Islamic World Final

McMahon-Hussein Corresp.

1915-16—Henry McMahon (Br. High Commissioner in Egypt)—Shariff (descendant/prophet) Hussein Correspondence: Britain offered to work with Hashemite leaders against Turks, drawing off potential Turkish support for German allies in looming war, and If Ottomans defeated, Britain offered to recognize independence of Arabs, but reneged on that promise for Sykes-Pictot agreement

Crusades

BG: Europe felt threatened by Muslim imperial expansion (Andalusia, Anatolia); equate politics with religion: negative stereotypes; European regional powers competing with religious authority for dominance; Religion legitimates political power (leo III, Charlemagne 12/25/800)→ 1215 4th Lateran Council, e.g. reasserting papal primacy; 1096: Urban II calls for holy war against infidel Muslims; 1099 conquer Jerusalem; Muslims were nominally unified but already divided: Seljuks dominate Syria, Iraq, Iran (under abbassids); Fatimid Shi'a dominate North Africa; Kurdish Syrian Salah al-Din (1193) took control of Egypt as Sunni, then Damascus; temporary reunification of Muslims; 1187 retook Jerusalem from crusaders; Mongol Attacks; Beginning around 1220: Turkic Tribes; Chinghiz grandson Hulegu burns Baghdad in 1258; Official end of Abbasids; surviving members of caliph's family take refuge in Egypt; Reorganization: Ottomans

Taj Mahal

Built by Shah Jahan (1628-1658); a mausoleum he committed at Agra for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Its white marble dome and towers, complemented by its trademark reflecting pool, remain a symbol of love and spirituality for people of all faiths and none.

Rosetta Stone

By 1801, the French had to vacate Egypt after the Ottoman military defeated them in a series of battles, supported by a naval blockade set up by France's chief European competitor, England. As they departed, the British took this

Chishtis

associated primarily with South Asia. Named for Mu'in al-Din ____, who died in northern India in 1236.. The order reflected the cultivation of "a generosity like that of the ocean, a mildness like that of the sun, and a modesty like that of the earth". They have a lack of discrimination, making its community centers very welcoming, especially in Indias caste system. Mughal empire Akbar summed up teachings with "peace be all." Qawwali music is also associated with their devotion.

Hashemites

leading family of Mecca, who were descendants of Prophet Muhammad (sharifs) and traditionally responsible for maintaining Islam's two holiest cities, Mecca and Medina. They were the leaders who decided to trust Europeans and work with the Europeans to defeat Ottoman turks (rebelling would allow Europeans to exploit weakness). It was a decision to not only rebel against leaders but also spiritual leaders (one of earliest rules is not to collaborate with non-Muslims against Muslim rulers)

Naqshbandis

named for Baha al-Din al-_________ (d. 1390), originated in Bukhara (uzbekistan) and are a "sober" order, rejecting music, chanting, and dance, they stress instead "silent dhikir." They focus on spiritual education through mindful simplicity, concentrating on God, and cultivating a sense of solitude even in a crowd. They also produced great mystical poets, including Jami. They spread widely, including into South Asia (majority of the Muslim population).

waqf

properties endowed through religious foundations; Mehmed Ali (d.1848), who lead Ottoman campaign, was put in charge of Egypt and did this as part of his policies to govern. he centralized control of government and economy, executing Mamluk chiefs and confiscated their properties, along with _____ properties - properties endowed through religious foundations. _____ are how muslim legal scholars maintain their autonomy from the executive branch (separation of church and state)

tajwid

recitation of the Qur'an A very prized and honorable skill The system which codifies the divine language and accent of Qur'anic recitation in terms of rhythm, timbre, sectioning the text, and phonetically. It encompasses rules about when one letter meets another letter, how long you can hold a syllable for.

al-Ghazali

(d. 1111) was a Persian scholar of law, philosophy, and theology, but he experienced a spiritual crisis at the height of his intellectual career and turned to mysticism. There he found spiritual sustenance and became convinced that sufism was the only source of the kind of certainty necessary to sustain a life of faith. This is what motivated him to write his diatribe against philosophers' attempts to find certainty through reason. He attempted to show that logical analysis was inherently incapable of dealing with religious truth and inevitably led to self-contradiction. Argument was that if logic were capable of bringing certainty on metaphysical issues, then everyone would agree on them, just as everyone agrees on the conclusions of logic regarding mathematics (but philosophers disagree).

Sh. Ahmad Sirhindi

(d. 1625); Among other Sufi mystics who believed Sufis had gone too far; Leader of Naqshbandis, a Sufi order in Central Asia; Criticized Chishtis specifically and anyone else who believed that all existence is really One because undermines divinity, therefore undermining Shariah and making individuals naturally fall into moral decline; Also saw Akbar and Jahangir's religious tolerance as dangerous to Islam; Was imprisoned by Jahangir for a short time; Was declared Mujaddid al-Alf al-Thani "the renewer of the second milennium" of Islam by his supporters; led reform movement of Sufism, which was dominant in India; emphasized strict obedience to shari'ah and sunnah as path to Sufi realization

Muh. b. Abd al-Wahhab

(d. 1792) Founder of Wahhabi Islam in 18th century; Critiqued Sufism specifically; Was partly inspired by Ibn Tamiyya in critiques of Sufism and belief in reviving ijtihad; The group itself were a narrowly traditionalist reform movement, determined to revive the strength that characterized the early Muslim community by wiping out "innovations" practices that developed after the prophet-- were also militant; teachings of this man were spread by the tribe of Ibn Saud. Gained dominance with Saudi forces in the Arabian peninsula

Muh. Abduh

(d. 1905) Called on Tamiyya's assertion of bringing back ijtihad; Believed that taqlid would make current Islamic society; saw reason as essential to the practice of Islam; explained the failure to resist Western colonialism due to failure of religion to adapt-- reject Taqlid - a blind obedience following what was done in the past + embrace Ijtihad (reasoning through interpretation of scripture); Renewal, science, ijtihad: legal reform, trained religious authority but reform-minded (not traditionalist)

