J1100 Final Study Guide
PRSA definition of public relations (2011-2012)
"PR is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics"
negativity bias
"positive" news = "soft" news the harder the news, the better crime = the hardest of the hard news solution: following an objective method will help journalists determine the appropriate tone and level of criticism
"failed" theories of the First Amendment
"right to know" -pro: constitutional right to access info would be stronger than a statutory right -con: litigation would be expensive -con: courts may have to define who a journalist is "right of access" (to broadcast channels) -pro: ensures broad participation in public debate -con: infringes on the rights of broadcasts
role of the internet as a disruptive and/or stabilizing force in global media
"world is flat" perspective -the internet opens up new spaces, promotes social and political advances for all people, everywhere "identity changer" perspective -the internet helps the historically disadvantaged affirm their culture -but also threatens to make all cultures the same "world-system theory" perspective -the internet reinforces the global predominance of American/Western/regional powers' media
infotainment and sensationalism
"yellow journalism" the act of making news more entertaining; stories were mainly about celebrity and true crime
Robert Dewey
- much more optimistic - conversation is the root of democracy - democracy is a process, not an outcome
Walter Lippmann
- was pessimistic about democracy (use WWI as inspiration) - the world is too complex for an ordinary person to take in - limiting factors: *limitations of social contact *little time in a day for paying attention to public affairs *Distortion: events have to be compressed into very short messages *we have a small vocab with which to express a complicated world *fear of change and the unknown (ignorance is bliss)
media in Brazil
-Globo Network *largest media company in Latin America *formerly the mouthpiece of the military dictatorship (1965-1985) *50% market share in Brazil *link between "libertarian" and "authoritarian" models -vibrant news magazine market *Veja (connections to military) *Epoca (right-leaning) *Istoé (left-leaning)
Who was Hugo Chávez? What things did he do that he's known for
-first came into the spotlight as the leader of the failed 1992 coup d'état -in 1998, he ran for president and won -throughout his presidency, he passed many laws against the media: the "media war" and the "communication hegemony" -starred in Aló Presidente (1999 - 2013) which was the centerpiece of the administration's media strategy in which Chávez would get on TV and talk to his people for hours at a time (avg duration: 6 hours; number of episodes: 378; total time on air: 1,696 hours and 44 minutes -also did Cadenas (smaller broadcasts to the people; 1999 - 2007)
media of Al-Jazeera
-funded by the Emir of Qatar (Emir = kind of royalty) -global presence via satellite -offers alternative perspectives to global events -evidence of lack of editorial independence -challenges traditional "authoritarian" model from 4 theories
media in India
-hundreds of newspapers have been successful due mainly to linguistic diversity -advocacy journalism: inform audiences about what possible actions can be taken to solve problems -ZEE News (major cable network)
media in China
-state control of media *Chinese central TV *Xinhua News Agency *China Daily (English language paper) -boom in online platforms and social networks *Baidu (search), Tencent (games) -censorship is common *but citizens are clever
What has been the impact of these business of journalism terms/concepts/trends on the practice of journalism, both in general and specifically?
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news as a social construct
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targeting the news/disengagement from communities
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4 alternatives to gatekeeping theory
1. "curation" or "aggregation" - journalists present audiences with a menu of the most important news that has gotten through the gates (ex: Newsy, Google) 2. "networked gatekeeping" - journalists send news through the gates to a networked audience which processes the news 3. "secondary gatekeeping" - journalists decide what user-generated content is most important to show their audiences (ex: comments on online posts) 4. "going viral" - the crowd act as gatekeepers, journalists play catch-up (ex: relies on crowd to choose to share it, etc)
five main exceptions to the first amendment
1. "true threats" -threat of bodily harm that you really mean 2. "incitement to imminent lawless action" -ex: riots 3. "fighting words" -words said "in someone's face" that provoke immediate physical confrontation 4. "obscenity" -sexual depictions that appeal to "prurient" interests 5. "false advertising" -misleading, false, or unproven information used to advertise products
5 distinct functions the public requires of journalism
1. Intelligent Aggregator (or Curator) - playing editor of the rest of the info available 2. Forum Leader - organizing public discussion that reflects journalistic values 3. Empowerer - providing audiences with tools and info needed for them to act for themselves 4. Role Model - presenting themselves in a way that reflects well on them and their brand 5. Community Builder - helping to solve problems that confront individuals and community
four essential questions (making the significant interesting and relevant, K&R p. 224)
1. What is the story really about? 2. Who is affected and how? 3. Who has the info, and who can put it in context? 4. What's the best way to tell the story?
