Industrial Organization

Social Trap

A situation in which a group of people act to obtain short-term individual gains, which in the long run leads to a loss for the group as a whole.

Manager Characteristics

Legitimate authority based on position in the organization Values stability, order, and efficiency. Depends on goal setting, action plans, resource allocation etc. Primary concern is performance.

Conjunctive Tasks

A group combines the unique talents of its members to solve a problem. In conjunctive tasks, the results depend on the performance of the least talented member.

Delegating Leadership Style

Followers: able, willing, confident (high maturity) Focus: low task orientation, low relationship orientation style; minimalist leadership style, with allowing employees to take responsibility for task completion and decisions.

Human Relations Approach

Psychological factors, not environmental factors, are important in terms of increasing productivity.

Self-Regulation Theory

(Bandura) This approach assumes that people consciously set goals for themselves, monitor feedback to self-evaluate, and confirm or correct based on feedback.

Situational Leadership Theory

(Hersey & Blanchard) Leadership style should be chosen based on a combination of employees knowledge and skill, and their willingness and confidence. Leader task or relationship orientation should depend on how mature employees are in both their job skills and in their emotional readiness. Leadership Styles: Telling, Selling, Participating, Delegating

Five-Dimension Classification of National Culture

(Hofstede) Individualism: degree people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of a group Power Distance: level of acceptance of unequal power differentials Uncertainty Avoidance: Level of ability to tolerate uncertainty Masculinity-Feminimity: amount of value placed on MF qualities Long-Term vs. Short-Term orientation: future oriented values such as persistence and thrift vs. past/present oriented values

Base Rate of Success

The ratio of unscreened employees who are successful in the job. When high, a test is unlikely to discriminate among applicants because all applicants are likely to perform well once on the job. Same is true if the base rate is low.

Halo Effect

Occurs when a rater's evaluation of one aspect of the employee affects all of his or her other ratings; thus there is a so-called "halo" over all other domains or dimensions of the assessment for that employee.

Attraction Selection Attrition Cycle

People with similar personalities and values are drawn to certain organizations and hired into these organizations.

Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)

Performance evaluation: a combination of ratings-based procedures and the critical incident technique. Ranked, sorted into relevant job dimensions, and used as subjective evaluative anchors by evaluators (framed in terms of behavioral expectation scales) Evaluator's ratings are based on their expectations that employees can engage in critical behaviors that are more or less important to the job. Advantages: job specific, strategically focused, has face-validity, considered a fair evaluation, reduces rater bias and increases inter-rater reliability. Disadvantage: time consuming, requires extensive interaction with subject matter and experts.

Job Performance

Performance is a function of ability and motivation. P = f(a*m) Indirect variables positively correlated with job performance: interest, higher levels of training, experience, and incentives.

Realistic Job Description

Providing practical information about a job, including information about the tasks and workplace. Made available to potential applicants to aid with decision whether to apply. Can lower turnover.

University of Michigan Leadership Style

"employee Centered" and "job centered" fits with Consideration and Initiating structure model

RIASEC

(Holland) Matching individual traits and job characteristics allows prediction of job success and satisfaction. Realistic (doer): asocial, conforming, frank, genuine, materialistic, persistent, practical, inflexible, thrifty. Best suited for technical/mechanical jobs. Investigative (Thinker) Analytical, cautious, critical, complex, curious, independent, intellectual, introspective, pessimistic, precise, rational, reserved, unassuming. Best suited to study and solve math or science problems, avoids leading. Artistic (Creator): Complicated, disorderly, emotional, expressive, idealistic, imaginative, impractical, impulsive, independent, introspective, initiative, nonconforming, sensitive and open. Best suited to creative activities. Social (Helper): Ascendant, cooperative, patient, friendly, generous, helpful, idealistic, empathic, kind, persuasive. Best suited for helping people, sees self as helpful. Enterprising (Persuader): Inquisitive, adventurous, agreeable. Best suited for leading and persuading people. Conventional: oriented to completing tasks initiated by others. They pay attention to detail, and prefer to work with data, particularly in the numerical, statistical, and record-keeping realm. They have a high sense of responsibility, follow the rules, and want to know precisely what is expected of them. ECR: conforming personalities SAI: non-conforming personalities RI: introverted ES: extroverted

Acquired Needs

(McClelland) Three major factors motivate people in the workplace and elsewhere in life: Need for achievement, need for power, and need for affilation

Career Development Model

(Tiedeman and O'Hara) Cognitive Developmental Approach to Career Development Acquisition of one's vocational identity includes being part of a career field and maintenance of one's own identity. It's an element of one's ego. Assumes everyone is responsible for the choices they make, since the world is not deterministic. Processes of differentiation (making distinctions about different aspects of oneself and one's environment) and integration (unifying these different aspects and results in making better decisions, more refined goals, and developing useful plans) Decision making: Exploration, crystallization choice, clarification, induction, reformation, and integration Styles of decision-making: planning, intuitive, impulsive, agonizing, delaying, paralytic, fatalistic, and compliant.

