Kin 2500 Final
__________________-- is an exaggerated response of the sympathetic division of the ANS that occurs in about 85 percent of individuals with spinal cord injury at or above the level of T6. Among the effects of increased sympathetic activity is severe vasoconstriction, which elevates blood pressure. In response, the cardiovascular center in the medulla oblongata (1) increases parasympathetic output via the vagus nerve, which decreases heart rate, and (2) decreases sympathetic output, which causes dilation of blood vessels above the level of the injury.
Autonomic dysreflexia
_________________- A cluster of cell bodies of sympathetic or parasympathetic neurons located outside the central nervous system; the preganglionic neuron has its myelinated axon extend from the CNS to this.
Autonomic ganglion
Autonomic Nervous System: _________________ regulate visceral activities by either increasing (exciting) or decreasing (inhibiting) activities in their effector tissues, which are cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands. Changes in the diameter of the pupils, dilation and constriction of blood vessels, and adjustment of the rate and force of the heartbeat are examples of autonomic motor responses.
Autonomic motor neurons
Autonomic Nervous System: _________________- that propagate from the CNS to various effector tissues to regulate the activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and many glands
Autonomic motor neurons
Heart _________________- Peptide hormone, produced by the atria of the heart in response to stretching, that inhibits aldosterone production and thus lowers blood pressure; causes natriuresis, increased urinary excretion of sodium
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
__________________: - Main input comes from autonomic (visceral) sensory neurons - Autonomic neurons regulate visceral activities - Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
Autonomic Nervous System
_________________________- These sensory signals are not consciously perceived most of the time, although intense activation may produce conscious sensations. Two examples of perceived visceral sensations are sensations of pain from damaged viscera and angina pectoris (chest pain) from inadequate blood flow to the heart. Some sensations monitored by somatic sensory and special sensory neurons also influence the (blank). For example, pain can produce dramatic changes in some autonomic activities.
Autonomic Nervous System
______________________- Visceral sensory (afferent) and visceral motor (efferent) neurons. Autonomic motor neurons, both sympathetic and parasympathetic, conduct nerve impulses from the central nervous system to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands; is a division of the nervous system that regulates cardiac and smooth muscle and glandular tissue.
Autonomic Nervous system
_________________- is characterized by a pounding headache; severe high blood pressure (hypertension); flushed, warm skin with profuse sweating above the injury level; pale, cold, and dry skin below the injury level; and anxiety. It is an emergency condition that requires immediate intervention. If untreated, it can cause seizures, stroke, or heart attack.
Autonomic dysreflexia
Autonomic Nervous System: _________________-Unlike skeletal muscle, tissues innervated by the (blank) often function to some extent even if their nerve supply is damaged. For example, the heart continues to beat when it is removed for transplantation. Single-unit smooth muscle, like that found in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, contracts rhythmically on its own, and glands produce some secretions in the absence of (blank) control.
Autonomic motor neurons
In some organs, nerve impulses from one division of the __________________ stimulate the organ to increase its activity (excitation), and impulses from the other division decrease the organ's activity (inhibition).
Autonomic nervous system
_________________- A network of sympathetic and parasympathetic axons; examples are the cardiac, celiac, and pelvic plexuses, which are located in the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, respectively.
Autonomic plexuses
Autonomic Nervous System: __________________- are in visceral organs and in blood vessels that convey information to integrating centers. These neurons are associated with interoceptors (receptors inside the body) such as chemoreceptors that monitor blood CO2 level, and mechanoreceptors that detect the degree of stretch in the walls of organs or blood vessels.
Autonomic sensory neurons
Adrenal gland disorders _________________- is a genetic disorder in which one or more enzymes needed for synthesis of cortisol are absent. Because the cortisol level is low, secretion of ACTH by the anterior pituitary is high due to lack of negative feedback inhibition. ACTH in turn stimulates growth and secretory activity of the adrenal cortex. As a result, both adrenal glands are enlarged
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
____________________-, hyposecretion of thyroid hormones that is present at birth, causes severe mental retardation and stunted bone growth. At birth, the baby typically is normal because lipid-soluble maternal thyroid hormones crossed the placenta during pregnancy and allowed normal development. If congenital hypothyroidism exists, oral thyroid hormone treatment must be started soon after birth and continued for life.
Congenital hypothyroidism
Touch: ___________________- are receptors for fine touch that are located in the dermal papillae of hairless skin (palms and soles); They are abundant in the hands, eyelids, tip of the tongue, lips, nipples, soles, clitoris, and tip of the penis
Corpuscles of touch (or Meissner corpuscles)
_______________tracts- Conveys nerve impulses from motor cortex to skeletal muscles of head and neck to coordinate precise, voluntary movements
Corticobulbar
Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons: ________________ outflow- consists of preganglionic axons that extend from the brain stem in four cranial nerves
Cranial parasympathetic
_____________ touch- is the ability to perceive that something has contacted the skin, even though its exact location, shape, size, or texture cannot be determined.
Crude
Posterior (dorsal) columns: ___________________- Conveys nerve impulses for touch, pressure, vibration, and conscious proprioception from the upper limbs, upper trunk, neck, and posterior head
Cuneate fasciculus
Adrenal Gland Disorders ________________- Condition caused by a hypersecretion of glucocorticoids characterized by spindly legs, "moon face," "buffalo hump," pendulous abdomen, flushed facial skin, poor wound healing, hyperglycemia, osteoporosis, hypertension, and increased susceptibility to disease.
Cushing's syndrome
Posterior (dorsal) columns: ___________________- Conveys nerve impulses for touch, pressure, and vibration from the lower limbs and lower trunk. Axons of first-order neurons from one side of body form posterior column on same side and end in medulla, where they synapse with dendrites and cell bodies of second-order neurons. Axons of second-order neurons decussate, enter medial lemniscus on opposite side, and extend to thalamus. Third-order neurons transmit nerve impulses from thalamus to primary somatosensory cortex on side opposite the site of stimulation
Gracile fasciculus
________________- The science concerned with the structure and functions of endocrine glands and the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the endocrine system.
Endocrinology
Autonomic Nervous System: ____________________- specialized network of nerves and ganglia forming an independent nerve network within the wall of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract
Enteric division
Adrenal medulla Produces two hormones: ______________- Hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla that produces actions similar to those that result from sympathetic stimulation. Also called adrenaline
Epinephrine
Kidneys _______________- Increases rate of red blood cell formation
Erythropoietin (EPO)
______________ and progesterone- Maintain pregnancy and help prepare mammary glands to secrete milk
Estrogens
_______________- Feminizing sex hormones produced by the ovaries; govern development of oocytes, maintenance of female reproductive structures, and appearance of secondary sex characteristics; also affect fluid and electrolyte balance, and protein anabolism. Examples are b-estradiol, estrone, and estriol.
Estrogens
Types of Sensory Receptors: ________________- are located at or near the external surface of the body
Exteroceptors
Pancreas: Islets of Langerhans- _____________ cells- GA cell in the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) that secretes pancreatic polypeptide
F
Types of Pain: _____________pain - occurs very rapidly, usually within 0.1 second after a stimulus is applied. This type of pain is also known as acute, sharp, or pricking pain. The sensations resulting from a needle puncture or knife cut to the skin are examples of fast pain. (blank) pain is not felt in deeper tissues of the body.