Sayyid Qutb

(d. 1966) - popular ideologue of Muslim Brotherhood Furthered themes of al-Banna Wrote during Cold War, saying the world at the time was in a war between two hostile blocs: communist blocs and capitalist blocs that were both hostile to Muslims Claimed that the West marginalized Islam because they knew it was what made Islamic society strong and they wanted to keep them down; sent to study teaching in the US, in US he experienced a different type of segregation (no white men or women), witnessed a lynching of a black man outside of Washington DC, saw phenomenon of mixing of sexes—churches had dances... coming from rural Egypt, he wonders what is wrong in the west. He joins the brotherhood and is convinced that this is a degenerate society. Only way to freedom and freedom of tyranny of human rule. When you are serving only god, you are creating a just society—not a capitalist driven one.Not a society based on skin color and class; Helped overthrow the Egyptian leader King Faru because leaders of the coup promised that once they got rid of the british, they would establish Islamic law again. From the 11th century, basis of poltical legitimacy in Islam—Islamic law—sharia. Human righs would be protected, including religious freedom. Nassar, however, turned against brotherhood, tortured them, undergroup—included __________. This experience turns him militant. Redefined self-defense in ways that are being used by Al Qaeda and ISIS (and their affiliates including Boko Haram) Inspiration for many modern Islamist terrorist movements Was influenced by Abul Ala Mawdud (d. 1979), the founder of South Asia's largest Islamis movement the Jamaat-I Islami Believed that without Islam at center of governance, society descends into a new jahiliyya-a state of "ignorance" like that before the coming of Islam; Began his life as a secular education reformer began to introduce the idea of active jihad against tyranny; argued all fighting against tyranny is defensive, whether tyrants attack first or not Permitted takfir, saying it is okay to declare self-professed Muslims as infidels Caused many to leave Brotherhood and create separate radicalized organizations that fought for their own form of Islamic governance • Logic: The West is trying to destroy Islam, the west is actually at war with Islam (not with Muslims, Arabs, Africans, Asians but ISLAM), an active war against Islam. And so, we are obliged to defend ourselves, and in the context of war (obligations: individual (everyone has to do them) and communal(only enough in the community need to do those, just enough to fulfill the needs—FARD [Ibn Taymiyaa wrote about this—very capitalist and free enterprise—gov't cant interfere in economy unless certain communities aren't being served), With regard to defense (communal fard), except in the context of outright war. If we are being attacked, then every able-bodied male without responsibility, is obliged to join up, serve the country, and defend ourselves. He says the west is at war with Islam, so now defense becomes individual fard. Do not have to wait for duly recognized government to officially declare war. In every other case, duly recognized government has to declare war—equivalent of a religious loophole. Every religious authority has condemned terrorism. Takfir—not just declaring someone a non-muslim, it's an apostasy—capital punishment, wrote one of the most famous tafsirs titled "in the shadow of the qur'an" • Executed by the government in 1966

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani

(d.1897) Famous Persian anti-imperialist, distraught by Orientalist discourse that believed Islam was a backwards religion, specifically by French Orientalist Ernst Renan (d. 1892) in his famous lecture in Sorbonne in 1883; Reminded in his works the high levels of Islamic learning and scientific culture that proliferated throughout Muslim scholars historically; Argued that "science has no heritage" and that its center simply shifts throughout history, from East to West, etc.; Also believed that Muslims had also lost will to gain scientific knowledge when it was adopted by Europeans, regarding it as foreign and not embracing, creating "Muslim science" v. "European science"; explained the failure to resist Western colonialism due to failure of religion to adapt; Taqlid - a blind obedience following what was done in the past

Suleiman the Magnificent

(r. 1520-1566) "The Lawgiver" Stable adminisrtation allowed for Ottomans to impose uniform taxation throughout Ottoman lands, establish Kanun (qanan) - a new legal system based around Islamic law that worked with Shariah; Shariah worked for spiritual and personal matters while Ottoman law dealt with governing matters; Non-Muslims such as Jews and Christians were given autonomy; Stability of Ottomans at this time led to enormous prosperity; Suleiman huge patron of the arts-- Joseph Sinan (d. 1588) -Greek citizen hired as chief architect of Suleiman; built many beautiful buildings including 2 famous great mosques of Suleiman (Suleymaniyya) in Instanbul and Selim in Edirne (Selimiyya)

Describe three major themes of Islamic reform. (15)

1) Pursuit of knowledge-- Ibn Khaldun-- bedoins away; Al-Afghani--modernism, science, Qur'an says to keep pursuing, Al-Nahda-- intellectual and literary movement to respond to European colonization. Worried about loss of intellect from lack of science and literature. Literary movement to modernize and standardize language. Smart with crusaders and not with colonial powers. Renewal 2) Ijtihad (stop with fatalism and passivity: contribute to social justice, reject taqlid (a blind obedience following what was done in the past)) so against calling someone a kafir and committing takfir they just let something happen (fatalism)-- Taymiyya, ABDUH 3) Sufi Reform--- emphasis on self enlightenment instead of helping the poor. Too much emphasis on saints instead of God. Deviating from core tenants. Ahmad Sirhindi-- Naqshbandis leader-- major group that bought Islam to central Asia, Taymiyya

Safavids

1501-1722-- Sufi order; Originated in Turkic Azerbaijan in 14th century Membership began to spread through Syria, eastern Anatolia, Caucasus and beyond; influence grew especially after declaration as a specifically Shii order, distinguishing them from their Sunni neighbors. Turn of 16th century - pushed out Mongols in northern Iran and declared sovereignty Early 16th century - clashes between Ottomans, who were champions of Sunni orthodoxy, and _____ who had growing influence in Eastern Anatolia institutionalized Twlever Shii Islam's ethos of struggling against injustice (couldn't claim Sunni Islam to be source of injustice since Ottomans were Sunni