Normative Model of Leadership

(Vroom and Yetton) Focuses on decision making by integrating various decision-making styles and situational variables. Autocratic I, Autocratic II, Consultative I, Consultative II, Group II.

Decision Making Process

(Vroom) Decide: The leader makes the decision or solves the problem alone and announces his/her decision to the group. The leader may gather information from members of the group. Consult (Individually): The leader approaches group members individually and presents them with the problem. The leader records the group member's suggestions and makes a decision, deciding whether or not to use the information provided by group members. Consult (Group): The leader holds a group meeting where he/she presents the problem to the group as a whole. All members are asked to contribute and make suggestions during the meeting. The leader makes his/her decision alone, choosing which information obtained from the group meeting to use or discard. Facilitate: The leader holds a group meeting where he/she presents the problem to the group as a whole. This differs from consulting approach as the leader ensures that his/her opinions are not given any more weight than those of the group. The decision is made by group consensus, and not solely by the leader. Delegate: The leader does not actively participate in the decision-making process. Instead, the leader provides resources (e.g., information about the problem) and encouragement.

Peer Appraisals

1) Peer nominations - are most useful for identifying persons with extreme high or low levels of KSAO's (knowledge, skills, abilities, other characteristics). 2)Peer ratings - are best for providing feedback 3) Peer rankings - best for discriminating various levels of performance from highest to lowest on each dimension. 4) Peer appraisals - generally free from bias, and useful for predicting future success or outcomes

Influences on Career Choice

1. Genetic endowment and special abilities 2. Environmental conditions and events 3. Instrumental and associative learning experiences 4. Task-approach skills

Disjunctive Task

A group of people choose a solution to a problem (not able to be broken down into smaller parts) from a pool of options. After selection, all other generated solutions are discarded. Group performance is disproportionately dependent on the performance of the most talented or capable individual in the group.

Job Commitment

Acceptance and belief in the organizations goals, willingness to help organization achieve goals, perceived cost of leaving, sense of obligation. Associated with lower rates of absenteeism and turnover.

Mitigating Adverse Impact

Achieved by using separate cutoff scores for different groups and Banding (using ranges of scores where all scores within a range are considered equivalent)

Need for Power

Acquired Needs Theory Desire for control, influence, and responsibility for others and resources, preoccupied with status, look for promotions/upward mobility, can use power for greater good of group. Goal: complete agreement and compliance from those arround them

Need for Affiliation

Acquired Needs Theory Emphasizes establishment and maintenance of relationships, sensitive to criticism, relationship builders, conflict-avoidant, enjoys being an integral part of a larger group, good team player, desire approval from others, and personal success tied to success of group. Higher levels of need for affiliation associated with entrepreneurial success.

Need for Achievement

Acquired Needs Theory Preference for moderately difficult tasks, moderately difficult levels of risks, strive to reach goals, maintain high level of performance, prefer individual vs .group effort, work to completion, assume responsibility, committed to self-set goals, stay at jobs longer. Gain satisfaction from task completion Seek recognition from others Correlated with job success

Inspirational Motivation

Actions are characterized by an appealing vision, high standards, optimism, enthusiasm, encouragement, and injecting meaning into follower actions.

ERG Theory

Alderfer's ERG theory contends there are three basic needs an employee seeks to fulfill. As each need is fulfilled, it serves as motivation to fulfill a different need. ERG stands for existence, relatedness and growth, and these are defined as: Existence - the need for basic material existence, like physiological health and safety Relatedness - the need for interpersonal connections, social status and recognition Growth - the need for personal development, including creative and meaningful work

Discrimination Civil Rights Act of 1964

An organization must show that the procedures used are valid and necessary, and that discrimination was unintentional. Can justify the use of the test that results in discrimination when the characteristic being measured is a business necessity or bona fide occupational qualifications that are "reasonably necessary to the operation of that particular business or enterprise.

Carnegie Model

An organizational elaboration of administrative decision making model. Bounded Rationality: applied to decisions made by coalitions of managers. Due to organizational politics, competing goals, and social dynamics. Satisficing: achieved through bargaining, accepting the satisfactory vs. optimal solution, allowing achievement of multiple goals.

Kuder Occupational Interest Survey

Assessment often used as a tool for career counseling to select the right occupation for an individual. Self-report measure of vocational interests.

Theory Y

Assumes that "managers believe subordinates would be motivated to meet goals in the absence of organizational controls". Managers using this theory feel that work is like play and that their workers are motivated, which requires freedom and autonomy. More effective than theory X

Job Characteristics Assessment

Assessment states that there are five core job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) which impact three critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results), in turn influencing work outcomes.

Multiple Cut-off Selection

Applicant must succeed on all predictors; tests not administered in any particular order.

Forced Distribution Technique

Assesses worker's performance Assigns an employee to a predetermined category based on one or more dimensions of job performance (top 10%, lower 10%). Based on normal distribution which may result in skewed data if employees performances do not fit a normal distribution.