PR ethics
1. advocacy - acting as responsible advocates for those they represent 2. honesty - adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth 3. independence - provide objective council for those they represent; they are accountable for their actions 4. loyalty - faithful to those they represent, while honoring their obligation to serve the public interest 5. fairness - respect all opinions and support the right of free expression
4 societal roles of journalists
1. be the Authenticator - verify what info is reliable 2. be a Sense Maker - put events in context in a way that turns info into knowledge 3. Bear Witness to events - journalists are not merely commenters on things that happen; they remain watchful so there IS a witness 4. Watchdog - uncovering wrongdoing
6 ways to reduce offensiveness
1. bolstering: "has done good before" 2. minimization: "not as bad as it seems" 3. differentiation: "not stealing, borrowing" 4. transcendence: "ends justify the means" 5. attacking accuser: blaming victim 6. compensation: "I'll pay to reduce offensiveness"
main sources of US law (4)
1. constitution (federal and state) 2. statutes (federal and state) 3. common law 4. administrative law - comes from agencies in the federal govt (ex: FDA, USDA)
what democracy needs from journalism (5)
1. dissemination of info 2. accountability - to comfort the afflicted, and to afflict the comfortable 3. representation - ensure that many voices are hard 4. deliberation 5. conflict resolution
5 factors that shape journalism
1. economic 2. political 3. legal 4. cultural 5. technological
7 elements of democracy
1. free elections 2. full enfranchisement 3. each vote is equal 4. majority rule (with caveats) 5. independent judiciary 6. equality before the law 7. guarantees of civil liberties (freedom of speech/press/assembly)
3 points in handling crisis management communication
1. important to focus on the people 2. tell how the crisis situation is being remedied 3. be open to criticism early if the organization is at fault
5 forces of gatekeeping
1. individual - a person makes the decision to allow info to pass through or not 2. communication routines - gathering news, making it through production process 3. organizational - organization makes rules about the distribution of info 4. social institutions 5. cultural - people in different areas respond in different ways
5 core functions of journalism/how the press fulfills democratic needs
1. informs, analyzes, interprets, and explains 2. investigates 3. creates public conversation 4. helps generate social empathy 5. encourages a culture of accountability 6. mobilizes participation (extra one)
9 paths to news stories
1. issues or trends 2. explanatory pieces 3. profile 4. voices 5. descriptive 6. investigative 7. narrative 8. visual 9. data
10 elements of journalism
1. journalism's first obligation is to truth 2. its first loyalty is to citizens 3. its essence is a discipline of verification 4. its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover 5. it must serve as an independent monitor of power 6. it must provide a forum for public criticism 7. it must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant 8. it must keep the news comprehensive and proportional 9. its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience 10. citizens have rights and responsibilities when it comes to news as well
7 definition/types of metrics
1. page views 2. concurrent visitors 3. unique visitors 4. time spent on page and site 5. number of pages visited per session 6. bounce rate (single-page visits) 7. number of times item is shared/commented on
core ideals of US journalism (4)
1. publication enshrined in the first amendment 2. free press is best achieved through free market 3. free competition leads truth to triumph over falsehood 4. principle enemy of freedom is the state
ethical decision-making process (9 steps)
1. start with an open mind 2. get all the facts you can - journalistic facts - professional facts (what are the politics) - legal facts (are there laws?) - social/political facts - big picture facts (how will citizens react?) 3. listen to your gut 4. identify which duties are at stake (perfect or imperfect?) 5. figure out which kind of conflict you're facing - ethical dilemma - ethical distress 6. brainstorm and analyze 7. reach a conclusion/make a decision 8. try to minimize possible harm 9. look toward the future
3 metaphors of journalism
1. the mirror - reflect society as it is, not as we would like it to be 2. the watchdog - will bark to sound the alarm - will bite to defend the little guy 3. the marketplace - will provide a robust "marketplace of ideas" to ensure we get a range of topics, views, issues, etc
5 keys to a news company being committed to citizens
1. the owner must be committed to citizens first 2. hire business managers who also put citizens first 3. journalists have final say over news 4. set and communicate clear standards internally 5. communicate clear standards to public as well
7 elements of newsworthiness
1. timeliness (immediacy) 2. impact (the issue's effect on the public) 3. currency (is it current?) 4. conflict (the stuff of storytelling aka action, villains, heroes) 5. novelty/emotions (human interest stories) 6. prominence (prominent individuals aka politicians, actors, athletes, etc) 7. proximity (news events taking place in close areas)
5 categories of ethics: ethical theory/philosophical backgrounds
