). Using tape recorded readings of the tryout sessions for the school play (condition), students in the drama class (audience) will select (behavior) the proper voice for each character as indicated in the drama text (degree).
Qualitative data
no number Inerview
Quanittative data
numbers
When is goal analysis done?
only after clear statement of instructional goal.
Systems approach
outcomes- based approach to instruction because it begins with clear understanding of the new knowledge and skills the student will learn. instructional design is for the individual learner.
The five major learning components of the Dick, Carey, and Carey model include the following:
preinstructional activities (motivate and arouse interest, establish purpose, gain attention, and stimulate prior knowledge) content presentation (discovery, exploration, lecture, and examples) learner participation (meaningful interaction with new knowledge/skills, feedback, and interaction) assessment follow-through activities (enhance retention and transfer of learning)
instructional strategy
prescription that will be used for developing or selecting instructional materials.
Constructivism
prior knowledge student motivation help see relevance ARCS
Practice test
provides active learner participation during instruction
Robert Gagne
published "The Conditions of Learning", 1965 cognitive info processing
System
set of interrelated parts, all of which work together toward a defined goal. parts of system depend on each other for input/output and the entire system uses feedback to determine if it's desired goal has been reached.
Instructional Analysis
set of procedures, when applied to instructional goal, identifies the important steps to get to the goal and the entry skills needed for students to accomplish.
Subordinate skills analysis
skills or knowledge learner must have before can learn the steps to achieve the goal
Performance Objective
statement of what learner will do when complete instruction. derived from instructional analysis one or more objective for each skill
Behaviorism
stimulus-response reinforcement directed instruction prerequisite arrange for instructional conditions Gagne's 9 levels of instruction
Independent study
student and a professor or teacher agree upon a topic for the student to further research outside of school with loose guidance from the instructor for an agreed upon amount of credits
Mager's model for an objective
three major components- action/behavior condition criteria.
goal of instruction
to foster meaningful learning and to help the learner transfer the new information to other learning experiences and problem solving. Reflect on the main components of a goal statement: the learners, what the learners will be able to do in the performance or learning context, the performance context in which the skills will be applied and the tools that will be available to the learners in the performance context.
macrostrategy
total delivery of the instruction and is usually created by and delivered by a teacher or instructor.
microstrategies
use of instructional strategies includes a variety of teaching/learning activities that will be included within a lesson to help ensure that students learn.
cognitive strategies
useful in teaching problem -solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations (knowing how) Tasks requiring an increased level of processing (e.g., classifications, rule or procedural executions) are primarily associated with strategies having a stronger cognitive emphasis (e.g., schematic organization, analogical reasoning, algorithmic problem solving).
Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning
verbal information intellectual skill cognitive strategy attitude motor skill
Objectivism
view knowledge as some entity existing independent of the mind of individuals. Objectivists view meaning as existing externally, that is, independent of the individual learner. Instructionists, then, emphasize methods that establish and convey the meaning of objects and events consistently and efficiently across learners. The learner's task is to recognize and label relevant objects and events, organize them into coherent chunks, and integrate new with existing knowledge. The learner accomplishes these tasks principally by decoding the established meaning of various objects and events, using the cueing and amplification devices provided by the learning systems designer." nominalistic view of knowledge is held. Knowledge is thus regarded as existing independently of any human experience and the role of the learner is to acquire it. Objectivists place a strong emphasis on defining learning objectives and implicitly assume that the learner is an empty vessel, to be filled by the instructor
Analysis techniques for Attitude goals
what must the learner do when exhibiting this attitude? why should they exhibit this attitude?
truly understand an idea
• Can explain: provide thorough, supported, and justifiable accounts of phenomena, facts, and data. • Can interpret: tell meaningful stories; offer apt translations; provide a revealing historical or personal dimension to ideas and events; make it personal or accessible through images, anecdotes, analogies, and models. • Can apply: effectively use and adapt what we know in diverse contexts. • Have perspective: see and hear points of view through critical eyes and ears; see the big picture. • Can empathize: find value in what others might find odd, alien, or implausible; perceive sensitively on the basis of prior direct experience. • Have self knowledge: perceive the personal style, prejudices, and habits of mind that both shape and impede our own understanding; we are aware of what we do not understand and why understanding is so hard.
Understanding by Design process includes three stages
• Stage 1: identify desired results of instruction, • Stage 2: determine acceptable evidence to judge whether the results were achieved and how well they were achieved, and • Stage 3: plan learning experiences and instruction.
four criteria, or filters, to assist in establishing curriculum priorities.
• To what extent are the content standards and topics enduring and transferable big ideas, having value beyond the classroom? • To what extent are the content standards and topics big ideas and core processes at the heart of the discipline? • To what extent are the content standards and topics abstract, counterintuitive, often misunderstood, or easily misunderstood ideas requiring uncoverage? • To what extent are the content standards or topics big ideas embedded in facts, skills, and activities?
essential questions share the following common characteristics:
• are framed to provoke and sustain student interest, • recur naturally throughout one's learning and in the history of the field, • address the philosophical or conceptual foundations of a discipline, • raise other important questions, often across subject-area boundaries, and • have no one obvious right answer, but serve as doorways into focused yet lively discussion, inquiry, and research.
Understanding by Design offers:
•a three-stage "backward planning" curriculum design process anchored by a unit design template •a set of design standards with attendant rubrics •and a comprehensive training package to help teachers design, edit, critique, peer- review, share, and improve their lessons and assessments.
