JS 100 Final Review

Modern Jewish Denominational Movements

- "Reform Judaism" - "(Modern) Orthodox Judaism" - "Conservative Judaism" - "Ultra-Orthodox Judaism", "Haredi Judaism" (general antipathy to "modern" values, studies, scholarship, etc.) - "Secular Judaism" (general antipathy or ambivalence to continued Jewish observance, belief, scholarship, etc.)

Wilhelm Marr (1819 CE-1904 CE)

-Known as the Father of Anti-Semitism -Popularized the term "Anti-Semitism"

First Crusade (1096 CE-1099 CE)

-1096 CE marks a critically important transition point: Jewish life doesn't end, but a period of recurring massacres and persecution begins and persists -1096 CE: Widespread massacres of Jews by mobs and soldiers -Godfrey of Bouillon: One of the principle leaders of the First Crusade ("Avenge blood of Jesus with blood of Israel") -Cities were attacked, Jews were massacred, and forced conversions were the only way that the Jews could save themselves -Anti-Judaism: In the Medieval Period, where people hate Jews for being Jewish (leave the Jews alone once they convert) -Anti-Semitism: In World War II, the Nazis didn't care whether the Jews practiced Judaism or not and still attacked them and their families (local nobles and bishops tried to fulfill their obligation to protect Jewish communities, but were often unable to do so) -Jewish Reactions: -Fight back (with little success) -Submit to baptism (unwillingly) -Martyrdom & mass-suicides -Theological reflection -The Second (1146 CE) & Third (1190 CE) Crusades weren't as catastrophic for European Jews -French Bible illustration of 1250 CE depicts Jews being massacred by crusaders during the First Crusade in 1096 CE -The Crusades demonstrate how vulnerable the Jews were and how powerless rulers were in stopping persecution against the Jewish people

Ashkenaz/Ashkenazim

-1096 CE marks critically important transition -There is no "Golden Age" in England, France, or Germany: Factors that were present in Spain under the Umayyads to facilitate Jewish success in society weren't present in Medieval Europe, making it difficult for the Jews to have any period of major success in Medieval Europe -Rise of Ashkenaz (10th Century CE): -Ashkenaz: Northern France & Western Germany (Ashkenazi Jews); name given to Jews who settled along the Rhineland -Ashkenaz becomes a nucleus of Jewish settlement of Western & Central Europe (mostly along the Rhine River in Northern France) -Economic opportunities were available for Jews in Ashkenaz, so the Jews accept invitations from rulers in return for protection and freedom of religion -Jews in Ashkenaz: -Independent, self-governing communities -Kehillah ("congregation/community" became the name to refer to a town) -Decentralized local leadership (no central body connected all these individual communities, unlike Jewish towns under Muslim Spain) -Communal Board (Kahal): Maintains order, collects taxes owed to ruler (support social services) -Courts (enforce rules of the community, but had limited ability to act) -The "Ban" (Herem): If a person didn't abide by the rules of the community, they would be excommunicated from the community, essentially throwing a person out of the community and preventing anyone within the community from interacting with them -Religious Institutions and Social Services (Controlled by Communal Board): -Synagogue and Study House -Cemetery -Ritual Bath -Soup Kitchen -The internal life of Jews in Ashkenaz: -The religious marginalization of the Jews had a negative impact on their relationship with gentiles, but actually made the internal Jewish community closer and more unified because they were a homogenous group (religious values, traditions, communal life, etc.) -The community provided the Jews with refuge because the outside community was mostly very hostile towards the Jewish people -Jewish Scholarship in Ashkenaz: -Religion and study at the center of Jewish life -Centers of Jewish learning in Rhineland (Mainz, Worms) and France (Troyes, Sens) -Jewish scholarship sustains way of life for Jews in Ashkenaz and resist pressure to convert to Christianity, provides coping mechanisms for Jews in Ashkenaz -Text-Based Scholarship (Produced by Rabbis of Ashkenaz): -Biblical interpretation (by Jews and Christians): Biblical interpretation was a central part of scholarship because all religions wanted to interpret the texts and apply their own beliefs to them -Talmud: At the center of Jewish intellectual and religious life, more than biblical interpretations -No secular activity (unlike Jews in Muslim Spain): Jews were opposed to secular studies because it was seen as a distraction to Talmudic studies, so they didn't produce any works on anything other than religion

Inquisition (1480 CE-1834 CE)

-1480 CE: Ferdinand and Isabella brought the Inquisition to Spain -Investigative body of the Church designed to investigate and prosecute heresy under the Spanish Empire -Wasn't directed at the Jews, but was directed as Conversos, the Jews who were insincere converts to "New Christians" -Conversos were humiliated and interrogated (Conversos were always found guilty, burnt alive for lying (all property of dead individuals would be turned over to the Church); a Converso could easily be accused of being Jewish despite converting which would result in their rigged trial) -Auto-da-fe: Means "an act of faith", reflecting the fact that the execution of Conversos at the stake was an affirmation of the correction of the Church -Expulsion: The End of Jewish Life in Christian Spain -Edict issued by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain (March 31st, 1492) made Judaism illegal in Spain -By August of 1492, it was illegal for any Jews to set foot on Christian soil -100,000-150,000 Jews were expelled from Spain -Possible Reasons for Expulsion: 1. Religious Zeal (those who adopted Christianity as Conversos could stay) 2. Ideology: One Nation, One Faith (when Ferdinand and Isabella united all of Spain upon their marriage, it might've made sense to them to unite Spain under one ideology, to hate Jews) 3. Need for land and money (expulsion might've been motivated by greed; Spain and Church could take abandoned land) -Response of Jews to Expulsion: -Conversion (Marranos, derived from Spanish word for "swine", identifies Jews who maintained Jewish identities or practices in secret) -Some Jews escaped to Portugal, the Middle East, or other parts of Europe

Enlightenment: The Age of Reason

-17th Century-18th Century cultural and intellectual movement - "The Age of Reason" -Emphasis on logic, reason, and the scientific method -Proponents of the Enlightenment saw religion as a source of intellectual intolerance and generally as problematic because it prevented someone from thinking rationally -Emphasis on the individual; human freedom -Prompts tremendous political and economic reform (a number of revolutions occurred in France, United States, England, etc.) -Emancipation: Being set free from legal, social, or political restrictions (this freedom cannot be interfered with by law; citizenship and rights are granted to groups of people) -The Enlightenment would benefit the Jews but would also create some challenges -Up until this point in Europe, Jews had been restricted from participating in society, so they were left to practice their own religion -However, with their new status as Europeans, Jews had to figure out how to be a citizen of France or England while balancing their Jewish identity on top of it in a modern, secular society that now sees religion in a much different way than it did before

Al-Andalus

-A Muslim-ruled region in what is now Spain, established by the Berbers in the 8th century -Jews welcome Muslims to invade Spain, so Jews begin to flock to Spain -Muslim-Berber Invasion (711 CE): -Tariq Ibn Ziyad -Muslims travel from East to West after hearing Spain was ripe for conquest and the Visigoths held weak control over Spain -Within four years, much of Spain is under Muslim control -Abd Al-Rahman I (731 CE-788 CE): -Umayyad Emirate of Spain (756 CE) -Period of tranquility that sets the stage for the "Golden Age" of Islamic Spain -Umayyad Emirate in Spain (756 CE-929 CE): -Centered in Cordoba (due to its central location in Spain and how it was around agriculture, which allowed Cordoba to become a center of trade and commercial activity) -Emphasis on trade (important trade routes were made available, functional, and accessible by the empire to facilitate commerce; facilitates cultural and intellectual exchanges) -Jews flourish under the Umayyads (engaging in trade)

Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1905 CE)

-A fabricated anti-Semitic text purporting a plan to describe Jewish global domination -In 1903, a Russian newspaper published portions of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a notorious anti-Semitic publication that has been repeatedly discredited throughout the past 100+ years -Understanding the anti-Semitic nature of the Protocols is essential to understanding how the Jews react to waves of persecution (i.e., Adolf Hitler was introduced to the Protocols in the 1920's and used it as the basis of Nazi propaganda) -Anti-Judaic sentiment became radicalized by the Protocols, which resulted in the persecution of Jews not only for their religion, but for being "subhuman" as well

Kristalnacht (November 1938)

-A government-led pogrom was launched throughout several countries - "The Night of Broken Class" -Jewish shops were destroyed, synagogues burned down

