ISS EXAM 3
In the United States, the vast majority of adolescents are employed at some time during high school. How much students work affects whether it is beneficial or detrimental. Those who work more than 20 hours a week are more likely to drop out; but this association is not causal. For students who must or choose to work, the effects are more likely to be positive if they limit working hours and remain engaged in school activities.
adolescents in the workplace
Overweight children: fall behind peers in physical and social functioning; May have lower health-related quality of life; Tend to suffer emotionally and compensate by indulging themselves with food and treats; and Tend to become overweight adults at risk for hypertension, heart disease, orthopedic problems, diabetes and other medical problems
A serious concern: overweight children
Adolescence offers opportunities for growth in: Cognitive and social competence; Autonomy; Self-esteem; and Intimacy. A common tendency to engage in risky behaviors means adolescence is also a time of risk. However, teens can and do respond to messages about safety and responsibility.
Adolescence: A Time of Opportunities and Risks
Changes in marital distress or conflict predict corresponding changes in adolescents' adjustment. Divorce can affect this process. Adolescents in single-parent families and cohabiting families tend to have greater problems. Adolescents from families headed by gay or lesbian parents do not appear to show differences in a variety of outcomes. The quality of the relationship is the key variable influencing outcomes.
Adolescents and Parents: Family Structure
The impact of a mother's work outside the home may depend on how many parents are present in the household. Single mothers may find work affects how much time and energy is left for the children. The type of after-school care is important. Family economic hardship during adolescence affects adult well-being. Stress interferes with family relationships and affects children's educational and occupational attainments.
Adolescents and Parents: Mother's Employment and Economic Stress
Both adolescents and parents see prudential issues—related to health and safety—as most subject to disclosure. Followed by moral issues, conventional issues, and multifaceted or borderline issues. Both adolescents and parents see personal issues—how teens spend their time and money—as least subject to disclosure. However, among all types, parents tend to want more disclosure than adolescents are willing to provide.
Adolescents and Parents: Parental Monitoring
Authoritative parenting continues to foster healthy psychosocial development. Parents insist on important rules, norms, and values but are willing to listen, explain, and negotiate. They exercise appropriate behavioral control but not psychological control. Problems arise when parents overstep what adolescents perceive as appropriate bounds. Note that many of the effects of parenting on teen behavior are bidirectional.
Adolescents and Parents: Parenting Styles and Parental Authority
Friendships in adolescence are likely more intense and important than at any other time in the life span. Friendships become more reciprocal, equal, and stable. Greater intimacy, loyalty, and sharing mark a transition toward adultlike friendships. Adolescents are now better able to express their private thoughts and feelings and consider another person's point of view. Good relationships with friends foster adjustment, which in turn fosters good relationships.
Adolescents and Peers: Friendships
Romantic relationships tend to become more intense and intimate across adolescence. Typically, they move from mixed groups or group dates to one-on-one romantic relationships. Relationships with parents may affect the quality of romantic relationships. Dating violence is a significant problem in the United States. The three common forms are physical, emotional, and sexual. Victims are more likely to do poorly in school and to engage in risky behaviors; and they are subject to eating disorders, depression, and suicide. Risk factors include substance abuse, conflict and/or abuse in the home, and neighborhoods with crime and drug use. Adolescent dating violence is a predictor of adult partner violence.
Adolescents and Peers: Romantic Relationships
As a group, adolescents are the primary users of online communication technologies. More than 99% use the Internet, and 88% use it daily for interaction and communication with peers. In general, screen-based media usage is related to decreased well-being on several measures. At times, however, online communication can have positive effects, stimulating social connectedness and improving relationship quality. Electronic bullying is one problem associated with the anonymity of many forms of online communication.
Adolescents and Peers: Social Media and Electronic Interaction
Generally, adolescents tend to be less close to siblings than to friends and are less influenced by them. Sibling conflict declines. Sibling relationships also interact with parent-child relations and the parents' marital relationship. Siblings can exert positive or negative effects on each other. While generally a warm relationship is protective, it can lead to an increased risk of modeling the antisocial behavior of a delinquent sibling.
Adolescents and Siblings
Gilligan asserted that Kohlberg's theory was sexist and oriented toward values more important to men than to women. Men view morality in terms of justice and fairness. Women place caring and avoiding harm as higher goals. Kohlberg's typology unfairly categorized women as less morally and cognitively complex because of the focus on justice. Research has found little support for Gilligan's claim of bias. Generally, gender differences in moral reasoning are small.
An Ethic of Care: Gilligan's Theory
Antisocial behavior tends to run in families. Genes alone are not predictors, however. Environmental influences including family, friends, and school affect gene expression. Neurobiological deficits, especially those involving arousal and attentional processes, may also be involved. A crucial variable appears to be the age at which antisocial behavior begins. Early-onset tends to lead to chronic delinquency. Late-onset tends to be temporary. Environmental influences include: Poor parenting practices; Association with antisocial friends; Poverty; and Weak neighborhood social organization. The vast majority of juvenile delinquents do not become adult criminals. Teenagers who do not see positive alternatives are at greatest risk, as are those who show antisocial behavior early.
Antisocial Behavior and Juvenile Delinquency
Formal operations: Piaget's final stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to think abstractly. This development, usually beginning around age 11, gives adolescents a new, more flexible way to manipulate information. They can think in terms of what might be, not just what is. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: This is the ability (accompanying the stage of formal operations) to develop, consider, and test hypotheses.
Aspects of Cognitive Maturation: Piaget's Stage of Formal Operations
Constructed from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of healthy children and teens, these images compress 15 years of brain development (ages 5 to 20). Red indicates more gray matter, blue less gray matter.
Brain development from 5 to 15 years of age
Concrete-operational children can answer conservation problems in their heads. Understand identity, reversibility, and decentering. Horizontal décalage: The inability to transfer knowledge of conservation; Liquids versus solids.
Cognitive Advances: Conservation
Learn to "count on." More adept at solving simple story problems. Some intuitively understand fractions. Able to estimate: "How much time do I need to walk to school?"
Cognitive Advances: Number & Mathematics
Two kinds of thinking: Convergent: The kind IQ tests measure; Seeks a single answer. Divergent (Creativity): Comes up with a wide array of new possibilities; Example: Listing unusual uses for a paper clip.
Defining and Measuring Creativity
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act: Ensures free, appropriate public education for all children with disabilities. Inclusion programs: Integrating disabled and nondisabled children for all or part of day.
