Informal Fallacies

Example of Biased Sample

"All the people in my fraternity think that hazing is not a problem. So, I'm sure that the entire student population agrees with us on this issue."

Example of Missing the Point

"Biology 1 was easy for me. Physics 1 was no problem. I think I'm going to change my major to social work."

Example of False Dilemma

"Either we cut school funding or we raise taxes. Nobody wants to cut school funding, so we must raise taxes."

Example of False Dichotomy

"Either you love your country or you a traitor. I'm sure you are not a traitor. Therefore, you must love your country.

False dichotomy

"Either___or___" statement hides additional alternatives, two choices are possible, but others exist

Example of Complex Question

"Have you stopped stealing money from your parents' wallets?"

Example of Equivocation

"He's a real pain neck. Cortisone shots help relieve neck pain. Maybe a good dose of cortisone will change his attitude."

Example of Appeal to Ignorance

"I believe that we are reincarnated. No one has ever been able to prove that after death our spirits don't move on to another baby."

Example of Composition

"I know for a fact that the acrylic paints that Vincent Van Gogh used to create this portrait were very inexpensive. So even though his painting his hanging in a museum, it can be very expensive."

Example of Hasty Generalization

"I met two people from the state, and they both were rude. There must be something in the drinking water of that state that makes all the people from there so rude."

Example of Ad Hominem

"I saw him play football, and he is ferocious on the field; he tackles everything in sight. Don't hire him to tutor young kids; he's too violent."

Example of Appeal to Force

"If you don't break off your relationship with him, your mother and I will disinherit you."

Example of Slippery Slope

"If you don't clean your room, then the dirt and dust will build up. Before you know it, bacteria grows. Whatever you touch in your room will then spread bacteria, which will contaminate the entire house. We will all end up in the hospital, terminally ill."

Example of Amphiboly

"Just waiting to be eaten, he noticed the cake in the corner."

Example of Appeal to Pity

"Maybe you didn't know that she is an orphan. Her outrageous behavior should be excused because of her background."

Example of Straw Man

"My boss caught me playing video games on my office computer during work hours. He said that it was a violation of the office policies, and he warned me to stop or I would be fired. Pretty soon he will try to eliminate coffee breaks or even going to the bathroom. He doesn't have the right to take away all my benefits."

Example of Coincidence

"My horoscope said I would meet someone new. Today my company hired a really good looking salesperson and we will be working closely together. Now do you see why I read my horoscope every day?"

Example of Red Herring

"My mother wants me to take piano lessons because studies show that early music training helps students in math. But pianos cost a lot of money, and even if we could afford one, our apartment is too small."

Example of Tu Quoque

"My uncle drinks six-packs of beer a day, so I couldn't believe it when he lectured me on the dangers of alcohol. He's one to talk! Nothing he says about drinking can be true because he cannot stop drinking himself."

Example of Post Hoc

"On seven different occasions it rained the day after I washed my car. I washed my car today, so take your umbrella with you tomorrow. "

Example of Emphasis

"Sam: I think you broke my watch. Joe: I did? Sam: Well since you admit it, now I know you did it."

Example of Common Cause Fallacy

"She began making $100,000 the year after she graduated from college, and when she took an IQ test, she scored 20 points higher than when she was in high school. See, I told you: money makes people smarter."

Example of Division

"She is very beautiful. I bet even her appendix is lovely."

Example of Unqualified Authority

"That must be a great product for men since a former senator and presidential candidate endorsed it."

Example of Begging the Question

"This car gets the highest gas mileage of any car on the market. So, you can't buy a more fuel efficient car at any cost."

Example of Appeal to the People

"This team beat us 64-0 last year. So we need to out and give them a taste of their own medicine and see how they like. Are you ready to fight?"

Example of Accident

"When I need to travel to another city I have to buy my own airplane ticket. The president of the United States has Air Force One to take him wherever he wants to go, and he doesn't have to pay a penny. Why can't I have a deal like that?"

Appeal to the people

Arguer appeals to reader/listener's desire for security, love, respect, etc. (disregarding objective evidence in favor of emotional responses that defeats the truth)

Appeal to unqualified authority

Arguer cites/relies on untrustworthy authority

Straw Man

Arguer distorts opponent's argument and then attacks the distorted argument

Missing the point

Arguer draws conclusion different from that supported by premises

Appeal to pity

Arguer elicits pity from reader/listener

Red Herring

Arguer leads argument off track by diverting the discussion

Tu Quoque

Arguer presents other arguer as hypocrite ("You too" or "Look who's talking)

Argument against the person (Ad Hominem)

Arguer presents other arguer as predisposed to argue this way (judging based on character of the person making the claim)

Appeal to force

Arguer threatens reader/listener

Composition

Attribute is wrongly transferred from parts to whole

Division

Attribute is wrongly transferred from whole to parts

Equivocation

Conclusion depends on a shift in meaning of a word or phrase; the intentional or unintentional use of different meanings of word or phrases

False cause

Conclusion depends on nonexistent or minor causal connection; connection between two events is nonexistent

Amphiboly

Conclusion depends on the wrong interpretation of a syntactically ambiguous statement; poorly constructed with a unclear meaning

Slippery Slope

Conclusion depends on unlikely chain reaction

Hasty generalization

Conclusion is drawn from atypical sample; a generalization created on the basis of a few instances

Complex question

Multiple questions are concealed in a single question

Appeal to ignorance

Premises report that nothing is known or proved, and then a conclusion is drawn

Post Hoc

a fallacy involving a short term or long term pattern that is noticed after the fact

Coincidence

a fallacy that results from the accidental or chance connection between two events

Accident

a generalization is inappropriately applied to the case at hand.

Common Cause Fallacy

a mistake that occurs when someone thinks one event caused the other, but they have similar causes

Biased Sample

an argument uses non-representative sample as support for a statistical claim about an entire population

Emphasis

attention is purposely or accidentally diverted from issue at hand

Begging the question

conclusion stated at beginning and end

False Dilemma

two choices leading to an unwanted result