1. virtue: temperance, middle ground, between two extremes 2. duty (deontological, obligation-based ethics): obligation to act morally 3. utility (teleological, consequentialist ethics): greatest good for the greatest number 4. rights (Rawls' "veil of ignorance"): negotiating rights as though everyone is equal 5. love/caring: persons as ends in themselves a sixth - ethical egoism: "everyone needs the same things I do"; popular but not accepted
60 Minutes' effect on value of news to networks
60 Minutes demonstrated that news could make a profit; then every news company shifted toward a more profitable format and they were essentially expected to make money
reporter's privilege/shield laws
Branzburg v. Hayes - requiring journalists to appear and testify before state and federal grand juries does not abridge the freedom of speech and press guaranteed by the 1st amendment. Another problem - should the court define who IS a journalist? absolute privileges: all journalists protected in all contexts qualified privileges: only some journalists protected in some contexts
alternative distribution methods (6)
Content Aggregation: - Google News and Upworthy Social Media: - Facebook: a case of dependence (algorithm based on friends) - Twitter: drinking from the firehose (a flood of information) Search Terms: - Bleacher Report, Huffington Post Connection with Legacy Media: - podcasts Specialized Distribution: - podcasts (iTunes, Stitcher) Exposure: - free is good to some extent to grow readership
alternative delivery methods
Convergence: - ability to tell stories through multiple media on multiple platforms - benefit: news acumen and tech skills mutually support each other - criticism: "while you're there" journalism (get all of these things at once) * spreading journalists too thin Mobile: - gets to the audience - expectation: news is pushed rather than pulled - social data, location tracking, and news - "Mobile means 'me,' what's around me right now. Mobile means context, and thus relevance" Podcasts: - simple to access and relatively cheap to produce - fit well with ad-based business model and social media subscription model - binge-able - blend news with entertainment, audience engagement, and cultural icons
Early US Press
Early press was noisy and partisan - No notion of objectivity or public service - Goal was to support political parties and make money They remained a check on power
what advertising the FTC and the FDA regulate
FTC: -ads must be truthful and non-deceptive -claims must be backed up by evidence FDA: -ads must substantiate claims about food and medicine
the "New Big 5"
Google Facebook Amazon Microsoft Apple
alternative focuses
Hyperlocal: - intense focus on locality, community news defined by geography, often with a single-issue lens (alt focus) - ex: Voice of San Diego, Columbia Daily Tribune Neighborhoods site True "Alternatives" - gives a different perspective - ex: Deadspin, Gawker Media Ideological News - journalism of affirmation - ex: The Blaze Fact-Checking Sites - fact checks politicians - ex: Politifact
impact of the Jayson Blair case
NYT reporter, claimed to report from TX, MD, WV, among other places fabricated comments, made up scenes, appropriated material, and took details from photos/called sources for descriptions of the scene his actions undermined the NYT and potentially damaged its relationship with the readers who depend on it
sources of tension between PR and journalism (4)
PR firms recruiting from journalists for new talent countering truths reporters seek to bring to the public manipulating reporters blocking access to key people
media in Western Europe
Partisan Newspaper Models -Spain: El País (left-leaning), El Mundo, ABC (right-leaning) -Italy: ownership of press by political parties Divisions by class among papers -elite national papers (literary style) -national and regional papers with mass appeal *e.g. The Guardian or Times vs. The Sun or Daily Mail -product of rigidly stratified society
alternative business models
Pay Wall: - hard: minimum to no content without subscription (ex: Wall Street Journal) - soft: limited page views within a set time period (ex: New York Times, smaller news sites like Columbia Daily Tribune) - metered: allow users a set number of page views, then charge for further access Patronage/Donation Models: - non-profit journalism *ProPublica *Iowa Watch *Voice of San Diego - foundation sponsorship of specific projects *"reporting on demand" *ex: Ford foundation grand for LA Times coverage of Latin America and Brazil - crowd funding
media in Europe
Public Media Model -European Broadcasting Union (supranational) *BBC, GRF (France) -philosophy: the state should play a role in creating an informed citizenry
Rolling Stones case (why it's bad for journalism)
Rolling Stone reporter Sabrina Rubin Erdely told a false story about a rape case on a college campus. She failed to fact check/verify and fell victim to confirmation bias. "Jackie" told them what they wanted to hear; also used several anonymous sources, failed to dig deeper into the story, didn't push Jackie to give more info for fear of causing Jackie to not cooperate with the story at all bad for journalism because it resulted in citizens being less trusting of the news, loss of credibility, gave the appearance that these stories were sensationalized to attract readers/revenue, breaks first two elements of journalism (first obligation is to the truth, first loyalty is to citizens)
social responsibility theory
Spiderman theory: "With great power comes great responsibility"
journalism in Venezuela
TV is at the top of the media hierarchy -98% penetration rate private sector dominates the industry four national channels -private channels attract 88% of audience four channels increased to seven by 2013 (?) AUTHORITARIAN MODEL