Educating Children with Disabilities
Intellectual disability. Learning disabilities (LD): Dyslexia. Learning Disorders (ADHD): Issues of diagnosis, heritability, and drug therapies.
Educating Children with Special Needs
Enrichment: Broadens knowledge through classroom activities, research activities, field trips. Acceleration: Speeds up education through grade skipping, fast-paced classes, or advanced classes.
Educating Gifted Children
Elkind has observed: Adolescents tend to be idealistic and critical of others. Young adolescents often do not see the difference between expressing an ideal and making the necessary sacrifices. Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at the same time but may lack effective strategies for making a choice. The imaginary audience: Adolescents tend to assume everyone else is thinking about the same thing they are thinking about—themselves. The personal fable: Adolescents tend to believe they are special, their experience is unique, and they are not subject to the rules that govern the rest of the world. Further research has not supported all of Elkind's contentions. For example, rather than being indecisive, some adolescents are likely to make impulsive or risky decisions—and brain immaturity seems to be a factor. Have any of you found that your decision-making has changed a lot since you were in high school? Does this change seem obvious to you? Maybe this information helps you to understand these changes!
Elkind: Study of Immature Aspects of Adolescent Thought
HPG (hypothalamuspituitary-gonadal) activation requires a signal from the central nervous system (CNS) to the hypothalamus, which stimulates the production of LH and FSH from the pituitary.
FIGURE 1 Regulation of Human Puberty Onset and Progression
which of the following trends can be observed as an adolescent goes from age 13 to age 17
Family conflict and positive identification with parents decrease over time
Well-designed intervention programs for troubled youth should:
Focus on the multiple factors that can lead to antisocial behavior Integrate antisocial youth into positively social mainstream Boost parenting skills
Earlier studies described young women as more competent at intimacy than men, and intimacy as more closely related to identity formation for women than for men. More recent research has indicated there are few gender differences in identity status. Changes in social structure and the increased role of women in the workforce may be factors in the change.
Gender Differences in Identity Formation
The period of puberty during which sex organs mature, ovaries increase estrogen, and testes increase androgens is:
Gonadarche
Most gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth begin to identify as such between the ages of 12 and 17. Gay and lesbian youth who experience rejection and low support are more likely to have difficulty accepting their sexual identity. Youth who do not successfully integrate their sexual identity in their self-concept are at risk for issues with anxiety, depression, or conduct problems. Transgender refers to individuals whose biological sex at birth and gender identity are not the same. Those who seek medical assistance to permanently transition to their preferred gender are generally transsexual. Many use terms such as genderqueer for a wide range of variable identities. Like gay and lesbian youth, transgender youth are at significantly elevated risk for negative outcomes—often driven by stigma, rejection, and lack of social support. Finding a sense of community is a protective factor.
Homosexual, Bisexual, and Transgender Identity Development
Puberty results from a cascade of hormonal responses. Adrenarche: Between ages 6 and 8; Production of androgens—most notably DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone). Gonadarche: Maturing of the sex organs; Second burst of DHEA production; Girls: ovaries increase estrogen; Boys: testes increase androgens.
How Does Puberty Begin? Hormonal Changes
James Marcia distinguished 4 types of identity status on the basis of the presence or absence of crisis and commitment. "Identity achievement": result of the commitment following successful resolution of the crisis. "Foreclosure": commitment without crisis. "Moratorium": crisis with no commitment yet. "Identity diffusion": no commitment, no crisis. Marcia's categories are not stages; they represent the status of identity development at a particular time and may change in any direction. Also, identity is multidimensional. Some aspects may be in one status while others are in a different status. From late adolescence on, more and more people are in moratorium or achievement: seeking or finding their identity.
Identity Status—Crisis and Commitment
James Marcia: "Crisis": Marcia's term for a period of conscious decision making related to identity formation. "Commitment": personal investment in an occupation or system of beliefs.
Identity Status—Crisis and Commitment
Identity versus identity confusion: Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development. An adolescent seeks to develop a coherent sense of self, including the role she or he is to play in society. Identity forms as young people resolve three major issues: The choice of an occupation. The adoption of values to live by. The development of a satisfying sexual identity. Adolescents who resolve the identity crisis satisfactorily develop the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity: sustained loyalty, faith, or sense of belonging. Individuals who do not develop a firm sense of their own identity and do not develop fidelity may have an unstable sense of self, be insecure, and fail to plan for the future. Some degree of identity confusion is normal. Adolescent cliquishness and intolerance of differences are defenses against identity confusion.
Identity versus Identity Confusion
______: Erikson's fourth stage of psychosocial development, in which children must learn the productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority. Developing a sense of industry involves learning how to work hard to achieve goals. Parents strongly influence a child's beliefs about competency and the amount of effort they put into different activities.
Industry versus inferiority
Brain development. Schooling: Children whose schooling is delayed scorer lower on IQ tests; IQ scores drop during summer vacation. Race/ethnicity and SES: Leads to claim that the tests are unfair to minorities; Genetic arguments? Culture.
Influences on Intelligence
Many studies have indicated that the start of puberty has shifted downward (younger) in the twentieth century. Secular trend: a trend that can be seen only by observing several generations. Possible explanations: Higher standard of living, including better nutrition; Overweight and obesity (contributes to earlier puberty) Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals; Social factors; and Genetic influence.
Influences on Pubertal Timing
Many factors influence the course of school achievement. Parenting practices, socioeconomic status, and quality of the home environment. Student motivation and self-efficacy. Gender differences, though small. Such differences are commonly influenced by gender attitudes and expectations in the home, the school, and the wider culture. Family, ethnicity, and peer influences. Discrimination and racism take a toll. Quality of schooling influences student achievement. Adolescents are more satisfied with school if: They are allowed to participate in making rules; They feel support from teachers and other students; and The curriculum and instruction are meaningful and challenging and fit their interests, skill level, and needs. The expansion of technology and the major role it plays in children's lives have affected learning. Critical-thinking and analysis skills have declined. Self-efficacy beliefs. Gender. Parenting practices. SES and social capital. Educational methods. Class size. Educational Innovations. Media Use.
Influences on School Achievement
Children use increasingly precise verbs. Children start to use the passive voice and conditional sentences. Syntax structure continues to become more complex.
Language: Vocabulary, Grammar, and Syntax
Most children under 18 in the United States live with two parents, but the prevalence of that household type has been diminishing. Notes: Children living with two married parents may be living with biological, adoptive, or nonbiological parents. Prior to 2007, children who lived with their mother or father only may also have lived with the parent's unmarried partner.