Incentive Theory

Assumes that desired behaviors in workers can be obtained through the use of incentive systems or tangible rewards. Rewards contingent on productivity. No internal motivation in this theory Instrumental Conditioning is the underlying concept: people increase responding when they are reinforced and decrease or stop responding when they are punished. Can be positive or negative reinforcement. Highest response rate with partial reinforcement, receiving a reward based on a time interval or number of units produced.

Theory X

Assumes that people inherently dislike work, have minimal ambition, and are not self-directed. Therefore, employees must be coerced, controlled, and supervised to ensure productivity. Emphasizes hierarchy, efficient division of labor, span of control, strict supervision. Managers tend to use the scientific management theory, a movement based on principles that emphasize the distinction between hierarchies of organizations and the simplification of specialized tasks. There is one optimal, most efficient way to perform various jobs.

Full Range Leadership Model

Avolio and Bass Suggests that leadership behavior varies along a full range of leadership styles, from take-no-responsibility (laissez-faire) "leadership" at one extreme, through transactional leadership (leader distributes rewards to followers as they behave in ways that assist in attaining work-related goals), to transformational leadership at the other extreme

Job Characteristics Model

Building greater levels of "motivators" into people's jobs will make them more motivating. Motivating factors include: making jobs more engaging and meaningful by adding skill variety, promoting task identity, highlight task significance, encouraging workplace autonomy and providing task feedback.

Job Turnover

Can be costly and rise to 1.5 times a worker's salary in losses due to hiring and training. Turnover tends to drop when job satisfaction improves. Job application questions (previous jobs, education, specialized training, personal history) good predictors.

Types of Training

Classroom, vestibule (simulated work setting, useful when errors are costly or high risk) on-the-job, behavioral modeling on-the-job

Functional Assessment

Conducted to identify the functions that a behavior serves in order to identify ways of modifying that behavior.

Formative Evaluations

Conducted while a training program is being developed (formed) to obtain the information needed to determine what modifications are required

Group Cohesiveness

Cohesion: increases when group is successful, faced with external competitive threat, rewards emphasize team vs. individual performance. Associated with: commitment to team goals, successful team performance, pride in team, feelings of unity, reduced absenteeism and turnover. Improved performance when: leaders are people-oriented, leadership is supportive Too much group cohesiveness can: increase the likelihood of groupthink in decision making due to strong norms and conformity pressures.

Social Learning Theory

Combines elements of learning theory and cognitive processes. Learning through internal representation of observed behaviors. Decision to copy behavior depends on the perceived likelihood of reward or punishment. It is applied in the workplace through the use of behavioral modeling in training. This technique involves video demonstrations or direct observation of successful, experienced others.

Centralized Communication in Smaller Groups

Communication travels through a central pivot person and is redirected, not all members have access to each other. Low job satisfaction, low speed on complex tasks, and low accuracy on complex tasks. Allows for minimal amount of communication for high speed communication and accuracy on simple tasks.

Paired Comparison

Comparing all individuals within a group to each other or, comparing those with same job title on various dimension of a job or task. Relative measure of job performance, reduces rater bias, can be useful for downsizing. Process is precise but time consuming. Most appropriate when goal is to distinguish between work's performance.

Summative Evaluation

Conducted after a training program has been developed and administered, in order to assess the program's outcomes

Position Analysis Questionnaire

Contains 189 items organized into six different categories, which deal with task requirements or elements of jobs. KSAO profile for job can be developed from the elements.

ADA

Covers: HIV/AIDS, learning disabilities, alcoholism, paraplegia, general anxiety disorder, and schizophrenia Recovering addicts protected when enrolled in rehabilitation. Drug users may be fired at the discretion of the organization, but current alcohol abusers must be given the chance to rehabilitate under the ADA

Taylor and Russell

Criterion-Related validity coefficient is affected by the selection ratio and base rate of success. Moderate-to-High validity coefficients useful for informing decisions when there is a low selection ratio and a moderate base rate for success. When base rate of success is very high (anyone can be successful) or very low (very few people are successful), the selection program may not be helpful.

Larger groups

Decentralized communication loses it's advantages, while centralized networks become more efficient. When hierarchical structure is added, more information flows downward, and the info that is communicated upward tends to be more positive, though may be less valid

Task Complexity

Defined by: Task structure elements such as clear/unclear feedback, few versus many potential employable tactics, and few versus many potential outcomes.

Leniency/Strictness Bias

Different ends of the spectrum. Extreme ratings across all domains for all employees

Leadership Characteristics

Directs and motivates behavior towards group goals. Values flexibility, innovation, and adaptation. Concerned with motivating subordinates and supporting subordinates with favorable work conditions. Leadership often considered one of the necessary behaviors of a manager, but not all managers are effective leaders

Burnout

Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and cynicism, feelings of ineffectiveness or loss of self-efficacy Most suceptible: young employees, women, individuals in helping professions, unmarried individuals, those who score low on measures of job and life satisfaction Contributions: physical and task related (noise, work pace, workload, hours) Psychological (lack of control and predictability) interpersonal conflict, negative interactions, role conflict, role overload, work-family conflict.