Ladino

-A mestizo, or person of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry in Guatemala -Jewish form of Castilian Spanish interspersed with Turkish words

Hasidim

-A widespread Jewish mystical movement that flourished in Eastern Europe and remains today -Hasidim = "Pious Ones" -Key Elements of Hasidism: -Immanence of God: God's presence fills the world and can be readily experienced by the believer -Unification with God: Rebbe/Tzaddik (Righteous Man)—Leader of Hasidim -Hasidic Literature: -Commentaries on Torah and Kabbalah -Stories -Possible Causes: -Political & economic decline of Eastern European Jewry - "Revolt of the common Jew" against the astringency of Eastern European Jewry -Continued influence of Kabbalah in Eastern Europe -Personal charisma of its founder -Haskalah = Enlightenment (19th Century) -The enemy of both Hasidim and Mitnagdim -Unites the Hasidim and Mitnagdim against the secularization of Judaism during the Enlightenment

May Laws (1882)

-After the assassination of Alexander II in 1881, Alexander III instituted the May Laws in Russia, which prohibited Jews from buying land and further constricted their economic freedoms -The May Laws also prevented Jews from conducting business on Sundays (they didn't conduct business on Saturdays already) -Due to the immense persecution that Jews faced with the May Laws, many Jews began migrating away from Russia because they were living such an intolerable lifestyle -Zionism: Movement for a Jewish homeland (became widespread in Russia upon the institution of the May Laws)

"Golden Age of Spain" (950 CE-1150 CE)

-Al Andalus: The "Golden Age" of Spain (Beginning Factors that Prompt Golden Age) -Cordoba as an important, political, commercial, intellectual, and cultural center (700 mosques, 300 public baths, 70 libraries, streets were paved and had lights; Commercial and artistic activities thrived; Schools were built to educate people) -Multiple urban centers, Jewish communities -Ethnic, religious, and cultural diversity -Jews had opportunities to become cultural intermediaries (Jews weren't seen as a political threat to take power; Jews shared many cultural and theological values with the Muslims; Jews could interact with many different people because they spoke a variety of languages and had moved a lot around in the past; Jews assisted the Muslims during the original conquest of Spain to take control from the Visigoths)

Almohads (1146 CE)

-Almoravids (North Africa) conquer Spain in 1091 CE after promising to come help the Taifa kingdom (Almoravids built up the resentment of the people and fought off resistance from the general population while dealing with Christian advances simultaneously) -Almohads (Moroccans) conquer Spain in 1146 CE: -Introduced a set of strict religious reforms, proposing and ensuring that people in power who weren't Muslim be removed from power -The Almohads believed they were living under a divine mission, which necessitated people to convert - "The Quran or the Sword" (Almohads gave Jews a choice between death, conversion, or escape) -Jewish Responses to Almohads: -Conversion to Islam -Flee to Northern Spain, where Christians ruled -Flee to Egypt in the East (Cairo, Geniza)

Pact of Umar

-Attributed to Caliph Umar (r. 634 CE-644 CE) -Jizya: Taxation -Restrictions on houses of worship, proselytism, public processions, dress, etc. (Dhimmi are given protections, but are clearly defined as a secondary as secondary citizens under Muslim rule) -The Pact of Umar gave Jews a sense of relief as they believed they wouldn't be persecuted as harshly as they had been (Jews typically adapted better to living under foreign rule than Christians did because Jews had prior experiences living as a minority population under a foreign entity, while the Christians did not)

Karl Lueger (1844 CE-1910 CE)

-Austrian politician, mayor of Vienna, and leader and founder of the Austrian Christian Social Party -Lueger is credited with the transformation of the city of Vienna into a modern city

Chmielnicki Uprising/Massacres (1648 CE)

-Bogdan Chmielnicki leads the Cossacks (from Southern Russia/Ukraine) in revolt against Polish nobles (nobles held a lot of power in Polish society, so the central government was quite weak) -Ukrainian Peasants vs. Polish Nobles -Jews leased land from the Nobles and managed the peasants working on the land, so the Jews were caught as representatives of Nobles while being the friends of peasants -Jews caught between peasants and Polish nobility -40,000-100,000 Jews Killed (Jews were attacked from 1648-1655) -Consequences: -Migration (back to Western Europe to escape violence) -Persecution and Degradation (Jewish life in Poland became increasingly insecure as peasants targeted them, they were accused of blood libel, and sometimes forced to convert) -Religious Response: Messianism & Mysticism (theological reflection is prompted by the persecution, bringing along revived desire for the Messiah, Shabtai Tzvi) -Jews also intensified their devotion to studying religious texts and practicing extreme piety -Religion is formalized makes Judaism not a "common people" religion because it had evolved to become much more difficult to observe religiously -Jacob Frank claimed he was the successor of Shabtai Tzvi and tried to combine Christian and Jewish customs into his own religion (Messianism)

Origins of Jews in Medieval Europe (900 CE-1500 CE)

-Carolingian Period (800 CE-924 CE): -Charlemagne, Louis the Pious (son of Charlemagne) -Charlemagne made a move to take over Central Europe, which was a mostly agrarian society, which made him recognize that he could use the Jews as an important economic resource -Jews were imported as merchants and traders -Charlemagne invites Italian Jews, grants charters to merchants, promises the free practice of religion, exemption from taxes to help expand/develop the territory that he wanted to expand into in Western Europe (Louis the Pious continues Charlemagne's endorsement of Jews) -Jews in Medieval Europe (9th Century-15th Century): -Jews invited to develop economy -Jewish dependence on rulers for status and rights -Jews in finance -Semi-autonomous, self-enclosed Jewish communities

Jesus of Nazareth

-Charismatic preacher in Judea -Was Jewish, and his followers were Jewish, until he founded Christianity which was adopted by his followers and the Roman Empire -Jewish people were persecuted for not believing that Jesus was the Messiah (for Christians) once he turned Christian, which made people implicate the Jews in his death -The "Historical" Jesus is the real person that Jesus was and was contextualized living in this period of time -Jesus Christ is the worshipped Messiah of the Christian people -Jesus was one of many charismatic preachers in Judea who was seen as a healer -Jesus was an outspoken critic of the Sadducees and the Pharisees -Jesus wasn't very unique, despite being believed to work miracles) because there were many other miracle workers and others who were crucified as well by the Romans -Philosopher/Miracle-Worker/Savior of the 1st century CE -Described by the Evangelists in the Gospels and related literature -The Historical Jesus: -Two Main Sketches: -Jesus of Nazareth: Social Reformer/Wandering Sage -This sketch allows us to place Jesus within his historical context -Problem: This lens doesn't allow us to see why Jesus was arrested and crucified by the Romans in Jerusalem following an altercation at the Temple -Jesus of Nazareth: Apocalyptic Prophet/Messianist -This sketch helps to explain the arrest and crucifixion of Jesus by the Romans in Jerusalem following an altercation at the Temple -Key Event: The incident at the Temple connects the two sketches of Jesus (Mark 13, Matthew 24) -Jesus as a social agitator, treasonous -Apocalypticism: The expectation that a profound change in the cosmic, social, and/or political order will occur imminently -Messiah: The "anointed" king from the line of David who will topple current rulers and restore Jewish autonomy, Jewish law, etc.

