introduction to the primates &prosimians, tarsier
How many living primates does the primate specialist recognize?
390 species of living primates, and a total of 649 species and subspecies overall
primate diversity
Primates live in a variety of environments, have a wide range of body sizes/features, and exhibit many different lifestyles. (LOOK AT PRIMATE TABLE)
cathemeral
active day or night
anthropoids + tarsiers =
halplorhines
prosimians - tarsiers =
strepsihines
primate characteristics: enclosed eye sockets
1) haplorhine (anthropoids and tarsiers) 2) strepsirhine (all prosimians but tarsiers) 3) canine?
Studies of nonhuman primates can help us understand human evolution through
1) morphology 2) ecology 3) sociality 4) cognition
grouping categories
1) multimale/multifemale 2)multimale/one female 3)one male/multifemale 4) one male/one female. [grouping patterns do not equal mating systems!
Since 2000, how many previously unknown primates have been described?
53 species : 40 from madagascar 2 from Africa 3 from Asia 8 from Central and South America (There has been a 300% increase in known nocturnal primate species over the past 30 years.
tarsier traits resembling anthropoids
do not have a reflective tapetum lucidum, do not have wet roses, eye sockets have post orbital closure, monthly sexual swellings
understanding human evolution : morphology
example: primate teeth can inform us about diets of extinct hominids! : big broad incisors, low, rounded molars. Chimpanzee teeth are well suited for eating a diet of ripe fruits
why is defining species and subspecies important?
implications for preservation of biological diversity and comparative models of behavior
loridae
lorises, pottos and galagos: lorises and pottos have slow slow, quadrapedal locomotion and do not leap. They move slowly to avoid to behind detected by predators. This also enables them to hung for insect prey.
polygamy
multiple males and females chimpanzees, bonobos
general characteristics of primates
no single characteristic defines primates, they share a set of features : 1) typically arboreal 2)grasping hands and feet 3) nails instead of claws 4) forward facing eyes (binocular vision) 5) post orbital bar on enclosure 6) relatively big brains 7) social
galagos
Galagos are often called 'bush babies' because their vocalization sound like a crying human baby. Found only on African mainland. Like many lemurs, galagos are skilled leapers. This is because their hind limbs are longer than their forelimbs. All members of the Loridae family are nocturnal.
the aye aye
Genus represented by only one species, Daubentonia madagascarensis: 1) endemic to madagascar, specialized middle finger for insect feeding, nocturnal and solitary, dental formula : 1:0:1:3 / 1:0:0:3
mating systems
monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, polyandry
haplorhines
primates with dry noses
lemur locomotion
many prosimians are vertical clingers and leapers whereby they leap from one tree trunk to the next
what is the distribution of the location of living primates?
neotropics=36% Africa = 20% Asia = 20% Madagascar = 24%
platyrrhines
new world monkeys: round sideways facing nostrils
terrestrial
ground dwelling
categories of habitat use
terrestrial, semi-terrestrial, arboreal
prosimian
'before simians' (monkeys and apes) : many primitive traits retained -- some have a single claw on each hand or foot, more reliance on olfaction, smaller brain relative to body size, many nocturnal species, generally smaller in body size than anthropoids
strepsirhines and haplorhines
An alternative to the traditional classification of prosimians and anthropoids. Tarsiers do not fit into the traditional classification because they have many anthropoid characteristics.
faunivores
non-insect vertebrates
catarrhines
old world monkeys and hominoids (humans and apes) : narrow, downward facing nostrils
semi terrestrial
partially ground dwelling
arboreal
tree dwelling
tarsier dental formula
2:1:3:3/1:1:3:3
prosimians
the most ancient primates, modern day descendants still possess many primitive traits : lemurs, lorises, tarsiers
1961
Jane Goodall begins study of chimpanzees
anthropoidea
1) fused mandible 2) no tapetum lucidum 3) post orbital closure 4) diurnal 5) dry nose
Primate characteristics : forward facing eyes
Three-dimensional nature of arboreal life requires depth perception to judge distances accurately. Depth perception is provided by overlapping fields of vision, with both sides of the brain receiving images from both eyes. Result is binocular stereoscopic vision. In general, we see a reduction in dependence on sense of smell and increasing visual abilities among the primates.