Employee psychological maturity

Employee has self-confidence, self-respectconfidence and willingness to undertake assignments

Participating Leadership Style

Employees: able, but not confident or willing (moderate maturity) Focus: low task orientation, high relationship orientation style; characterized by shared ideas and responsibilities between leader and employees

Selling Leadership Style

Employees: less able, but willing and confident (moderate maturity) Focus: high task orientation, high relationship orientation style; characterized by task directions presented in persuasive, supportive manner

Telling Leadership Style

Employees: less able, unwilling, and lack of confidence Focus: high task orientation, low relationship orientation; characterized by explicit task directions and close supervision

Human Factors Psychology

Engineering solutions that take humans into consideration. Fitting the work environment to the worker. Underlying assumption: increasing compatibility b/w worker and work environment leads to safer workplace higher productivity, and increased satisfaction. Account for individual physical and cognitive abilities when: structuring tasks, designing equipment, writing instructions, developing training system.

Motivator Factors

Esteem and actualized needs; intrinsic work itself. level of autonomy, responsibility, job content, required to motivate towards striving for higher levels of performance and satisfaction

Rational-Economic Model of Decision Making

Exhaustively compile all relevant information, investigate all possible solutions, and choose best one. Steps: monitor the decision environment, define the problem, specify the objectives diagnose the problem, develop alternative solutions, evaluate alternatives, choose best alternative, implement chosen alternative. Guide in managerial decision making, but rarely implemented due to impracticality.

Cognitive Resource Theory

Explains the correlation that have been found between leader IQ and leader performance. The impact of leader's experience and IQ on the performance is moderated by the leader's level of stress. Leaders IQ correlates positively with performance in low-stress situations, but negatively in high-stress situations. A leaders experience correlates negatively with performance in low-stress situations, but positively in high-stress situations.

Process Consultation

Facilitates ability for mangers/employees/groups to achieve group goals. It's a helping realtionship, works with, not for, the client Factors Addressed: comunication, decision-making, interpersonal realtions, task performance. Consultant does not give advice or solve the problem, instead assists client with solving their problem Focus: distinguishing or changing disruptive behaviors that negatively impact normal social processes. Consultant observes, gives feedback on alternate strategies. Clients learn to own their own problems, gain necessary skills to problem solve, gain expertise in diagnosing organizational/group problems.

Equity Theory

Fairness: ratio of inputs (contribution by employee) to outcomes between workers. Output from organization: pay, benefits, status. Inequity: in inputs and outcomes produces tension and discomfort. Input/outcome inequity motivates before to restore proportionality: reduces effors, request higher pay

360 Degree Feedback

Feedback about a target employee collected from coworkers, supervisors, subordinates, and "target" employee. Info classified in three dimensions: people (workplace relationships), change (implementing goal/vision), and structure (ability to organize information, time, and work)

Critical Incident Technique

Flanagan's (1954) in-depth interview used in naturalistic inquiry that asks for "people's most memorable positive and negative experiences within a specific, social context" Used to predict job performance. Behaviors that are deemed important to job performance, contribute significantly to successful or unsuccessful job performance, conveyed in narrative and descriptive format. Used for: coaching employees, promoting positive behaviors, performance appraisals, correcting negative behaviors, establishing objectives for training.

Worker-Based Job Analysis

Focused directly on KSAO's (knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics). Task statements: represent KSAO's. Knowledge of, skill in, ability to Linkage analysis confirms linkage of KSAOs to immediate task

Brousseau and Driver

Four career concepts: linear, expert, spiral, and transitory. Three types of dimensions: frequency of job change, direction of change, and change in job content. Linear: Progressive upward movement Expert: Specialty commitment Spiral: Periodic moves across specialties Transitory: Frequent job changes in unrelated fields

Kirkpatrick's Training Evaluation Model

Four levels to categorize training criteria Level 1: Reaction Criteria (measures trainee impressions of training program) Level 2: Learning Criteria (assesses how much trainees learned in the training program Level 3: Behavioral Criteria (measures how well the behaviors learned in training transfer to the job. Level 4: Results Criteria (how well the training can be related to organizational outcomes

Super's Theory of Career Identity Development

GEEMD Five Stages: Growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement. Growth (4-13): personal self concept and understanding meaning and utility of work Exploration (14-24): Examining oneself, developing a realistic sense of self, trying out different roles, expanding awareness of vocational possibilities Establishment (25-45): Efforts placed into a single career and advancing in that career. Maintenance (45-65): Efforts are directed toward maintaining employment, identifying personal limitations, concern over newly hired competition, and learning new skills to keep up Disengagement (65+): pulling away from one's duties and reducing responsibilities at work for mental, physical, or emotional reasons. New jobs cause "recycling" going through the phases again.

