indus valley/gangetic plains study guide
Shruti vs smriti Hindu texts
Shruti texts are the most holy of all texts. Shruti means "that which has been heard". Shruti texts are revealed to the Brahmins by the gods; an example is the Vedas. Smriti means "that which has been remembered" and mostly refers to things that have been remembered or learned through human experiences. Shruti is considered eternal whereas smriti can change over time.
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita is one of the most famous chapters from the Mahabharata Epic. "Bhagavad Gita" directly translates to "song of the god." The Gita covers many core concepts of Hinduism such as dharma (duty), atman (true self/soul), karma (action), samsara (reincarnation), moksha (enlightenment), jñana (knowledge), and bhakti (devotion/prayer). It tells the story of warrior Arjuna before the Great Bharata War begins and his inner battle between wanting to perform his dharma (he is of the Kshatriya caste so his dharma is to be a warrior) and also not wanting to kill his cousins. The god Krishna is walking him through how he needs to separate his body from his mind and realize that performing his dharma is what he must do. Krishna says that there are four different ways to pursue your dharma and they are through four kinds of yoga: bhakti yoga (devotion/prayer), karma yoga (action), jñana yoga (knowledge), and moksha yoga (enlightenment). In this context, yoga means to meditate and think about these concepts spiritually in order to gain a deeper understanding of what they mean to you.
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (2500-2050 BC) were two Harappan civilizations and two of the earliest cities found in the Indus Valley. Harappa ("Hara'' meaning "Shiva" - the god of destruction) is located near one of the branches (the Punjab) of the Indus River and Mohenjo-Daro ("Mound of the Dead") is located across the Indus River from Kot Diji. In Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, we see low and wide buildings, citadels, and intricate drainage/irrigation systems. Citadels were an extremely important feature of the buildings in the Harappan cities. They were high parts of buildings that were surrounded by watchtowers and walls. If the thick wall that was around the entire city was ever breached, the people could all go to the citadel to take cover and hide from enemies. Archaeologists have also found elaborate gutters and drainage systems for wastewater, and found that most of the Harappan houses had bathrooms. These cities also had gigantic baths almost the size of swimming pools. This shows us that the people of these cities put a large emphasis on cleanliness and water. These cities were laid out in a grid pattern and the streets were carefully set up with main arteries, streets, and side lanes, all of the same width. The cities also had grain grinding platforms which were designed as concentric circles where an animal who was connected to a mechanism (most of the time cows) ran around to grind the spices or grains. In about 2000 BC, the population of these cities began to decrease. Specifically, Mohenjo-Daro was deserted by 1700 BC. Historians believe that the reasoning behind this abrupt desertion could be disease (overcrowding), an environmental disaster/change, invasions/migration, or the collapse of their trade network.
Jainism and Nattaputta Vardhamana
Jainism was one of the renouncers of Hinduism. It was one of the two most popular religions that resulted from the Axial Age in about 500 BC. The Axial Age was a time where people were questioning their philosophical and religious thoughts in many different civilizations. Jainism was founded in 599 BC by Nataputta Vardhamana who the religion's followers would call "Mahavira" (great leader). Nataputta Vardhamana was originally from the mahajanapada of Vrijji (clan - Jnatrika) and he was of the Kshatriya caste. In 569 BC he rejected wealth and privilege as desire and became anti-brahmin. Two years later, in 567 BC he traveled India teaching 5 principles: Ahimsa - nonviolence, Satya - truthfulness, Asteya - no theft ("take nothing unless offered"), Brahmacharya - celibacy, and Aparigraha - detachment from material things (including clothing). Another aspect of Jainism is dietary restrictions that include veganism, but also not consuming things like garlic, onions, and peppers. Jainism is not a proselytizing religion.
Transition from janapadas to mahajanapadas around the Ganga River
Before the Great Bharata War (950 BC), there were about 30 janapadas - single family clans with land. At this time, the focus was on Brahmanism: priests, caste purity, rituals, dharma, etc. Post-war (950-600 BC), the Indus Valley went into a state of chaos because of the lack of centralized rule. This then led to the beginnings of mahajanapadas ("great clans with land") which were similar to janapadas but larger with multiple families combined instead of just one family per kingdom/clan. There were 16 of these mahajanapadas spread throughout India. Soon, the kingdom of Magadha will gain power. The focus during this time was on reforming Hinduism and developing new religions. This then led to the Axial Age (~500 BC) which was a major turning point of religious and philosophical thought in many different civilizations.