Fast
Sympathetic Responses: _____________ response- - Blood vessels supplying organs involved in exercise or fighting off danger dilate - Liver cells perform glycogenolysis, and adipose tissue cells perform lipolysis - Release of glucose by the liver increases blood glucose level - Processes that are not essential for meeting the stressful situation are inhibited
Fight-or-flight
Sympathetic Responses: _____________ response- - Pupils of the eyes dilate - Heart rate, force of heart contraction, and blood pressure increase -The airways dilate, allowing faster movement of air into and out of the lungs
Fight-or-flight
_________ touch- provides specific information about a touch sensation, such as exactly what point on the body is touched plus the shape, size, and texture of the source of stimulation.
Fine
Somatic Sensory Pathways: _____________ neurons- are sensory neurons in the peripheral nervous system, which convey information into the CNS from sensory receptors in the body. All remaining neurons of a sensory pathway are interneurons, which are located completely within the central nervous system.
First-order
Anterior pituitary cells secrete: _______________- Hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary; it initiates development of ova and stimulates the ovaries to secrete estrogens in females, and initiates sperm production in males.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Types of Sensory Receptors: ________________- are bare (not encapsulated) dendrites; they lack any structural specializations that can be seen under a light microscope. Receptors for pain, temperature, tickle, itch, and some touch sensations are free nerve endings.
Free nerve endings
___________- a collection of neuronal cell bodies outside the CNS
Ganglion
Gastrointestinal tract ___________- Promotes secretion of gastric juice and increases movements of the stomach
Gastrin
Classification of Sensations: ___________ senses- refer to two types of senses: somatic senses and visceral senses
General
________________- Hypersecretion during the growth years causes this, an abnormal increase in the length of long bones. The person grows to be very tall, but body proportions are about normal.
Giantism
Gastrointestinal tract _______________- Stimulates release of insulin by pancreatic beta cells
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)
Gastrointestinal tract _______________- Stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice, regulates release of bile from the gallbladder, and brings about a feeling of fullness after eating
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
_______________ Neurons and Neceptors- Releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
Cholinergic
Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons: Terminal ganglia in the head- ____________ ganglia- lie lateral to each optic (II) nerve near the posterior aspect of the orbit. Preganglionic axons pass with the oculomotor (III) nerves to the ciliary ganglia. Postganglionic axons from the ciliary ganglia innervate smooth muscle fibers in the eyeball.
Ciliary
Thermal Sensations: _________ receptors- are located in the stratum basale of the epidermis. Temperatures between 10 degrees and 40 degrees C (50-105 degrees F) activate these
Cold
There are two general pathways by which somatic sensory signals entering the spinal cord ascend to the cerebral cortex: ______________________ pathway- Sensory pathways that carry information related to proprioception, fine touch, two-point discrimination, pressure, and vibration via first-order neurons, second-order neurons, and third-order neurons; nerve impulses for conscious proprioception and most tactile sensations ascend to the cerebral cortex along the
Posterior column-medial lemniscus
____________________ tract- Convey nerve impulses from proprioceptors in the trunk and lower limb of one side of the body to the same side of the cerebellum
Posterior spinocerebellar
_________________- The second autonomic motor neuron in an autonomic pathway, having its cell body and dendrites located in an autonomic ganglion and its unmyelinated axon extends directly from the ganglion to the effector (cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or a gland).
Postganglionic neuron
________________- The first autonomic motor neuron in an autonomic pathway, with its cell body and dendrites in the brain or spinal cord and its myelinated axon ending at an autonomic ganglion, where it synapses with a postganglionic neuron.
Preganglionic neuron
_____________ area- The idea or desire to move a part of the body is generated in one or more cortical association areas, such as the prefrontal cortex, somatosensory association area, auditory association area, or visual association area
Premotor
Tactile Sensations: _____________- a sustained sensation that is felt over a larger area than touch, occurs with deeper deformation of the skin and subcutaneous layer. The receptors that contribute to sensations of (blank) are type I and type II mechanoreceptors. These receptors are able to respond to steady (blank) stimulus because they are slowly adapting.
Pressure
________________ area- A region of the cerebral cortex in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe of the cerebrum that controls specific muscles or groups of muscles.
Primary motor
______________- A female sex hormone produced by the ovaries that helps prepare the endometrium of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized ovum and the mammary glands for milk secretion.
Progesterone
Anterior pituitary cells secrete: ______________- A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that initiates and maintains milk secretion by the mammary glands.
Prolactin (PRL)
________________ sensations- The perception of the position of body parts, especially the limbs, independent of vision; this sense is possible due to nerve impulses generated by proprioceptors. Also called proprioception.
Proprioceptive
Types of Sensory Receptors: __________________- are located in muscles, tendons, joints, and the inner ear
Proprioceptors
Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons: Terminal ganglia in the head- _________________ ganglia- A cluster of cell bodies of parasympathetic postganglionic neurons ending at the lacrimal and nasal glands.
Pterygopalatine
Touch: _____________ cutaneous mechanoreceptors- Slowly adapting touch receptor for fine touch; also called a tactile disc or Merkel disc; ae saucer-shaped, flattened free nerve endings that make contact with tactile epithelial cells (Merkel cells) of the stratum basale. They are plentiful in the fingertips, hands, lips, and external genitalia. These receptors respond to continuous touch, such as holding an object in your hand for an extended period of time.
Type I
Touch: _______________________- A sensory receptor embedded deeply in the dermis and deeper tissues that detects stretching of skin
Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors (or Ruffini corpuscles)
___________________ tract- Conveys nerve impulses from the vestibular nucleus (which receives input about head movements from the inner ear) to ipsilateral skeletal muscles of the trunk and proximal parts of the free limbs for maintaining posture and balance in response to head movements
Vestibulospinal
Tactile Sensations: ______________- Sensations of this result from rapidly repetitive sensory signals from tactile receptors. The receptors for these sensations are lamellated corpuscles and corpuscles of touch.
Vibration
Classification of Sensations: General Senses- ________________ senses- provide information about conditions within internal organs, such as pressure, stretch, chemicals, nausea, hunger, and temperature.
Visceral
Types of Pain: _____________ pain- results from stimulation of nociceptors in visceral organs.
Visceral
The most common form of hyperthyroidism is ______________, which also occurs seven to ten times more often in females than in males, usually before age 40. Graves disease is an autoimmune disorder in which the person produces antibodies that mimic the action of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The antibodies continually stimulate the thyroid gland to grow and produce thyroid hormones. A primary sign is an enlarged thyroid, which may be two to three times the normal size.
Graves disease
Touch: _________________- A network of dendrites arranged around the root of a hair as free or naked nerve endings that are stimulated when a hair shaft is moved; are rapidly adapting crude touch receptors found in hairy skin.
Hair root plexuses
____________- A secretion of endocrine cells that alters the physiological activity of target cells of the body
Hormones
Upper motor neurons: _____________ motor pathways- Motor tracts that convey information from the brain down the spinal cord for automatic movements, coordination of body movements with visual stimuli, skeletal muscle tone and posture, and balance. Also known as extrapyramidal pathways.
Indirect
Prevertebral Ganglia: ________________ ganglion- is near the beginning of the inferior mesenteric artery in the middle of the abdomen
Inferior mesenteric
_____________- The stalklike structure that attaches the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus of the brain. The funnel-shaped, open, distal end of the uterine (Fallopian) tube.
Infundibulum
______________- A hormone secreted by the gonads that inhibits release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) by the anterior pituitary.