Job Satisfaction

Global job satisfaction: overall satisfaction with work Job Facet Satisfaction: particular aspects of the job Satisfaction: positive affects workplace motivation, performance, lessens withdrawal behaviors Defining factor in Satisfaction: employee's expectations of compensation, level of challenge, responsibility, pleasantness of work environment, relationship with co-workers, fairness Blue Collar workers: moderately more concerned about pay than white-collar workers Employee Tenure: related to satisfaction; workers should be matched with jobs suited to skills and individual needs. Older workers show higher level of satisfaction Younger workers more concerned with intrinsic factors vs. extrinsic (security, salary)

Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg's theory of motivation. There are two needs that motivate workers Hygiene needs (physical and security) Motivator needs (social, esteem, and actualization) When hygiene needs are met, workers are not dissatisfied When motivator needs are met, workers are motivated and positively satisfied.

Person-Centered Leadership

High levels of consideration. Results in greater subordinate satisfaction. Measured by the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire

Ohio State Leadership

Identified two major leadership behaviors: "offers consideration" and "initiates structure". Consideration: leadership behaviors that emphasize trust, respect, warmth, concern, support, and rapport between a leader and their subordinates. Initiating Structure: refers to a leader behaviors that emphasize formal group goals, deadlines, task assignment, standard procedures, and high performance standards.

Loss Aversion

In situations involving uncertainty and possible risk, people prefer avoiding losses to obtain gains. Considered Irrational influence on decision-making and behavior as it depends on perception more than reality. Risk aversion is less likely to take risks to obtain gains. Risk seeking is more likely to seek risks to avoid losses Ownership: it is harder to part with, or imagine parting with, something you have than to imagine gaining something you don't have

Predictors of Job Success

Includes Work Samples, personality traits (conscientiousness and predictive), interviews, and biodata. Cognitive tests: capacity for reasoning, intelligence, knowledge acquisition, memory; BEST predictor of success

Hawthorne Effect

Increased productivity is a result of being observed rather than due to changes in one's work environment.

Social Loafing

Individual's reduced motivation to perform when performing in groups

Decentralized

Information distributed through a multitude of functioning and regional command chains Focus: allowing business units to make autonomous decisions about information and customer related requirements. Used when business environment is changing and competitive.

Centralization

Information management reports up through a single chain of command. Focus: coordination, processes, standardization and consolidation of equipment, technology, customer and vendor management, reduction of redundancies, and improved management efficiencies. Used when business is stable and predictable.

Transformational Leaders

Inspirational. Use individualized attention, intellectual stimulation, charisma, and inspiration to broaden and elevate the goals of their subordinates. Strategies: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration Most effective leadership style in unstable environments, organic organizational structures, and entrepreneurial cultures.

parent-child interaction patterns

Inspired by Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Roe incorporated the psychological needs that develop out of parent-child interactions in her conceptualization of personality. (1) emotional concentration on the child, further classified as being overprotective or over-demanding (2) avoidance of the child, further classified as emotional rejection or neglect (3) acceptance of the child, further classified as casual or loving.

Multiple Hurdle System

Involves a minimum cut-off being set on one predictor that entitles candidate to proceed to next hurdle

Withdrawal Behaviors

Job turnover, absenteeism, tardiness Sometimes trait-like

Consultative I

Leader asks individual subordinates for their views and then decides.

Consultative II

Leader asks subordinates as a collective group for their views and then makes a decision alone.

Autocratic I

Leader decides with available information

Autocratic II

Leader obtains information from subordinates, but does not involve subordinates in discussing the problem or making the decisions.

Group II

Leader shares the problem with the subordinate as a group, focuses and directs discussion without imposing his or her will, and tries to reach a consensus, with the group making the final decision. (BEST)

Fiedler's Contingency Model

Leadership is a function of both the person and the situation. Determined by the leader's self-described relationship to the person in the organization who is his/her least favorite, or least preferred (LPC) Task-oriented / Relationship-Oriented

Levels of Organizational Culture (Schein)

Level 1: Observable Artifacts: drawing meaning and interpretation from surface level actions Level 2: Espoused Values: beliefs or concepts specifically endorsed by management or the organization Level 3: Basic assumptions: unobservable, but are at the core of the organization

Employee job maturity

Level of job related skills, knowledge, and abilities

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Lower level (hygiene factors) Upper level (motivator factors) Combinations: High Hygiene + High Motivation: Ideal situation in which employees are highly motivated and have few complaints High hygiene + Low motivation: employees with few complaints, but aren't highly motivated. Work simply for the paycheck Low Hygiene + High Motivation: employees are motivated and experience the work as exciting and challenging, but have multiple complaints and perceive the salaries and work conditions to be subpar Low hygiene + Low Motivation: work situation results in unmotivated employees with multiple complaints.

Evaluating Training Program

Looks at the most effective training program to teach the skills necessary for the job. Conducts formative evaluation providing staff with information to improve the program. Evaluates cost of factors, material, training characteristics of training programs. Involves reaction (do participants like training) learning (how much do they learn) behavioral (change in performance post-training) bottom line/result (value of program in light of organizational goals)

Decentralized Communication in Smaller Groups

Members communicate directly in point-to-point fashion. All group members involved in communication. Higher level of satisfaction, but low speed and accuracy on simple tasks. Allows for efficeint and effective communication, increasing speed and accuracy on complex tasks

Central Tendency Error

Occurs because raters exhibit an apparent unwillingness to use the extremes of rating scales, the outcome is a homogenization of the ratings, making them less informative. Likert scales are very bias to central tendency error.