Converso vs. Marrano

-Converso is a term that directly translates to "conversion" -Marrano is a term that applied to descendants of baptized Jews in Portugal and Spain that secretly still practiced Judaism -The Decline of Spanish Jewry (14th and 15th Centuries): -Increased persecution of Jews: -1391 CE: Widespread anti-Jewish riots in Seville, which spread rapidly throughout Spain, many Jews were forcibly baptized (enforcement of oppressive laws; riots prompt massive wave of conversions by Jews to Christianity (Conversos) to avoid possible death -1413 CE: Rigged disputation at Tortosa (Jewish leaders are forced to debate the doctrine of the Messiah, which basically made them make Christianity look superior; more and more Conversos, which allowed them to avoid persecution for a little and let them thrive in positions of power again; however, Christians begin to accuse the Conversos of still practicing Judaism at the end of the 15th century)

Hasdai Ibn Shaprut (915 CE-970 CE)

-Courtier: Hasdai Ibn Shaprut (915 CE-970 CE) -Hasdai Ibn Shaprut was a physician who was known for making antidotes to poison, which was a useful skill in the medieval period -Gained the trust of Abd Al-Rahman III -Functioned as a general member of the court and head of all the Jews in Spain (Hasdai felt a great responsibility to defend and protect the Jewish community in Spain as one of very few Jewish leaders in all of Spain)

Nuremberg Laws (September 1935)

-Defined who was a Jew on the basis of racial lines -If someone had a Jewish grandparent, they were Jewish -Jewish citizenship was revoked -Jews couldn't marry or have sexual relations with Germans

Dhimmi

-Dhimmi: Protected Persons -Protected Jews and Christians under Muslim rule from persecution -Under the Pact of Umar, Dhimmi are given protections, but are clearly defined as a secondary as secondary citizens under Muslim rule

Dona Gracia Nasi (1510 CE-1569 CE)

-Dona Gracia Nasi was a woman who was born in Portugal and her family fled from persecution from Spain to Portugal, forcibly converted in Portugal to Christianity (Marranos), but remained Jewish in their secret religious practices -Fled to Istanbul after being denounced for openly practicing Judaism, which allowed her to lay a foundation for Jews being persecuted outside of the Ottoman Empire

Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza (1632 CE-1677 CE)

-Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Sephardi origin -One of the early thinkers of the Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism, including modern conceptions of the self and the universe -Spinoza was considered one of the great rationalists of 17th century philosophy -The first "secular" Jew in modernity

Ecclesia et Synagoga

-Ecclesia et Synagoga: Statues representing the Church and the Jewish Synagogue (Strasbourg Cathedral, France) -Translates to "Church and Synagogue", referring to the sculpted large figures that stand on either side of a Church portal -Ecclesia is generally adorned with a crown, chalice and cross-topped staff, looking confidently forward -In contrast, Synagoga is blindfolded and drooping, carrying a broken lance (possibly an allusion to the Holy Lance that stabbed Christ) and the Tablets of the Law or Torah scrolls that may even be slipping from her hand -Attributes sometimes carried by Synagoga include a sheep or goat or just its head, signifying Old Testament sacrifice, in contrast to Ecclesia's chalice which represents the Christian Eucharist -If not blindfolded, Synagoga usually looks down

Major Enlightenment Figures

-Emmanuel Kant: Reason is source of morality, defined the Enlightenment as the "freedom to use one's own intelligence" -Sir Isaac Newton: Key figure of scientific revolution -Rousseau: Articulated social contract theory -Voltaire: Argued for freedom of religion, freedom of expression -Locke: Father of Liberalism -Thomas Jefferson: Establishment of Constitution in the United States

Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment)

-Father of Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment): -Mendelssohn and his followers believed that Jews would advance economically and socially by integrating themselves into modern society -Haskalah spreads throughout Europe -This would prevent Jews from feeling constrained and discriminated -Wanted Jews to stop dressing differently and adopt modern culture -However, Haskalah didn't advocate abandoning Judaism -If this was theoretically the price of entry into modern society, Mendelssohn would've never advocated for Jewish integration

Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai

-Father of Rabbinic Judaism -Realized defeat was inevitable and the Romans were going to take over Jerusalem easily, so Rabbi Yohanan snuck out of the city -When Rabbi Yohanan ran into Vespasian on his way to invade Jerusalem, Yohanan called Vespasian an "emperor", even though Vespasian was a general (Vespasian was soon made Emperor of the Roman Empire) -As a result, Vespasian allowed Yohanan to have one thing, which Yohanan responded by saying, "Give me Yavneh and her sages!" -Yohanan saw Jerusalem and the Temple as a lost cause, so he asked Vespasian for Yavneh instead of Jerusalem, which many criticized him for -It's unlikely that the Yavneh legend is a historical account because Vespasian's son, Titus, was actually the one to besiege Jerusalem -In addition, this encounter is very similar to Josephus and Vespasian's encounter, in which Josephus was captured and prophesied Vespasian's promotion to Emperor of the Roman Empire -As a foundational myth, it's a story of Rabbinic action in the face of crisis, as the Rabbis try to guide the future survival of Jerusalem

Rabbenu Gershom (10th Century CE)

-First significant Rabbi in Ashkenaz (functioned as an appeal judge for Rabbis of other communities) -Many important religious decrees and responsa -No secular creativity

Blood Libel & Host Desecration

-First surfaces in Norwich, England (1144 CE) -Jews accused of murdering William of Norwich before Easter -Jews were accused of killing Christian children and drinking their blood or mixing the blood into matzah -Accusations repeated again and again: -Glouchester (1168 CE) -Blois (1171 CE) -Vienna (1181 CE) -Saragossa (1182 CE) -Fulda (1235 CE) -Lincoln (1255 CE) -Munich (1286 CE) -Trent (1475 CE) -Condemned by Pope Innocent IV in 1249 CE -Accusations of Host Desecration: -Depiction of Host Desecration (Sternberg, Germany 1492 CE) -Paint of the alleged desecration of Hosts by Jews in Passau (1477 CE) -Engraving of Jews being burned alive for allege Host desecration in Deggendorf

Prophet Muhammad (570 CE-632 CE)

-Founded Islam, derived monotheistic belief from Judaism -Was a member of the tribe of Quraysh, the tribe who controlled Mecca -Emphasized the important of humility and absolute submission to God -Emphasized the need to help the poor and disadvantaged -Was exposed to Judaism, directed early form of prayer towards Jerusalem -Islam came as a "corrective", Muhammad's revelations create Muhammad's image as a Prophet, rather than a deity -From Mecca to Medina: -Mecca was the center of Pagan worship -Muhammad moves from Mecca to Medina, a place with a lot of Jews, in 622 CE -This move is seen as the beginning of the Muslim calendar -The Jews of Medina don't see Muhammad as a Prophet because the era of Prophets ended in 6th century BCE, not 6th century CE (this caused an increased negative attitude towards Jews) -When Muhammad takes over Medina and establishes it as a theocracy, he exiles many of the Jews who didn't support him when he arrived in Medina

Karaites/Karaism

-Founded in late 8th century CE by Anan ben David -Anan ben David was passed over for Exilarch position, so he tried to overthrow the Geonum out of spite -Karaites: People of Scripture (comes from the Hebrew word, "Mikra") -Karaites rejected Rabbinic authority and claims of the oral law -Karaites didn't believe that there were two Torahs, only recognizing the written Torah -Karaites claim that the Rabbis have departed from the true meaning of the Torah because they have tried to interpret oral law from it -10th Century CE: 40% of Jews were Karaites -12th Century CE: Karaite Movement Declines -Decline due to Muslim recognition of the Exilarch and Rabbinic Academies (over time, as the Muslim dynasties recognized the Rabbis, Rabbinic authority was cemented over religious traditions and rituals) -Even though the Karaite movement declined, it remained slightly popular in Egypt, Israel, and North America, and these Jews practiced Judaism much differently

-The Middle: Fall of the Umayyad Caliphate

-Fragmentation of Muslim power (Taifa Kingdoms) -Jewish Courtiers -Samuel Ibn Nagrela/Shmuel Hanagid -Hasdai Ibn Shaprut is appointed head of all Jews in Spain -Samuel Ibn Nagrela is appointed head of all Jews in Granada -Demonstrates fragmentation of Spanish Empire -Jewish prosperity and creativity continue

Wannsee Conference (January 1942)

-Germans thought the work of the Einsatzgruppen was demoralizing for them, not demoralizing for the Jews -This conference would convert forced labor camps into concentration/extermination camps, where Jews would be murdered out of sight

Samuel Ibn Nagrela (993 CE-1055 CE)

-Had extensive Jewish education in academy established by Hasdai Ibn-Shaprut, grew up in an aristocratic environment -Moved to Granada -Had special skill in calligraphy and writing letters -Seen as the head of the Jewish community, helps fund and give support to Jewish scholars, was a great poet -Jewish prosperity and creativity continue (reflected in Jewish literary works of the time)

Enlightenment

-Haskalah = Enlightenment (19th Century) -The enemy of both Hasidim and Mitnagdim, which united the Hasidim and Mitnagdim together against the secularization of Judaism during the Enlightenment -Haskalah emphasized the individual -Ultimately led to emancipation of Jews -Began in 19th century Western Europe