Inhibin
Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions: ________________- Interneurons within the CNS relay signals from sensory neurons to motor neurons. The main (blank) for most autonomic reflexes are located in the hypothalamus and brain stem. Some autonomic reflexes, such as those for urination and defecation, have (blank) in the spinal cord.
Integrating center
Autonomic Nervous System: _____________- are in the central nervous system (CNS)
Integrating centers
Types of Sensory Receptors: _______________- or visceroceptors are located in blood vessels, visceral organs, and muscles
Interoceptors
Muscle Spindles: _________________- Three to ten specialized muscle fibers (cells), partially enclosed in a spindle-shaped connective tissue capsule, that make up a muscle spindle.
Intrafusal muscle fibers
Proprioceptive Sensations: ______________- The perception of the extent and direction of movement of body parts; this sense is possible due to nerve impulses generated by proprioceptors. It is the perception of body movements
Kinesthesia
Parasympathetic Responses: Rest and Digest- Salivation, ____________, Urination, Digestion, and Defecation.
Lacrimation (SLUDD)
Tactile Sensations: Vibration- ___________________- Oval-shaped pressure receptor located in the dermis or subcutaneous tissue and consisting of concentric layers of connective tissue wrapped around the dendrites of a sensory neuron.
Lamellated corpuscle (Pacinian corpuscle)
Anterolateral or spinothalamic pathways: ____________ spinothalamic tract- Conveys nerve impulses for pain and temperature sensations
Lateral
_________________________ tract- Convey nerve impulses from reticular formation to ipsilateral skeletal muscles of the trunk and proximal parts of the free limbs for maintaining posture and regulating muscle tone in response to ongoing body movements
Lateral and Medial reticulospinal
Three tracts of upper motor neuron axons: _______________________ tracts- Conveys nerve impulses from motor cortex of cerebrum to skeletal muscles on opposite side of body for precise, voluntary movements of distal parts of free limbs. The distal muscle are responsible for precise, agile, and highly skilled movements of the hands and feet.
Lateral corticospinal
Adipose tissue _____________- Suppresses appetite and may increase the activity of FSH and LH
Leptin
Lower Motor Neurons: _______________ neurons- Input arrives at lower motor neurons from nearby interneurons called local circuit neurons. These neurons are located close to the lower motor neuron cell bodies in the brainstem and spinal cord. Local circuit neurons receive input from somatic sensory receptors, such as nociceptors and muscle spindles, as well as from higher centers in the brain. They help coordinate rhythmic activity in specific muscle groups, such as alternating flexion and extension of the free lower limbs during walking.
Local circuit
Types of Sensory Receptors: __________________- are sensitive to mechanical stimuli, such as touch or pressure
Mechanoreceptors
Pineal Gland and Thymus: _______________- A hormone secreted by the pineal gland that helps set the timing of the body's biological clock.
Melatonin
Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions: ______________- Neurons that conduct impulses from the brain toward the spinal cord or out of the brain and spinal cord into cranial or spinal nerves to effectors that may be either muscles or glands. Also called efferent neurons. Nerve impulses triggered by the integrating center propagate out of the CNS along motor neurons to an effector. In an autonomic reflex arc, two motor neurons connect the CNS to an effector: The preganglionic neuron conducts motor impulses from the CNS to an autonomic ganglion, and the postganglionic neuron conducts motor impulses from an autonomic ganglion to an effector
Motor neurons
Two types of cholinergic receptors: ______________ receptors- Receptor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine found on both sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons and on skeletal muscle in the motor end plate.
Nicotinic
Types of Sensory Receptors: _______________- (pain receptors) respond to painful stimuli from physical or chemical damage to tissue
Nociceptors
_______________- a free (naked) nerve ending that detects painful stimuli; the receptors for pain, are found in every tissue of the body except the brain.
Nociceptors
Adrenal medulla Produces two hormones: ___________- A hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla that produces actions similar to those that result from sympathetic stimulation.
Norepinephrine
Types of Sensory Receptors: ________________- detect the osmotic pressure of the body fluids
Osmoreceptors
Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons: Terminal ganglia in the head- ___________ ganglia- are situated just inferior to each foramen ovale. Each ganglion receives preganglionic axons from a branch of the glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve and sends postganglionic axons to the parotid salivary glands.
Otic
Posterior Pituitary: ________________- A hormone secreted by neurosecretory cells in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus that stimulates contraction of smooth muscle in the pregnant uterus and myoepithelial cells around the ducts of mammary glands.
Oxytocin (OT)
___________ is indispensable for survival - It serves a protective function by signaling the presence of noxious, tissue-damaging conditions
Pain
________________- A soft, oblong organ lying along the greater curvature of the stomach and connected by a duct to the duodenum. It is both an exocrine gland (secreting pancreatic juice) and an endocrine gland (secreting insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide).
Pancreas
_________________- the output part; One of the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system, having cell bodies of preganglionic neurons in nuclei in the brain stem and in the lateral gray horn of the sacral portion of the spinal cord; primarily concerned with activities that conserve and restore body energy. Also known as the craniosacral division.
Parasympathetic
__________________ responses support body functions that conserve and restore body energy during times of rest and recovery
Parasympathetic
Types of Sensory Receptors: __________________- detect changes in temperature
Thermoreceptors
______________ are free nerve endings
Thermoreceptors
Anterior pituitary cells secrete: ________________- A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Also called thyrotropin.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Follicular cells produce two hormones: _______________- A hormone secreted by the thyroid gland that regulates metabolism, growth and development, and the activity of the nervous system. Also called tetraiodothyronine.
Thyroxine (T4)
Follicular cells produce two hormones: _________________- A hormone produced by the thyroid gland that regulates metabolism, growth and development, and the activity of the nervous system.
Triiodothyronine (T3)
_________________ diabetes- occurs because the person's immune system destroys the pancreatic beta cells. As a result, the pancreas produces little or no insulin. This diabetes usually develops in people younger than age 20, and it persists throughout life.
Type 1 (insulin-dependent diabetes)
_______________ diabetes- is much more common than type 1, representing more than 90 percent of all cases. Type (blank) diabetes most often occurs in obese people over the age of 35. Clinical symptoms are mild, and the high glucose levels in the blood often can be controlled by diet, exercise, and weight loss. Although some type (blank) diabetics need insulin, many have a sufficient amount (or even a surplus) of insulin in the blood. In such cases, diabetes arises not from a shortage of insulin but because target cells become less sensitive to it due to down-regulation of insulin receptors.
Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent diabetes)
________________- A hormone secreted by the chief (principal) cells of the parathyroid glands that increases blood calcium level and decreases blood phosphate level. Also called parathormone.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Notice that, because of its origin from migrating neural crest tissue, the postganglionic neuron lies entirely outside the CNS in the ___________.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Adrenal Gland Disorders _____________________- Usually benign tumors of the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla, called this, cause hypersecretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine. The result is a prolonged version of the fight-or-flight response: rapid heart rate, high blood pressure, high levels of glucose in blood and urine, an elevated basal metabolic rate (BMR), flushed face, nervousness, sweating, and decreased gastrointestinal motility. Treatment is surgical removal of the tumor.