Buddhism and Siddhartha Gautama
Buddhism was one of the renouncers of Hinduism. It was one of the two most popular religions that resulted from the Axial Age in about 500 BC. The Axial Age was a time where people were questioning their philosophical and religious thoughts across many different civilizations. Buddhism was founded in 534 BC by Siddhartha Gautama who was a prince of Shakya (lion clan). He was born into the Kshatriya caste. Siddhartha Gautama sees several different people suffering over the course of three nights. He is very bothered by this and decided to flee his home to go somewhere to meditate/reflect on life and suffering. He realizes that it is not just desire that traps you, it is also existence itself. He then goes on to become enlightened and become Buddha, literally meaning "enlightened one." He achieves nirvana which is the knowledge of a truth which is caused by/dependent on/leads to nothing. This means reaching a certain level of evenmindedness and unbotheredness and then meditating upon that. Some key ideas of Buddhism are the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. This religion is anti-brahmin and anti-caste. Buddhism is still a very common religion today.
The Mauryan Empire
From 600-320 BC the Kingdom of Magadha/the Nanda dynasty ruled the Indus valley. From 320-305 BC, Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda dynasty and created a centralized government, a harsh penal code, public works to build roads, and irrigation schemes. Historians tend to compare these tactics to Sargon and the ways that he ruled Mesopotamia. From 300-185 BC, there was the Mauryan empire which is seen as the first unification of India. The empire was originally led by Chandragupta Maurya who then retired as a Jain monk and left the empire to his grandson, Ashoka. Ashoka ruled from 269-232 BC and practiced Buddhism. He implemented different kinds of propaganda on stupas (mound temples) and pillars across the region. He also created different laws of morality. He used propaganda to spread Buddhism throughout the Indus Valley but also to Asia, Sri Lanka, and down the silk roads.
The Four Vedas and early Hinduism
In early Hinduism, the Indo-Aryans brought many things to the Indian subcontinent, including the Vedas. There are four Vedas, the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and the Atharva Veda. Veda means knowledge. The Rig Veda is the knowledge of praise chants, the Sama Veda is the knowledge of melodies, the Yajur Veda is the knowledge of sacrifices (fire and horse), and the Atharva Veda is the knowledge of everyday magic (ex: medicine). These were memorized and mainly performed by the Brahmins (priests). The Vedas are an example of "shruti" text, meaning they were revealed to the Brahmins by the gods. Some of these early gods include Indra, Punisha, Varuna, and Agni. This knowledge came to this region in about 1400 BC.
Purusha and the origins of the Caste System
One of the many hymns in the Rig Veda (1400 BC) (knowledge of praise chants.) is entitled the Purusha Suktam. Purusha was a cosmic/universal being - "source of all life" and this hymn is about when he was being sacrificed. There are lines in this hymn that suggest some of the earliest ideas of the caste system. The caste system is an unchangeable hierarchical system of social status based on religious purity vs pollution. In the caste system, you inherit a specific dharma or duty from your mother and you must perform your given dharma in order to reincarnate. The higher up on the body that your caste comes from, the more religiously pure you are. The different castes are Brahma - from the mouth (priest/teacher), Kshatriya - from the arms (warrior/king), Vaishya - from the legs (merchant/commoner/farmer), and Sudra - from the feet (laborers/slaves). If you did not follow your dharma, you might be considered an "outcast" and called things such as "Dalit", "Harijan", or "Untouchable." The caste system will go on to impact many things to this day.
Patrilineal theocracies
Patrilineal theocracies are forms of government/kingdoms/clans where there is one specific king who has power over the others in the clan. In these patrilineal theocracies, land and power are passed down from father to son. In order to become king you must be the oldest son of a king and perform your dharma (which would be Kshatriya) very well. Some examples of patrilineal theocracies in ancient India are Janapadas. Janapadas were clan-based tribes with land ruled by proto-kings. They are sometimes referred to as early kingdoms. Some janapadas were Gandhara, Madra, Yadu, Pancala, and Kuru. The Kuru clan was located between the Indus and Ganga rivers and it was the overlord janapada (~1000 BC). A succession trouble that the Kuru clan faced was that there were two potential heirs to the throne but while one of the sons was conceived first (Duryodhana), the other was actually born first (Yudhishthira). This then led to the Great Bharata War (950 BC).
Indo-Aryans
The Indo-Aryans ("Arya" meaning noble or respectable) were a group of people who arrived and spread throughout India from about 2000-600 BC. They were nomadic war leaders of Central Asia. They would bring many physical things but also multiple ideas to the Indus Valley. Some things they brought included horses, chariots with spoked wheels, bronze axes, and longbows. Some of the ideas and other things they brought were language (pre-Sanskrit) and ideas of a new religion (Vedas, Laws of Manu - potential origins of Hinduism.) A modern socio-political controversy regarding Indo-Aryan people is wondering whether these people are not purely "Indian."
Alluvial plains and agriculture in the Indus Valley
The Indus Valley is located in modern-day countries India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. In the Indus Valley, there are many Alluvial plains. Alluvial plains are large flat plots of land that have very fertile soil (silt) and lots of water. The abundance of water and silt in these areas came from the monsoons that would happen multiple times every year. The nearby rivers (the Indus River and the Ganga River) would flood whenever the monsoons occurred. The main civilizations in the Indus Valley were located near these rivers and they began to plan their agricultural systems around the times that the rivers would flood vs when there would be a drought. Whenever the rivers would flood, there was a surplus in crops. But, when there was a drought, the number of crops began to plummet. One settlement that was in this area was Kot Diji. We find evidence of this settlement starting in about 3300 BC. Some crops that were very common in Kot Diji are wheat and barley. Some things that were pictured in figurines from Kot Diji were fertility figures, symbols of ancestors, and animals (specifically water buffalo). Kot Diji would also be where we find the earliest versions of kilns.
