KINE 324 EXAM 3

Schema Learning includes...

Practice Variability -The more variation in parameters, the better. Novel Movements -Novel movements can be produced about as accurate as practiced movements -Rules vs Specific Movement Error Detection -No capability for slow movement. (Used to produce slow movement)

What are some limitations of Performance Curves?

-Performance curves are not learning curves -Between-subject effects are masked -Within-subject variability is masked

What are Performance Curves?

-Performance curves are plots of performance against practice trials -Whether they increase or decrease with practice depends on the way the task is scored -The law of practice says that improvements are rapid at first and much slower later in practice

What is Positive Transfer?

-Positive transfer occurs when a treatment (e.g., practice on another skill) facilitates performance over and above no practice

What is Specificity of Practice?

-Specificity of learning suggests that what you learn depends largely on what you practice -Practicing in a particular environment or workspace often leads to better performance, mainly in that workspace -The sensory feedback resulting from performance during specific types of practice becomes part of the learned representation for skill

How does Summary Feedback work?

-Summary feedback might prevent the dependency-producing effects of frequent feedback -Summary feedback might produce more stable movements -Summary feedback appears to encourage learners to analyze their inherent movement-produced feedback to learn to detect their own errors

Learning Versus Performance During Practice

-The learner who attempts to always perform as well as possible in practice tends to be inhibited from modifying movements from attempt to attempt -Providing both practice sessions and test sessions during practice can help overcome the detriment to learning

Principles of Part Practice

-The more the components of a task interact with each other, the less the effectiveness of part practice -For very slow, serial tasks with no component interaction, part practice on the difficult elements is very efficient -For very brief, programmed actions, practice on the parts in isolation is seldom useful and can be detrimental to learning

What is Physical Fidelity?

Physical fidelity is the degree to which the surface features of a simulation and the criterion task are identical

Creating Motor Programs includes...

Acquisition of Movement Pattern Consistency Acquisition of Sequencing Combination of reflexes

(T/F) Transfer and learning are the same.

False

What Feedback to Give?

-In general, too much information is not useful -A good rule of thumb is to decide what error is most fundamental and focus on that

What is a simulator?

-A simulator is a practice device designed to mimic features of a real- world task -Simulators are often very elaborate, sophisticated, and expensive but don't need to be -Can be an important part of an instructional program if skill is expensive or dangerous, where facilities are limited, or where real practice is not feasible

What are some Essential features of transfer designs?

-Allow sufficient time for the supposed temporary effects of practice to dissipate -Evaluate learners again in a transfer or retention test, with all groups performing under identical conditions

Transfer Designs are

-Any differences observed in a transfer test are due to a difference in the relatively permanent capability for performance acquired during earlier practice

Knowledge of performance (KP) is...

-Augmented information about the movement pattern -Sometimes referred to as kinematic feedback

Knowledge of results (KR) is...

-Augmented information about the success of an action with respect to the goal -Verbal (or verbalizable)

Describe Fitts' stages

-Designed to consider perceptual-motor learning -Heavy emphasis on how the cognitive processes invested in motor performance change as a function of practice

What are the four components of the Constraints-Led Approach to Learning?

-Does not highlight stages of progress -Certain features act as boundaries to performance -Motor-learning discovery process is shaped by constraints -Organismic, environmental, and task constraints

What is Far Transfer?

-Far transfer is transfer of learning from one task to another very different task or setting -Type of generalized transfer

What a 5 Benefits of Practice?

-Improved capability to perform some skill on future demand -Improved perceptual skills -Improved attention through reduced capacity demands and reduced effector competition -Improved motor programs -Improved error detection

What is Practice? (CHAP 10)

-In general, more practice produces more learning -Practice is more than just repetition -Deliberate practice is effortful, oriented towards goal-attainment, and actively uses augmented feedback to improve performance

The two types of Feedback are?

-Inherent feedback -Augmented feedback

Why separate Effects of Practice?

-It is important to have a way to separate the relatively permanent practice effects from the temporary effects -A transfer design can analyze whether a change that improves performance in practice also improves learning

KP vs. KR

-KP provides more precise information about how to change a movement pattern -KP can lead to an internal focus of attention -There often needs to be an expert that provides cuing to understand KP -KR can better engage problem-solving processes

What are Attentional Focusing Properties?

-KR directs the learner to think about externally directed information -The information content of KP directs the learner's attention to internally focused movement-related information -Feedback can be scheduled so that the most useful information content can be delivered without detrimental effects

What are the two types of Augmented Feedback?

-Knowledge of performance (KP) -Knowledge of results (KR)

Statements about learning include... (Motor Learning Defined)

-Learning results from practice or experience -Learning is not directly observable -Learning changes are inferred from certain performance changes -Learning involves a set of processes in the central nervous system -Learning produces an acquired capability for skilled performance -Learning changes are relatively permanent, not transitory

What are the four functions of Augmented Feedback?