Qajars

1785 ____ establish new dynasty: Move capital to Tehran Consolidate and modernize via foreign investment, indebting their country to foreign powers Russia, who had been fiending for Russia because desired warm water ports England has interests in Iran for petroleum to power navy 1890s - popular opposition to European control; Ulama lead tobacco protests against British exploitation 1906 - Constitutional Rebellion; Iranians were agitated for democracy for over a century (1901-) 1908- establishment of Anglo-Saxon Persian Company 1907 Anglo-Russian Entente split Persia into spheres of influence 1908 Cossack Brigades - Russian armed and trained military in Northern Iran bombed parliament to take over Iran 1917 Bolshevik Revolution 1920 Russian sphere of influence in northern Persia becomes a Persian "soviet" 1921 - Cossak Reza Khan, a leader of one of the Cossack's, takes control of Teharn 1925 declares himself Reza Shah Pahlavi - King of Kings; Phalavis ruled Persia (which he renamed Iran in 1930s) until 1979 Islamic Revolution

Islamic Revolution in Iran

1979, Shaw Muhammad Reza Pahlavi overthrown, and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (d. 1989) had long been the nominal leader opposition to the shah. His religious authority allowed him to speak with sympathy and authority to a broad spectrum of Iranians, effectively galvanizing disparate centers of opposition and transforming them into a mass movement. He focused attention on Islamic themes of social justice in contrast to the suffering of the poor and marginalized. Ayatollah described the shah as a tool of foreigners. He imposed a vague form of governance which was a parliamentary system overseen by clerical authorities. Parliament amended the constitution in an effort to streamline governance and allow for arbitration when the elected legislature disagreed with the decisions of local clerical authorities.

Qasim Amin

19th century Egyptian reformist that focused specifically on women's rights; Believed that women's education needed to be reformed and promoted, and Muslims needed to reevaluate their treatment of women overall; treated as minors in Islamic law—needing protectors

Operation Ajax

A 1953 joint mission between MI6 and CIA to overthrow Mosaddegh's government after he was granted emergency powers that suspended the constitution for 6 months. They argued that he was a socialist, soviet influence (cold war era)... convincing shah that Mosaddegh was a communist, so it had to be done. Shah came back more powerful than ever, opposition leaders were deported or worse, protestors oppressed, enormous opposition, underground diverse groups. Savak—Iran intelligence, trained by western powers, once can assume that everything was being watched • One thing that couldn't be controlled was the Mosque (Mossadegh wanted to nationalize oil)

Muslim

A collector of Hadith reports from the Sunna that were considered authoritative. (his and Bukhari's)

What did Operation Ajax have to do with the rise of ISIS? (20)

After Operation Ajax in 1953, opposition to the shah and the removal of Mossadegh had to move underground to prevent opposition from being crushed, deported, or worse. There was the SAVAK (iranian intelligence trained by western powers)listening and watching, so mosques became the only truly safe spaces for opposition to meet. by default religious voices became the channel for populist opposition to authoritarian government for control of Iranian resources. ISIS saw it as an obstruction of Iranian nationalists' aspirations. Then came the 1979 Iranian revolution, leading to strong anti-west sentiments. Without Iran, US needed a conduit for weapons, supplies, etc. into Afghanistan, so it turned to Iraq. US supported Saddam Hussein's invasion into Iran, leading to Iran-Iraq war from 1980-1988. Then there was the Gulf War, Iraq couldn't pay back Kuwait for support in war, Kuwait began slanted drilling into Iraqi oil reserves, misleading US response (inter-arab conflict) led to Sadam invading Kuwait and more violence. Saudi then became worried Saddam would attack them next; Soviets lost in Afghanistan, leaving well-trained seasoned warriors available; Osama bin Laden, Saudi citizen, offers Mujahideen to Saudi King to defend against Saddam; Saudis rejected and expelled him, bringing in US forces for protection. Bin Laden ultimately went back to Afghanistan returning to some mercenaries from Afghanistan war who were unable to return; decided to form a base (Al-Qaeda=base) of activity in Afghanistan to fight the "one superpower left in the world" because of their support for un-Islamic regimes in the gulf; went for "the head of the snake", the United States. Then there was the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and this violence led to ISIS' growth. ISIS began as AQI (al-Qaeda in Iraq)

Saudis

Britain gave support to ______ leader in central Arabia against his struggle with central Arabia tribe of Rashidis; ______ next turned on other British allies, the Hashemites of western Arabia; defeated Hashemites in 1918, but British protected Hashemites from collapse; 1924-25 _____ defeat and expel Hashemites, declaring _________

Boko Haram

Began as an urban gang; Western learning becomes viewed as colonialism, corrupt, and enforced by foreign conquered and local elites, creating massive poverty and inequality, actively opposes it; Northern Nigeria is an "Opportunity Space" for terrorism, it is also a former British colony; arose in 2002 under Muhammad Yusuf (2009) in the northern Nigerian state of Borno. Wants to replace anything remotely western with premodern Islamic practices. He established a network of mosques and religious schools in remoter regions of northern Nigeria with the intention of recreating an independent Islamic state in the region. He attracted unemployed and equally aggrieved youth, especially those who share the dominant ethnic identities separated by foreign imposed borders between Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, and Chad. It began to attract more educated followers in Urban centers. Rejected central government and any law except its own version of islamic law (violates Nigeria's secular laws). Has also infiltrated Nigeria's military and security forces. Abducted 276 female students in Borno in April 2014.

ISIS

Began in Iraq as a generic anti-US and militantly Sunni Al-Qaeda affiliate-- Al Qaeda in Iraq (AQI)-- intent on established an independent Islamic state in the Arab Sunni territories of Iraq. It launched attacks on foreign military and civilian targets but also on iraqi shia and christian civilians. Was going to merge with ANF/JAN but there was a split. This group's kidnappings, beheadings, and attacks on minorities led to Al-Qaeda condemning them. Captured Mosul in 2014 and kept taking territories and expanding.