Saadia Gaon

-Head of the Pumbedita Academy -Composed works on Halakhah: Jewish Law -Considered as the founder of Judeo-Arabic thought and literature -Seen as the grandfather of Jewish philosophy, attempting to bridge the gap between the Rabbinic traditions, and Western philosophies (elieved there was a religious obligation to find a rational basis for Jewish worship) -Defender/Advocate of Rabbinic Judaism against Karaites and Muslims (prevented criticism from becoming rampant)

Holocaust/Shoah

-Holocaust: Destruction or slaughter on a mass scale, especially caused by fire -Holocaust: The systematic murder of Jews and others by the Nazi regime with the intention to annihilate them -Shoah: Catastrophe (attempts to capture the entirety of the Holocaust) -Important Causes: 1. The emergence of modern anti-Semitism 2. World War I and its aftermath -German humiliation (Weimar Republic founded, Germany is demilitarized, and Germany must pay tremendous amounts in reparations) -German economic upheaval (high rates of unemployment, debt) 3. Aftermath of World War I allowed for the rise of Adolf Hitler & the Nationalist Socialist Party (Nazi) -The Course of Key Events: -January 1933: Hitler becomes chancellor (Drew upon German nationalism and anti-Semitism, pointing to the Jews as the cause of poor economic conditions; Dismantled Weimar Republic and replaced it with a totalitarian regime) -September 1935: The Nuremberg Laws -November 1938: Kristallnacht -January 1942: Wannsee Conference -Consequences of the Holocaust: -European Jewry is decimated (90% of Polish Jews were killed) -Jewish life in Europe largely ceases to exist

The Rabbinic Movement

-In Palestine: -From Yavneh to the Galilee -Sanhedrin -Patriarch officially recognized by Rome as the head of Palestinian Jews -Compilation of the Mishnah by Rabbi Judah HaNassi in 200 CE -Political and economic situation of the Jews declines with the rise of Christianity (the Christianization of the Roman Empire) -In Babylonia: -Move to Babylonia in 3rd century CE -Rabbinic academies built in Babylonia (study of Torah was their central activity) -Babylonian Rabbinic communities flourish, surpassing Palestinian communities

Synagogue

-In the absence of the Temple, worship shifts from sacrificial to prayer-based along with the decentralization and democratization of religious life -Synagogue (Replacement for Temple absence): The center of Jewish and social life -From Greek word, meaning "Assembly" -Early Origins (congregate for social and religious purposes) -Synagogue architecture incorporates elements of Temple -Beth Alpha Floor Mosaic (6th Century CE): Incorporates Greek and Roman artistic elements into this mosaic, while still maintaining Jewish identity -Rabbis: New spiritual leaders who would transform Judaism from a sacrificial religion to a religion based upon prayers

Fundamental Beliefs of the Earliest Christians

-Jesus had risen from the dead; Jesus was the Son of God -Emperors were also believed to be Gods, which doesn't make it odd than Jesus was seen as the Son of God (Jesus would return imminently to inaugurate his kingdom) -Jesus was the expected Jewish messiah, but it was necessary for him to suffer, die, and be resurrected in order to do so, so he could bring about the salvation of Christians -The Hebrew Bible, especially the prophets (i.e., Isaiah, etc.), foresaw what would be accomplished by Jesus -Other Jews should be told the "good news" (lit. Gospel) -Early Christians thought Jews should accept this as "good news"

Effects of Enlightenment and Emancipation

-Jewish Migrations -Weakened Jewish Institutions and Religious Authority -Change in Nature of Jewish Identity -Access to Education -Haskalah -Academic Study of Judaism

Ottoman Empire

-Jews and Marranos are welcomed by the Ottomans -Ottomans needed to develop commerce, trade, and the economy -Sephardim had important connections, diplomatic and linguistic talents, and unique skills that would be valuable to the Ottoman Empire -Jews are more "trustworthy" than Christians from the perspective of Muslim Turks because they aren't competing with the Ottoman Empire for power -Jews are Dhimmis: -Regulations not enforced -Pay tax -Left to practice Judaism freely and govern themselves -New Centers of Jewish Life: Salonika and Constantinople (Istanbul) -Over 30 synagogues between these cities -Constantinople actually was dominated by the Jewish population -Salonika remained a Jewish center until World War II (Jews engaged in international trade, weaving, and established first printing press in Ottoman Empire) -16th century was the high point of the Ottoman Empire and the high point of Jewish life simultaneously because Ottoman Jewry was diverse and multicultural (Romaniot Jews, Italian Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, Sephardi Jews, and others) -Each of these Jewish sects had its own institutions: Rabbis, religious customs, synagogues, study-houses, leadership, etc. -Sephardim dominate Ottoman Jewish life: Sephardim dominate Jewish life due to their large numbers and strong identity -Ladino: Jewish form of Castilian Spanish interspersed with Turkish words -Scholarly Activity: Religious and Secular -This engagement is more typical of Sephardic Jews in the Golden Age of Spain, prior to their expulsion, so it makes sense why they would bring this combination of scholarly activity to the Ottoman Empire -Also reflects the influence of the Renaissance -Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire: -Decline in the 18th-20th centuries -Decline of Jews and other Dhimmis due to increasing religious persecutions of rulers -Collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I (full collapse by 1923, as Turkey had still remained under direct Ottoman control) -In the aftermath of persecution and expulsions from Western Europe: -Geographic Shift: Jews Move East -New centers of Jewish life -Diverse Jewish communities with distinct identities and customs -Religious Response: Kabbalah and Messianism

Jews in Germany, Amsterdam, England, and France

-Jews are instrumental to economy -Jews are no longer only religious "other" -Jews have a corporate identity (Jews are given status and protection as a collective group) -Jews have encounters with modernity in each of these lands

Martin Luther

-Jews in Germany (Holy Roman Empire): -16th Century: -Protestant Reformation: -Initiated by Martin Luther (1483-1546), who criticized the Church for its sale of indulgences, which gave the Church a lot of money for a fundamentally corrupt promise; challenged the status of the Pope and other religious authorities -Luther believed that the Bible was the only source of divine knowledge (the word of God) and that the word of Priests and the Pope didn't matter -Luther translated the Bible into German so that people would not rely on the Church to teach them the word of God -Luther was excommunicated by the Catholic Church, but was still able to split the Church into Catholic and Protestant -Luther had a positive attitude toward the Jews, because they were people who rejected the Pope and the Church (he did it to make them side with Protestantism) -However, when the Jews didn't covert to Protestantism, Luther condemned the Jews publicly and called for the burning of Jewish homes, burning of Jewish texts, forbidding Rabbis from teaching Judaism, forbidding Jews from engaging in money lending, and the overall suffering of Jews -Jews are marginalized, persecuted, and subject to restrictions (both Catholics and Protestants had negative attitudes towards Jews) -Jews lived in ghettos (surrounded by those who expelled them) -Jews were restricted to Frankfurt, Worms, Vienna, and Prague -Even in the restricted areas, Jews were persecuted

Court Jews

-Jews in Germany (Holy Roman Empire): -17th Century-18th Century: -Thirty Years War (1618 CE-1648 CE): -Holy Roman Empire attempted to impose Catholicism throughout the entire empire, which prompted the Protestant rulers and states to unite together in opposition -Disease and famine were widespread -Rise of "Court Jews" in Germany (Mid-17th Century): -These rulers didn't change their opinions of Jews as a whole, but saw certain Jews as possibly being able to offer certain economic opportunities to rulers and their principalities -Court Jews were granted special protected status and weren't subject to the same persecution that most Jews were forced to undergo -Court Jews used their relationships in Mediterranean ports and other locations to bring luxurious goods to the Holy Roman Empire -Court Jews could arrange for loans, extensions of credit, etc.