activity budgets
how primates allocate time to essential activities : rest, feed, travel, other (social)
some early depictions of primates
1) Egyption mythology (3000 BCE) : Baboons were closely associated with Thoth--the god of wisdom, science, and measurement. Baboons were often shown directing scribes in their tasks. Baboons carried out Thoth's duties of measurement: portrayed at the spout of water clocks, and on the scales which weighed the heart of the deceased in the judgment of the dead. 2) Hinduism (500 BCE) : Hanuman is one of the most popular gods in the Hindu pantheon. Aided lord Rama in his expedition against evil forces. Symbol of physical strength, perseverance and devotion.
nocturnal
active during night; inactive or sleeping during day
diurnal
active during the daylight hours; inactive or sleeping at night
classification schemes
as info on different primate species began to accumulate, primatologists classified them according to general ecological and social categories : activity patterns, diet, habitat use, ranging and territoriality, grouping patterns, mating system
daily path length or day range
distance traveled each day
what are the majority of primates considered?
frugivore-folivore or insectivore-frugivore
equipped for sociality
primate features which promote sociality : 1) expressive faces 2) diverse vocal repertoires 3) communicative postures. Primates also have advanced social awareness : 1) perceptive to other individuals' reactions / expectations 2) may even cue individuals for social interactions
strepsihines
primates with wet noses
History of primate research
1) 1920s : collection of chimpanzees and gorillas as specimens for various institutions, including the American museum of natural history 2) 1931-34 : Clarence Ray Carpenter observed howler monkeys on Barro Colorado island and spider monkeys in Panama 3) 1937: Carpenter went on a multidisciplinary expedition to study langurs in Thailand. Sherwood Washburn was graduate student on this expedition. Washburn would be come a pioneer of primatology. Encourageing incorporation of primate behavior into theories of human origins. 4) 1950s : Cold Spring Harbor Symposia of Quantitative Biology - 129 prominent biologies and anthropologists met to discuss human evolution and other topics. Sherwood Washburn - American physical anthropologist, studied primate anatomy. Inspired by the meeting and encouraged anthropologists to use new techniques to study human evolution.
History of primate research : specimen collectors and hunters
1890s : explorers collect apes and attempt to observe them in the wild. Garner built a cage to protect to protect himself against wild apes that he hoped to observe in Gabon.
Some early depictions of primates: Charles Dawin, 1838
Darwin held that minds were biological adaptions with evolutionary histories. Can be studied by making systematic comparisons between related species.
1966
Dian Fossey begins study of mountain gorillas
Some early depictions primates : pre-classic mayan society, 300 BCE
In Mayan society, monkeys were seen as divine creatures, and prominent in myths. The monkey represents the sacred, the underworld and the man of an earlier creation. Maya adoration of the monkey based on the creation myths of the New World.
understanding human evolution: ecology
Living primates inform us about ecology. For example, chimpanzees live in both savannah and dense rainforest habitats.
early 1960s history of primate research
Louis Leakey (British paleontologist helped establish long term studies of chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans
typically arboreal
Many primate features relate to life in the trees. Although some contemporary primates do not live in trees, they retain features inherited from arboreal ancestors. One adaptation to life in the trees in our grasping ability.
frugivores
fruit diets
stable social groups
group composition remains stable
strepsirhine and haplorhine cranial features
strepsirhini : relatively long rostrum, postorbital bar, temporal fossa, no plate VS. haplorhini: relatively short rostrum, plate separating orbits temporal fossa
territoriality
territorial primates : defend the entire resource area that they exploit from intrusions by other members of their species
1971
Birute Galdikas begins study of orangutans
lemur social systems
Some lemurs live in multi male multi female groups. However more than 25% lemurs live in pari bonded groups. This is the highest proportion of all primate groups. This could reflect an adaptation to small food patches. The Avahi is a nocturnal lemur that lives in pair-bonded groups.