Pheochromocytomas
Types of Sensory Receptors: __________________- detects light that strikes the retina
Photoreceptors
______________- is a small endocrine gland attached to the roof of the third ventricle of the brain at the midline that secretes melatonin
Pineal gland
______________- Hyposecretion of hGH during the growth years results in this
Pituitary dwarfism
Pain sensations sometimes occur out of proportion to minor damage, persist chronically due to an injury, or even appear for no obvious reason. In such cases, ____________ or pain relief is needed. These drugs such as aspirin and ibuprofen (for example, Advil® or Motrin®) block formation of prostaglandins, which stimulate nociceptors.
analgesia
The ________________, secretes hormones that regulate a wide range of bodily activities, from growth to reproduction. Release of anterior pituitary hormones is stimulated by releasing hormones and suppressed by inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus.
anterior pituitary
The ________________ may be divided into three general groups: Two groups are components of the sympathetic division (the sympathetic ganglia), and one is a component of the parasympathetic division (the parasympathetic ganglia).
autonomic ganglia
The preganglionic neuron synapses with a postganglionic neuron (the second neuron in the pathway) within the ______________.
autonomic ganglion
Most ____________________ consist of two motor neurons in series, one following the other
autonomic motor pathways
Stimulation by the _________________ either excites or inhibits visceral effectors.
autonomic nervous system
Autonomic reflexes are responses that occur when nerve impulses travel over an __________________
autonomic reflex arc
Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons: The cell body ____________ emerge as part of a cranial nerve or as part of the anterior root of a spinal nerve
axons
______________ is a neural pathway that elicits a reflex and contains a receptor, sensory neuron, integrating center, motor neuron, and effector. These reflexes play a key role in regulating controlled conditions in the body, such as blood pressure, by adjusting heart rate, force of ventricular contraction, and blood vessel diameter; digestion, by adjusting the motility (movement) and muscle tone of the gastrointestinal tract; and defecation and urination, by regulating the opening and closing of sphincters.
reflex arc
Autonomic plexuses: ______________ plexuses- contain the renal ganglion and supply the renal arteries within the kidneys and the ureters.
renal
Somatic Sensory Pathways: _____________ neurons- Axons of first-order neurons synapse with these neurons, which are usually located in either the brainstem or spinal cord.
second-order
A _____________ is the conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal conditions of the body; a state of awareness of external or internal conditions of the body
sensation
The specialization of _________________ allows nerve impulses from the eyes to be perceived as sight, and those from the ears to be perceived as sounds.
sensory neurons
A _________________ is a group of neurons in series that conveys sensory information. For sensations that are consciously perceived, the sensory pathway consists of parallel chains of neurons that extend from sensory receptors in the periphery to the cerebral cortex. The neurons of a sensory pathway are referred to as first-, second-, and third-, order neurons based on the order in which they occur in the chain. Integration (processing) of information occurs at each synapse along the sensory pathway.
sensory pathway
For a sensation to occur, four conditions must be satisfied: ______________- must convert the stimulus to nerve impulses
sensory receptor
Types of Sensory Receptors: The different types of capsules enhance the sensitivity or specificity of the receptor. Sensory receptors for some special senses are specialized ________________ that synapse with sensory neurons. These include hair cells for hearing and equilibrium in the inner ear, gustatory receptors in taste buds and photoreceptors in the retina of the eye for vision.
separate cells
The _________________ includes both sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons convey input from receptors for somatic senses (pain, thermal, tactile, and proprioceptive sensations) and from receptors for the special senses (vision, audition, gustation, olfaction, and equilibrium).
somatic nervous system
Autonomic plexuses: The major plexuses in the thorax are the __________ plexus, which supplies the heart
cardiac
Autonomic plexuses: ______________ plexus- in the abdomen and pelvis; he largest autonomic plexus, surrounds the celiac and superior mesenteric arteries. It contains two large celiac ganglia, two aorticorenal ganglia, and a dense network of autonomic axons and is distributed to the liver, gallbladder, stomach, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, medullae (inner regions) of the adrenal glands, testes, and ovaries.
celiac (solar)
In the ANS, the ____________ neurons include: - All sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons - Sympathetic postganglionic neurons that innervate most sweat glands - All parasympathetic postganglionic neurons
cholinergic
Roles of the Cerebellum: Comparing ______________ signals with sensory information- The cerebellum compares intentions for movement with the actual movement performed.
command
For a sensation to occur, four conditions must be satisfied: The nerve impulses must be _________________ along a neural pathway from the sensory receptor to the brain
conducted
Injury or disease of upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex causes ____________ paralysis of muscles on the opposite side of the body. In this condition muscle tone is increased, reflexes are exaggerated, and pathological reflexes such as the Babinski sign appear (extension of the great toe, with or without fanning of the other toes
spastic
Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons terminate in that: Some preganglionic axons pass through the sympathetic trunk without terminating in it. Beyond the trunk, they form nerves known as _______________ which extend to and terminate in the outlying prevertebral ganglia. These ganglia, formed by neural crest cells that migrated toward the major blood vessels, supply the organs that arise from the abdominal portion of the gut tube.
splanchnic nerves
Enteric division: _____________ plexus- In the stomach its role may be partly inhibitory, working against the myenteric plexus to control the muscular contractions more finely. In the intestines it is generally believed to work in accord with the myenteric plexus in producing peristaltic waves and increasing digestive secretions.
submucosal
Autonomic plexuses: ______________ plexus- contains the superior mesenteric ganglion and supplies the small and large intestine.
superior mesenteric
Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons terminate in that they: Form _________________- others pass up or down the sympathetic trunk for a variable distance from ganglion to ganglion
sympathetic chains
The majority of the output of the ________________, is directed at the smooth muscle of blood vessels. Sympathetic activities result in increased alertness and enhanced metabolic activities in order to prepare the body for an emergency situation. Responses to such situations, which may occur during physical activity or emotional stress, include a rapid heart rate, faster breathing rate, dilation of the pupils, dry mouth, sweaty but cool skin, dilation of blood vessels to organs involved in combating stress (such as the heart and skeletal muscles), constriction of blood vessels to organs not involved in combating stress (for example, the gastrointestinal tract and kidneys), and the release of glucose from the liver.
sympathetic division (fight or flight)
Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons: Preganglionic axons extend from white rami communicantes into the ______________, giving off axon collaterals that terminate and synapse in several ways
sympathetic trunk ganglion
____________ sensations include touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle
tactile
Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons: _____________ ganglia- A cluster of cell bodies of parasympathetic postganglionic neurons either lying very close to the visceral effectors or located within the walls of the visceral effectors supplied by the postganglionic neurons.
terminal
Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons: Preganglionic axons of the parasympathetic division synapse with postganglionic neurons in ______________
terminal ganglia
The male has two oval gonads, called ___________-, that produce testosterone, the primary androgen
testes
Graves patients often have a peculiar edema behind the eyes, called ______________, which causes the eyes to protrude. Treatment may include surgical removal of part or all of the thyroid gland (thyroidectomy), the use of radioactive iodine (131I) to selectively destroy thyroid tissue, and the use of antithyroid drugs to block synthesis of thyroid hormones.
exophthalmos
Muscle Spindles: Surrounding the muscle spindles are ordinary skeletal muscle fibers, called ________________ , which are innervated by alpha motor neurons.
extrafusal muscle fibers
Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons terminate in that: the _________________ at any level of entry
first ganglion
Damage or disease of lower motor neurons produces _____________ paralysis of muscles on the same side of the body. There is neither voluntary nor reflex action of the innervated muscle fibers, muscle tone is decreased or lost, and the muscle remains limp or flaccid.