Kabbalah

-Kabbalah—Jewish Mysticism -Jewish Mysticism: The desire to know God, connect with and achieve union with God -Jews received ancient/secret wisdom from God -Fundamentally about the desire to know God and achieve a union with him -Medieval Kabbalah as a response to trauma: -Hasidei Ashkenaz: German Pietists (12th/13th Century) -Kabbalah in Spain (13th-15th Centuries): -Zohar ("The Splendor"), written by Moses de Leon in Spain (Late 13th Century): Commentary on Torah, revealing the secret knowledge of God and the misunderstood messages of God -By turning to the Zohar, it allowed Jews to have another outlet in Jewish Mysticism to understand why they have been subject to persecution

Rabbi Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman (AKA Vilna Gaon)

-Led the Mitnagdim in opposing the Hasidim -When it was clear Hasidism wasn't going anywhere, the animosity between Hasidism and Mitnagdim declined

Jews in France

-Marranos in Southwest -Ashkenazi Jews in Alsace-Lorraine

Shabbtai Tzvi (1626 CE-1676 CE)

-Messianic fervor in 16th-17th centuries -Shabbtai Tzvi (1626 CE-1676 CE): -Self-Proclaimed Messiah -Had a tremendous sway over the Jewish people -Born in Turkey, engaged in study of the Zohar, involved in Jewish mystical tradition, becomes interested in Lurianic Kabbalah (people could take part in repairing the world) -In every place he visited, Tzvi engaged in odd practices -In 1665, Shabbtai Tzvi proclaimed himself as the Messiah and he gained a lot of followers (due to the murder of lots of Jews) -Shabbtai Tzvi argued that only the Messiah could repair parts of the world, so he was able to convince many they needed to follow him -Shabbtai Tzvi was offered death or conversion to Islam by the Sultan, and he chose to convert, which disillusioned many of his followers as they were "fooled" by Tzvi

Midrash

-Midrash (Palestine, 200 CE-1200 CE): -Biblical interpretations of the Rabbis -Rabbis address questions/issues that arise when someone reads the Bible/scripture and recognize issues with them

Standard Printed Page of the Babylonian Talmud

-Mishnah: 3rd Century Palestine -Talmud: 6th/7th Century Babylonia -Rashi: 11th Century, Northern France -Tosafot: 13th Century, Northern France

Mitnagdim

-Mitnagdim: "Opponents" of Hasidism -Led by Rabbi Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman, AKA the Vilna Gaon -Zalman was a recognized religious authority in Lithuania who became an opponent to Hasidism (descendent of Rashi); held rabbinic authority -Charges Against Hasidism: -Neglect of study, ecstatic prayer, elevation of tzaddik, heresy (charged Hasidists with not truly following God) -Modes of Opposition: -Burn books, complain to government, excommunication -Haskalah = Enlightenment (19th Century) -The enemy of both Hasidim and Mitnagdim -Unites the Hasidim and Mitnagdim against the secularization of Judaism during the Enlightenment

Einsatzgruppen

-Mobile death squads that wiped out entire villages after making them dig their own graves or setting fire to entire synagogues -In September 1939, the Nazis invaded Poland and forced Jews into ghettos, allowing Einsatzgruppen to begin wiping out massive numbers of Jews within the confined ghettos

Disputation at Barcelona (1263 CE)

-Nahmanides was known for involvement in Disputation at Barcelona (1263 CE), which contributed to him having to leave Spain -Nahmanides had to serve as Jewish disputant by order of the King because someone thought the Bible could be used to prove that Jesus was wrong -By making this claim, Jewish law would essentially be understood as invalid, so Nahmanides didn't want to fight back with Pablo Christiani (disputant) -Nahmanides was given protection by the King for his claims, but it wasn't true as Spanish officials pushed him out of Spain

Napoleon & the Assembly of the Grand Sanhedrin

-Napoleon wants a unified, patriotic French citizenry to build his empire -Hostility was still prevalent between Jews and the French -Napoleon saw the Jews as a "nation within a nation" -Napoleon Convenes Assembly of Jewish Notables & Grand Sanhedrin -Wanted the assembly to define what the Jewish position was toward France -Posed 12 questions to the assembly regarding the position of Judaism toward the State of France (Napoleon wanted to make sure the Jews were attached to the land of France and that they weren't attached to their ancestral land) -Napoleon establishes the consistory system to organize French Jewry -Consistory System (1808): A body governing the Jewish people throughout the regions of the French State -Regional boards of Rabbis organized Jews in regions to report back to the central consistory system on how they were doing -This system is still in place today and functions in France

Council of the Four Lands

-Network of Jewish communities in Poland & Lithuania -Jewish Community—Kehillah (collects taxes): -Communal board managed economic, social, and religious affairs -Provincial Council -National Councils (large number of communities necessitated national councils): -The Council of the Four Lands (16th century, refers to four main Jewish provinces in Poland; functioned until mid-18th century) -The Council of the Land of Lithuania (together, the councils coordinated the actions of Polish Jewry, meeting twice per year; functioned until mid-18th century) -Structure of Jewish Community (Hierarchy): -Structure of Jewish Community (Hierarchy): -The Council of the Four Lands & The Council of the Land of Lithuania (Nationwide Jewish Governing Organizations) -Provincial Council -Local Authorities and Communities -The Council of the Four Lands & The Council of the Land of Lithuania: -Regulate commerce -Resolve internal matters and disputes -Education and publications -Allocate tax burden to communities -Appoint Shtadlanim ("Intercessors") to represent Jewish interests

Cantonist System

-Nicholas I's Cantonist System: Use of military schools to force Jews to become integrated into Russian society (Jews required to serve in the Russian army beginning in 1827) -From the age of 12, possibly 8, all Jews were required to attend these schools, which would place them in a secular environment and would theoretically transform their values and convert them to Christianity -At its peak under Nicholas I, the Cantonist System had around 36,000 Russians, most of them being disproportionately Jewish Alexander II abolished the Cantonist System and in general stopped the persecution of Jews (stopped forcing Jews to serve in the army) -Alexander II encouraged Jews to attend Universities and wanted them to integrate into modern society without forcing them

Jews in England

-Oliver Cromwell -Formal recognition 1664 by Charles II -Jews promised protection, freedom of worship -Jews participate in economy, community grows

Don Joseph Nasi (1524 CE-1579 CE)

-One of the Sultan's closest advisors -Granted titles and powers in the court -Attempted to make Tiberius an attractive city for Marranos and other Jews coming to the Ottoman Empire (Tiberius never became what he had hoped it would)

Pale of Settlement

-Pale of Settlement: The statute issued by Alexander I in 1804 to allow Jews to live only within this specific area -Jews were allowed to live in their original homes or expand to new territories, but only within the boundaries of the Pale of Settlement -Shtetl: Small towns/villages situated next to the main town (Jews were forced to live in these outskirt towns) -Economic activity in the Pale of Settlement was very restricted, so many Jews lived a life of poverty in this area -Despite these horrific conditions, Alexander II (r. 1855-1881) looked favorably upon the Jews and encouraged them to integrate into modern Russian society -However, after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881, Alexander III instituted the May Laws in Russia, which prohibited Jews from buying land and further constricted their economic freedoms

Paul of Tarsus

-Phase 3 (60 CE): The followers of Jesus began to have real success in reaching out to Gentiles without the Torah (HUGE success) -Paul of Tarsus led the third phase of the rise of Christianity, in which he journeyed to various communities outside of Judea and preached the Gospel -Paul of Tarsus didn't make people circumcise to convert, making people more open to the possibility of converting to Christianity

Nicholas Donin

-Pope Gregory IX condemns the Talmud (1233 CE): Jews aren't allowed to read the Talmud -Trial of the Talmud (Paris, 1240 CE): Prosecutor is Nicholas Donin, a convert to Christianity from Judaism (compiled list of accusations against the Talmud and brought it to the Pope) -Because Donin was excommunicated by the Jewish community, he likely felt spiteful of the Jews and had the Pope host the trial to make the disputation unfair -Talmud burned in Paris (1242 CE): The Trial in Paris was meant to certify the superiority of Christianity through an unfair disputation during the Trial in Paris -We don't have early manuscripts of the Talmud in the present day because they were burned throughout history, including in this event

Pope Innocent III

-Pope Innocent III was one of the most powerful Popes of the Middle Ages -Pope Innocent III took a hard stance against Jews, specifically against rulers who supported Jews -Statement of Pope Innocent III: "Blasphemers of the Christian name" (= Jews) "ought not be aided by Christian princes to oppress the servants of the Lord" -Furthermore, Pope Innocent III was upset by how Jewish moneylenders are economically prosperous on the backs of devout Christians despite their part in the killing of Jesus

Menasseh ben Israel (1604 CE-1657 CE)

-Portuguese Rabbi, Kabbalist, writer, diplomat, printer, and publisher -Founder of the first Hebrew printing press in Amsterdam in 1626, which allowed for Jewish intellectual works to be disseminated across Europe -Helped make Amsterdam the center of Jewish intellectual life

Uriel Da Costa (1585 CE-1640 CE)