Mughals

Begun by Babur (d. 1530); Inherited Timur's Mongol power in Kabul; 1526 - defeated Lodi sultans and took control of Delhi; established culture of tolerance; Akbar "the Great" (r. 1556-1605)--Babur's grandson: Inherited all of northern India, and parts of present day-Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan; a multireligious community of Muslims, Christians, jews and Zoroastrians along with dozens of other minorities Welcomed religious diversity; promoted respect for nonsectarian monotheism, allowed full expression of cultures Legacies: Fatehpur Sikri - an urban planned city, although technicians overlooked access to water Jahangir - (r.1605 - 1627) Son of Akbar Become huge patron of art, particularly painting Shah Jahan - (r. 1628-1658) Continued to support art but not to same extent as father Architectural monuments: Great Mosque and Red Fort at Delhi; Shalimar Gardens of Lahore; Taj Mahal Intellectual sophistication -science and scholarship flourished Development of social satire in stories of Raja Birbal, Emperor Akbar's court poet a peasant from outside Agraº fifty lashes story; Nasroddin - a legendary figure of intellectuality but also of satire - carrots story Sufi influences in Indian Islam (led to conflict later)

What does Hodgson mean by the "single great historical complex of cultural developments" (p. 10 of your reading), in contrast to what, and how does it relate to Abu Lughod's discussion of the 13th century? (15)

By the "single great historical complex of cultural developments" Hodgson explains how the creation of "civilization" cannot be studied as separate nodes of advancements but rather as successive developments that all influenced each other. He discusses this within his description of the "Afro-Eurasian zone of civilization", focusing on Eurasia and Africa as these were where the most heavily populated civilizations were concentrated at the time. These developments were far from isolated; each successive civilization built on the progress made by the ones that came before it. Examples cited in the work: diffusion of inventions such as gunpowder and printing, diffusion of religions (monotheistic, Hinduism, Buddhism). Relates to Abu-Lughod's discussion of the 13th century because both serve to counter the hypothesis that the West was unique and therefore superior in its dominance. Hodgson (in the earlier part of the work) cites how the West is regarded as a continent, along with the likes of Asia and Africa. Based on geographical size, Europe should not be regarded as a continent, and even in terms of civilizational development Western Europe (referred to as the Occident by Hodgson) took a rather "backseat" role until after the 13th century when it rose to power (which Abu-Lughod discusses in her work. Both combat the historiography of Western hegemony that ignores the influences made by societies that came before them and contributed to the development of overall civilizational progress

What were the "capitulations"? Describe their immediate economic impact and longer-term social impact in Ottoman-dominated Arab lands. (15)

Capitulations were permitting Europeans to be excused from Islamic law. The Islamic word is called imtiyazat. It began under Suleiman in the Ottoman Empire, where Europeans were given special privileges, including the right to travel and trade, and being exempted from Ottoman laws, including taxes. The British later demanded this right as well, and it allowed Europeans to gain trade advantages-- these advantages were then passed on to local Christian and Jewish communities they were allied with, allowing them to amass greater wealth than the local Muslims could. So, while in the short term, economically it boosted trade, in the long run it led to rising inequalities between the Muslim majority and the Christian and Jewish minorities.

Ghurids

Expand to Delhi; Around 1190, these Persian rulers who had taken control of Ghazna began raids into Indian territory, they ousted the last of Mahmud's successors at Lahore and within ten years began a military campaign right across northern India. It was the Mamluks who worked for ___________ who ultimately established what would become Islam's lasting power base in india: the sultanate of Delhi

Mawdudi

Founder of Jamaat-I Islami (in 1940s), died 1979. Was a non-elite; Lived under pre-partition India 1940s and was alive for the colonial takeover; Even though there was religious freedom under British rule, he didn't deem this situaion dar-al Islam but rather dar-al harb; Jamaat-I Islami is the South Asian counterpart of Muslim Brotherhood; He believed that there is absolute incompatibility between Western values and Islamic values—west is degenerate. Look what they've done to us—taken resources, government, property, cant complain or we're thrown into jail or worse, if we rebel we're massacred—this is not Islamic law. Completely turn the table—no compatibility post WWI (gets worse after WWII)

capitulations

France and Britain gained another foothold in the Middle East using an Ottoman system of privileges for traders (imtiyazat), promoting tolerance and free markets (Sonn 102). Suleiman—in a bargain to promote peace—gave French traders the freedoms to trade and travel, as well as allowed them to be subject to French—not Ottoman—laws (also making them exempt from taxes). The British then demanded the same imtiyazat, and these favorable deals allowed Europeans to amass wealth and power, eventually becoming strong enough to take control of markets, leaving the economies of the Muslim world subject to colonialist economic exploitation.

Identify three European powers that attacked Egypt: When did each attack occur, and what was its most significant immediate impact? (30)1

France, Britain, and then French and British together along with the Israelis (Suez). FRANCE (1798): Napolean came to Alexandria; announced to Egyptian people that he was going to overthrow Mamluks who ruled over Egypt with little control from Ottomans; Accused Mamluks of being "bad Muslims" and said French were better Muslims because they destroyed power of Pope who initiated Crusades and then evicted anti-Muslim Crusader knights from Malta; Also promised protection from Turks; French interests were more tangible - wanted to protect French trade in the area and take advantage of Egypt's annual grain production due to domestic shortages in France; Began modernizing the country; established bureaucracy with new tax policies, confiscated land from Mamluks and redistributed it to their supporters, built hospitals; continued occupation and were continuously met with local and international resistance BRITAIN: Egypt was faced with mounting debt which led to them forfeiting their independence; 1875 - Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in Suez Canal to Britain; international commission was set up to deal with Egypt's debt, putting all Egyptian finances under French and British control; 1879 - Egyptian protests against international commission; French and British pressured Ottomans to oust Egyptian ruler; Europeans then took power in Egypt ISRAEL, FRANCE, BRITAIN (1956): On October 29, 1956, Israeli armed forces pushed into Egypt toward the Suez Canal after Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the canal in July of that same year (the canal had before been a joint British-French enterprise which had owned and operated the Suez Canal since its construction in 1869, Nasser offered to compensate, but still France and British were not happy), initiating the Suez Crisis. The Israelis soon were joined by French and British forces, which nearly brought the Soviet Union into the conflict, and damaged their relationships with the United States. In the end, the British, French and Israeli governments withdrew their troops in late 1956 and early 1957. Immediate impact was the end of British domination in Egypt, strengthening Nasser.