Living Arrangements of Children Younger than 18, 1970 to 2017
External memory aids: A note pad. Rehearsal: Repeating a phone number in your head. Organization: Placing information into categories (animals). Elaboration: Imagining items associated with something else.
Mnemonics: Strategies for Remembering
Good nutrition is important to support rapid growth and to establish healthy eating habits. Many U.S. adolescents eat fewer fruits and vegetables and consume more high-energy, nutrient-poor foods than they should. Worldwide, overweight and obesity in children and adolescents has increased substantially. While there are clear genetic contributions, the obesogenic environment is also to blame. Boys and girls respond differently to the body changes that result from puberty. Body image: descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one's appearance. Overall, boys are more satisfied. Body satisfaction is important because it is related to self-esteem. Excessive concern with weight control and body image may be signs of an eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa: eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. Higher prevalence in women and girls. People with anorexia have a distorted body image and, though typically underweight, think they are fat. Bulimia nervosa: eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge quantities and then purges. Laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise. Binge eating disorder: eating disorder in which a person loses control over eating and binges huge quantities. Tend to be overweight. Eating disorder treatment and outcomes: The immediate goal is to get the patient to eat and gain weight. Patients may be hospitalized if severely malnourished. In one type of family therapy, parents initially take control. Cognitive behavioral therapy seeks to change a distorted body image and rewards eating with privileges. Antidepressant drugs are often used. Mortality rates among those with anorexia nervosa are estimated to be about 10% of cases.
Nutrition and eating disorders
Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts which often lead to ritual behaviors is best known as:
Obsessive compulsive disorder
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC-II): Evaluates cognitive abilities in children with special needs; Autism, language disorders. Dynamic Tests: Emphasize potential, rather than present, achievement.
Other Directions in IQ Testing
Otis-Lennon School Ability Test. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV).
Psychometric Approach: Assessment of Intelligence
Compared to natural disasters, terrorist events have been associated with higher levels of distress. Children exposed to such attacks show elevated post-traumatic stress symptoms for months afterward. Although difficult, parents' conversations with their children about mass violence are important. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry has issued guidelines: Listen to children. Answer their questions. Provide support.
Research in Action: Children's Experiences with Terrorist Acts
As with other relationships, technology is playing an increasingly large role in adolescent romantic relationships. Teenagers with online romantic partners may: Be popular offline as well as online; or Have difficulty forming offline relationships. Information on social media is often used to "check out" new romantic prospects and "signal" interest. More problematically, electronic communication can also be used for "sexting," which has been linked with other risky behaviors.
Research in Action: Teen Dating and Technology
Today's adolescents, who have grown up with portable electronic media at their fingertips, are particularly prone to media multitasking. Studies show media multitasking is detrimental to academic performance. Media multitasking is also linked to distracted driving.
Research in Action: Teens and Media Multitasking
English-immersion: Children are immersed in English. Bilingual education: Children are taught in two languages; First their native language, then English. Two-way or dual-language learning: Native English speakers and English-language learners learn together in both languages.
Second-Language Education
Three aspects of intelligence: Componential: Analytic. Experiential: Insightful or creative. Contextual: Practical.
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
One of the major influences in the family is how parents and children navigate changes in the balance of power. Middle childhood brings a transitional stage of coregulation, in which parents exercise general supervision and children exercise moment-to-moment self-regulation. The shift to coregulation affects discipline. Parents of school-age children are more likely to use inductive techniques; but families vary in their disciplinary strategies. Generally, physical punishment is associated with negative outcomes. Children exposed to high levels of family conflict are more likely to show externalizing or internalizing behaviors. Internalizing behaviors: behaviors by which emotional problems are turned inward; for example, anxiety or depression. Externalizing behaviors: behaviors by which a child acts out emotional difficulties; for example, aggression or hostility. How family conflict is resolved is also important. Cultural differences are also important and tend to exert complex effects. Another influence is the parents' employment. In general, the more satisfied a mother is with her employment status, the more effective she is as a parent. The impact of a mother's work depends on many other factors, however. Mothers are far more likely to take on part-time work, and if possible, this arrangement may be preferable. When both parents work outside the home, child care arrangements are common. Programs vary widely in quality. Poverty can harm children's development through a multitude of pathways. Parents are likely to be anxious, depressed, and irritable. There may be increased levels of parent-child conflict and harsh discipline. Poverty also affects the neighborhood and school. High-quality parenting can buffer children from the potential consequences; and interventions can be effective.
The Child in the Family: Family Atmosphere
The peer group can have both positive and negative effects. It opens new perspectives; Helps children learn how to adjust their needs and desires to those of others; and Helps children gauge their abilities and gain a clearer sense of self-efficacy. It can also foster antisocial tendencies, including unhealthy conformity. Peer groups can reinforce prejudice: unfavorable attitudes toward members of certain groups outside one's own, especially racial and ethnic groups.
The Child in the Peer Group: Effects of Peer Relations
Earlier in development young children have difficulty with abstract concepts and with integrating various dimensions of the self. This changes at around age 7 or 8. Representational systems: in neo-Piagetian terminology, the third stage in development of self-definition, characterized by breadth, balance, and the integration and assessment of various aspects of the self.
The Developing Self: Self-Concept
In favor of using IQ tests: Extensive information about validity and reliability; Scores from middle childhood are fairly good predictors of school achievement. Criticisms of IQ tests: The tests can underestimate children who do not test well; The tests do not directly measure native ability, only test current knowledge.
The IQ Controversy
Adolescent rebellion: pattern of emotional turmoil that may involve conflict with family, alienation from adult society, reckless behavior, and rejection of adult values. Full-fledged rebellion is relatively uncommon, even in Western societies. Adolescence can still be a tough time for young people and their parents. Negative emotions and mood swings are more intense in early adolescence; by late adolescence, emotionality tends to become more stable.
The Myth of Adolescent Rebellion
According to Erikson, identity refers to a coherent conception of the self, made up of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is solidly committed. The search for identity comes into focus during the teenage years.
The Search for Identity
Obedience to authority: Ages 2 to 7. Increasing flexibility and autonomy: Ages 7 to 11. Notion of equity: Around age 11 or 12.