Job Analysis

Method to describe jobs and human attributes necessary to perform them. Focus on: Selection, placement, training and development, and job redesign. Components: tasks > positions > jobs > job families

Judgements by Raters

Most common way of evaluating performance. Many errors in judgement can occur. Training reduces judgement errors Common error is central tendency error

Acquired Needs Theory (McClelland)

Needs considered to be "acquired" in that socialization is viewed as the more influential source, rather than heritability. Motivating Factors: need for achievement, need for power, need for affilation

Simple Tasks

Offer clear feedback, one or two tactics, and only one or two outcomes. Ideal situation is one in which the task is simple, the leader has substantial legitimate power, and everybody gets along.

Complex Task

Offer vague feedback, many possible tactics, and many possible outcomes

Discrimination

One group is receiving a beneficial outcome at a lower rate than another group.

Five Factory Theory of Personality

Openness to experience: level of independence, imagination, and curiosity Conscientious: methodical approach to life, self-control, and achievement orientation Extraversion/Introversion: level of sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness Agreeableness: level of friendliness, likeability, cooperativeness Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: Level of calmness, anxiety, emotionality High Conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability = high measures of integrity Low agreeableness, low conscientiousness, high extraversion and high neuroticism = antisocial personality Conscientiousness: one trait most related to job performance, and to success across virtually all occupations.

Communication Networks

Patterns of information transmission in exchange between and among members of teams and groups

Normative Reeducative Strategy

People are social beings and will adhere to cultural norms and values. Successful change is based on redefining and reinterpreting existing norms and values, and developing commitments to new ones.

Utility Analysis

Performed when an organization wants to understand the economic return of a human resource strategy they employ/are contemplating. (How useful is this strategy for bringing more money in) Dollar payoff of one strategy over the other. Conducted with reference to a selection/training program, and compared to performance and productivity. Utility Value = Rewards x expected payoff over time x number of applicants accommodated - Expense of strategy

Hygiene Factors

Physical, security, social; extrinsic to work: salary, conditions, relationships with coworkers. These Factors are needed to avoid dissatisfaction, but don't necessarily lead to higher levels of motivation and satisfaction by themselves

Work Shifts

Poor health, decreased performance, and decreased job satisfaction occur when circadian cycle is disrupted. Both night and swing shifts cause sleep loss. Night shift workers have the most health problems Swing shifts have the greatest negative impact on relationships Rotating shifts have more problems than fixed shifts. Negative effects are more pronounced when shifts rotated counterclockwise quickly (night, evening, day) vs clockwise (day, evening, night)

Feedback

Provides employees with information about their overall performance and/or their performance on specific tasks. includes: supervisors objective assessment of productivity, and subjective evaluation of quality of effort

Leader-participation model

Provides leaders with a decision tree to help him or her decide whether an autocratic, consultative, or group decision-making style

Task Oriented Leaders

Rate LPC Low Focused on objectives and task completion Most effective when the situation was at it's worst or best (extremes)

Relationship Oriented Leaders

Rate LPC highly Concerned with successful relations between themselves and their followers, an amongst their followers Most effective when circumstances are neither ideal nor horrible. Soothing worker discontent allows workers to take the initiative to complete the task well and on time.

Unemployment

Rates of depression and other neurotic disorders are 2x's as high in those who are unemployed

Administrative Model of Decision Making

Recognizes the need to make decisions in a fast-paced, competitive, and complex world. Mitigates against slow, methodical decision making. Bounded Rationality: Real-life environment in which organizations function is often too fast-paced, competitive, and complex to rely on purely rational decision making. Bounded Discretion: Ethical or moral considerations can limit the solutions one can consider Satisfier: will choose the first alternative solution that meets the minimally acceptable criteria instead of choosing the best from a systematic consideration of a number of alternatives.

Job Enrichment

Redesigns intrinsic factors for the job to increase worker motivation. e.g. greater responsibility and increased interest. Assumes workers are motivated by higher-order needs: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, task feedback = increased motivation, satisfaction, and performance.

Identical Elements

Refers to similarities in the learning and performance environments. Transfer of training is maximized when learning conditions are similar to performance condtions

Criterion-Related Validity Coefficient

Represents the usefulness of a predictor (e.g. screening test) for predicting criterion outcomes (e.g. performance on a job). Statistic obtained by correlational techniques to determine the statistical relationship between the predictor and criterion. High criterion-related validity coefficients illustrate that the predictors are effective for measuring criterion.

Self-Directed Teams

Self-managed groups, semi-autonomous work groups. Characterized by distributed leadership, shared decision making, shared goals, cross-training, and job rotations. Decision-making quality maximized by: group training to discuss doubts, concerns, differences of opinion, recognize ethics of decision. Cross training is mandatory and provides coverage during absenteeism of a member, reinforce through routine switching of job tasks in the group. Outcome: higher level of satisfaction, productivity, and lower turnover.

