Interpersonal Exam 3

implementation plans

specific strategies for how to handle conflicts ex) planning to ask for clarification when a partner's responses are vague

listening

the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken/ nonverbal messages **unlike hearing, listening is a social cognitive process

interests

the reasons behind one's positions during conflict focusing on interests rather than positions often makes it easier to find mutually acceptable solutions

central trait

a single trait that can change the meaning of a cluster of traits

open mindedness

an enduring personality trait in which people are open to new information and creative solutions

closed mindedness

an enduring personality trait in which people think in traditional ways and close themselves off from new information

what is an example of role schemata?

an idea about how a typical father should act

cool system

an information processing system associated with the pre-frontal cortex that encourages complex, slow, rational responses

hot system

an information processing system located in the amygdala portion of the brain that results in simple, rapid, emotional responses to stress, threat or danger

social episode

an internal cognitive representation about common, recurring interaction routines within a defined culture

What can listening sometimes be affected by?

past experiences and future expectations

social cognition

the process by which we use socially defined cognitive structures to influence our perceptions

personal construct

mental representation of the attributes we habitually assign to people during perception how do we answer this question? 1. what is the person like? 2. how is he/she similar to some people but different from others? 3. what are his/ her defining characteristics ex) large or small, funny or serious, devoting or uncaring

self schema

-cognitive representations of the self -one's sense of one's own characteristics, info. about themselves that includes beliefs, values, preference and behavioral routines - we are highly resistant to information that contradicts self schema

What are the factors in Cooper's two factor model?

1. Completing cognitive tasks 2. Accomplishing relational tasks

what are the 3 elements of perception?

1. Emotion 2. Motivation 3. Cognitive Structure

what are the 4 steps in the listening process

1. directing our attention 2. Interpretation 3. Evaluation 4. Responding

Why is the understanding of social cognition so important for interpersonal communications?

1. it effects how we interperet meanings of others messages 2. they guide our actions 3. by examining the appropriateness of the social cognitions we employ, we gain a measure of control over the situation 4. as we communicate, we are creating social cognitions

what are 3 necessary factors to achieve emotional intelligence?

1. perceiving emotions (ability to recognize emotions in others faces and bodies) 2. facilitating thought (understanding that moods and feelings can enhance other kinds of thinking)... in a conflict with someone it is better to remain calm 3. Understanding Emotions (ability to analyze HOW emotions are connected)

What are the 2 types of event schemas?

1. scripts 2. social episodes

demand/withdraw sequence

a classic dysfunctional pattern in which one party, the demander, uses complaints and criticisms to pressure another party. The withdrawer then becomes defensive and passive

role schemata

a cognitive structure that describes the typical behavior associated with a role answers the question 1. How is someone in a particular role supposed to act

script

a coherent sequence of events expected by the individual either as a participant or an observer

exemplar model (the best)

a composite social category made up of specific examples of actual people, places or events we've experienced. not abstract features, but whole people, real places and events

what is an example of an auto motive?

a person who is unintentionally interested in other people's health habits after having a doctor's appointment earlier that day

hearing

a physiological process that occurs when sound waves are processed by the central nervous system

person prototype

a schema that allows us to label a person by assigning him or her to a category of persons Answers to the question 1. how would you identify this person? ex) labeling someone as a jock

stereotype

a schema that allows us to predict the behavior of all of the members of a category Answer the question 1. what can i EXPECT this person to do? (sense of allness)

closed episode

a social situation in which behavior is pre- ordained and participants have little freedom to stray from expectations (almost completely scripted)

open episode

a social situation in which there is considerable freedom for the participants to create their own emerging pattern of interaction participants enter a situation without any preconceived plan (or with a very general one)

people-oriented listening

a style of listening focused on emotions and feelings people oriented listeners are empathic and view listening as a way to connect with others

action- oriented listening

a style of listening focused on finding the answers to specific questions in order to take action; action oriented listeners are often impatient with rambling, disorganized speech, and may draw conclusions before listening to an entire message