flaccid
Muscle Spindles: In addition to their sensory nerve endings near the middle of intrafusal fibers, muscle spindles contain motor neurons called __________________. The motor neurons terminate near both ends of the intrafusal fibers and adjust the tension in a muscle spindle to variations in the length of the muscle.
gamma motor neurons
Postganglionic neurons arise from sympathetic trunk ganglia and do one of the following: Return via _________________ to the anterior ramus of spinal nerve where they are distributed to blood vessels, sweat glands, and arrector pili muscles in the body wall
gray communicating rami
Functions of ____________ *Help regulate: - Chemical composition and volume of internal environment (interstitial fluid) - Metabolism and energy balance - Contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers - Glandular secretions - Some immune system activities *Control growth and development. *Regulate operation of reproductive systems. *Help establish circadian rhythms.
hormones
Autonomic plexuses: ______________ plexus- supplies pelvic viscera
hypogastric
Parkinson's disease Muscular movements also exhibit ______________, decreasing range of motion. For example, words are written smaller, letters are poorly formed, and eventually handwriting becomes illegible.
hypokinesia
The _______________typically increases sympathetic activity at the same time it decreases parasympathetic activity, and vice versa.
hypothalamus
The ____________ pathways or extrapyramidal pathways include all somatic motor tracts other than the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts. Nerve impulses conducted along the indirect pathways follow complex, polysynaptic circuits that involve the motor cortex, basal nuclei, thalamus, cerebellum, reticular formation, and nuclei in the brainstem.
indirect motor
Autonomic plexuses: ______________ plexus- contains the inferior mesenteric ganglion, which innervates the large intestine.
inferior mesenteric
For a sensation to occur, four conditions must be satisfied: A region of the brain must receive and _______________ the nerve impulses, producing a sensation.
integrate (process)
Roles of the Cerebellum: Monitoring ___________ for movement- The cerebellum receives impulses from the motor cortex and basal nuclei via the pontine nuclei in the pons regarding what movements are planned.
intentions
Thyroid- Lateral lobes lie on either side of the trachea are connected by ____________
isthmus
Tactile Sensations: The ____________ sensation results from stimulation of free nerve endings by certain chemicals, such as antigens in mosquito saliva injected from a bite, often because of a local inflammatory response. Scratching usually alleviates this by activating a pathway that blocks transmission of the (blank) signal through the spinal cord.
itch
Cell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in the _____________ of the gray matter in the 12 thoracic segments and the first two or three lumbar segments of the spinal cord.
lateral horns
Somatic Motor Pathways: These neurons, also known as ________________, have their cell bodies in the lower parts of the brainstem and spinal cord. Their axons extend from the motor nuclei of cranial nerves to skeletal muscles of the face and head and from the anterior gray horns at all levels of the spinal cord to skeletal muscles of the limbs and trunk. Only these neurons provide output from the CNS to skeletal muscle fibers. For this reason, these neurons are also referred to collectively as the final common pathway.
lower motor neurons (LMNs)
Prevertebral Ganglia: Inferior mesenteric ganglion- Preganglionic axons that form the ________________ from the first through fourth lumbar ganglia (L1-L4) enter the inferior mesenteric plexus and terminate in the inferior mesenteric ganglion, where they synapse with postganglionic neurons.
lumbar splanchnic nerves
Roles of the Cerebellum: Monitoring actual _____________- The cerebellum receives input from proprioceptors in joints and muscles that reveals what actually is happening. These nerve impulses travel in the anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts. Nerve impulses from the vestibular (equilibrium-sensing) apparatus in the inner ear and from the eyes also enter the cerebellum.
movement
The functions of the basal ganglia: Initiation and termination of _________________ - Two parts of the basal nuclei, the caudate nucleus and the putamen, receive input from sensory, association, and motor areas of the cerebral cortex and from the substantia nigra. Output from the basal nuclei comes from the globus pallidus and substantia nigra, which send feedback signals to the upper motor neurons in the motor cortex by way of the thalamus.
movements
Muscle Spindles: By adjusting how vigorously a muscle spindle responds to stretching of a skeletal muscle, the brain sets an overall level of ______________, the small degree of contraction that is present while the muscle is at rest.
muscle tone
The functions of the basal ganglia: Control of _____________- The globus pallidus sends impulses into the reticular formation that reduce muscle tone. Damage or destruction of some basal nuclei connections causes a generalized increase in muscle tone.
muscle tone
Hypothyroidism during the adult years produces _______________, which occurs about five times more often in females than in males. A hallmark of this disorder is edema (accumulation of interstitial fluid) that causes the facial tissues to swell and look puffy. A person with myxedema has a slow heart rate, low body temperature, sensitivity to cold, dry hair and skin, muscular weakness, general lethargy, and a tendency to gain weight easily.
myxedema
Postganglionic neurons arise from sympathetic trunk ganglia and do one of the following: Exit into ________________ that supply the heart or that follow blood vessels into the head, neck, and shoulder region
nerve branches
The _______________ begins developing in the third week from a thickening of ectoderm called the neural plate.
nervous system
Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways: The raised edges of the neural plate are called ____________.
neural folds
Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways: During the process of neurulation the plate folds inward and forms a longitudinal groove, the _____________.
neural groove
Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways: Development of the nervous system begins in the third week of gestation with a thickening of the ectoderm called the _____________
neural plate
In the ANS, adrenergic neurons release _________________, also known as noradrenalin.
norepinephrine (NE)
Most sympathetic postganglionic neurons are adrenergic; like ACh, _____________ is synthesized and stored in synaptic vesicles and released by exocytosis.
norepinephrine (NE)
The female gonads, called the ___________-, are paired oval bodies located in the pelvic cavity. The ovaries produce female sex hormones called estrogens and progesterone.
ovaries
In the quiet intervals between periods of exercise, ___________________ impulses to the digestive glands and the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract predominate over sympathetic impulses
parasympathetic
Other important _________________responses are "three decreases": decreased heart rate, decreased diameter of airways (bronchoconstriction), and decreased diameter (constriction) of the pupils.
parasympathetic
The ____________________; its activities conserve and restore body energy during times of rest or digesting a meal; the majority of its output is directed to the smooth muscle and glandular tissue of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. The parasympathetic division conserves energy and replenishes nutrient stores. Although both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions are concerned with maintaining homeostasis, they do so in dramatically different ways.
parasympathetic division (rest and digest)
Partially embedded in the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland are several small, round masses of tissue called the ___________________
parathyroid glands
Characteristics of Sensations: _____________- is the conscious interpretation of a sensation. They are integrated in the cerebral cortex. You seem to see with your eyes, hear with your ears, and feel pain in an injured part of your body. This is because sensory impulses from each part of the body arrive in a specific region of the cerebral cortex, which interprets the sensation as coming from the stimulated sensory receptors.
perception
Patients who have had a limb amputated may still experience sensations such as itching, pressure, tingling, or pain as if the limb were still there. This phenomenon is called ________________ sensation. One explanation is that the cerebral cortex interprets impulses arising in the proximal portions of sensory neurons that previously carried impulses from the limb as coming from the nonexistent (blank)
phantom limb
Postganglionic neurons arise from sympathetic trunk ganglia and do one of the following: Exit the trunk in nerves that enter ______________ that follow blood vessels of those regions
plexuses
Although the________________, does not synthesize hormones, it does store and release two hormones. As noted earlier, it consists of pituicytes and axon terminals of hypothalamic neurosecretory cells.