Hutchins Commission
The Commission on Freedom of the Press (1947) Commissioned by Time publisher, Henry Luce to investigate condition of US press freedom Argument: the press is endangering its own freedom Context: sensationalism, ownership concentration, WWII journalism is a public service and ought to be conducted professionally - rights come with responsibilities today referred to as the "social responsibility theory of the press"
the "Big 6"
Time Warner: HBO, Time Magazine, DC News Corp: Fox, National Geographic, Wall Street Journal, 20th Century Fox Disney: Pixar, Marvel, Lucas Film, History Channel ViaCom: Nickelodeon, MTV, Comedy Central CBS: CW (co-own with Time Warner), CBS, Simon and Schuster Comcast: NBC, Weather Channel, Universal Studios
flow
U.S. Media productions go out to other countries (and foreign media comes in)
differences between PR and journalism
Walter Lippmann worried that PR pros held too much sway over American public opinion In 1932, Stanley Walker, editor at the New York Herald Tribune, had a negative view of PR agents journalists see themselves as part of public service, but some see PR as part of pseudo-profession created to distort facts -journalists as "truth seekers" vs "sleazy" PR pros
morality
a code of conduct; this term can refer either to a description of how a group or society actually behaves (what norms it follows) or to a more universal code of conduct that everyone should endorse
seditious libel
a crime that was punishable by death in England libel = statement that harms someone's reputation seditious = libel about government authority
plagiarism
a kind of intellectual theft, in which one passes off someone else's work and ideas as one's own
Definition of journalism
a set of transparent, independent procedures aimed at gathering, verifying, and reporting truthful information of consequence to citizens in a democracy (C&D)
inverted pyramid
a style in newswriting that puts the most important information at the top or beginning and the less important information is at the bottom method has been around for a long time even though it is not the best method
breaking news
a sudden, compelling news event
stakeholder wheel
a technique to help make coverage of issues more engaging; think about "stakeholders" aka the people who are invested in or affected by events using this technique helps the storyteller to focus on the audience and the community
audience metrics
a way to track audience activity and gain an understanding of what the audience is interested in
expression and the first amendment
ability to speak and practice freely
packages
an edited set of video clips for a broadcast news story
newsroom policies for granting anonymity (4)
an editor must know the source (to prevent fabrications) the story must be of great public significance anonymity should be last resort reasons for anonymity should be explained in the story
press release
announcement written in the style of a news report that presents new information about an individual, company, or organization to the news media
professional journalism
anyone can theoretically "perform" journalistic acts, but not everyone is professional at it - professional journalists get paid to do it; pro journalism vs citizen journalism
branding journalism organizations
begins with differentiation (what do we do that's different/better than anyone else?) must understand if/when change is needed corporate identities are defined by audiences requires knowledge of who the audience is that's defining you
sedition
behavior that incites rebellion or civil disorder against government authority
ethical decision-making
being able to recognize which obligations are most at stake in any given situation and to weigh them against one another (C&D, p. 156) duties aren't ranked, but nonmaleficence usually takes precedence (perfect duties usually come before imperfect)
imperfect duties
beneficence: improve the lives of others gratitude: showing appreciation for what others have done for you distributive justice: distribute social goods in a way that benefits the least advantaged people honesty: tell the truth (imperfect because sometimes you lie a little bit) self-improvement: while protecting others, we need to protect ourselves
Kovach and Rosentiel's challenges to operating under a journalism of verification (2)
bias the public can talk to each other rather than waiting for journalists, making the process of verification more public and more collaborative
structural biases in journalism
biases caused by a system rather than a person or group
professionalism (6)
characteristics of a profession: 1. full-time employment 2. standardized educational system 3. membership in local/national associations 4. enforceable codes of professional ethics 5. licensed to practice 6. monopoly over the field *the last is the only one that journalism falls under, however it can still be practiced professionally
pseudo-events
circumstances used for the sole purpose of gaining coverage
Edward Bernays
coined "public relations counsel" observed patterns of how people behave and tried to predict or influence their behavior the "torches of freedom" campaign
anonymity
condition of having no name or an unknown name
no formal self-policing in journalism ethics
consumers act like policy regulation; not one standard ethical code no laws, regulations, or licensing
reasons journalists use sources (4)