Feedback in Goal Setting

Specific and difficult goals enhance motivation and performance, and keep behavior goal-oriented. Feedback is: specific, accurate, timely, constructive, and job-related.

Workplace Stress

Stress causes: weak immune system, slows digestion, challenges cardiovascular health, produces musculoskeletal pain, reduced musculoskeletal function. Chronic Stress: reduced productivity, increased absenteeism, turnover, reduced job satisfaction, work-related accidents, health problems Common Stressors include environmental and job-related. Job-related: role stressors, workload, vigilance, work pace, work schedule, interpersonal demands and conflict, situational constraints, reduced perceived control, emotional labor, downsizing, traumatic job stressors High Stress occupations: police, fire department, emergency workers, air traffic controlers

Employment Interviews

Structured interviews: focus more on job knowledge, interpersonal and social skills, and problem-solving ability. Better predictive validity because of task-based job demand focus, most predictive when combined with tests of general cognitive ability.

Initiating Structure Leadership

Supervisor defines their own goals and makes clear what is expected of the subordinates. Measured by Supervisor Behavior Description Questionnaire

Monitoring

Surveillance of employees on the job, may include technology for record or observation, collects information for job analyses or performance appraisals, minimizes theft and misconduct. Job Analysis: identifies relevant knowledge, skills and abilities useful for successful job performance, can help identify KSA (knowledge, skills abilities), information can be used to design performance appraisals.

Survivor Syndrome

Symptoms exhibited by individuals who remain on the job during downsizing. Providing information to employees about the purpose of the layoffs, steps taken to avoid or minimize layoffs, and how layoff decisions are made, has been found to be an effective way for minimizing negative reactions among downsizing survivors.

Training

Systematic acquisition of: skills, concepts, attitudes, results in improved performance. First task is job analysis of all positions needing training. Components: needs assessment, learning principles, transfer of training, evaluation of the program Effectiveness depends on: feedback, over-learning, frequent opportunities to practice, and promotion of transfer of training.

Functional Job Analysis

Task statements (expressions/description of work) include not only what the employee does, but also how employee accomplishes the task (physical, mental, interpersonal resources called upon for job completion)

Groupthink

Tendency for cohesive groups to prefer consensus of rational consideration and to make a decision without consideration for alternatives

Group Polarization

Tendency for group members positions on an issue to become more extreme after group discussion.

Social Faciliatation

Tendency to perfrom well-learned tasks better when other's are present

Cultural Effect on Testing

Tests have tendency to reflect the history, values, and understandings of the culture it's designed in. May underpredict success rates of minority test-takers

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Tests that "adversely affects selection constitutes discrimination unless the test has been validated, has utility, and there are no alternatives available".

Sunk Costs

The more one invests in something the more unreasonable it seems to abandon it

Selection Ratio

The number of openings divided by the number of applicants When ratio is high, many applicants will be invited to join the organization, and the chances of choosing potentially unsuccessful ones are high. When ratio is low, only the top scorers have a chance of being hired. A low ratio will minimize the chances of hiring a likely unsuccessful worker.

Organizational Culture (Schneider)

The population of people within an organization defines it's culture

Automation

The substitution of machines, for humans in order to complete work tasks. Humans often monitor automated work. Concerns: can be seen as competition for human jobs, problematic if not properly monitored, machine-paced tasks cause stress due to lack of control. Advantages: frees humans to work in more satisfying, valuable work, useful in situations not optimal for humans.

Social Facilitation

The tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others than when alone. Compared to their performance when alone, when in the presence of others, they tend to perform better on simple or well-rehearsed tasks and worse on complex or new ones. Performance on well-known/easy tasks might improve, performance on difficult/unfamiliar tasks may be inhibited with observation

Expectancy Theory

This theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.

Goal Setting Theory (Locke)

This theory involves the development of an action plan designed to motivate and guide a person or group toward a goal. Goal directs behavior, acceptance of the goals by the employee is key, employee acceptance of goals is made more likely when they participate in the process. Goal setting is most effective when task is difficult, but less complex. High need for achievement enhances goal setting Highest performance when goal selfset with no monetary reward, lowest performance when goals self-set with monetary rewards

Needs Assessment

Three components Organizational Analysis: does training solve problems of the organization Task Analysis: objectives and instructional goals for the training Person Analysis: individual employees reviewed for deficits in organizational objectives.

Frame of Reference Training

Training Focused on correcting possible rater distortions resulting from unintentional rater biases. Most effective at increasing rater accuracy. Trains: nature of job performance, content and nature of performance, and good/bad work-related behaviors Parts of training: identify multidimensional nature of performance, clarify anchors on scales used, provides opportunity for rating practice using rating scale, provides feedback on accuracy of ratings

Creativity

Trait-like, taps into primarily the frontal lobs, and is associated with the "openness to experience" component of the Big Five Personality Traits. Creative people are more attracted to complexity and is related to intelligence. It relies on the ability to generate many ideas quickly, without the self-censorship of culture, convention, or history. You can train yourself to be more creative than you are. Creativity is detectable and measurable. Test for creativity captures fluency (of ideas), originality, and elaboration (amount of detail in responses) In I/O, creativity is the ability to employ the elements noted above in support of organizational needs or opportunities. Not loyal to employers.