posterior pituitary
Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons: The preganglionic axons of both the cranial and sacral outflows end in terminal ganglia, where they synapse with ___________________.
postganglionic neurons
Motor neurons and autonomic ganglia- the two motor neurons of the autonomic system are _________________ and _______________ neurons
preganglionic postganglionic
__________________ ganglia- A cluster of cell bodies of postganglionic sympathetic neurons anterior to the spinal column and close to large abdominal arteries. Also called a collateral ganglion.
prevertebral (collateral)
The primary somatosensory area in each parietal lobe has been mapped out—some parts of the body are represented by large areas while other parts of the body are represented by small areas in the _______________
primary somatosensory cortex
Proprioceptive Sensations: Proprioceptive sensations arise in receptors called ______________, which are embedded in muscles (especially postural muscles) and tendons to inform us of the degree to which muscles are contracted, the amount of tension on tendons, and the positions of joints.
proprioceptors
Autonomic plexuses: The other major plexus in the thorax which is the _____________ plexus, which supplies the bronchial tree
pulmonary
Nerve impulses for voluntary movements propagate from the cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons via the direct motor pathways, also known as the _______________ pathways.
pyramidal
Drugs and _____________ selectivity- A large variety of drugs and natural products can selectively activate or block specific cholinergic or adrenergic receptors. An agonist is a substance that binds to and activates a receptor, in the process mimicking the effect of a natural neurotransmitter or hormone. An antagonist is a substance that binds to and blocks a receptor, thereby preventing a natural neurotransmitter or hormone from exerting its effect.
receptor
____________________- A neurotransmitter liberated by many peripheral nervous system neurons and some central nervous system neurons. It is excitatory at neuromuscular junctions but inhibitory at some other synapses (for example, it slows heart rate).
acetylcholine (ACh)
_____________-Two glands located superior to each kidney
adrenal glands
___________- The inner part of an adrenal gland, consisting of cells that secrete epinephrine, norepinephrine, and a small amount of dopamine in response to stimulation by sympathetic preganglionic neurons.
adrenal medulla
__________________- A neuron that releases epinephrine (adrenaline) or norepinephrine (noradrenaline) as its neurotransmitter.
adrenergic neurons
________________- hypersecretion of hGH during adulthood is called this. Although hGH cannot produce further lengthening of the long bones because the epiphyseal plates are already closed, the bones of the hands, feet, cheeks, and jaws thicken and other tissues enlarge. In addition, the eyelids, lips, tongue, and nose enlarge, and the skin thickens and develops furrows, especially on the forehead and soles.
Acromegaly
Characteristics of Sensations: _______________- The adjustment of the pupil of the eye to changes in light intensity. The property by which a sensory neuron relays a decreased frequency of action potentials from a receptor, even though the strength of the stimulus remains constant; the decrease in perception of a sensation over time while the stimulus is still present. For example, when you first step into a hot shower, the water may feel very hot, but soon the sensation decreases to one of comfortable warmth even though the stimulus (the high temperature of the water) does not change.
Adaptation
Adrenal Gland Disorders Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone causes _______________ (chronic adrenocortical insufficiency). The majority of cases are autoimmune disorders in which antibodies cause adrenal cortex destruction or block binding of ACTH to its receptors. Symptoms include mental lethargy, anorexia, nausea and vomiting, weight loss, hypoglycemia, and muscular weakness.
Addison's disease
____________- The outer portion of an adrenal gland, divided into three zones; the zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids, the zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids, and the zona reticularis secretes androgens.
Adrenal cortex
________________ receptors bind NE and epinephrine.
Adrenergic
Anterior pituitary cells secrete: _________________- A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary that influences the production and secretion of certain hormones of the adrenal cortex. Also called corticotropin.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Pancreas: Islets of Langerhans- _____________ cells- A type of cell in the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) in the pancreas that secretes the hormone glucagon. Also termed an A cell.
Alpha
The main types of adrenergic receptors: ________________ receptors- A type of receptor for norepinephrine and epinephrine; present on visceral effectors innervated by sympathetic postganglionic neurons.
Alpha
Muscle Spindles: ________________ neurons- Surrounding the muscle spindles are ordinary skeletal muscle fibers, called extrafusal muscle fibers, which are innervated by these.
Alpha motor
___________________- is a progressive degenerative disease that attacks motor areas of the cerebral cortex, axons of upper motor neurons in the lateral white columns (corticospinal and rubrospinal tracts), and lower motor neuron cell bodies. It causes progressive muscle weakness and atrophy.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
Anterolateral or spinothalamic pathways: _______________ spinothalamic tract- Conveys nerve impulses for itch, tickle, pressure, vibrations, and crude, poorly localized touch sensations
Anterior
___________________ tract- Convey nerve impulses from proprioceptors in the trunk and lower limb of one side of the body to the same side of the cerebellum
Anterior (ventral) spinocerebellar
Three tracts of upper motor neuron axons: _____________________ tracts- Conveys nerve impulses from motor cortex to skeletal muscles on opposite side of body for movements of trunk and proximal parts of free limbs. They terminate in skeletal muscles that control movements of the trunk and proximal parts of the limbs.
Anterior corticospinal
There are two general pathways by which somatic sensory signals entering the spinal cord ascend to the cerebral cortex: ______________________ pathways- Sensory pathway that conveys information related to pain, temperature, crude touch, pressure, tickle, and itch. Also called the spinaothalamic pathways.
Anterolateral (or spinothalamic)
Posterior Pituitary: _________________- Hormone produced by neurosecretory cells in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus that stimulates water reabsorption from kidney tubule cells into the blood and vasoconstriction of arterioles. Also called vasopressin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Prevertebral Ganglia: ________________ ganglion- is near the renal artery as it branches from the aorta
Aorticorenal
____________________ assist movement by providing input through the thalamus to upper motor neurons. Neural circuits interconnect the (blank) with motor areas of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, and substantia nigra. These circuits help initiate and terminate movements, suppress unwanted movements, and establish a normal level of muscle tone.
Basal nuclei neurons
The main types of adrenergic receptors: ______________ receptors- A type of adrenergic receptor for epinephrine and norepinephrine; found on visceral effectors innervated by sympathetic postganglionic neurons.
Beta
Kidneys _____________- Aids in the absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus
Calcitriol
Prevertebral Ganglia: ____________ ganglion- is on either side of the celiac artery just inferior to the diaphragm
Celiac
______________- the preganglionic neuron has its (blank) in the CNS
Cell body
_________________ also aid movement by controlling the activity of upper motor neurons through the thalamus. Neural circuits interconnect the cerebellum with motor areas of the cerebral cortex and the brainstem. A prime function of the cerebellum is to monitor differences between intended movements and movements actually performed. It then issues commands to upper motor neurons to reduce errors in movement. The cerebellum thus coordinates body movements and helps maintain normal posture and balance.
Cerebellar neurons
Types of Sensory Receptors: __________________- detect chemicals
Chemoreceptors
Types of Pain: _____________ pain- Stimulation of receptors in skeletal muscles, joints, tendons, and fascia causes this
Deep somatic
_________________- An endocrine disorder caused by an inability to produce or use insulin. It is characterized by the three "polys": polyuria (excessive urine production), polydipsia (excessive thirst), and polyphagia (excess eating).