credibility -official sources lend authority to a story predictability -public officials are a consistent source for news accessibility -cheaper and easier to attend a press briefing than to fly to Syria, for example excuse for objectivity -journalists can't offer their own opinions so they require other credible opinions
"pseudo events"
describes events or activities that serve little to no purpose other than to be reproduced through advertisements or other forms of publicity
"expert" model
emphasizes proficiency; professional standards model
"egalitarian" model
emphasizes rights and privileges; legal model
objectivity as a method
ensures personal bias would not undermine journalism
factors that lead to 2008 crisis in journalism business model
epicenter: newspapers -drop in circulation and in ad revenue -massive loss of jobs 1. newspaper chains carried loads of debt 2. high expectations for annual growth not being met 3. 2008 financial crisis, Great Recession 4. monopoly on news challenged with the rise of blogging, citizen journalism 5. change in consumption patterns, particularly among young people 6. decline in classified revenue (Craigslist effect) 7. online ads not worth as much as print ads (dollars to dimes) 8. online delivery seen as complementing print delivery (content given away for free online to entice people into print subscriptions)
subscriptions
equal around 20% of revenue for news companies gives the paper a sense of value helps to track audiences - sheer numbers - demographics that data is given to advertisers
ethics vs personal feelings, religion, law, societal standards
ethics are NONE of these things not related to personal feelings, religion, law, societal standards
difference between law and ethics
ethics: -concerned with "right" vs "wrong" -self-legislated and self-enforced *relies on personal values and values of private organizations -adjudicated by social stigma more flexible than legal norms law: -concerned with legal vs illegal -enforced by agents of the government -enforced through punishment (or threat of punishment) -more rigid than ethical norms
state shield laws
ex: Sunshine, FOIA laws that protect journalists from having to release the identity of their sources; states have different laws, so there isn't a national law
sock-puppeting
falsely claiming to be an impartial reviewer of a product and service "Bloggers who make an endorsement must disclose the material connections they share with the seller of the product or service"
perfect duties
fidelity: keeping your promises nonmaleficence (non-injury): do no harm reparation: you make up for the harm that you've caused (a perfect duty only if the harm was intentional) respect: treat everyone as autonomous human beings formal justice: giving people what they've legitimately earned
press agents
first PR practitioners sought to advance a client's image through media exposure, such as stunts staged for newspapers
global media flows (4) and counter-flows (2)
flows -Hollywood -pop music -super bowl -US news counter-flows -telenovelas ("Ugly Betty") -premier league soccer
Ivy Lee "Poison Ivy"
focused on interpreting facts and "engineering consent" three key principles: -openness -supply information -accuracy
Federal FOIA (Freedom of Information Act)
focuses on federal agency records of the executive branch of government (e.g. EPA, FAA, FBI, etc) exemptions include: -national security -personal privacy -trade secrets states have FOI laws, too -Sunshine laws (Missouri "Sunshine Law")
news media and public opinion: framing
frames "organize the presentation of facts and opinions" within a news story "frames shape individual understanding and opinion concerning an issue by stressing specific elements or features of broader controversy, reducing a usually complex issue down to one or two central aspects" where do frames come from? -interpretations of events -journalistic practices -social norms -elites episodic framing: present on-the-scene coverage of "hard" news and are often visually compelling thematic: coverage of related background material; requires in-depth, interpretive analysis
accuracy vs truth
get the facts right, making sense of the facts societies depend on accuracte information "A journalism built merely on accuracy fails to serve contemporary civil society"
purposes of official ethical codes/policies
gives journalists a set code of ethics to revert back to not every media outlet has written ethical guidelines
prior restraint
government preventing the press from publishing Near v. Minnesota (1931): prior restraints are presumed unconstitutional -possible exception: reporting details of troop movements New York Times v. United States (1971): Pentagon Papers; prior restraint is very rare, and only allowable if publication would cause inevitable, immediate and irreversible harm
outside pressures on journalism (5)
governments -pressure from the law -use of law to intimidate market -pressure to create content at low cost, high reward -pressure of sensationalism -structure/routine of the news organization (ie: 24/7 news cycle) -think two media models advertisers -exert the "power of the purse" public relations -seek to frame the news agenda for their citizens sources -issues of access and representativeness (especially since journalists now compete with lots more gatekeepers)
"mean world" syndrome
heavy TV viewing cultivates exaggerated perceptions of victimization, mistrust, and danger along with numerous inaccurate beliefs about crime and law enforcement
fallacy of targeted demographics/service to diverse communities
identifying how stories engage undeserved audiences and communities (?)