Idealized Influence

Transformational Leaders Actions are characterized by a sense of ethics, conviction, commitment, purpose, and decisiveness in the face of difficult issues.

Individualized Consideration

Transformational Leaders Leaders attend to each follower by listening actively and attending to individuals' needs, dreams, and abilities, or mentoring, coaching, and teaching

Intellectual Stimulation

Transformational Leaders Leaders question the status quo, stimulate change, and encourage innovation and communication

Type A/Type B

Type A: Hostility, aggression, cynicism, competitiveness, defensiveness, cheating behaviors. Type B: relaxed, easy-going Increased arousal for Type A when deprived of work Learning new tasks is equally stressful for Type A and B Social support is a source of mental stress Work performance moderated by task variety External locus of control lowers job satisfaction for both.

Adverse Impact

Unintentional discrimination against a protected group. When one group receives more favorable outcomes than another group as the result of a particular selection, placement, and advancement procedure.

Job Selection Procedures

Use of techniques to assess potential performance of a job candidate such as interviews, work samples, biodata (information collected about previous jobs, education, and personal history; good indicator for turnover, absenteeism, productivity, and workplace honesty), and personality or cognitive tests.

Transactional Leaders

Use rewards to direct follower behavior. Each application is considered a "transaction" If followers perform as expected they receive the reward; if they do not perform as expected, a punishment occurs or their incentive is witheld. Actions of employees are considered to be directed by self-interest. Transactional leaders may follow a contingent reward strategy, in which a good performance is linked to desired outcomes.

Taylor-Russell Tables

Used to estimate a predictors "positive hit rate". To find an estimate hit rate using these tables, you need: base rate, selection ratio, and predictors validity coefficient.

Theory Z

Values include: commitment to employees, evaluation, careers, control, decision-making, responsibility, and concern for people. These organizations are american companies that have adopted some cultural values from Japan. They rely on implicit and informal control, rather than external control. Assumes a group approach to decision-making, and individuals are responsible for outcome. Hollistic concern for employees

Disparate Treatment

When applicants from a particular group or groups go through different selection, placement, or advancement procedures than other groups.

Unfairness

When there are differences on predictor test scores for minorities and non-minorities that do not correspond with criterion scores.

Work-Family Conflict

Women experience greater work stress, women with children at home have higher levels of stress hormones, women have better coping strategies than men. Conflict: burnout, work dissatsifaction, depression, marital discord, life dissatisfaction, decreased productivity. Types: Time-based: role pressures from two different domains compete for individuals time Strain-based: when strain from one role affects performance of another Behaviorally-based: conflict due to incompatible behaviors between two competing roles.

Path Goal Theory

Workers rationally weigh options before choosing the amount of effort to expend. Workers will work harder if they rationally conclude their efforts will help them attain goals. Employees can decide on effort to expend when leaders provide clarity, remove obstacles, and provide rewards. Leadership Styles Supportive: considerate and showing concern Directive: Communicates expectations and gives specific guidelines, deadlines, and procedures Participative: Seeking out employee input Achievement-Oriented: Sets challenging goals, seeks performance improvements, emphasizes excellence in performance and shows confidence that subordinates will attain high standards

Compressed Work Week

Working more than 8 hours a day and fewer than 5-days a week. Can work shorter weeks as long as the requisite 40 hours are met. Associated with higher levels of employee satisfaction and higher supervisor's ratings of performance.

Theory of Work Adjustment

a person-environment fit theory of career development that focuses on the correspondence between an employee and his/her job and work environment. One of the primary assumptions of TWA is that a person is best suited for jobs that have demands and provide rewards that correspond to the individuals characteristics. Satisfaction refers to the employee's satisfaction with the job, which is determined by the degree to which the rewards provided by the job satisfy the employee's needs; satisfactoriness refers to the job's "satisfaction" with employees - i.e. the degree to which the employee's skills meet the skill requirements of the job and, as a result, the degree to which the employee adequately performs the job.

Assessment Centers

a series of managerial simulations, graded by trained observers, that are used to determine applicants' capability for managerial work Four Characteristics: supervisors and mid-level managers evaluated only, assessed in groups of 10-20, multiple evaluators present, variety of assessments implemented. Identifies: talent, people who will later be promoted in their careers (not future performance)

Total Quality Managment

a system of management based on the principle that every staff member must be committed to maintaining high standards of work in every aspect of a company's operations. Focuses on quality over quantity. Emphasizes creativity and employee and customer involvement in both problem-solving. Involves multidirectional communication.

Group Composition

similarities and differences among members (demographic, psychological, functional). Heterogeneous Teams: generally outperform homogeneous teams, better with developing innovative solutions, but greater difficult when task requires communication and careful coordination. Homogeneity with high conscientiousness reduces social loafing, increases conhesion, and reduces conflict. Homogeneity with high or low extraversion can result in power struggles.