Diabetes mellitus
Upper motor neurons: ________________ motor pathways- Collections of upper motor neurons with cell bodies in the motor cortex that project axons into the spinal cord, where they synapse with lower motor neurons or interneurons in the anterior horns. Also called the pyramidal pathways.
Direct
________________- they receive impulses from both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons.
Dual innervation
_______________- Stimulates the corpus luteum in the ovary to continue the production of estrogens and progesterone to maintain pregnancy
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
_________________- Hormone produced by the chorion of the placenta that stimulates breast tissue for lactation, enhances body growth, and regulates metabolism. Also called human placental lactogen (hPL).
Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS)
Anterior pituitary cells secrete: __________________- Hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates growth of body tissues, especially skeletal and muscular tissues. Also known as somatotropin.
Human growth hormone (hGH)
__________________- an elevated level of parathyroid hormone, most often is due to a tumor of one of the parathyroid glands. An elevated level of PTH causes excessive resorption of bone matrix, raising the blood levels of calcium and phosphate ions and causing bones to become soft and easily fractured. High blood calcium level promotes formation of kidney stones. Fatigue, personality changes, and lethargy are also seen in patients with hyperparathyroidism.
Hyperparathyroidism
__________________-- too little parathyroid hormone—leads to a deficiency of blood Ca2+, which causes neurons and muscle fibers to depolarize and produce action potentials spontaneously. This leads to twitches, spasms, and tetany (maintained contraction) of skeletal muscle. The leading cause of hypoparathyroidism is accidental damage to the parathyroid glands or to their blood supply during thyroidectomy surgery.
Hypoparathyroidism
______________-A portion of the diencephalon, lying beneath the thalamus and forming the floor and part of the wall of the third ventricle.
Hypothalamus
Two types of cholinergic receptors: ______________ receptors- Receptor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine found on all effectors innervated by parasympathetic postganglionic axons and on sweat glands innervated by cholinergic sympathetic postganglionic axons; so named because (blank) activates these receptors but does not activate nicotinic receptors for acetylcholine.
Muscarinic
____________________- An encapsulated proprioceptor in a skeletal muscle, consisting of specialized intrafusal muscle fibers and nerve endings; stimulated by changes in length or tension of muscle fibers. They monitor changes in the length of skeletal muscles and participate in stretch reflexes
Muscle spindles
Enteric division: _____________ plexus- forms the enteric nervous system which regulates the function of the gastrointestinal system; receives messages from the vagus nerve and responds by transmitting the message to muscle cells, which are thereby activated to contract
Myenteric
Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions: ______________- A specialized cell or a distal portion of a neuron that responds to a specific sensory modality, such as touch, pressure, cold, light, or sound, and converts it to an electrical signal (generator or receptor potential). A specific molecule or cluster of molecules that recognizes and binds a particular ligand. Like the receptor in a somatic reflex arc the receptor in an autonomic reflex arc is the distal end of a sensory neuron, which responds to a stimulus and produces a change that will ultimately trigger nerve impulses. Autonomic sensory receptors are usually associated with interoceptors.
Receptor
_______________-- Hormones, like neurotransmitters, influence their target cells by chemically binding to specific protein (blank); A specialized cell or a distal portion of a neuron that responds to a specific sensory modality, such as touch, pressure, cold, light, or sound, and converts it to an electrical signal (generator or receptor potential). A specific molecule or cluster of molecules that recognizes and binds a particular ligand.
Receptors
__________ pain- Pain that is felt at a site remote from the place of origin; In many instances of visceral pain, the pain is felt in or just deep to the skin that overlies the stimulated organ, or in a surface area far from the stimulated organ.
Referred
_______________- A female hormone produced by the ovaries and placenta that increases flexibility of the pubic symphysis and helps dilate the uterine cervix to ease delivery of a baby.
Relaxin (RLX)
Kidneys ___________-Part of a sequence of reactions that raises blood pressure by bringing about vasoconstriction and secretion of aldosterone
Renin
________________ tract- Conveys nerve impulses from the red nucleus (which receives input from the cerebral cortex and cerebellum) to contralateral skeletal muscles that govern precise, voluntary movements of the distal parts of the free upper limbs
Rubrospinal
Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons: _____________________ outflow- consists of preganglionic axons in anterior roots of the second through fourth sacral nerves
Sacral parasympathetic
Pineal Gland and Thymus: __________________- is a type of depression that afflicts some people during the winter months, when day length is short. It is thought to be due, in part, to overproduction of melatonin.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Gastrointestinal tract _________--- Stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice and bile
Secretin
Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions: _____________- Neurons that carry sensory information from cranial and spinal nerves into the brain and spinal cord or from a lower to a higher level in the spinal cord and brain. Also called afferent neurons; conducts nerve impulses from receptors to the CNS.
Sensory Neuron
Characteristics of Sensations: _____________________- Each unique type of sensation, such as touch, pain, vision, or hearing, is called a (blank). Based on the receptor stimulated, a sensory neuron carries information for one (blank) only. For example, neurons relaying impulses for touch do not transmit impulses for pain.
Sensory modality
________________ can be grouped in three ways: - Structures of their (blank) - Type of stimulus they detect - Location of the receptors and the origin of the stimuli
Sensory receptors
Types of Pain: ___________ pain- begins a second or more after a stimulus is applied. It then gradually increases in intensity over a period of several seconds or minutes. This type of pain, which may be excruciating, is also referred to as chronic, burning, aching, or throbbing pain. (blank) pain can occur both in the skin and in deeper tissues or internal organs. An example is the pain associated with a toothache.
Slow
Classification of Sensations: General Senses- ________________ senses- are tactile sensations (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle); thermal sensations (warm and cold); pain sensations; and proprioceptive sensations, which allow perception of both the static (nonmoving) positions of limbs and body parts (joint and muscle position sense) and movements of the limbs and head.
Somatic
______________ sensations arise from the stimulation of sensory receptors embedded in: - Skin or subcutaneous layer - Mucous membranes of the mouth, vagina, and anus - Muscles, tendons, and joints - Inner ear
Somatic
__________________: - Includes both sensory and motor neurons - Conveys input from somatic senses and from receptors for special senses
Somatic Nervous System
________________ stimulation always excites its effectors (skeletal muscle fibers)
Somatic nervous system
Classification of Sensations: _____________ senses- include smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium (balance).
Special
Prevertebral Ganglia: Celiac Ganglion- ________________- Splanchnic nerves from the thoracic area form synapses with postganglionic cell bodies in the celiac ganglion
Splanchnic nerves
For a sensation to occur, four conditions must be satisfied: ______________- or change in the environment, capable of activating certain sensory neurons, must occur
Stimulus
Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons: Terminal ganglia in the head- _______________ ganglia- are found near the ducts of the submandibular salivary glands. Each ganglion receives preganglionic axons from a branch of the facial (VII) nerve and sends postganglionic axons to the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands.
Submandibular
Types of Pain: ___________ pain- Pain that arises from stimulation of receptors in the skin is called this
Superficial somatic
Prevertebral Ganglia: ________________ ganglion- is near the beginning of the superior mesenteric artery in the upper abdomen
Superior mesenteric
The functions of the basal ganglia: _____________ of unwanted movements- Unwanted movements are (blanked) by the inhibitory effects of the basal nuclei on the thalamus and superior colliculus.