ethics of metrics
identifying storytelling formats that include engagement identifying stories to engage undeserved audiences and communities distinguishing supplementary content that is valuable in particular contexts finding better pathways for linking info triangulating info to identify emergent patterns
metrics and motivated reasoning
if a story scores high with metrics, journalists will say "they knew it all along" if a story scores low, journalists will say the metrics don't matter
anti-government bias
if the news media is supposed to be the watchdog for the people against the government, will government programs or policies ever receive "fair" coverage? problem: "fairness" and "criticism" are not mutually exclusive BUT: criticism can turn into unfairness if the journalist does not follow a rigorous objective method of reporting ex: TARP (bank assistance in 2008) fund (bias bailout = inherently bad)
why should anonymity be the last resort? (3)
if the source isn't provided, it can't be verified an attack based solely on anonymous sources denies the accused the opportunity to confront the accuser anonymity allows individuals to accuse political opponents without fear
news media and public opinion: agenda-setting
increases the importance of particular issues telling audiences "what to think about" not "what to think" ex: in political campaigns, news media will select and cover what they believe are the most important issues -implication: voters will be more likely to consider those issues as important to them case: court reporting -stories tend to focus on violent crimes -stories tend to focus on primary attention on defendants -stories tend to focus on arraignment, verdict, and sentencing rather than the workings of the trials themselves -implications: public knows very little about common legal procedure
two primary approaches in PR today
independent PR agencies -corporations or organizations hire PR agents out in-house PR staffs -PR agents that are a part of a corporation's staff
uncontrolled information
info that is disseminated to the public where the media can use whatever info they want and leave other info out; can't control it
advocacy
info vs advocacy - info is objective, while advocacy promotes a particular idea
controlled information
info where your organization has total control over the info released
defamation
injuring someone's reputation by publishing false information New York Times v. Sullivan (1964): public officials must prove that journalists acted with "reckless disregard" for the truth to recover damages of defamation -very hard to prove -10 years later: Supreme Court said that private individuals only need to show that journalists were negligent with reporting
seven main theories/purposes of the First Amendment
instrumental: 1. to provide a marketplace of ideas so that people can discover truth 2. to ensure self-governance 3. to check government power 4. to act as a safety valve 5. to create a tradition of dissent 6. to prepare ourselves for handling extreme ideas intrinsic: 7. individual self-fulfillment
journalism of aggregation
internet giants collect bits and pieces of news from different sources (ex: Google News, Newsy.com)
journalism's first obligation
is to the truth
tools for news production (yesterday and today) and the implications of these changes
journalism retains its first principles no matter the medium - print, on video, the web, on Twitter, etc even while the form of journalism changes fundamentally, the process changes only slightly and its value doesn't change at all
journalism of assertion
journalism that asserts that it's correct, not focused on verifying the information
journalism of verification
journalism that constantly fact checks to make sure they're reporting truth
journalism of affirmation
journalism that is done to reaffirm the preconceptions we already have (ex: Talk show hosts)
newsroom diversity (and its relation to ethics)
journalists have a responsibility to challenge everyone within the newsroom; newsroom should represent society
journalism as an act of character/obligation to exercise personal conscience
journalists have a responsibility to voice their personal conscience out loud and allow others around them to do so as well
definition of journalistic independence
journalists need to be free of constraints to do their job journalists should be free to pursue truth with loyalty only to citizens and not to particular interests, causes, or other pressures independence is the path to truth telling -recognizes that loyalty to the truth and to the public can't be compromised -lets facts lead the journalist -demands answers to questions sources would prefer not to answer -presses the powerful for the truth
Theory of Interlocking Public