-Portuguese philosopher and skeptic who was born Christian, but converted to Judaism -Ended up questioning the Catholic and rabbinic institutions of his time

Moses Mendelssohn (1729 CE-1786 CE)

-Received extensive Jewish and secular education -Seen as an example in gentile society of a non-Christian who could be refined, knowledgeable, and practical individuals (this allowed Mendelssohn to be involved in the upper echelons of German intellectual society, which placed him as an intermediary between the gentiles and the Jews) -Reconciles Judaism with Enlightenment ideals -Fought for the rights of German Jews and to have their restrictions removed so Jews could participate in secular society -Father of Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment) -Modernization of Jewish-German Culture: -German: Didn't believe there was any conflict between the Enlightenment and practicing Judaism (pushed for Jews to learn German instead of Yiddish) -Translated Hebrew Bible into German -Education: Wanted to include more than just traditional texts in Jewish learning -Limit Power of Rabbis and Jewish Community: Opposed the use of excommunication (Rabbinic tool to control Jewish community)

Sepharad/Sephardim

-Sephardim: Jews from Spain (Sepharad) -These people carry the ideas and traditions of Spanish Jews to other places in the world, continuing their lineage

Visigoths/Visigothic Spain (409 CE-711 CE)

-Pre-Islamic Spain: Visigoths (409 CE-711 CE) -Visigoths invade, seize control of Spain, establish capital at Toledo -18 different kings from 15 different families (7 of these kings were murdered) -Visigoths struggled controlling the people of Spain as a Germanic tribe trying to invade and take control over a more "civil" society (Visigoths practiced a different form of Christianity) -In 587 CE, the Visigoth king converts to Catholicism, narrowing the differences between the rulers (Visigoths) and the people of Spain (the Visigoths were given control of the Catholic Church, which left the Jewish people as the only outcast population) -Increased hostility toward Jews (attempts were made to regulate Jewish interactions with Christians) -7th-8th Century: Anti-Jewish laws made, forced conversions of Jews to Catholicism -Third Council of Toledo approved forced conversions -Jewish children were removed from their homes and raised in Christian homes -Low Point for Jews in Spain: Spain Under Visigoths -High Point for Jews in Spain: Umayyads -Hispania turns to Visigoths -Visigoths eventually converted to Catholicism, minimizing the differences between them and Catholic Spaniards -Muslims overthrow Visigoths in 711 CE -Spain established as Umayyad Emirate, then Umayyad Caliphate -8th Century: Jews flock to Spain

Rabbi Isaac Luria (1534 CE-1572 CE)

-Rabbi Isaac Luria, aka the Ari Hakadosh (1534 CE-1572 CE): Lurianic Kabbalah -Important figure for the Mystical movement in Safed -Rabbi Luria was primarily concerned with trying to answer "How could evil exist in a world that is created by a fair and perfect God?" (surely, a good God would interfere when evil is unjust, but Rabbi Luria had no idea why these persecutions and expulsions kept occurring) -Rabbi Luria said that during the process of creation, the vessels that contained God shattered, which is why bad things were occurring to the Jews (Luria believed humans could fix the damage caused by the shattering of the vessels that contained God)

Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer, AKA Ba'al Shem Tov (1700 CE-1760 CE)

-Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer (1700 CE-1760 CE): -AKA Ba'al Shem Tov—Master of the good (divine) name -God could be encountered everywhere -Left no writings, taught orally -Succeeded by disciples Dov Baer (1710 CE-1722 CE), Jacob Joseph, et. al

Rabbi Joseph Caro (1488 CE-1575 CE)

-Rabbi Joseph Caro (1488 CE-1575 CE): The Shulchan Aruch ("The Set Table") -Born in Spain, exiled from Spain with his family and fled to Portugal, and then fled to the Ottoman Empire when forced conversions became common -Became a judge in the Ottoman Empire -Wrote "The Shulchan Aruch" to make a systematic code of Jewish law that was clear and accessible to everyone, just like a "set table", which has a fork, knife, napkin, and a plate ready for you when you get there to eat

Maimonides (1135 CE-1204 CE)

-Rabbi Moses ben Maimon had a large and enduring impact on Judaism -Born in Spain, settled in Morocco, then Cairo and Egypt -Was a physician -Composed commentaries, works of Jewish law (Mishneh Torah) philosophy (Guide of the Perplexed, reconciled Judaism with rational thought and philosophy) -Mishneh Torah guides a lot of modern Jewish law (only work that Maimon made not in Arabic) -Maimonides believed philosophy could be reconciled with Judaism

Nahmanides (1194 CE-1270 CE)

-Rabbi Moses ben Nahman, AKA Nahmanides (1194 CE-1270 CE): -Physician -Unlike Maimonides, Nahmanides made commentaries of the Bible that contained mystical insights -Known for involvement in Disputation at Barcelona (1263 CE), which contributed to him having to leave Spain -Had to serve as Jewish disputant by order of the King because someone thought the Bible could be used to prove that Jesus was wrong -By making this claim, Jewish law would essentially be understood as invalid, so Nahmanides didn't want to fight back with Pablo Christiani (disputant) -Nahmanides was given protection for his claims by the King, but it wasn't true as some Spanish officials pushed him out of Spain

Gaon

-Rabbinic Centers in Babylonia: -Rabbinic academies at Sura and Pumbedita Relocate to Baghdad (provided Jews with legitimacy) -Gaon: Head of the Rabbinic Academy -Jewish Leadership: -Gaon of Sura -Gaon of Pumbedita -Exilarch: Often not a Rabbi; claimed to be a descendant of David -Exilarch was the political head of the Jews in the Diaspora -Exilarch was responsible to collect taxes from the Jews for the Roman Empire -Exilarch claimed to be a political representative of the Jewish people -The Gaonate: -Under the Geonum (Plural form of Gaon): -Babylonian Talmud is compiled (6th-7th century CE), which was completed and full by this time, allowing the Geonum to be seen as powerful figures -Responsa: Legal opinions on matters of Jewish law, issued by Geonum -Standardization of Prayer -The order and content of prayer wasn't orderly or standardized until the Geonum came along and standardized basic prayers and rituals -Standardization of the Biblical text by the Masoretes (Masoretic Text) -Masoretic text is the standardized Biblical text as we have it today -Masoretes: "Preservers of the Tradition" -The Masoretes were responsible for copying religious texts and dividing the text into chapters and verses -Standardized the vocalization and punctuation of the Hebrew alphabet in Biblical texts, which has a large influence on the meaning of the text

Mishnah (Major Text)

-Rabbinic literature contains the traditions and interpretations of the rabbis based on the Oral Torah -Mishnah (Palestine, 200 CE): -Anthology of early rabbinic laws and traditions -Compiled by Rabbi Judah HaNassi (the Patriarch)

Talmud (Major Text)

-Rabbinic literature contains the traditions and interpretations of the rabbis based on the Oral Torah -Talmud: -Elaboration/commentary of the Mishnah -Jerusalem/Palestinian Talmud (Palestine, 4th-5th centuries CE) -Babylonian Talmud (Babylonia, 6th-7th centuries CE) -The Babylonian Talmud is times as long as the Palestinian Talmud and much more commanding than the Jerusalem/Palestinian Talmud (more widely read as well)

Dual Torah (Oral/Written Law)

-Rabbis believe that the Torah, the Five Books of Moses, are the word of God -Dual Torah: Rabbis believe that when God revealed the Torah to Moses, he actually revealed two Torahs -Written Torah: Five Books of Moses -Oral Torah: Oral teachings/traditions revealed by God to Moses, and Moses then spread these teachings/traditions to others on God's behalf -Dual Torah and Rabbinic Authority: -Chain of Transmission: Moses received the Torah at Mount Sinai and handed it on to Joshua, Joshua to the elders, and the elders to the prophets, and the prophets handed it on to the men of the Great Assembly (Mishna Avot 1:1) -Torah was transferred from God to Moses (Chain of Transmission ends with the Rabbis) -The Great Assembly: A group comprised of scribes, sages, and prophets that was formed during the Persian Period and operated until the Hellenistic Period to whom the Rabbis trace their movement