Three Stages of Piagetian Moral Reasoning
The early signals of changes of puberty typically begin at: Age 8 in girls; Age 9 in boys. The process takes about 3 to 4 years for both sexes. Race and ethnicity differences: African American and Mexican American girls generally enter puberty earlier than white and Asian American girls. A similar pattern may be emerging among boys. In puberty, the sex organs enlarge and mature. Primary sex characteristics: refers to organs directly related to reproduction. Secondary sex characteristics: refers to physiological signs of sexual maturation that do not involve the sex organs. Such as breast development and growth of body hair. The sequence of changes (the order in which the changes occur) is much more consistent than their timing (or, at what age the changes occur). The principal sign of sexual maturity in boys is the production of sperm. Spermarche: boy's first ejaculation. In girls, the principal sign is menstruation, a monthly shedding of tissue from the lining of the womb (uterus) - her "period." Menarche: girl's first menstruation.
Timing, Signs, and Sequence of Puberty and Sexual Maturity
Instrumental, or proactive, aggressors view force and coercion as effective ways to get what they want. Other children are more likely to engage in hostile or reactive aggression. Hostile attribution bias: tendency to perceive others as trying to hurt one and to strike out in retaliation or self-defense.
Types of Aggression and Social Information Processing
Though the statistics vary from country to country, bullying is a global concern. It occurs regardless of whether a country is wealthy or poor and in every country that has been measured. Bullying and unsafe environments create a climate of fear and insecurity that can lead to negative developmental outcomes. Health promotion and prevention strategies need to address bullying problems to make the world safer for all.
Window on the World: Bullying: A Worldwide Problem
Culture profoundly affects the path development takes. Adults learn to reason in the ways their culture demands and while doing culturally relevant activities.
Window on the World: Culture and Cognition
Young people in tribal or peasant societies spend more of their time producing necessities of life. In some postindustrial societies, pressures of schoolwork and family obligations are strong and adolescents have relatively little free time. U.S. adolescents have a good deal of discretionary time—approximately half of teens' waking hours outside school. They spend a good deal of this with electronic media or interacting with friends, and much less on homework.
Window on the World: Culture and Discretionary Time
Young people in tribal or peasant societies spend more of their time producing necessities of life. In some postindustrial societies, pressures of schoolwork and family obligations are strong and adolescents have relatively little free time. Is this good or bad, in your opinion? U.S. adolescents have a good deal of discretionary time—approximately half of teens' waking hours outside school. They spend a good deal of this with electronic media or interacting with friends, and much less on homework
Window on the World: Culture and Discretionary Time
leading cause of death in school age children in the United States As children take part in more physical activity and are supervised less, accidents are more common 88 percent of brain injuries could be prevented by using helmets. High risks from snowmobiles and trampolines
accidental injuries
occasional and short-term: infections, allergies, flu and warts
acute medical conditions
Adolescence is not a clearly defined physical or biological category—it is a social construction. In the Western world, it was first recognized as a unique period in the life span in the twentieth century (the 1900s). The period of "adolescence" has lengthened as young adults tend to go to school for more years, delay marriage and childbirth, and settle into permanent careers later and less firmly than in the past.
adolescence as social construction
Adolescence is the developmental transition between childhood and adulthood involving major physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes. Puberty is the process by which a person reaches sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce.
adolescence: a developmental transition
Adolescents process information differently than adults do. Development starts in the back and moves forward. Subcortical brain areas, including the limbic and reward centers, mature earlier. Areas generally associated with problem solving, impulse control, goal setting, and planning mature more slowly. Growth and change in the brain makes adolescence particularly susceptible to both beneficial and harmful environmental influences. Cognitive stimulation makes a critical difference.
adolescent brain
Adolescents often develop their own unique terms. Vocabulary may differ by gender, ethnicity, age, geographical region, neighborhood, type of school, and clique. What are some new words that have come to be used in recent years?
adolescent vocal
Individuation: adolescents' struggle for autonomy and personal identity. Both family conflict and positive identification with parents are highest at age 13 and then diminish through age 17. Parents of young adolescents must strike a balance between too much freedom and too much intrusiveness. Family arguments most often concern control over everyday personal matters. There are cultural differences. Connectedness between teens and parents is higher in collectivistic countries.
adolescents and parents
Both adolescents and parents see prudential issues—related to health and safety—as most subject to disclosure. Followed by moral issues, conventional issues, and multifaceted or borderline issues. Both adolescents and parents see personal issues—how teens spend their time and money—as least subject to disclosure. However, among all types, parents tend to want more disclosure than adolescents are willing to provide.
adolescents and parents: parental monitoring
In childhood, most peer interactions are dyadic. In adolescence, the social system becomes more diverse. Cliques: structured groups of friends who do things together. Crowds: larger type of grouping based on reputation, image, or identity. The influence of peers normally peaks at ages 12 to 13. Risk-taking is higher in the company of peers.
adolescents and peers
Friendships in adolescence are likely more intense and important than at any other time in the life span. Friendships become more reciprocal, equal, and stable. Greater intimacy, loyalty, and sharing mark a transition toward adultlike friendships. Adolescents are now better able to express their private thoughts and feelings and consider another person's point of view. Good relationships with friends foster adjustment, which in turn fosters good relationships.
adolescents and peers: friendships
Romantic relationships tend to become more intense and intimate across adolescence. Typically, they move from mixed groups or group dates to one-on-one romantic relationships. Relationships with parents may affect the quality of romantic relationships. Dating violence is a significant problem in the United States. The three common forms are physical, emotional, and sexual. Victims are more likely to do poorly in school and to engage in risky behaviors; and they are subject to eating disorders, depression, and suicide. Risk factors include substance abuse, conflict and/or abuse in the home, and neighborhoods with crime and drug use. Adolescent dating violence is a predictor of adult partner violence.
adolescents and peers: romantic relationships
As a group, adolescents are the primary users of online communication technologies. More than 99% use the Internet, and 88% use it daily for interaction and communication with peers. In general, screen-based media usage is related to decreased well-being on several measures. At times, however, online communication can have positive effects, stimulating social connectedness and improving relationship quality. Electronic bullying is one problem associated with the anonymity of many forms of online communication.
adolescents and peers: social media and electronic interaction
Generally, adolescents tend to be less close to siblings than to friends and are less influenced by them. Sibling conflict declines. Sibling relationships also interact with parent-child relations and the parents' marital relationship. Siblings can exert positive or negative effects on each other. While generally a warm relationship is protective, it can lead to an increased risk of modeling the antisocial behavior of a delinquent sibling.