content- oriented listening

a style of listening focused on gaining complex, often technical info these type of listeners like thinking and talking about new ideas

time- oriented listening

a style of listening focused on staying on schedule this type of listeners often announce how much time they are willing to spend listening and may interrupt when others go on too long

principle of least effort

a tendency to rely on pre-existing cognitive structures during perception rather than attending to specific details ***ESSAY QUESTION

reframing

a way of restating conflict so that it is collaborative rather than competitive ex) a statement such as, "I want full custody of the children" could be reframed as "I want us to decide what is in the best interest of the children"

prototype model (typical)

abstract knowledge about the typical member of a category, often in the form of most common features associated with a given category we fill in missing info and generate additional info

defined episode

an open episode in which participants try to create closure by mutually negotiating the topics and rules of engagement ex) candle lit dinner ruined when topic of exes comes up

In forming impression of others, the recency effect is most likely to occur when we

are motivated to be more accurate or expect to held accountable for our perceptions

According to Dweck and Ehrlinger, people who hold an entity theory of human nature

are quick to make and stick to initial impressions

situational attribution

assigning the cause of an action of the situation surrounding that action rather than to the personality of the actor.

personality attribution

assigning the cause of an action to the nature or personality of the actor ex) deciding a person was late because he or she is lazy

What is an example of discounting rule?

becoming less certain that behavior is due to personality when a situational explanation is possible

event schemata

beliefs and expectations about different kinds of social situations ex) a script is often event schemata

paraphrasing

checking your perceptions by stating in your own words what you think another person means

self- schemata

cognitive representations of the self, ones sense of one's own characteristics

relational schemata

cognitive representations of typical interaction patterns interpersonal expectations as opposed to expectations based exclusively on one person's role or personality

what would be an example of situational attribution

deciding someone was late because of the traffic, not because he or she is lazy

discounting rule

decreasing ones confidence in an initial attribution when an alternative attribution is present

biased perceptions

erroneous ways of thinking about conflicts ex) seeing a conflict as worse than it really is

gunny sacking

failing to confront problems as they come up

implicit personality theory

formation of a sense of another's personality based on the belief that certain individual traits (observed in interaction) are related to other traits or characteristics (not observed first hand) certain traits cluster together with other traits

kitchen- sinking

including irrelevant details in an argument

augmenting rule

increasing ones confidence in an initial attribution upon learning that the individual being judged had to overcome obstacles to engage in that action

which kind of communication do students spend most time engaged in?

listening

appreciative listening

listening for the sheer pleasure of the activity. listening to music we succeed with this type of listening if we enjoy and recognize the value of the listening experience

discriminatory listening

listening to discriminate between stimuli ex) listening to determine whether a speaker has just said "she's" or "cheese" we can succeed in this if we accurately recognize message elements

empathic listening

listening to help others by allowing them to talk out their problems ex) listening to a friend in trouble success in this type of listening occurs when others are better able to understand/ cope with the problem

problem- focused listening

listening to understand and diagnose relational problems and resolve conflicts ex) listening to discern an opponent's interests during conflict we succeed at this type of listening when we come up with mutually satisfactory solutions to problems

comprehensive listening

listening to understand and remember info ex) listening to nightly news to figure out what is going on we succeed if we understand and can accurately re-create a sender's intended meaning

evaluative listening

making judgements about the intentions and the competence of sources and about the completeness of the info. that they offer us (accuracy of facts in a message) ex) listening critically to a politician in order to judge how his or her politics affect you success involves making sound decisions about messages

Motivation

motivations affect the way that the brain processes information including our perceptions of situations and of others resulting in auto- motives

auto-motives

motivations that operate outside of our conscious awareness

Vocalics

not only hearing the words but picking up on non verbal cues words may be the same but mean 2 different things

responding

offering your partner some overt indication of interest and support (4th step in the listening process) are they listening to what youre talking about?

self monitoring

one's awareness of various images of self and the ability to adapt these images to the situation at hand