journalists need to understand their audiences in terms of the issues they care about - involved public - interested public - uninterested public
continuum from raw information to pure storytelling
journalists present information somewhere between raw information and pure storytelling; on a continuum, that would be somewhere in the middle
information as a commodity in oversupply
knowledge becomes more difficult to acquire because one must sift and synthesize more information to set things in order information that news consumers don't want to pay for because they can get it free from so many different sources
conglomeration
large companies that own smaller companies ex: companies in the Big 6 own lots of smaller companies
ethical dilemma
legitimate but competing duties; have to choose which duties override the rest
four theories of the press and their problems
libertarian -US model, based exclusively on the market social responsibility -guidance of press from government (e.g. through special commissions) to maintain rigorous ethical standards authoritarian -one-way, top-down communication from dictators to subjects soviet -two-way communication between government and proletariat (workers)
PR pitch
like press releases, but more personal customized to each journalist or media outlet often more effective because of exclusivity
false balance
media bias that present conflicting views more evenly balanced than they are
dual-product model
media companies sell two products rather than one 1. content (news, entertainment, etc) - sold to consumers 2. the attention of the audience - sold to advertisers advertisers give their ads and money to the media, media gives ad to viewers while viewers give attention to media and money to advertisers
market model
media conceptualized as private companies selling products primary purpose is to generate profits audience considered as consumers public encouraged to enjoy themselves and buy stuff public interest is centered around whatever is popular innovation is a threat; diversity can be a strategy to reach new niche markets regulation is mostly seen as interfering with market processes ultimate accountability is to owners and shareholders measure of success is profits
public sphere model
media conceptualized as public resources serving the public primary purpose is to promote active citizenship via info, education, social integration audience considered as citizens public encouraged to learn about their world, be active citizens public interest centered around diverse, substantive, innovative content, even if unpopular innovation is central to engagement; diversity is central to representing the range of public views and tastes regulation perceived as a useful tool to protect public interest ultimate accountability is the public and government representatives measure of success is serving the public interest
hard news
media coverage focused on facts and important issues
soft news
media coverage that aims to entertain or shock, often through sensationalized reporting (yellow journalism)
legacy media
media products predating the Internet, typified by a dependence upon heterogeneous audiences, advertising income and one-way communication from sender to receiver
functional truth
necessary for daily living - practical everyday knowledge a type of truth we can act upon a journalist has 2 primary jobs: getting the facts right and making sense of them
image repair
necessary when an offensive act has occurred and the audience/public disapproves or the individual or organization is held responsible for the offensive act
Kovach and Rosentiel's strategies for operating under a journalism of verification (5)
never add anything that was not there originally never deceive the audience be as transparent as possible about your methods and motives rely on your own original reporting exercise humility
CNN effect and its criticism
news media shaped foreign policy through what it covers criticism: -direction of correlation, manufacturing consent; -news media is more fragmented; -increase in ideological reporting; -journalism of affirmation -foreign events happen rapidly and are covered episodically
role of specific medium in shaping what news looks like
newspaper: research and prep first and foremost, interview several sources, follow-up interviews take place to get the story straight multiple drafts are written, editors look for holes, problems, and missing angles, reporters are often sent back to the field to do more fact-checking copy editors step in to ensure the story is clear, no grammatical/spelling errors, AP style, create headlines, photo captions, etc
metrics and newsroom culture
newsroom culture ultimately dictates how metrics are used -ex: is the newsroom all about the public interests or getting rich quick?