adolescents and siblings
Aggression declines and changes in form. Children become less aggressive as they grow less egocentric, more empathic, more cooperative, and better able to communicate. Instrumental aggression becomes less common. Hostile aggression, however, proportionately increases and becomes more verbal. Boys continue to engage in more direct aggression, and girls are increasingly more likely to engage in social or indirect aggression. School-age boys who are physically aggressive may become juvenile delinquents.
aggression
Antisocial behavior tends to run in families. Genes alone are not predictors, however. Environmental influences including family, friends, and school affect gene expression. Neurobiological deficits, especially those involving arousal and attentional processes, may also be involved. A crucial variable appears to be the age at which antisocial behavior begins. Early-onset tends to lead to chronic delinquency. Late-onset tends to be temporary. Environmental influences include: Poor parenting practices; Association with antisocial friends; Poverty; and Weak neighborhood social organization. The vast majority of juvenile delinquents do not become adult criminals. Teenagers who do not see positive alternatives are at greatest risk, as are those who show antisocial behavior early.
antisocial behavior and juvenile delinquency
growth: weight: doubles from age 6 to 11; Height:about 2 to 3 inches each year Girls retain more fatty tissue than boys African American boys and girls grow faster than white children
aspects of physical development
By pruning unused dendrites and losing gray matter, a child's brain...
becomes better tuned to the experiences of the child and more efficient
loss in density of gray matter or "pruning of unused dendrites. increase in white ,after or materials that transmit information, another measurement used is thickness of cortex, patterns of development in prefrontal cortex,
brain development
Bullying: aggression deliberately and persistently directed against a particular target, or victim, typically one who is weak, vulnerable, and defenseless. It can be physical, verbal, or relational or emotional. It can be proactive or reactive. Cyberbullying has become increasingly common. Bullying may reflect a genetic tendency combined with environmental influences. Patterns of bullying and victimization may be established as early as kindergarten. Bullying is harmful to both bullies and victims. Both tend to have conduct problems and lower academic achievement. Bullies are at increased risk of delinquency, crime, alcohol abuse, anxiety, and depression. Victims of chronic bullying tend to develop behavior problems. Cyberbullying is often an extension of face-to-face bullying. Being a victim is associated with numerous mental health and academic issues and, for some, elevated risk of suicidal ideation and suicide.
bullies and victims
inherited tendencies, too little exercise/inactivity, too much of the wrong kinds of foods
causes of obesity/overweight
Worldwide, more children are going to school than ever before. With strong instructional and emotional support, first-graders at risk of school failure make progress similar to low-risk peers.
child in school
which of the following is true about health needs?
children need between 1,400 calories t0 2400 calories per day, children need approximately 10 hours of sleep at night, tooth decay is one of the most chronic untreated conditions in childhood
asthma: chronic respiratory disease; and about 12% of children Diabetes: High levels of glucose in blood; Type I and Type II
chronic medical conditions
Seriation: Arranging objects in a series, based on a dimension; Example: Lightest to darkest. Transitive inference: Knowing the relationship between two objects, based on the relationship to a third. Class inclusion: Ability to see relationship between a whole and its parts.
cognitive advances: categorization
Inductive: Starting specific and making generalizations; "My dog barks, her dog barks—all dogs bark!" Deductive: Starting general and then making specific statements; "All dogs bark. Spot is a dog. Spot barks!"
cognitive advances: reasoning
concrete-operational children have a clearer idea of distance from place to place. Better use of maps and models, spiritual relationships and casualty
cognitive development: Piageatian approach
the piagetian stage of development(age 7 to 11), characterized by increased spatial awareness, is called:
concrete operational
While rating peers in terms of popularity, some children said they liked to play with Kurk while others did not. Kurk is
controversial
99% of 3- to 10-year-olds in the United States own at least one Barbie doll. Role models or cultural ideals of beauty? Research suggests age is a factor False stereotypes?
research in action: do barbie dolls affect girls' body images?
Suicide is the second leading cause of death among U.S. 15- to 19-year-olds. Having a firearm in the home is strongly associated with increased risk, and firearms are the most common method. Adolescent girls are more likely to attempt suicide but are more likely to survive. Adolescent boys' greater propensity to use firearms results in a greater chance of a successful attempt. Young people who consider or attempt suicide tend to have histories of emotional illness.
death in adolescence
"All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal." This is an example of:
deductive reasoning
The prevalence of depression increases during adolescence. In 2017, 13.3% of young people aged 12 to17 experienced at least one episode of major depression. Of those, only 41.5% had been treated. It does not necessarily appear as sadness. It may manifest as irritability, boredom, or an inability to experience pleasure. The most effective treatment seems to be a combination of medications and cognitive behavioral therapy.
depression
An estimated 2 million to 3.7 million U.S. children and adolescents have a lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) parent. Research shows no consistent differences in emotional health or parenting skills and attitudes. Where there are differences, they tend to favor gay and lesbian parents. Children of homosexuals are no more likely to be homosexual or to be confused about their gender.
family structure: gay and lesbian parents
The school dropout rate is: Higher for boys than for girls; and Lower for white students than for blacks or Hispanics. Influential factors include low teacher expectations, differential treatment, less teacher support, and the perceived irrelevance of the curriculum to culturally underrepresented groups. Dropouts are more likely to be underemployed or have low incomes; end up on welfare; become involved with drugs, crime, and delinquency; and be in poorer health.
dropping out of high school
which test measures potential, rather than present, achievement?
dynamic test
School is a central organizing experience in most adolescents' lives. Although school offers a wealth of opportunities, some adolescents experience it more as a hindrance.
educational and vocational issues
By age 7 or 8, children are aware of feeling shame and pride, and they have a clearer idea of the difference between guilt and shame. They are also aware of their culture's rules for expressing emotion. When parents are skilled at the recognition of emotions in others, label emotions, and allow children to express emotions, their children understand and recognize emotions better. As children approach early adolescence, parental intolerance of negative emotions may heighten parent-child conflict. Children are better at emotional self-regulation with age. Emotional self-regulation is effortful (voluntary) control of emotions, attention, and behavior. Some children are better at it than others, and how good they are at regulatory strategies has behavioral and academic consequences. Children who have difficulty with identifying and understanding emotions can have social and behavioral issues; but training can be effective. Children tend to become more empathic and more inclined to prosocial behavior in middle childhood.