Suppression
_________________- the output part; One of the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system, having cell bodies of preganglionic neurons in the lateral gray columns of the thoracic segment and the first two or three lumbar segments of the spinal cord; primarily concerned with processes involving the expenditure of energy. Also referred to as the thoracolumbar division.
Sympathetic division
________________ lie in two chains on either side of the vertebral column (sympathetic trunk ganglia) and near large abdominal arteries anterior to the vertebral column (prevertebral ganglia).
Sympathetic ganglia
_________________- A cluster of cell bodies of sympathetic postganglionic neurons lateral to the vertebral column, close to the body of a vertebra. These ganglia extend inferiorly through the neck, thorax, and abdomen to the coccyx on both sides of the vertebral column and are connected to one another to form a chain on each side of the vertebral column. Also called sympathetic chain or vertebral chain ganglia.
Sympathetic trunk ganglia
_____________- Although a given hormone travels throughout the body in the blood, it affects only certain (blank); a cell whose activity is affected by a particular hormone
Target cells
________________ tract- Conveys nerve impulses from the superior colliculus to contralateral skeletal muscles that reflexively move the head, eyes, and trunk in response to visual or auditory stimuli
Tectospinal
Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons: ______________ are located close to or within the wall of a visceral organ, and they are longer than most of the axons of sympathetic preganglionic neurons
Terminal ganglia
______________-- A male sex hormone (androgen) secreted by interstitial endocrinocytes (Leydig cells) of a mature testis; needed for development of sperm; together with a second androgen termed dihydrotestosterone (DHT), controls the growth and development of male reproductive organs, secondary sex characteristics, and body growth.
Testosterone
Pancreas: Islets of Langerhans- _____________ cells- A lymphocyte that can develop into a clone of antibody-producing plasma cells or memory cells when properly stimulated by a specific antigen.
beta
Synthetic hormones that __________ the receptors for certain naturally occurring hormones are available as drugs. For example, RU486 (mifepristone), which is used to induce abortion, binds to the receptors for progesterone (a female sex hormone) and prevents progesterone from exerting its normal effects. When RU486 is given to a pregnant woman, the uterine conditions needed for nurturing an embryo are not maintained, embryonic development stops, and the embryo is sloughed off along with the uterine lining.
block
Parkinson's disease Motor performance is also impaired by _______________, slowness of movements. Activities such as shaving, cutting food, and buttoning a shirt take longer and become increasingly more difficult as the disease progresses.
bradykinesia
Roles of the Cerebellum: Sending out ______________ feedback- If there is a discrepancy between intended and actual movement, the cerebellum sends feedback to upper motor neurons. This information travels via the thalamus to UMNs in the cerebral cortex but goes directly to UMNs in brainstem motor centers. As movements occur, the cerebellum continuously provides error corrections to upper motor neurons, which decreases errors and smoothes the motion. It also contributes over longer periods to the learning of new motor skills.
corrective
The functions of the basal ganglia: Influence on ____________ function- The basal nuclei influence sensory, limbic, cognitive, and linguistic functions of the cerebral cortex. For example, the basal nuclei help initiate and terminate some cognitive processes, such as attention, memory, and planning. In addition, the basal nuclei may act with the limbic system to regulate emotional behaviors.
cortical
Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons: Cell bodies of preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division are located in the nuclei of four cranial nerves in the brain stem (III, VII, IX, and X) and in the lateral gray horns of the second through fourth sacral segments of the spinal cord. Hence, the parasympathetic division is also known as the ____________________
craniosacral division
Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons: ___________________- The axons of parasympathetic preganglionic neurons, which have their cell bodies located in nuclei in the brain stem and in the lateral gray matter of the sacral portion of the spinal cord; Their axons emerge as part of a cranial nerve or as part of the anterior root of a sacral spinal nerve.
craniosacral outflow
Somatic sensations that arise from stimulating the skin surface are referred to as ________________ sensations. Somatic sensations are of four sensory modalities: tactile, thermal, pain, and proprioceptive.
cutaneous
Pancreas: Islets of Langerhans- _____________ cells- A cell in the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) in the pancreas that secretes somatostatin. Also termed a D cell.
delta
Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions: ______________-An organ of the body, either a muscle or a gland, that is innervated by somatic or autonomic motor neurons; are smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands, and the reflex is called an autonomic reflex.
effector
Types of Sensory Receptors: Receptors for other somatic and visceral sensations such as pressure, vibration, and some touch sensations, are ___________________. Their dendrites are enclosed in a connective tissue capsule that has a distinctive microscopic structure—for example, lamellated corpuscles
encapsulated nerve endings
- It is important to realize that the gastrointestinal tract forms an extensive area of contact with the environment - The ______________ of the ANS is the specialized network of nerves and ganglia forming an integrated neuronal network
enteric division
Somatic Sensory Pathways: _____________ neurons- The axons of most second-order neurons ascend to the thalamus, where they synapse with these. These neurons in turn project their axons to a primary sensory area of the cerebral cortex, where perception of the sensation occurs.
third-order (tertiary)
The sympathetic division is also called?
thoracolumbar division
Tactile Sensations: Free nerve endings are thought to mediate the __________ sensation. This intriguing sensation typically arises only when someone else touches you, not when you touch yourself.
tickle
Sensations of ___________ generally result from stimulation of tactile receptors in the skin or subcutaneous layer.
touch
Parkinson's disease the muscles of the upper limb may alternately contract and relax, causing the hand to shake. This shaking, called ____________, is the most common symptom of PD
tremor
Both local circuit neurons and lower motor neurons receive input from ________________ neurons that have their cell bodies in motor processing centers in the upper parts of the CNS. Most (blank) neurons synapse with local circuit neurons, which in turn synapse with lower motor neurons. (blank) neurons from the brainstem help regulate posture, balance, muscle tone, and reflexive movements of the head and trunk.
upper motor neurons (UMNs)
Adrenal gland disorders Precursor molecules accumulate, and some of these are weak androgens that can undergo conversion to testosterone. The result is _____________, or masculinization. In a female, virile characteristics include growth of a beard, development of a much deeper voice and a masculine distribution of body hair, growth of the clitoris so it may resemble a penis, atrophy of the breasts, and increased muscularity that produces a masculine physique. In prepubertal males, the syndrome causes the same characteristics as in females, plus rapid development of the male sexual organs and emergence of male sexual desires.
virilism
Thermal Sensations: _________ receptors- are located in the dermis and are activated by temperatures between 32 and 48 degrees C (90-118 degrees F)
warm
Proprioceptive Sensations: Proprioceptors also allow _______________, the ability to assess the weight of an object. This helps you determine the muscular effort necessary to perform a task. For example, as you pick up a shopping bag, you quickly realize whether it contains books or feathers; you then exert the correct amount of effort needed to lift it.
weight discrimination
Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons: Thoracolumbar division- Collectively, the white rami are called the _______________. The "white" in their name indicates that they contain myelinated axons.
white rami communicantes
Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons: Thoracolumbar division- The preganglionic axons leave the spinal cord along with the somatic motor neurons via the anterior rootlets of the spinal nerve. After exiting via the spinal nerve trunk through the intervertebral foramina, the myelinated preganglionic sympathetic axons pass into the anterior ramus of a spinal nerve and enter a short pathway called a ____________ before passing to the nearest sympathetic trunk ganglion on the same side.
white ramus