Jews in Christian Spain

-Some powerful forces want oppressive legislation (Church) vs. other forces opposed enforcement (Monarchs) -Las Siete Partidas: The Law Code of Alfonso the Wise (1252 CE-1284 CE) -Imposes harsh anti-Jewish restrictions -Jews cannot have authority over Christians -No Jewish physicians -No new synagogues -Jews had to wear distinguishing garments -However: -Jews were still in high positions of government -Jews as mounted bowmen in the military -Jewish physicians at court -Synagogues built -No evidence of garment enforcement -The Decline of Spanish Jewry (14th and 15th Centuries): -Increased persecution of Jews: -1391 CE: Widespread anti-Jewish riots in Seville, which spread rapidly throughout Spain, many Jews were forcibly baptized (enforcement of oppressive laws; riots prompt massive wave of conversions by Jews to Christianity (Conversos) to avoid possible death) -1413 CE: Rigged disputation at Tortosa (Jewish leaders are forced to debate the doctrine of the Messiah, which basically made them make Christianity look superior; more and more Conversos, which allowed them to avoid persecution for a little and let them thrive in positions of power again; however, Christians begin to accuse the Conversos of still practicing Judaism at the end of the 15th century) -1480 CE: Ferdinand and Isabella brought the Inquisition to Spain -Investigative body of the Church designed to investigate and prosecute heresy under the Spanish Empire -Wasn't directed at the Jews, but was directed as Conversos, the Jews who were insincere converts to "New Christians" -Conversos were humiliated and interrogated -Always found guilty, burnt alive for lying (all property of dead individuals would be turned over to the Church) -A Converso could easily be accused of being Jewish despite converting which would result in their rigged trial -Auto-da-fe: Means "an act of faith", reflecting the fact that the execution of Conversos at the stake was an affirmation of the correction of the Church -The Inquisition wasn't abolished until 1834 CE, so it lasted nearly 400 years

Bishop Rudiger of Speyer (1084 CE)

-Speyer is a town where many Jews settled -Rudiger saw a utility to the Jews, so he wanted them to be involved in Speyer -However, Rudiger settled the Jews outside the town of Speyer and placed a wall around them to separate them from the rest of society (Jews were required to pay a tax) -Rudiger gave Jews the right to conduct business and trade -Dependency of Jews on the rulers for protection -The Charter of Bishop Rudiger of Speyer (1084 CE): -This Charter became a model for many Jews in the Medieval Period because Speyer was a town in which Jews were able to enjoy freedom with limited persecution -Jews brought in for economic reasons -Jews are isolated from the masses (settled outside the city with a wall) -Clearly, the rest of the population must've feared the Jews for Bishop Rudiger to divide the Jews from the rest of society and ensure the protection of the rest of the population -Jews must pay taxes, but are free to conduct business -Jewish communal autonomy -Economic differences will lead to tension and resentment

Safed

-Spiritual revival in Middle East allowed Safed to become a center of revival -Safed and Rabbi Isaac Luria: Kabbalah (1) provides religious response for Jews to understand why God could allow bad things to happen and (2) gives Jews a sense of hope in a world that made them feel powerless

Masoretic Text (Masoretes)

-Standardization of the Biblical text by the Masoretes (Masoretic Text) -Masoretic text is the standardized Biblical text as we have it today -Masoretes: "Preservers of the Tradition" -The Masoretes were responsible for copying religious texts and dividing the text into chapters and verses -Standardized the vocalization and punctuation of the Hebrew alphabet in Biblical texts, which has a large influence on the meaning of the text

Confrontation with Modernity

-Strategy #1: "Reform Judaism"; Abraham Geiger -Judaism should be changed to reflect the values of an emancipated and enlightened Jewry -Shift from Jewish Nationalism to Universalism -Mute distinctive Jewish rituals and traditions -Modernize liturgy, worship, and institutions -Historical scientific scholarship -Strategy #2: "(Modern) Orthodox Judaism"; Azriel Hildescheimer, Samson Raphael Hirsch -Jews should fully engage with the wider world, but Judaism shouldn't be changed significantly -Rabbinic law should remain the guiding force in Jewish life -Jews should embrace modernity -Secular education of Jews -Strategy #3: "Conservative Judaism"; Zecharias Frankel - "Middle-of-the-Road" or "Compromise" Strategy -Judaism should be changed, but organically and in accordance with the historical sweep of Jewish legal tradition -Rabbinic law can change, but not abruptly or without precedent -Jewish rituals, liturgy, and traditions should be preserved as much as possible

Emancipation

-The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen wasn't interpreted as including Jews in its stated rights -Does the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen even apply to the Jews? -Yes: Liberals and Revolutionaries -Consistency demands it -Jews can be rehabilitated and become civilized French citizens -No: Clergy and Alsatian Business Interests -Jews are still Jews -Negative economic consequences -1790: Sephardi French Jews are emancipated -1791: Ashkenazi French Jews are emancipated -Emancipation in France: -Implications of Emancipation: Jews are granted rights as individuals; shift from status and rights as a group -The Cost: Jews are expected to give up their communal, cultural, and national identities; Jews are expected to be "French" -Emancipation of Jews in Europe: -Spread of Liberalism -Conservative Reactions to Emancipation: Rulers of European lands were afraid of European uprisings, so they begin to clamp down on "radical" ideas, such as Jewish emancipation -Ultimate Emancipation: -Italy (1848-1870) -Austrian Empire (1867) -Germany (1871) -England (1890) -Issues Prompted by Emancipation: -What does it mean to be a Jew? -Loyalty and Nationhood Redefined -Universalism of Enlightenment vs. Particularism of Judaism -Integrate or remain segregated? -Should Judaism change or adapt to this new reality?

The Rise of Christianity (As a Distinct Group, 30 CE-60 CE)

-The Rise of Christianity (As a Distinct Group, 30 CE-60 CE): -Phase 1 (30 CE): Outreach to Jews (limited success) -Jesus's followers at the time were only Jews -Phase 2: Outreach to Jews and Gentiles (limited success) -This limited success was because Gentiles were probably expected to convert to Judaism (Jesus never wanted to transition to an entirely different religion -Phase 3 (60 CE): The followers of Jesus began to have real success in reaching out to Gentiles without the Torah (HUGE success) -Led by Paul of Tarsus, who journeyed to various communities outside of Judea and preached the Gospel -Paul didn't make people circumcise to convert, making people more open -Outreach to Jews (still no real success) -From Jews (30 CE) to Christians (60 CE) -Jesus tried to change/reform Judaism, not make an entirely separate religion

Statute of Kalisz (1264 CE)

-The Statute of Kalisz (1264): -Prince Boleslaw V the Pious (1224 CE-1279 CE): -Invited Jews to live in the community -Royal protection in return for a tax -Explicit protection against blood libel -Boleslaw understood that the Jews had already been subject to discrimination, so he protected them against blood libel to attract the Jews to Poland rather than other places that would discriminate against them -The Charter itself explicitly outlaws blood libel ("we firmly order that henceforth no Jews in our domain be accused of using human blood, since according to the precept of their law all Jews refrain from any blood") -The Charter punished those who made false accusations against Jews -The Charter served as the basis of Jewish rights for many decades (King of Poland in the 14th century reaffirmed the Statute of Kalisz and extended all those rights to all of Poland) -Casimir III "the Great" (1333 CE-1370 CE): -Reaffirmed the Statute of Kalisz and extended protections -Encouraged Jews to pursue professions of all sorts -Grand Duke of Lithuania extends rights to Jews (1388 CE-1389 CE): -Jews begin flocking to Poland & Lithuania

Black Death (1347 CE-1351 CE)

-The deadly plague that swept through Europe -Jews were largely blamed for the deaths that occurred and the economic downturn that ensued the plague as well

Abd Al-Rahman III (891 CE-961 CE)

-The eighth ruler of Al-Andalus, during whose reign Al-Andalus reached the height of its power -Fragmentation of Muslim power after the death of Abd Al-Rahman III: -Berbers (North Africans) sack Cordoba (1012 CE) -Umayyad Caliphate (929 CE-1031 CE) dissolves, replaced by the Taifa Kingdoms (1031 CE) -Lots of local divisions between small, independent rival Taifa Kingdoms, who need help holding off the Christians -Localized rule provides opportunity for Jews

Apocalypticism

-The expectation that a profound change in the cosmic, social, and/or political order will occur imminently

"Under the Crescent and the Cross"