emotional growth
One-parent families can result from divorce or separation, unwed parenthood, or death. Children are far more likely to live with a single mother, but father-only families are becoming more common. Children in single-parent families do fairly well overall but tend to lag behind socially and educationally. Negative outcomes are not inevitable. One key variable appears to be family stability; income is another important factor.
family structure: one-parent families
For many young people in minority groups, race or ethnicity is central to identity formation. Some research has identified four ethnic identity statuses that follow the pattern set by Marcia: diffused, foreclosed, moratorium, and achieved. Generally, research has found that developing a sense of ethnic identity is beneficial. Cultural socialization: parental practices that teach children about their racial/ethnic heritage and promote cultural practices and cultural pride.
ethnic factors in identity formation
For many young people in minority groups, race or ethnicity is central to identity formation. Some research has identified four ethnic identity statuses that follow the pattern set by Marcia: diffused, foreclosed, moratorium, and achieved. Generally, research has found that developing a sense of ethnic identity is beneficial. Cultural socialization: parental practices that teach children about their racial/ethnic heritage and promote cultural practices and cultural pride. (end lecture here for 10-28-2021)
ethnic factors in identity formation
Abstinence-only sex education programs are generally associated with decreased sexual activity in adolescents.
false
true or false- asthma is the leading cause of death in school aged children in the United States
false
Today, the proportion of children under 18 living with two married parents has declined dramatically. Other things being equal, children tend to do better in families with two continuously married parents. Relationship, quality of parenting, and family atmosphere affect children's adjustment more, however. Family instability may be harmful. The negative effect of family transitions seems strongest earlier in development and for boys. A father's frequent and positive involvement is directly related to a child's well-being.
family structure
Divorce causes stress for all family members. Because family conflict is a consistently identified risk factor for children, however, some children may be as well or better off after a divorce. Children's adjustment depends on: The level of parental conflict before the divorce; The child's age or maturity; Gender and temperament; and Psychosocial development before the divorce. In most divorce cases, the mother gets custody. Research suggests children do better with joint custody, in which the parents share the right and responsibility to make decisions regarding the child. When they have joint physical custody, the child lives part-time with each parent. When one parent has custody, children do better if the parent is warm, supportive, and authoritative; monitors activities; and holds age-appropriate expectations. Conflict between the parents needs to be minimal. Co-parenting has been linked to positive child outcomes. The two people work together in a cooperative fashion to raise the child. Although some children do experience lasting negative consequences, most adjust well. Anxiety connected with parental divorce may surface as children enter adulthood and form intimate relationships of their own.
family structure: adjusting to divorce
Adoption is found in all cultures throughout history. In open adoptions, both parties share information or have direct contact with the child. Generally, these arrangements are beneficial. Whether an adoption is open or closed bears no relation to the children's adjustment or parents' satisfaction, both of which are generally high. While adopted children do tend to have more psychological an academic difficulties, the differences are small.
family structure: adoptive families
Cohabiting families are similar in many ways to married families, but the parents tend to be more disadvantaged. Research shows worse emotional, behavioral, and academic outcomes for children. This difference is primarily the result of differences in economic resources and family instability, however. Cohabiting families are more likely to break up than married families.
family structure: cohabiting families
Executive function—conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions. Prefrontal cortex develops. Processing speed improves. Home environment. Selective attention—ability to shut out distractions. Working memory increases.
information processing
Most divorced parents eventually remarry, and many unwed mothers marry men who were not the fathers of their children. Fifteen percent of U.S. children live in blended families. Adjustment to a new stepparent may be stressful. A child's loyalties may interfere with forming ties. When there is a good relationship with the biological parent before the introduction of a stepparent, children show more positive relationships with their stepparent and better adjustment.
family structure: stepfamilies
an example of an acute medical condition would be
flu
Piaget's final stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to think abstractly:
formal operational
Children look for friends who are like them in age, sex, activity level, and interests. With their friends, children learn to communicate and cooperate. The inevitable quarrels help them learn to resolve conflicts. Children's changing concept of friendship reflects cognitive and emotional growth. Friendship in school-age children is deeper, more reciprocal, and more stable.
friendship
Linguistic: writing, editing, translating Logical: science, business, medicine Bodily: dancing, athletics, surgery Intrapersonal: counseling, psychiatry, spiritual leader Interpersonal: teaching, acting, politics
gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
Boys' and girls' peer groups engage in different activities. Boys more consistently pursue gender-typed activities; play in large groups with well-defined hierarchies; and engage in more competitive and rough-and-tumble play. Girls are more likely to engage in cross-gender activities; and have more intimate conversations and shared confidences. One of the most clearly identified reasons for segregation by sex is because of boys' higher activity levels and more vigorous play. Socialization influences are also involved.
gender and peer groups
Earlier studies described young women as more competent at intimacy than men, and intimacy as more closely related to identity formation for women than for men. More recent research has indicated there are now fewer gender differences in identity status. Changes in social structure and the increased role of women in the workforce may be factors in the change.
gender differences in identity formation
Criterion is high general intelligence: IQ score of 130 or higher. Tends to exclude: Highly creative children; Disadvantaged children; and Children with specific aptitudes.
gifted children
Karrin grew up in a family of doctors who encourages her to go to medical school right out of high school. This is:
identity foreclosure
James Marcia distinguished four types of identity status on the basis of the presence or absence of crisis and commitment. Crisis: Marcia's term for a period of conscious decision making related to identity formation. Commitment: personal investment in an occupation or system of beliefs. Identity achievement: crisis leading to commitment. Foreclosure: commitment without crisis. Moratorium: crisis with no commitment yet. Identity diffusion: no commitment, no crisis. Marcia's categories are not stages; they represent the status of identity development at a particular time and may change in any direction. Also, identity is multidimensional. Some aspects may be in one status while others are in a different status. From late adolescence on, more and more people are in moratorium or achievement: seeking or finding their identity.
identity status- crisis and commitment
Identity versus identity confusion: This is Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development. An adolescent seeks to develop a coherent sense of self, including the role she or he is to play in society. **Identity forms as young people resolve three major issues: The choice of an occupation. The adoption of values to live by. The development of a satisfying sexual identity.
identity vs identity confusion
Early puberty increases the likelihood of accelerated skeletal maturation and psychosocial difficulties. Linked to adult health issues. Also predictive of adult obesity. Both boys and girls face increased risk of social and behavioral difficulties if they are either early-maturing or late-maturing. Effects are most likely to be negative when 1) adolescents are much more or less developed than peers; when 2) they don't see changes as advantageous; and when 3) they face stressful events or pressures—which are greatly affected by context.