Suez Canal

French in 1869 built this, making travel even easier financed by France, but controlled by Egyptians

Ibn Rushd / Averroes

From Cordoba, interpreted Aristotelian thought more accurately than had Ibn Sina and became early medieval Europe's most important source of knowledge of Aristotle. He is in raphael's school of athens with Aristotle. He inspired a school of thought known as *Latin Averroism that vied with Thomas Aquinas' scholastic theology, which itself was based on the understanding of Aristotle derived from Muslim philosophers. Aquinas penned a work attempted to refute this philosopher's school and it landed them in Dante's hell (as dante believed that while philosophy was respectable, Muslims could not escape eternal punishment)

Andalusian Ideal

Golden age of Islamic culture in Spain. It was under Abd al-Rahman (see essay prompt for more information)

What does Golden mean by "world system" (p. 90), in contrast to what, and how does it ("world system" theory) relate to Abu Lughod's chapter? (15)

Golden wrote that the Mongol Empire "marked the greatest incursion of the steppe peoples into settled society. It brought the steppe, the forest zone, and China, Iran, medieval Rus into a vast world realm, the largest, contiguous, land empire in human history. It profoundly influenced global history, putting into place international networks of communications, the beginning of an early "world system" in the period of 1250-1350, the precursor of the modern world." (idea of Tribes interacting with Islam and Byzantine empires) Abu Lughod, meanwhile, argues that the world system was established in the 13th century. She writes about how western scholars are skewed in beginning histories in 1400, when both East and West was at a low point, and just as the organizational system that existed prior to that time had broken down. She writes that "Europe's rise was substantially assisted by what it learned from other, more advanced cultures-- at least until Europe overtook and subdued them." She continues, "the century between 1250 and 1350 clearly seemed to constitute a crucial turning point in world history, a moment when the balance between East and West could have tipped in either direction. In terms of space, the Middle East heartland that linked the eastern Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean constituted a geographic fulcrum on which East and West were then roughly balanced." The plague led to China closing its borders, leading to an opening the Portuguese could exploit to enter the Indian Ocean basin (from there, the rest is history) Golden sees the mongols as integral in helping to establish the modern world system, while Abu Lughod believes the system was established long before that.

Ibn Taymiyya

Hanbali scholar who died in 1328. He said that the form of government can vary from time to time and place to place, depending on custom and circumstance. But legal authority, articulating and adjudicating the law, not only remains distinct from executive administration but is also of primary importance: the ruler can be any of a number of kinds, but as long as he makes sure an Islamic legal system is maintained, the government is legitimate. He believed that many of the problems of the Muslim world in his time resulted from competition among regional leaders as they vied for control of a politically united Muslim community. He was distrustful of nonmuslims (due to christian and mongol invasions), but insisted on religious freedom and security in accordance with the Qur'an. He believed that the goal of all revelation is to guide human beings in the struggle to establish justice and prohibit oppression. He discussed TWO issues that became themes of modern Islamic reform. 1) rejection of fatalism, passivity in the face of injustice, and relying on the intercession of saints rather than taking responsibility in one's society. He argued against determinism, the idea that humans have no free will. Connected his believed sufism was an effective means to internalizing a moral outlook, but he rejected praying to saints rather than relying on God, personal initiative, and group cooperation in the struggle to create and maintain a just society (inspiration for Wahhabis, who took the position of rejecting Sufism all together) 2) the need to keep Islamic law flexible through ijtihad-- cessation of itjihad made Islamic law inflexible and unable to deal effectively with change. he recognized this danger and stressed the difference between Shariah and Fish. Sharia is god's will for humanity, and perfect, while fiqh is changeable and fallible. Ijtihad was a religious duty.

caliphate

Imperial _______=political realities; was the ruling institution of the Islamic state, which included Muslims and the lands they conquered. ______ began with the death of Muhammad in 632 and continued in some form until 1924 , when the Turks formally abolished it

Why is 1517 considered the year the Ottoman Empire officially began? (10)

In 1517, Sultan Selim I (r. 1515-1520) removed remaining strong threats in Arab world, including conquest of Syria and Egypt; with this, Ottomans claimed Abbasid caliph, and the rights to the caliphate were transferred to the Ottomans. They conquered *Cairo*, and the empire began. 1517 Selim I conquers Cairo because the Mamluks were weak at this time from fighting the Portuguese. The Abbasid empire handing over the caliphate created basis of religious legitimacy, making it a Sunni Empire.

Leaving aside personal religious conviction, why did the Saffavids establish Twelver Shiism as the official religion of Persia?

In 1517, the Ottomans became Sunni caliphs, so the Safavids needed a separate source of political legitimacy. So, Twelver/Imami shi'a becomes the official religion of Persia (as it remains today). The Saffavids didn't want to be ruled by turks or anyone else but Persians .

Abd al-Rahman III

In 912, he assumed full power of ruling Umayyads, the first 18 years were spent reunifying Umayyad kingdom that had suffered from internal tensions that nearly became a civil war, he strengthened frontiers to the north, and in 929 he made his own counter claim to Fatimids for al-Andalus sovereignty; knew that there was nearly a power vacuum in Islamic legitimacy that was out for grabs, so he seized that opportunity. Known for ruling over the Andalusian golden age

Sykes-Picot Agreement

In this agreement, France was designated "protector" of Arab Syria and the Kurdish Mosul province. Britain would "protect" Arab Baghdad and Basra provinces, and the Palestinian portion of traditional Syria, as well as Transjordan (eastern side of Jordan river to Iraq). The treaties of WWI imposed this agreement over promise to Arabs (changing protectorate to mandate)

1453

In this year, under Mehmed (Muhammad) II, "the conquerer" (1451-1481), the Ottomans put an end to the Byzantine empire, capturing Constantinople. It later became known as Istanbul.

Tijanis

Indigenous African order started in the 18th century by Akhmed ______. ______ was from Algeria, died in 1815. Started in opposition to Khajiris—considered elitist. _____ focus on the poor and the dispossessed.