history of primate research cont
Washburn encouraged young scientists to apply ethnographic methods and theory used by sociocultural anthropologists to the study of wild baboons. Baboons are semi terrestrial and live in open woodland savanna habitats, thought to be similar to those inhabited by our human ancestors.
ranging and territoriality
resource quality, abundance, and distribution affect distance traveled and area used
Long term field studies of primates
1) baboons in amboseli, Kenya 2) lemurs in madagascar 3) apes in africa
prerequisites of group living
1) be tolerant of conspecifics : there are differences among species in the degree of tolerance of other individuals 2) form relationships with group members : primate species differ in the quantity and quality of their social relationships
why do biological anthropologists study primate teeth?
1) diet is reflected in the physical structure of teeth : Colobus monkeys have sharp shearing crests on their molars. This is an adaptation to their diet of leaves. Chimpanzees have rounded molars. This molar shape indicative of a fruit based diet. 2) Sexual dimorphism in teeth can tell us about social structure : baboon males have large canine teeth. This is common in species with high degrees of male-male competition. Male and female gibbons canines are approximately the same size. Male male competition is low. 3) Mammals can be compared by looking at the numbers and features of teeth. 4) Teeth are often well-preserved and well represented in the fossil record : these are dental and cranial fossil remains from a miocene ape that lived 8 mya
Applying this knowledge to the fossil record : Australopithecus had...
1) smaller canines and incisors than chimpanzees 2) relatively big molars 3) thick enamel on its teeth. Likely consumed fruits, hard objects (nuts/ seeds), and tubers
tarsiiformes
1) unfused mandible 2) no tapetum lucidum 3) post orbital closure 4) grooming claw 5) nocturnal 6) dry nose
strepsirhini
1) unfused mandible 2) tapetum lucidum 3) post orbital bar 4) tooth comb 5) grooming claw 6) many are nocturnal 7) moist nose
History of primate research : ideas for captive studies and laboratories
1916 : Robert Yerkes called for the establishment of a primate research institute. Because of their evolutionary closeness to humans, primates could shed light upon the roots of human behavior. Sponsored expeditions to AFrica-- to study and collect apes for his lab.
strepsirhine dental formula
2:1:3:3/ 2:1:3:3
female dominance in lemurs
Female dominance is found in many lemur species. This is rare among other prosimians. Dominant females have priority of access to food resources which could be necessary to support offspring in harsh, marginal environments. Ring tailed lemurs live in multi-male multi-female groups. Females are dominant over males.
grasping reflex
Newborn human infants also have strong grasping reflexes. If an object strokes the palm of their hand, they will grasp. The Palmar Grasp Reflex appears at birth and persists until five or six months of age. However, be careful as their grasp can be unpredictable!
primate characteristics : nails instead of claws
Primate hands and feet have expanded tactile pads and nails instead of claws. Nails serve to protect the sensitive skin at the ends of the fingers and toes. The nerve endings at the tips of our digits provide provide primates with an enhanced sense of touch that is useful in manipulating objects.
who studies primates?
Primatology is an interdisciplinary pursuit : biologists (study the structure, growth, origin, distribution, and taxonomy of primates) , psychologist (examine the cognitive capacities of our closest living relatives), anthropologists (reconstruct models of the behavior of our ancestors)
Tarsioidea: Tarsiers
Tarisiers : small body size (4-5 onces), nocturnal, only completely carnivorous primate (feeds on insects and small vertebrates), each of their eyes is bigger that their brain, head can rotate 180 degrees
primate characteristics : grasping hands and feet
a characteristic of the earliest known mammals is having 5 digs on each hand/foot: primates have kept the ancestral condition. Further, the hands and feet of most primates are prehensile (capable of grasping objects). Some primates even have prehensile tails.
primate characteristics : social
advantages of group living include...1) increased ability to detect and defend themselves against predators 2) improved access to food 3) assistance in caring for offspring 4) better access to mates. Primates are social organisms!