-Motivate or discourage the learner -Direct learner's focus of attention• -Provides information about errors to be corrected -Creates a dependency, potentially leading to problems later

What is Near Transfer?

-Near transfer is transfer of learning from one task or setting to another that is very similar -Type of generalized transfer

What is Negative Transfer?

-Negative transfer occurs when a treatment degrades performance in comparison to those that received no additional practice

What are some Limitations of Fitts' and Bernstein's Stages?

-Neither was meant to describe learning as a series of discrete, nonlinear, and unidirectional stages -Fitts considered performance change to be regressive as well as progressive -Task differences also play an important role in the stage views of both Fitts and Bernstein

Augmented Feedback from Videos?

-Not always useful; can provide too much information -Providing real-time augmented feedback facilitates learning only if supplemented with additional cuing

Explain Transfer of Learning

-Transfer, closely related to learning, is seen when practice on one task contributes to performance capability in some other task -Important in many instructional situations -Complex skills may be broken down into simpler elements for beginning learners -For safety or other reasons, the conditions under which practice is conducted are obviously quite different than the conditions in a real situation

What is Warm-Up Decrement?

-Warm-up decrement refers to a specific type of retention deficit due to the loss of an activity set -Set is a collection of psychological activities, states, or processes that are appropriate for and support performance while an activity is ongoing

How Is Transfer Measured?

-We want to estimate the performance level on the criterion task, with the relatively permanent effects of learning separated from any temporary performance effects -Transfer concerns how performance on the transfer task is influenced by practice on some other task

What are Dependency-Producing Properties?

-When feedback that contains information for error correction is given frequently, it tends to guide behavior toward the goal movement -Guidance is fine when present, but the learner can also become dependent on the guidance, resulting in poor performance when the guidance is removed

Bernstein's stages are

A combined motor control and biomechanical perspective

What is Absolute Frequency of Feedback?

Absolute frequency of feedback refers to the total number of feedback presentations given to a learner across a set of trials in practice

Transfer of Part Practice to Whole Performance

An approach is either to: -Divide the task into meaningful units for separate part practice -Integrate the units into the whole skill for later performance -Some skills are very complex, and the instructor cannot present all aspects of the skill at once for practice

Fitts' Stage 3 is the _______ and...

Autonomous Stage -Usually associated with the attainment of expert performance -Decreased attention demanded by perceptual and motor processes -Allows for simultaneous performance of higher-order cognitive activities -Self-confidence increases -Capability to detect and correct one's own errors becomes more fine- tuned

What is Average Feedback?

Average feedback is a type of summary feedback that presents a statistical average of two or more trials rather than results on any one of them -Might block dependency-producing effects -Allows the instructor to formulate a more complete idea of the learner's error tendency -Gives the learner more reliable information about what to change and how to change it

Timing of Augmented Information

Before the movement -not feedback During the movement -Concurrent feedback -Guidance devices After the movement -Information about results of a movement or the movement itself -Most common

What are the Perspectives of Motor Learning?

Cognitive -The more challenging the skill, the better learned -If more cognition is required, more learning occurs Hierarchical Control -Higher levels make decisions -Lower levels carry out decisions

Fitts' Stage 1 is the _______ and....

Cognitive Stage -Concerns goal identification, performance evaluation, what to do, and when to do it -Verbal and cognitive abilities dominate, and verbalizable information is useful -Gains in proficiency are very rapid and large, indicating that more effective strategies are being discovered

Explain Feedback After the Movement

Empty feedback delays almost never have systematic effects on learning -One exception is instantaneous feedback with similar effects to concurrent feedback Intervening activities of a different task generally degrade learning as measured on retention tests Intervening subjective estimations Learning is enhanced when processing of the inherent feedback occurs before augmented feedback is provided The negative effects of presenting feedback on every trial can be reversed in retention when participants perform error-estimation Trials-delay of feedback -A procedure in which the presentation of feedback for a movement is delayed; during the delay the learner practices one or more other trials of the same task -Not detrimental and may be more effective for learning than presenting feedback after each trial

Bernstein's Stage 3 is ______ and...

Exploit Passive Dynamics -The performer learns to exploit the passive dynamics of the body -The movement becomes maximally skilled in terms of effectiveness (achieving the result with maximum assuredness) and efficiency (minimum outlay of energy)

What is Faded Feedback?

Faded frequency is a feedback schedule in which the relative frequency is high in early practice and reduced in later practice -The instructor can tailor feedback to individual differences in capabilities -The ultimate goal is to generate the learner's capability to produce the action on her or his own without a dependency on feedback

(T/F) Fitts' Stages consider a motor control & biomechanical perspective.

False

(T/F) Inherent feedback is sometimes called extrinsic feedback. (QUIZ 9)

False

(T/F) Learning and performance are the same. (QUIZ 8)

False

(T/F) Practice is repetition alone.

False

(T/F) Practice only produces relatively temporary effects.

False

(T/F) The Constraint-Led approach to learning highlights the stages of progress.

False

(T/F) There is no optimal number of trials to include in summary feedback.