Balfour Declaration

Issued in 1917 by British foreign secretary Arthur James _______ in response to requests by Zionist leaders for British support for their movement. They wanted to establish a homeland for Jews in Palestine, as the ancient Jewish homeland had been called by the Romans (after the name of its "Philistine" inhabitants). Arab leaders supported limited Jewish immigration on humanitarian grounds, but having been betrayed by the British and lost their autonomy in their own homelands, they were not surprisingly bewildered that Britain had now decided to distribute these lands to Europeans. (son 115)

Salah al-Din

Kurdish Syrian ("____", d. 1193) succeeded in organizing Muslims sufficiently to fight back against European invaders; when he reconquered Jerusalem, he granted amnesty to all Christian inhabitants; Christians threatened to kill all their wives, children, prisoners and animals and destroy Islamic holy places if they weren't granted amnesty His record not untarnished - eyewitness account recalls his treatment of Templars and Hospitallers, who terrorized Muslims for years, during which he beheaded 200 of them and praised the soldiers that completed this; a violation of Islamic norms, which forbids killing prisoners of war Is now regarded in Islam as a model of Islamic virtue who had saved Islam from Western invaders and was benign in the process Established Ayyubids (1171-1250), and army was able to not only defeat Crusaders and gain control of Jerusalem and Holy Land but also over Syria, Iraq, Yemen and western Arabia. took control of Egypt as Sunni, then Damascus; temporary reunification of Muslims By mid 13th century - Ayyubid mamluks became Mamluks - a dynasty in their own right, that ended up controlling the Egyptian empire that _____ had established

Hassan al-Banna

Leader of the Muslim Brotherhood; assassinated in 1949; Appealed emotionally to followers from the humiliation of colonialism, and politically by demonizing Western ideologies by saying that capitalism made the West hopelessly materialistic and communism created a "tsarist degenerate culture"; both causing "a deadening of human sentiments and sympathies"; "Islam is a faith and a ritual, a nation and a natinoalism, a religion and a state, spirit and deed, holy text and sword"; Trained as a school teacher, founded brotherhood to help the suffering masses of Egypt, poor people living in conditions of peasants, rural workers, especially along the suez, working as slaves of the british—lives characterized by malnutrition and disease—water polluted diseases (river blindness, dispathea); Arab and Muslims have no status and dignity, no more than mere hirelings belonging to foreigners. The west surely seeks to humiliate us and destroying islam by annulling its laws and destroying our traditions.; Extremely critical of communists as well—atheistic and tyrannical—good on social justice in theory, but bad on religion and governance; Islam is the solution (to everything)—not just spiritual or ritual, but about state formantion, governance, health; Hasan sets up schools, hospitals, discussion groups—fill needs that were not provided by government.

Muslim Brotherhood

Leader: Hasan al-Banna (d. 1949); Appealed emotionally to followers from the humiliation of colonialism, and politically by demonizing Western ideologies by saying that capitalism made the West hopelessly materialistic and communism created a "tsarist degenerate culture"; both causing "a deadening of human sentiments and sympathies" "Islam is a faith and a ritual, a nation and a natinoalism, a religion and a state, spirit and deed, holy text and sword"; Was banned by British-backed Egyptian government in 1948 after accusations that they were plotting a coup; Al-Banna was assassinated in 1949; Post WWI Egypt; "political Islam"-"Islamism"; Hasan al-Banna (d. 1949); Born in small town in Egypt; Trained as a school teacher; non-urban elite Reasons for founding brotherhood:To help suffering masses of Egypt-poor people living as peasants such as rural workers that worked as 'the slaves of the British'; malnutrition, disease (specifically water-borne diseases due to contamination of water sources); "The West surely seeks to humiliate us"; Mantra of Muslim Brotherhood: Islam is the solution [for everything]; Very grassroots, establishes schools, hospitals, discussion groups; filled needs not provided by the government Sent volunteers to help Palestinians against Israel

1258

Mongols, under Genghis Khan's successors, reached Baghdad and burned it to the ground (end of Abbasid) led to competition between Mongol dynastic regimes; Timur Lang came out on top by 1385 Baghdad was not an ancient city, but a planned city established on banks of Tigris River in 762 on the site of a Persian village as the Abbasid capital; caliph's palace in center and concentric walls surrounded it; markets and suburbs built outside the walls; was formerly the center of the Abbasid empire's economic and cultural life; described in Thousand and One Nights as one of the world's treasures Was still thriving when Hulegu Khan, Genghis' grandson, invaded Some cities destroyed by Mongols did recover In Baghdad, old Abbasid palace and Mustansiriyyah, a school of higher Islamic learning built in 1234, survived but city did not regain its greatness until the modern era

Berbers

North African peoples converted to Khariji Islam in 7th and 8th centuries; traded along the sahara; Term ____ used in reference to most of North and Saharan Africa but are very diverse - mostly Sunni but some are Jews and Christian; Amazian aka the _______ (but comes from barbarians, so don't use that—non-Greek speaker, didn't know how to talk, just babblers); Amazighen ("______")—came into North Africa to assist the Muslims against Christian kingdoms, French, Spanish who were orthopraxy and against diversity in Andalusia

Ibn Sina / Avicenna

One of the two most influential philosophers in the Muslim world. (Ibn Rushd is the other). He was from Bukhara, and was perhaps the most broad-ranging intellect of the medieval Islamic World. He wrote on art, astronomy, geometry, and medicine. His philosophy is his most last influence. His rational clarification of Islamic teaching was heavily influenced by his reading of *Plato and Aristotle* and established the model for medieval philosophical theology. Not only were his commentaries on aristotle a primary source for Latin scholars, but his fourteen volume compendium of Greek and Islamic *medical knowledge*-- al-Qanun fi'l-Tibb, one of the first book to be printed in Arabic (1593)--was an authoritative text for European scholars. It was completed in 1025 and was unsurpassed by Western scholars for 600 years.