implications of pubertal timing
Erikson's forth stage of development, in which children must learn the productive skills their culture requires, is:
industry versus inferiority
Hurting someone until they do what you want is an example of...
instrumental agression
Adolescents can define and discuss abstractions. Love, justice, freedom. They more frequently use such terms as however, otherwise, anyway, therefore, really, and probably. They take pleasure in irony, puns, and metaphors. Adolescents also become more skilled in social perspective-taking.
language development
Slightly more than 6% of boys and 3% of girls under age 18 in the United States receive a diagnosis of behavioral or conduct problems. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD): pattern of behavior, persisting into middle childhood, marked by negativity, hostility, and defiance. Conduct disorder (CD): repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior violating societal norms or the rights of others. Some children experience anxiety disorders. School phobia: unrealistic fear of going to school. Separation anxiety disorder: excessive, prolonged anxiety concerning separation from home or from people to whom a person is attached. Social phobia: extreme fear and/or avoidance of social situations. Generalized anxiety disorder: anxiety not focused on any single target. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses, often leading to compulsive ritual behaviors. Childhood depression is a disorder of mood that goes beyond normal, temporary sadness. Characterized by symptoms such as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide. Exact causes are not known, but depressed children tend to come from families with high levels of parental depression, anxiety, substance abuse, or antisocial behavior. Depression becomes more prevalent during the transition to middle school and in adolescence.
mental health: common emotional problems
Kohlberg described three levels of moral reasoning: Preconventional reality: control is external and rules are obeyed in order to gain rewards or avoid punishment or out of self-interest. Conventional morality (or morality of conventional role conformity): standards of authority figures are internalized. Postconventional morality (or morality of autonomous moral principles): people follow internally held moral principles and can decide among conflicting moral standards. Some adolescents and even some adults remain at the first level, preconventional morality. They seek merely to avoid punishment or satisfy their needs. Note: Just because a person is capable of moral reasoning does not necessarily mean the person actually engages in it. There is not always a clear relationship between moral reasoning and moral behavior. Research has not supported all of Kohlberg's views, and his system may hold cultural biases.
moral reasoning: Kohlberg's theory
children need about 2,400 calories per day: less than 10 percent of calories should come from saturated fat.
nutrition in middle childhood
Homosexuality is not a mental illness. Several decades of research have found no association between homosexuality and emotional or social problems. Sexual orientation seems to be at least partly genetic. Other variables that have been implicated: The more older biological brothers a man has, the more likely he is to be gay. Differential exposure to hormones in utero (as observed in the 2D:4D finger ratio) appears to have some influence. Imaging studies have found similarities in the brains of homosexuals and heterosexuals of the other sex.
origins of sexual orientation
which of the following types of relationships tends to be most influential in adolescence
peer relationships
Exercise, or lack of it, affects both physical and mental health. Only one-third of U.S. high school students engage in the recommended amount of physical activity. Males are twice as likely to meet the guidelines as females. Adolescents show a steep drop in physical activity upon entering puberty. U.S. adolescents exercise less than in previous generations and less than those other industrialized countries.
physical activity
Sociometric popularity tallies positive nominations (who children like to play with, who they like, or who they think other kids like) and negative nominations. Popular children generally have superior social skills, are high achievers, and are assertive. Children can be unpopular in one of two ways: some are rejected; others are neglected. Other children are either average or controversial—the latter receiving many positive and negative nominations. Popularity, important in middle childhood, is influenced by family context.
popularity
The practical use of language to communicate. Use of conversational skills: Asking questions before introducing a topic, to make sure the other person is familiar. Use of narrative skills: Starting to describe motives and causal links when telling stories.
pragmatics
Taro is speeding on the highway, but stops when they see a police car because they do not want to get a ticket. This is:
preconventional morality
Self-efficacy and parents' values both help shape the occupational options students consider and the way they prepare for careers. There are still gender differences in career choices. One important factor is gender stereotyping. Adolescents tend to forgo college for a variety of reasons. Some have financial constraints. Some have the means and ability but prefer to begin working. In the United States, vocational counseling is generally oriented toward college-bound youth.
preparing for higher education or vocations
Preventive efforts should attack the multiple factors that can lead to delinquency. Once children reach adolescence, interventions need to focus on spotting troubled teens and preventing gang recruitment. Successful programs boost parenting skills. Some programs are counterproductive, bringing groups of deviant youth together. More effective programs integrate deviant youth into the nondeviant mainstream.
preventing and treating delinquency
Less time in front of TV and computers, healthier school meals, education to help children make better food choices, regular physical activity, parents should address eating patterns before the child becomes overweight
prevention and treatment of overweight
Prosocial behavior typically increases from childhood through adolescence. Parents play a role in modeling these behaviors. Girls tend to show more prosocial behavior and empathic concern than boys. Peers may reinforce positive prosocial development. Volunteering is a common form of prosocial behavior. About half of adolescents engage in some sort of community service or volunteer activity.
prosocial behavior
Both adolescents and parents see ____ issues as most subject to disclosure.
prudential
Children identify print in two ways: Decoding: Emphasizes phonetic, or code-emphasis, approach. Visually Based Retrieval: Whole-language approach.
reading
games tend to be informal and spontaneous. Boys are more physical. Girls tend to favor games with verbal expression(jump rope) Rough and tumble play: Vigorous play that involves wrestling, kicking, chasing, and screaming; Seems to be universal
recess-time play
Repeating a phone number over and over before you dial it is an example of which memory strategy?
rehearsal
As with other relationships, technology is playing an increasingly large role in adolescent romantic relationships. Teenagers with online romantic partners may: Be popular offline as well as online; or Have difficulty forming offline relationships. Information on social media is often used to "check out" new romantic prospects and "signal" interest. More problematically, electronic communication can also be used for "sexting," which has been linked with other risky behaviors.
research in action: teen dating and technology
Resilient children: those who weather adverse circumstances, function well despite challenges or threats, or bounce back from traumatic events. Two protective factors contribute most to resilience: Good family relationships. Cognitive functioning.
resilience
arranging sticks in order of length, from shortest to longest is an example of which cognitive ability?