False

Stages of Learning include both...

Fitts' stages and Bernstein's stages

Fitts' Stage 2 is the _______ and....

Fixation Stage -The learner's focus shifts to organizing more effective movement patterns -In skills requiring quick movements, the learner begins to build a motor program -In slower movements, the learner constructs ways to use movement- produced feedback -Inconsistency gradually decreases (Closed-skill movements begin to be more stereotypic / Open-skill movements become more adaptable) -Enhanced efficiency reduces energy costs -Self-talk becomes less important -Learners begin to monitor their own feedback and detect their errors

What is Generalized Transfer?

For generalized transfer, transfer to relatively different activities is the goal -Measured by some transfer test performed in the future that may involve a different task

Motivational Properties include..

Indirect influence -Ex. KR encourages the learner to keep practicing, and the results of this additional practice are what influences learning) Direct effect on learning -Learning was facilitated by "good" feedback

What are Informational Properties?

Information from feedback: -Defines the basis for making corrections on the next attempt -Brings the performance closer to the values that characterize more-skilled performance -Guides the learner toward the movement goal -Helps the learner problem-solve

Augmented feedback is...

Information from the measured performance outcome that is fed back to the learner by some artificial means; it is sometimes called extrinsic feedback

Inherent feedback is...

Information provided as a natural consequence of making an action; it is sometimes called intrinsic feedback

Explain forgetting...

Long-term retention depends largely on the nature of the task -Discrete tasks (especially those with a relatively large cognitive component) are forgotten relatively quickly -Continuous tasks are retained very well over long periods of no practice -The amount of original practice will influence the relative amount of retention for these tasks

Define Motor Learning (CHAP 9)

Motor learning is a set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent gains in the capability for skilled performance. -Learning results from practice or experience -Learning is not directly observable -Learning changes are inferred from certain performance changes

What is OPTIMAL Theory?

Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation & Attention for Learning Motivation -Enhanced Expectancies -Autonomy Attention -External Focus of Attention (May facilitate neural connections) Goal-Action Coupling -Functional & Structural Connectivity

What are Effects of Practice?

Practice can have numerous effects on the learner -Relatively permanent effects that persist across many days, even years -Temporary effects that vanish with time or a change in conditions (positive or negative) -Simultaneous temporary and relatively permanent effects

What is Bandwidth Feedback?

Precise feedback indicating the amount and direction of the error is given only when performance falls outside a range of acceptability -Creates a "natural" fading of error feedback -Increased frequency of motivating feedback -Withholding information on a set of trials that fall within the bandwidth fosters more consistent actions

What is Psychological Fidelity?

Psychological fidelity is the degree to which the behaviors produced in a simulator are identical to the behaviors required by the criterion task

The Schema Theory includes... (CHAP 12)

Recall Memory -Production of Movement Recognition Memory -Movement Evaluation Schema Learning -Recall Schema -Recognition Schema

Bernstein's Stage 1 is ______ and...

Reduce Degrees of Freedom -The initial problem is what to do with all of the possible degrees of freedom of movement that are available for the body -Solution is to reduce the movement of nonessential or redundant body parts in the initial stage of learning by freezing degrees of freedom

What is Relative Frequency of Feedback?

Relative frequency of feedback refers to the percentage of trials receiving feedback

Bernstein's Stage 2 is ______ and...

Release Degrees of Freedom -The learner attempts to improve performance by releasing some of the degrees of freedom that had initially been frozen -Useful in tasks that require power or speed because it could allow for faster and greater accumulation of forces

What kind of transfer is measured by delayed retention tasks?

Specific Transfer

What is Specific Transfer?

Specific transfer is a useful measure in cases in which the criterion for learning is performance on a specific task -Measured by delayed retention tests on that task

What is Summary Feedback?

Summary feedback is information about the effectiveness of performance on a series of trials that is presented only after the series has been completed -There is an optimal number of trials to include in summary feedback reports, with either too few or too many trials decreasing learning

Explain Feedback During the Movement

The information can be used to regulate ongoing actions by giving a basis for correcting errors and pushing the movement closer to the action goals -Concurrent feedback is augmented feedback presented simultaneously with an ongoing action -Physically restrictive guidance techniques represent a large class of methods in which the learner is forced to produce the correct movement

Elaborate on Transfer and Similarity

Transfer between skills depends on the concept of similarity among skills, which involves several classes of common features: -Common movement patterning -Common perceptual elements -Common strategic or conceptual elements

(T/F) A retention task requires a break in performance to allow temporary effects to dissipate.

True

(T/F) Knowledge of Results is about external information.

True

(T/F) Knowledge of performance and knowledge of results are types of augmented feedback.

True

(T/F) Knowledge of performance provides more precise information about how to change a movement pattern.

True

(T/F) Simulations can illicit learning much like performing in the actual environment if the simulation is properly engineered.

True

(T/F) When considering the biomechanical approach to learning a new skill, the initial problem is what to do with the possible initial degrees of freedom.

True