Describe the process of creating the modern boundaries of Iraq .(20)

Ottoman Empire ruled region via provinces: Mosul (Kurdish, mainly Sunni), Baghdad (Arab, Sunni, Shia), Basra (Arab, mainly Shia). In 1914, Iraq Petroleum Company (British, Dutch, German oil cos.) negotiated for Iraqi oil, and when Germany was defeated in WWI, Britain got its shares. France wanted German shares, so it traded Mosul province to Britain for them (Mosul was given to France under Sykes Picot). Britain put together 3 provinces establishing modern borders, and in 1922 appointed deposed Arab/Syrian leader Faisal king (of the Hashemites). There was nominal independence 1932; but actual independence in 1958. Faisal would only accept if "mandate over" was changed to "alliance with" Iraq. According to the Treaty of alliance, Iraq was technically independent, but Britain would oversee the army and appoint advisors to run the economy and foreign policy. Capitulations were reasserted, exempting the British from local laws and taxes. League of Nations recognized its independence in 1932. But, Britain--even then-- maintained control of the economy and military, and oil continued to be exploited by foreign controlled Iraqi Petroleum Company. Revolution in 1958.

1517

Ottomans, under Selim I, conquered Cairo - official start day for Ottoman empire; Mamluks were weak at this time because of Portuguese; surviving Abbasid empire hands over the caliphate (allegedly) creating the religious basis for legitimacy; therefore a Sunni empire

Pahlavis

Reza ______ overthrew the Qajar dynasty and in 1925 declared himself Shah. Tried to nationalize oil (but had to settle for higher profits), he helped modernize, improved infrastructure, expanded industry, and modernized and enlarged the military. He saw religion as a hinderance and europeanized the country. He silenced the media and banned political parties. In 1942, Soviet Union and Britain pressured Reza Shah into abdicating, replacing him with his son, Muhammad Reza __________. The new shah agreed to be compliant with western interests, and the westerners agreed to withdraw their troops. Muhammad Reza _______ kept modernizing and he became enormously wealthy with free rein in country. But, social dislocation and unrest. He was enormously popular in the west.

al-Mawardi

Shafi scholar (d. 1058). In his work, "Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya" (The Rules of Government), he explains that the duties of political leaders fall into three categories: defense, treasury, executive. He is to defend the community from attack, maintain frontier defenses, and wage war against those who refuse to either become Muslim or enter into treaty with Muslims. He is to collect both the alms payments (zakat) required of all Muslims and the legitimate spoils of war. He must fairly determine and pay salaries from the treasury, and make sure those he appoints manage the treasury honestly. Most importantly, the ruler must make sure that the established principles of religion are safeguarded and that legal judgments and penalties are enforced. The ruler's authority is strictly executive and coercive.

What is Sufism and what does it have to do with the spread of Islam and its diversity? (15)

Sufism carries the ethos of interior Islam; what it feels like to be Muslim and how you develop personally, it's Islamic spirituality. It's carried through music, poems, and spiritual connections. Sufi preachers were generally not ulama or religiously trained scholars but pious individuals. Sufism created methods of developing spirituality, in a non-doctrinaire, non-legalistic, non-dogmatic way, which led it to be accepting of cultural diversity. For example, in Africa it was able to be integrated into preexisting culture and was associated with education. Part of Islam's spread in Sudan (n. Africa) is attributed to Sufi mystics and magicians-- gained influence because regarded by common people for magical powers. Basis of spread in India (south and southeast asia), as well. Unlike more formalized religions, it allowed people to keep elements of pre-Islamic life. Merchants were also important in the spread of sufism, in general. Sub saharan africa: Sufi orders brought written language-- merchants, and become assistants to leaders, legitimizes the religion even more. (Qadaris)

Rabia

Sufism's first saint, a woman from Iraq (d. 801). According to legend, she was born into poverty and sold into slavery. But, her piety so inspired her owners that she was freed so that she could inspire others to lives of utter devotion and absolute, selfless love of God. She says that she has two kinds of love for God-- one is selfish because it's a love that brings her so much happiness, the other one is one that strips away all separation between herself and God, so that she is no longer even aware of herself. She wants to love God without external motivation.

What was Suleiman "the Magnificent's" nickname in the Ottoman Empire, why was he called that, and why was that (the reason for his nickname) significant? (15)

Suleiman's (r. 1520-1566) nickname was "the lawgiver". He was called this because his stable administration allowed for the Ottomans to impose uniform taxation throughout Ottoman lands, establish Kanun (qanan), which was a new legal system based around Islamic law that worked with Shariah; Shariah worked for spiritual and personal matters while Ottoman law dealt with governing matters. Non-Muslims such as Jews and Christians were given autonomy. He pursued a *civil* law.

Ibn Khaldun

TON ON HIM B/C SONN SAID QUOTE FROM HIM WILL BE ON FINAL (d. 1406), his work Muqaddimah is often cited as the first work of *historiography* and forerunner to the modern disciplines of anthropology, sociology, economics, and political science. He outlines patterns of social and political development, observing along the way patterns in history and economics. He was quoted by Ronald Reagan the relationship between tax cuts and inflation. He also predicted the observation of Marx concerning the impact of historical conditions on the development of ideologies-- to understand social, political, and historical developments, we must understand how the people in question make their living, their level of education, their religious beliefs, rural or urban conditions, and how they govern themselves. He was an advocate of critical thinking-- keep examining, and don't take philosophy for granted. He is best known for his theory of the cycles or patterns of power: rise and fall of regimes is quite predictable. Believed Muslims could transcend the cycle because he believed in the commitment to justice. When group members turned against each other, putting own interests above the group, the society splits. Then concludes with the importance of sharia and its preservation of human rights. Believed in itjihad and can't wait for Mahdi--reject passivity! FROM NOTES: father of historiography (study of what history is), was a bureaucrat in Spain and North Africa, but also a scholar. What how and who is covered. Patterns of history—cycles of history—bedoin→ conquer, settled life is so much more stable and secure, • Checks the marketplace—weights and measures are fair, customers aren't being cheated Cycles/patterns of history Asabiyya - strong sense of solidarity that exists amongst a generation of how bad it was under tyranny; successive generations feel less and less of this; detachment from asabiyya from far generations would lead to revolutions that overthrow the regime; cycle begins all over again Understood in context of Bedouin nomadic tribes transitioning to Islamic communities Successive generations were less concerned with this community; became more concerned with stability