seriation
Sexual orientation among high school students: Slightly over 85% identify as heterosexual; 2.4% identify as gay or lesbian; 8% identify as bisexual; and 4.2% are unsure of their sexual identity. Median age to first have sex: For girls, 17.8 years. For boys, 18.1 years. African Americans tend to begin sexual activity earlier. Latino boys tend to have sex earlier, while Latino girls tend to have sex slightly later. Two major concerns about adolescent sexual activity are sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and pregnancy. Most at risk are those who start sexual activity early, have multiple partners, do not use contraceptives regularly, and have inadequate information. One proposed protective factor is a sense of meaning in life. Peer group norms exert a powerful influence.
sexual behavior
Sexual orientation: focus of consistent sexual, romantic, and affectionate interest, either heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual. Many young people have one or more homosexual experiences, but isolated experiences do not determine sexual orientation. Although there is increasing acceptance of homosexuality in the United States, African American, Hispanic, and older adults are more likely to hold negative views.
sexual orientation and identity
Achieving sexual identity involves: Seeing oneself as a sexual being; Recognizing one's sexual orientation; and Forming romantic or sexual attachments. Awareness of sexuality is an important aspect of identity formation.
sexuality
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs): infections and diseases spread by sexual contact. Despite the fact that teens are at higher risk for STIs, they tend to perceive their own personal risk as low. The most common STI is human papilloma virus (HPV). Accounts for about half of all STIs in 15- to 24-year-olds. The leading cause of cervical cancer in women. A vaccine became available in 2006. The most common curable STIs: Chlamydia; and Gonorrhea. Other STIs include: Syphilis; Genital herpes simplex; Hepatitis B; Trichomoniasis; and Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Comprehensive sex and STI/HIV education is critical to promoting responsible decision making and controlling the spread of STIs. More than 60% of programs that emphasized abstinence and condom use delayed and/or reduced sexual activity and increased the use of condoms or contraceptives. These programs did not increase sexual activity. Programs that emphasized abstinence only have shown little evidence of affecting sexual behavior.
sexually transmitted infections
The number of siblings and their spacing, birth order, and gender often determines roles and relationships. Sibling relationships are often characterized by both support and conflict. Conflict can help children learn conflict resolution. High sibling conflict can have negative effects, however. Gender has an influence. Sisters are higher in sibling intimacy. Siblings also influence each other indirectly, through their impact on each other's relationship with their parents.
sibling relationships
Average sleep declines to less than eight hours at age 16. Adolescents' need for sleep is greater than when they were younger, but they are not getting the sleep they need in the U.S. Both behavioral and biological changes are behind adolescents' sleep problems. *School schedules are typically out of sync with adolescents' biological rhythms, such as having adolescents start the school day early in the morning.
sleep needs and problems
children age 9 need approximately 10 hours a night: should be alert in the daytime
sleep needs in middle childhood
approximately 40% of 9- to 13 year olds participate in organized athletics. To improve motor skills, sports programs should: Offer a variety of sports; coach toward skill building, not winning
sports and other activities
Declines in teenage pregnancy and childbearing have occurred among all population groups in the United States. More than half of pregnant teenagers have their babies. Seventy-five percent of teenagers describe their pregnancies as unintended. Half occur within 6 months of sexual initiation. Teenage pregnancies often have poor outcomes. Many of the mothers are impoverished and poorly educated. Many get inadequate prenatal care or none at all. Babies are likely to be premature or dangerously small and are at heightened risk of other birth complications. Teenage unwed mothers and their families are likely to suffer financially; mothers are likely to drop out of school and to have repeated pregnancies. Comprehensive adolescent pregnancy and home visitation programs seem to contribute to good outcomes, as does contact with the father and a religious community. Adolescents get their information about sex primarily from friends, parents, sex education in school, and the media. Adolescents who can talk about sex with older siblings and parents are more likely to have positive attitudes toward safer sexual practices. The media present a distorted view of sexual activity and rarely show the risks of unprotected sex. Comprehensive sex education (which encourages abstinence but also discusses safer sexual practices) has been found to delay sexual initiation and increase contraceptive use.
teenage pregnancy and childbearing
About 6 out of 10 television programs portray violence. Usually glamorized, glorified, or trivialized. Most studies support a causal relationship between media violence and aggressive behavior. The influence is stronger if the child believes the violence is real, identifies with the violent character, finds that character attractive, and watches without supervision or intervention. Video game violence may have a stronger effect than more passive media.
the influence of media violence on aggression
Adolescents' tendency to believe they are special, their experience is unique, and they do not have to follow the rules:
the personal fable
Identity: according to Erikson, a coherent conception of the self, made up of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is solidly committed. The search for identity comes into focus during the teenage years.
the search for identity
Individual psychotherapy: a therapist sees a troubled person one-on-one. Family therapy: a therapist sees the whole family together. Behavior therapy: approach using principles of learning theory to encourage desired behaviors or discourage undesired ones. Art therapy and play therapy. Drug therapy: antidepressants, stimulants, tranquilizers, or antipsychotic medications.
treatment techniques
True or false: School schedules are typically out of sync with adolescents' biological rhythms
true
sTrue or false Adolescents with LGBTQ parents do not show differences in outcomes, such as cognitive development, gender identity, etc.
true
meta memory: knowledge about the process of memory
understanding memory
Substance abuse: repeated, harmful use of a substance, usually alcohol or other drugs (alcohol is a drug). Substance dependence: addiction (physical, or psychological, or both) to a harmful substance. Nearly half of U.S. adolescents have tried illicit drugs by the time they leave high school. A recent trend is abuse of nonprescription cough and cold medications. There has also been a general increase in opioid abuse. The majority of U.S. high school students who drink engage in binge drinking: consuming five or more drinks (for men) or four or more drinks (for women) on one occasion. Those who drink show changes in key prefrontal areas of the brain involved in executive control, as well as areas involved in reward mechanisms. Marijuana is still by far the most widely used drug in the United States; and about 1 in 17 high school seniors uses it daily. Adolescent use of cigarettes is a major concern because the vast majority of lifelong smokers begin in adolescence. E-cigarette use may lead to cigarette smoking.
use and abuse of drugs
Teens in their first relationship who are more likely to use contraception are those that: Delay intercourse; Discuss contraception before having sex; or Use more than one method of contraception. The best safeguard is regular use of condoms, which give some protection against STIs as well as against pregnancy. Almost half of adolescent females and about a third of adolescent males report not using a condom during their last sexual encounter. Adolescents who start using prescription contraceptives often stop using condoms.
use of contraceptives
Develop along with reading. Early compositions are short. Child must keep in mind many restraints: Spelling; Punctuation and grammar; and Capitalization.
writing skills