The Mahabharata and the Great Bharata War
The Mahabharata ("great India epic") is one of the two most famous epics from the Indus Valley. It is about 200,000 verses long and it is an example of Smriti text. It consists of many different myths and fables but also the story of the Great Bharata War of 950 BC. The war was based on succession troubles that the Kuru clan was facing. The issue that the Kuru clan was facing was that there were two cousins who both could've been considered the next heir to the throne, and they couldn't decide which one of them should be the next king. While one of them was conceived first (Duryodhana), the other was actually born first (Yudhishthira). This conflict led to a civil war over the throne of Indraprastha. The two sides of the war were called the Kauravas and the Pandavas. Duryodhana led the Kauravas and Yudhishthira led the Pandavas. The Pandavas ended up winning the war with a Pyrrhic victory. This means having a victory but at a great cost. After the war is over, Yudhishthira essentially drowns himself due to guilt and then goes on to spend time with his family in the afterlife.
Meluhhans, long-distance trade, and Orientalism (Edward Saïd)
The Meluhhans were what the people of Mesopotamia would refer to the people of the Indus Valley as. The people of Mesopotamia and the people of the Indus Valley would trade with each other beginning in about 2334 BC when Sargon was the ruler of Mesopotamia. It is believed that the two civilizations would meet in Southeast Arabia to trade different goods such as copper. There was a Harappan trading post in Sutkagen Dor, which is very close to Elamite (a Mesopotamian civilization) territory. When traveling to Mesopotamia, the merchants from the Indus Valley would take a very specific route through many seas and rivers in order to avoid the Kirthar mountain range. Other evidence of this trade was that there were Indus Valley artifacts such as specific seals and stamps found in Mesopotamia. There were also materials from the Indus Valley found in some graves at different Mesopotamian sites. Mesopotamia kings like Sargon and his grandson Naram-Sin (~2300 BC) would brag about their relationship with the Meluhhans in their writing: "The Meluhhans bringing Naram-Sin exotic wares." This is speculated to be an early example of Orientalism. Orientalism is a post-colonial theory that in 1978 Edward Saïd described as when people in "the West'' view people or cultures from "the East" as exotic or barbaric/less advanced based on stereotypes and over-generalization. This idea sets up power dynamics and justifies colonization, conquering, and sometimes enslavement.
Cosmological Yugas vs Technological Ages
The Yugas are four ages rooted in Hindu belief. The first Yuga is the Satya Yuga (Golden Age) or "Truth" Age. At this time humankind was considered 100% pure (spiritual, truthful, empathetic). This was followed by the Treta Yuga (75% pure - triad/silver), the Dvapara Yuga (50% pure - two/copper), and then the Kali Yuga (25% pure - black/iron age). Each time there is a new Yuga, we drop 25% of the purity. Eventually, an apocalyptic event will occur, ending the Kali Yuga and resetting back to the Satya Yuga. This is a cyclical worldview. The metals mentioned are mainly symbolic - iron was not used until 1000 BC whereas the Kali Yuga or Iron Age began in 3100 BC when Manu survived the flood.
Manu and the flood
The origin myth of Manu and the flood is from about 3102 BC. The Manus were six semi-divine kings with the title "Manu" meaning man. These kings ruled for a "manwantara" (an age longer than 4 million years.) The seventh Manu was near the Indus River getting some water and a small fish emerged. The fish asks Manu to save him and then Manu rescues him. Manu would keep the fish in a pot and as the fish got larger, Manu would have to put him in a bigger pot. Soon, the fish got too big for Manu to handle so he pushed him back into the river. As Manu placed the fish in the water, it was revealed that the fish was actually Matsya, the first avatar of the god Vishnu. He gives Manu a warning that there was a great rain coming. He said that Manu should prepare for this rain by building a large boat, placing his family, every animal, seeds of every plant, and the minerals of the world on this boat. He also told him to bring the 7 "rishis" who were the 7 wise men/religious sages of Hinduism. Manu did all of these things and then there was a monsoon that lasted for 7 days and 7 nights. Once this rain stopped, the boat got stuck on the side of the Himalayan Mountains. As days went by, Manu would send out a bird to check if there was land. For the first two days, the birds came back meaning that there was no land. But, on the third day, the bird didn't return, meaning that it had seen land. After this, Manu let everyone on his boat out and gave a sacrifice to the gods. Then, Manu is declared as king of the new age and the 7 rishis become the 7 stars of the Big Dipper. This story shows us how the people of the Indus Valley valued religious and selfless kings who really cared for their people.