What is one of the findings of Sillars, Smith and Koerner's study of parent/ child conflicts?

parents overlooked the extent in which children took responsibility for the conflicts

what could an example of a stereotype be?

professors prefer reading over going out clubbing

what is the use of schemata that contains information about self

provides us with a sense of personhood or agency. The sense that it is me doing the perceiving

active listening

responding so that speakers know how you are listening; maintaining eye contact, nodding and smiling, asking for clarification and encouraging the other person are examples of behaviors associated with this type of listening

what is a solution of selective listening

setting goals ahead of time, redirecting thoughts

time-outs

short break that allows people engaged in conflict to cool down their emotions

interpersonal conflicts

situations that occur whenever the goals or actions of two people are independent but incompatible

interpretive competence

the ability to interpret, label, and organize the conditions surrounding the interaction

emotional intelligence

the ability to process emotional information by recognizing emotion in others' faces and bodies understanding how emotions affect thinking knowing how emotions are connected being able to regulate one's own emotions ***ESSAY QUESTION

interpretation

the act of assigning meaning to stimuli that capture our attention (2nd step in the listening process)

evaluation

the act of making decisions about the accuracy and usefulness of the messages we interpret (3rd step of the listening process)

attention

the act of selectively focusing on certain communication cues while ignoring others, attention is the first step in the listening process

entity theory

the belief that human nature is fixed and that understanding other people is simply a matter of uncovering predetermined traits; people who take this view often have more difficulties resolving conflicts vs. those who see human nature as changeable

incremental theory

the belief that human qualities change with circumstances and that understanding other people is a matter or understanding their needs and goals, culture and thought processes (people who hold this view often have an easier time resolving conflicts than those who see human nature as fixed)

master contract

the definition of a relationship (usually worked out during interaction) that guides the recurring interaction of a group

naive realism

the experiential belief that what we perceive, and to a lesser extent what we remember, are relatively complete and accurate representations of the world

mood congruity process

the fact that memories are more easily retrieved when there is a match between the emotional state at the time that the original memory formed and the time it was retrieved

Anchoring effect

the fact that one's final judgement about the cause of another's behavior is almost always biased in the direction of one's initial point of view

positions

the initial demands one makes during a conflict focusing on positions rather than underlying interests often make it difficult to resolve conflict

schemata

the pre-existing cognitive structures we use to guide perception ex) stereotypes, person prototypes, personal constructs, etc.

primacy effect

the tendency for a first impression of a person to be a lasting one

mindlessness

the tendency to interpret social interaction in a habitual manner, relying on prior social/ cognitive categorizations to make sense of the world rely on single perspectives we become trapped in old categories of thought

mindfulness

the tendency to step outside categorical thinking an see things afresh state of creative awareness and active information processing encourages creation of new categories and distinctions

dual- process models

theories about when we are likely to look closely at the data available to us about people and situations (bottom up, controlled processing) VERSUS when we are likely to rely on prior categorical schemata (top down, automatic processing)

attribution theories

theories concerned with how we infer the causes of social behavior and the conditions under which some types of explanations are more likely than others

What is the goal of listening

to be an active listener nod, smile, eye contact and to reflect back without judgement

what is an example of individuation during impression formation?

treating a person as an exception or special case within a social category ex) the best teacher I've ever had

what is an example of a script?

we have scripts for specific events like going to church or going out to eat at a restaurant

Cognitive Structures

we use cognitive structures to make sense of the world results in schemata, principle of least effort and social cognition

personalization

when a perceiver becomes actively involved in organizing information around an individual, free of stereotypes or other categorical expectations

individuation

when a perceiver describes a person whose behavior does not fit a category by assuming that the person's behavior is an extreme or special case of that category

recency effect

when more recent observations change our initial impression of a person

what is an example of relational schemata?

when someone makes the statement: "my relationship isn't romantic enough" they are comparing their relationship to the ideal perfect relationship

emotion

when strong emotions are experienced during a social encounter, they often amplify the memories of that episode resulting in mood congruity hypothesis