strepsirhine
all prosimians but tarsiers (post orbital bar) : bony bar that runs around the eye socket, mainly nocturnal primates with decreased reliance on visual input
haplorhine
anthropoids and tarsiers (post-orbital closure) : fully enclosed sockets to protect their eyes, anthropoids tend to be diurnal and rely heavily on visual input
home range
area used by a primate
why study primates?
because we are primates! : 1) primate wide trends and phylogenetic patterns help us understand out own evolution. Remember our discussion about cladistics...five digits (primitive trait), large brain (unique derived trait), shoulder anatomy (shared derived trait)2) evolutionary patterns and species uniquely 3) human impacts and primate conservation
understanding human evolution: behavior
degree of sexual dimorphism provide morphological indicator of male competition : 1) sexual dimorphism : associated with male competition and dominance 2) sexual monomorphism : associated with equality in relationship
anthropoids
diurnal, greater emphasis on vision, relatively large brains : new world monkeys, old world monkeys, hominoids
anthropoids
diurnal, greater emphasis on vision, relatively large brains ex. new world monkeys, old world monkeys, hominoids
dark days in monkey city [female politics
features toque macaques in sri lanka : 1) females stay in their natal group 2) female dominance based on matrilines 3) females with higher rank are...more likely to survive to the age of reproduction and they will have a higher annual birth rate
strepsirhine traits
grooming claw and tooth comb : 'toilet claw' or 'grooming claw' --characteristic of all prosimians, it is a specialized claw or nail on the foot used for personal grooming. Tooth comb is a dental structure of strepsirhines used in grooming. Tooth comb is comprised of lower incisors and canine.
fission-fusion groups
group composition is fluid, depending on ecological or social factors
dental formula
incisors : canines : premolars : molars -- a shorthand method of describing the number of each type of tooth in one half of the jaw in a mammal. Biological anthropologists use dental formulae to classify groups of primates.
insectivores
insect diet
Social scene of loridae
like most prosimians, Lorises, Pottos and Galagos are solitary or live in small groups.
tarsier social scene
live in pair or small social groups, park their infants rather than carrying them on their bodies. this limits social learning opportunities. The psygmy tarsier is one of the 25 most endangered primates.
understanding human evolution: cognition
living primates inform us about cognition : what knowledge do different nonhumans have of the physical world? what about their knowledge of the social world? do they have social strategies? Knowledge of the self : what species of primates are aware of themselves? what about their knowledge of others?
lemuridae : lemurs, indriids, aye ayes
madagascar only (endemic to the island), over 100 species, result of adaptive radiation, many face severe conservation threats, some fossil lemurs were the size of gorillas!
group cohesivness
most primates live in social groups, which vary from few individuals to hundreds
folivores
non-reproductive parts of plants (leaves, stems, shoots, pith, bark)
primate characteristics: relatively big brains
primate brains : 1) are larger than would be expected for our body size 2) are also more complex than those of most mammals 3) have larger areas associated with body control and coordination 4) have larger areas associated with visual abilities, learning and intelligence [primates have expanded on the basic mammalian brain pattern)
body size energetics
primate diets are related to their body size : smallest primates eat insects and gums, small to mid sized primates are typically frugivore insectivores, larger primates are typically frugivore-folivores. Since most prosimians are smaller primates, we expect their diets to consist of insects, gums and fruits
where and how are primates studied?
settings of primatological research : field sites, laboratories, sanctuaries, zoos
polyandry
single breeding female and multiple males : mustached tamarins
polygyny
single male and multiple females : orangutans, nocturnal, prosimians
monogamy
single male and single female: titi monkeys, callitrichids, owl monkeys
male politics
toque macaques in sri lanka : 1) males emigrate every 5.83 years 2) clear male dominance hierarchies 3) males are most likely to change troops when they lose a high position in the hierarchy
What kind of trait is upright human walking?
unique derived
Lonami Basin
very large block that has had very little exploration by biologists-- Lesula monkeys (second discovery of monkey species in 28 years)