-The political and social status of Jews in the Medieval period is defined by the theological stances of Christianity and Islam toward Judaism -Since the Babylonian Exile, the Jewish people have been subjects of foreign entities for a very long time (i.e., Antiochus IV, Hadrian, etc.) -None of these rulers had direct problems with the Jewish people and their beliefs, but their decrees were meant to make sure the Jews couldn't revolt and they could ensure stability in their ruling empire as a result -With the emergence of the Church and the spread of Islam in the Medieval Period, Jews started to be seen as a religious "other", which brought a burden of great persecution and anti-Semitism on the Jewish people -For Christians, the Jews played a role in the death and suffering of Jesus when the Romans killed him on the cross, which motivates them to delegitimize Judaism -In addition, the Jewish people refused to recognize Jesus as the Messiah, which angered Christianity (the Church would argue that at one point, the Jewish people had a good relationship with God, but now that the Jews reject Jesus and his prophecies, Jews are made out to be stubborn and ignorant because they don't recognize the New Covenant) -Islam doesn't dispute Jewish monotheistic values and doesn't believe the Jews played a role in the death of Muhammad (however, Islam claims to represent the "true" message of God and the Jewish people don't recognize this fact) -Jews fared much better under Muslim rule than Christian rule in the Medieval Period

Testimonium Flavianium

-The testimony of Josephus regarding Jesus (Josephus wrote this during the Procuratorship of Pontius Pilate) -This text describes Jesus as a God of sorts, referring to Jesus as the Messiah and Jesus's resurrection as "the prophets had spoken" -Testimonium Flavianium is odd because Josephus seems to suggest himself as a Christian by identifying Jesus as the Messiah, but that contradicts many of his past writings -The writings of Josephus were preserved by the Roman Church, so scholars believe that the Church could've added certain details to Josephus's writings after his death

The Rise of Modern Anti-Semitism

-Two Parallel Developments in the 19th Century Central & Western Europe: 1. The integration and success of emancipated Jews 2. The emergence of a distinctly modern anti-Judaism -This new form of anti-Judaism was definitely influenced by older anti-Judaism sentiment, but it is much more secular in nature and is influenced by economic considerations -Important Factors: 1. Legacy of European Christian anti-Judaism ("us vs. them" mentality) 2. Reaction to social and economic changes prompted by emancipation of general populations and liberalism -Following the Enlightenment, European societies undergo radical changes on all fronts of life, leaving many displaced in the societal hierarchy -With the emancipation of Jews, many were upset with them because they seemed to be replacing those who are being displaced (Jews are now overrepresented in the eyes of many Europeans) 3. Rise of Nationalism -The idea of developing a single national identity based on shared ideas, language, cultural values, common religion, shared history etc. -In the 19th and 20th centuries, many Europeans began to identify with a certain region/country and felt unified by their connection to that place 4. Political Value -Politicians found an important amount of political value in blaming the Jews for the bad things happening to certain people in society, which contributed to a combined hatred of the Jewish people by many throughout Europe 5. Racism: The distinguishing factor of modern anti-Semitism -Humans began to be classified based on their physical characteristics and wanted to identify people by these traits -Anthropological studies provided a pseudo-scientific explanation to make it seem like Jews proposed a threat to modern life

Reconquista (1050 CE-1250 CE)

-Weakened Muslim power paves the way for Christian reconquest of Spain -Ideological Bent: Christians are going to recover the land they lost to the Muslims from the Visigoths (the reconquest of the same territory by Christian rulers; Christian warriors saw themselves on a mission to usurp power from Muslims) -Christian forces worked from north to south to capture all territories from Muslims -Toledo Captured in 1085 CE -By 1248 CE, Spain is under Christian rule in Iberian Peninsula besides Granada -Granada Falls (1492 CE) -The Reconquista and the Jews: -Jews invited to settle in Christian Spain -Jews primarily lived in Southern Spain (Cordoba and Granada) to flee persecution by the Almoravids -Jews generally prosper during the Reconquista because they served important functions for the Monarchs -Jews were given benefits (i.e., land, exemption from taxes) for their service -Rulers recognized the Jews were an important resource and filled a necessary function for their empire to thrive -Jews were seen as critical to incorporate new Christian territory into the kingdom -Jews are qualified to fill this role because: -Jews are highly skilled in Administration and Diplomacy (Courtiers) -The Jews are also politically neutral and don't pose a threat -The Jews spoke Arabic and were familiar with Muslim culture -Jews were vehicle to high culture (Greek works, intellectual works) -Jews facilitated translation into Castilian and Latin -Jewish Scholarship: -Separation of religious and secular thought (formerly, under Muslim rule, this was encouraged) -Kabbalah (Jewish Mysticism): -Composed by Moses de Leon in 13th Century CE, wasn't largely disseminated until the 16th Century CE -Marks a shift away from Philosophy (mysticism was an esoteric method, discipline, and school of thought in Jewish mysticism to connect with God)

Where Did the Rabbis Come From?

-Were the Rabbis Pharisees? -Rabbis and the Pharisees share some common ideas and beliefs -Early rabbinic figures identified as Pharisees by Josephus and New Testament Gospels (however, nowhere in Rabbinic literature do Rabbis identify as Pharisees) -Rabbis were critical of the sects, believing that they were the cause of dividing the Jewish people and spurring revolts (seems implausible to think they're Pharisees)

Cordoba

-West (Cordoba) vs. East (Baghdad): -Jews from Cordoba (Spain, in general) sent money to Baghdad (or Babylonia) to fund the Geonum in Baghdad (however, as the Jews stayed in Spain and assimilated, some Jews like Hasdai Ibn Shaprut brought Rabbis and book to Cordoba from the East) -Decline of the Geonim: Transfer of Jewish religious authority from East to West -Explosion of Jewish literary activity after the decline of the Geonim -Cordoba as an important, political, commercial, intellectual, and cultural center -700 mosques, 300 public baths, 70 libraries, streets were paved and had lights -Commercial and artistic activities thrived -Schools were built to educate people

Gospels

-What are our sources for reconstructing the historical Jesus? -The Four Canonical Gospels (called "The New Testament Gospels") 1. Matthew 2. Mark 3. Luke 4. John -Non-Canonical Gospels (i.e., The Gospel of Thomas, most reliable sources) -Other early Christian and Roman literature -Josephus (wrote the "Testimonium Flavianum", isn't helpful) -What are our sources for reconstructing the historical Jesus? -The Four Canonical Gospels (i.e., Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) -Problem: -The canonical gospels cannot be read as straightforward historical accounts (i.e., the birth & the passion narratives) -Dating and Authorship (the non-canonical gospels are dated and we know the authorships, which makes them more reliable) -The Four Canonical Gospels are anonymous, written in a certain Greek dialect that no followers of Jesus spoke -Criteria for Historicity: -Multiple Attestation (2+ accounts that are consistent with each other and are unrelated to each other at the same time) -Embarrassment (people wanted to prevent Jesus from looking badly by hanging out with disreputable/unsavory people) -Dissimilarity (we should expect that some of what Jesus said shouldn't be similar with what the Jews believed; Jesus challenged the status quo) -The Cross (Related to the criterion of embarrassment; in the 1st century CE in the Roman Empire, only criminals were crucified; the Early Church refers to Jesus's crucifixion as a "scandal")

Questions to Think About

-Why is the Visigothic Period a low point? -Take control of religion, forced conversion -How does Spain come under Muslim rule? -Instability of Visigoths made it easy for Berbers to invade -What factors contribute to the "Golden Age" of Spain? -Political stability of Umayyads, commitment to growing arts and culture -What causes the decline of Muslim Spain? -Nothing was left to sustain the growth of communities and diversity -Made Spain weak and was easily threatened by Christianity

Rashi, Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac (11th Century CE)

-Wrote commentaries on Torah, Talmud, and other Biblical books (provided essential explanations that made the texts understandable and accessible to Jewish people during the Medieval Period and the present day) -Founded school in France devoted to Rabbinic study -Grandchildren expanded on Rashi's scholarship in Tosafot (additions to the Talmud)

Yavneh

-Yavneh as a Center of Rabbinic Activity: -Canonization: The first thing that was supposed to be done at Yavneh, determining which books are going to be the sacred books of Judaism -Regulation of Calendar: Unifies the practice and observation of Jewish festivals and holidays (Jews follow a lunar calendar) -Sanhedrin Re-Established: Had less authority than the Sanhedrin of the Second-Temple period and was more involved in less important decisions than the former Sanhedrin