metrics and determining newsworthiness
newsworthiness gives info on platform preference and target audiences
Dewey-Lippmann debate
not a question of who is "right" - they are simply addressing different aspects of democracy and different roles of journalism
concentration of ownership
occurs because of conglomeration; few competitors disadvantage to consumers because having few competitors leaves little incentive for companies to be innovative and keep prices low
cross-promotion
one brand promoting another brand's product (both brands under the same owner)
citizen journalism
people with no journalism background, education, or training who are breaking down journalism's monopoly by using technology importance: keep professional journalists honest, tell stories that professional journalists skip over, offer new and different perspectives, act as "legal vanguards," give professional journalists the chance to distinguish themselves
"objectivity trap"
politicians, PR agents, pressure groups, and sources use "objectivity" to gain or manipulate coverage -prey on journalists fears of being called biased -demand "balanced" coverage -count on journalists to amplify their point of view -set up think tanks, fund "experts" to provide the "other side of the story"
where news is found
press releases, law enforcement/court records beats enterprise stories
formal equality (content neutrality)
pro-life groups have the same rights as pro-choice groups the Westboro Baptist Church has the same rights as gay rights group REASON: government must remain neutral to viewpoints
media relations
promoting a client or organization by securing publicity or favorable coverage also involves performing damage control
"rational man" theory
reason as the source of truth - not authority ("....because the government tells you so") - not tradition ("that's the way it's always been") - part of the shift away from authoritarianism to democracy (essentially self-rule) - in order to exercise reason, humans must have access to info
the wall
separates editorial/reporting news stories and advertising not the best metaphor to practice - encourages isolation between reporters and citizens - two-sides of a news company are working a cross-purposes, the journalism tends to be what gets corrupted (think LA Times and the Staples center example, K&R p. 85)
indecent speech on broadcast
sexual/scatological words or depictions on broadcast media Seven Dirty Words -FCC v. Pacifica (1978): can't say the dirty seven on the broadcast media from 6 AM to 10 PM; government interest: protecting children
journalistic duty to defend independence
should want to be critical of your preferred candidates/party hold them/it accountable to ensure integrity "coach's kid" theory of accountability
ethical distress
something/someone stops you from doing what you believe is ethically right; prevents chosen path
beats
specific topic areas of news coverage, such as the police beat or the local government beat
news as product
started during industrial revolution worked to achieve maximum number of readers because it was in publishers' best economic interests to capture the emerging working-class readership
experimentation
startups that experiment with different ways to report the news
institutional memory
stored knowledge within the organization; connections passed down to "new hires"
enterprise stories
stories that rely upon sources they have developed through their coverage, or beat, to keep them informed and pass along news items to create original works of journalism
US legal system
the US legal system is based on English "Common Law" tradition -adversial system where outcomes of court cases between two parties (precedent) matter more than written law (statutes) two main branches: criminal and civil courts system based on formal equality -everyone goes through the same procedure hierarchical system of courts at both the state and federal courts
audience engagement
the depth of the involvement that a news customer has with a media product; can be measured empirically or through anecdotal evidence can be measured with audience metrics
organized collaborative intelligence
the network and citizens make a new and enriched kind of journalism possible; citizens, tech, and pro journalists work together to create a public intelligence that's deeper and wider than any one of these could produce on their own
"marketplace of ideas" philosophy
the place where all opinions can be heard, even the unpopular one
gatekeeping theory
the process through which info is filtered for dissemination by professional journalists whether for publication, broadcasting, the Internet, or some other mode of communication new model: multiple levels of gates and targeted audiences that also communicate with each other; audiences can now be gatekeepers themselves, info can bypass gates, and audience can create info while pros play catch-up
vertical integration
the situation when a media corporation owns companies involved in different phases of the media production process - creating media products, distributing them, showing them, etc ex: Time Warner owns Warner Brothers Pictures (films) and Warner Brothers Home Entertainment (reproduces films in a different format)
horizontal integration
the situation when a single large media corporation owns a number of different kinds of media products or outlets ex: Disney owns ABC, ESPN, Disney Pictures
when should journalists give sources anonymity? (2)
the story is of great public significance and could not be reported otherwise (e.g. Watergate or NSA surveillance) the source is at risk of losing his or her job, reputation, or even life (whistleblowers)
confirmation bias
the tendency for people to accept info or evidence that confirms the beliefs they already hold while rejecting information or evidence that challenges those beliefs
entertainment
theme: can journalism also be entertaining while informing the pubic? Infotainment
cultivation theory
those who spend more time watching fictional TV are more likely to perceive the real world in ways that reflect the most common and recurrent messages of the world of fictional TV concerned with subtle but cumulative effects cultivated over time
journalists' first loyalty
to the citizens
monetization
turning something that once was free into something that can be sold
misappropriation
using another person's likeness without his or her consent for commercial gain
metaphoric meaning of newspaper titles
was used to attract readers and promote interesting content
big story bias
where the drive to get the story is a bias in competitive journalism, the pressure to find the big story and to find it first is immense journalists must understand the difference between becoming personally obsessive about a story and becoming personally vested in it