Describe the "Andalusian ideal," identifying its specific referent, three of its major characteristics (including specific examples of each), when the phrase emerged, and what is indicates about the context in which it (the phrase) emerged. (20)

The "Andalusian Ideal" refers to a golden age of Islam in Spain. The major characteristics were religious pluralism (Hasdai Ibn Shaprut's role under Abd al-Rahman, position of Jews in society-- under the dhimma brought by Muslims, the Jews who in Visigothic Hispania had been at the lowest end of the social and political spectrum were automatically elevated to the convenanted status of People of the Book [Christians viewed this as a demotion], religious freedom and full participation in civic life), cultural productivity (Ibn Rushd, Umayyads devoted vast resources to the translation of Greek philosophical and scientific texts-- Hasdai's excitement to translate Dioscorides' On Medicine, Christians were learning arabic and arabic was seen as the aristocratic language and cultural language) , and economic prosperity (trading across the Mediterranean, importing products from Far East, improved agricultural base, building projects). 10th century Andalusia is considered the epitome of this golden age. It emerged when, in January of 929, Abd al-Rahman III (Umayyad caliph) announced that he took the title of Commander of the Faithful, the caliph of the Islamic world, successor to the Prophet, at the head of the Muslim community. Before this, the caliphate of Baghdad was considered the head of the Muslim empire, and made counterclaim to Fatimids. From a historiographical concept, it emerged in a context of growth and culture-- looked back on as an ideal because following it, there was the inquisition and religious persecution, and it really became a conscious and commonly cited example after the loss of autonomy of most Muslims communities under colonialism...e.g. in 19th-century British India, as Muslim communities sank into basic servitude.

What is the "world system" discussed by Abu Lughod? What two major historiographical issues does she address in her chapter? (15)

The "world system" Abu Lughod discusses is one of world trade and cultural exchange that was integrating a very large number of advanced societies stretching between the extremes of north western Europe and China. In the century between 1250 and 1350, there was a moment when the balance between East and west could have tipped in either direction. The middle east heartland linked the eastern Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean and the East and West were balanced. Western, Middle East, and Far Eastern circuit. The first historiographical issue she addresses is the idea that the "modern" world scholars began their histories at 1400 AD, after the peaks of a global world system between the east and the west (making it seem as if the west rose out of nowhere), and the second historiographical issue is that the west rose because of a specific type of capitalism and christian culture. She states "the fact that a highly sophisticated world system--one that was equally as advanced both in economic and social technologies-- predated the modern one casts doubt on the unique contributions of European capitalism. Because no uniformity prevailed with respect to culture, religion, or economic institutional arrangements in that earlier system, it is very difficult to accept a purely "cultural" explanation for Europe's later dominance. No particular culture seems to have had a monopoly over other"

Babur

The Mughal empire began by this man who died in 1530, he inherited Timur's Mongol power in Kabul, and in 1526 he defeated Lodi sultans and took control of Delhi; established culture of tolerance; Akbar "the Great" (r. 1556-1605) is his grandson

British, French, Italian, Dutch & Portuguese imperialism in majority lands

These imperialist powers were christian, exacerbating cleavages along religious lines, since disproportionate amount of wealth was had by the christian minority elites, versus the Muslim majority. Much more over than capitulation, however, infrastructure-- railroads--not for civilians, but trade NOTE: not sure if this is what she means by this, but it is too broad to recount British, French, Italian, Dutch, and Portuguese imperialism in majority lands in one slide

Ottomans

Turkic dynasty; originally worked for Seljuks, begun as border warriors guarding the NW frontier against invasions and launching their own attacks against Byzantine forces in the name of Islam. Power struggle between Seljuks and Mongols weakened the Seljuks enough to allow them to establish their power in Anatolia in the 13th century. Troops of Janissaries, consisting mainly of converted Christian conscripts from the Balkans. The office of caliphate was officially abolished in 1924.

Seljuks

Turkic nomadic dynasty began as border guards for Samanids in 9th and 10th century, and in the 11th century they controlled Baghdad and ruled in name of Abbasid caliph; dominated Syria, Iraq, Iran; Mongols weakened _______, enabling Ottomans to establish autonomy inAnatolia in 13th century

Hasdai b. Shaprut

Was the Nasi (prince) of his religious community , the Andalusian Jews, also a vizier, right-hand man to ruler of Ishmaelite caliph Abd- al-Rahman III who ruled from 912-961. He wrote often about the thriving intellectual community, and became foreign secretary to the caliph and would later become caliph. Umayyad caliphate of Cordoba became most prime caliphate within House of Islam (the Islamic polity). He was born in Cordoba in 915, where Jews had become visibly prosperous culturally and able to participate in the lucrative commercial scene; allowed Jews to join educated classes "an enthusiastic attitude about Arabization"

Mahmud of Ghazna

rule of ______ (present-day Ghazni, Afghanistan) established by _______ (d.1030), son of a former Samanid slave guard (ghaznavid Empire); Located on eastern borders of Persia; arose during decline of Samanid control of western Afghanistan;Gained control across present-day Pakistan, bringing permanent presence of Islam to the Hindu-Buddhist region; Gained mass wealth via raids (particularly of Hindu temples) and was extremely intolerant of other religions) Established Persian as language of culture in his realm Brought famous scholars such as al-Biruni and Firdawsi to his court; Successors to Mahmud moved capital to Lahore in Punjab; remained there for some time and many converted to Islam; 1190 - Persian Ghurid rulers took control of Ghazna and then took Lahore; Mamluks, who worked for the Ghurids, ultimately established sultanate of Delhi

Suhrawardis

sufi order named after Abu Najib al-________ (d. 1168) of Persia and development by his nephew Umar ______ (d. 1235), is an early order that became prominent in South Asia. They are a "sober" order, stressing the Sunni Shariah, regular prayer, and active community involvement.