Kinesiology 330 Exam 2
Confounding Factor
A factor that obscures the observable relationship between an outcome and exposureMust be associated with both the exposure and the outcome (This can be tested with a stratified analysis via OR/RR)
Placebo
A false treatment provided to the control group (effort due to group assignment)
Cohort
A group of individuals followed over a period of time.Generally followed due to shared exposure of interestExamples: 9/11 first responders; Kines 330
Ethical Considerations
Additional consideration may need to be given to qualitative research than quantitative research because of: •topics addressed in research •time spent with the participants.
Risk Factor
An exposure that has been found to be a determinant of a disease outcome or health behavior Examples: Smoking --> Lung cancer Sedentary lifestyle --> Heart disease
Type
Category of activity (cardio, strength, etc.)
Dose
Combination of frequency, intensity, and time (kcal/day, MET-hours/day, etc.)
Which of the following terms is used in connection with intensity of exercise and refers to the ratio of metabolic rate during exercise to the rate while resting?
MET
Data Design and Analysis
Proper design is paramount for testing the hypothesis •Should be designed so that the dependent variable changes when independent variable is manipulated •Statistical analysis should be described, but not to the extent of theory
This study is an example of which type of epidemiological study design?
a randomized control trial
Defining a specific volleyball skill as a score on a volleyball skill test is an example of:
an operational definition
"To what populations, settings, treatment variables, and measurement variables can this effect be generalized?" might most appropriately be asked in relation to
external validity
A research hypothesis
is directly testable
Physical Activity
Bodily movement produced by skeletal muscle contraction that requires energy expenditure. Often characterized by FITT: frequency, intensity, time, and type.
Delimitation
Boundaries or choices the researcher has made in regard to a particular research problem •The decision guiding the wellbeing assessment used in the example
To determine the effects of fatigue from a particular type of exercise, keeping the temperature and humidity constant would be considered what types of variables because they may influence the outcome of the study.
control variables
An important advantage of the qualitative method is that
it is more likely than other methods to lead to new insights about the problem
A researcher tests the knowledge of 10,000 college aged students about nutrition, and the scores are transformed into percentiles by grade level. This type of research is a ________ survey study.
normative
In describing participants in the methods section of a research report, which of the following should be included?
number of participants pertinent descriptive characteristics of participants
Which of the following are most difficult to analyze in a questionnaire study?
open-ended items
Determinants of disease are often called
risk factors
The qualitative researcher typically
studies a small number of participants
A limitation of some large epidemiological cohort studies is
the inability to experimentally establish cause and effect
To help ensure an acceptable return rate in a questionnaire study, the researcher could
use follow-up letters or e-mails
What does this mean for my approach to the problem?
Are the methods logical for your question? •Describe the participants •Does the population help you answer your question? •Describe the instruments and procures •Think about time requirements and location •Baseline assessment? •Analysis •What stats will be used?
Study Design Considerations
Credibility •accurate description of the subjects and setting Transferability •would the results be useful to those in other settings or conducting research in similar settings?Dependability •how well the researcher dealt with change Confirmability •could another individual confirm the results
Procedures
Define the problem. Formulate questions and theoretical framework. Collecting the data: •Training and pilot work •Selection of participants •How and where?
Operational Definition
Definition of a variable based on how it will be used in a particular study. •Could also include how a dependent variable will be measured or an independent variable will be manipulated •Our previous example of "wellbeing" needs to be defined
In evaluating the methods section of a research report, which is a very important question to keep in mind?
Did the author provide enough information that the study could be repeated?
The internal validity of an experimental design is concerned with what question?
Did the independent variable really produce a change in the dependent variable?
Recall Bias
Differences in recall accuracy between groups(ex. People who develop a disease (childhood cancer) may be more likely to recall exposures/infections/events than those without the disorder.)
Selection Bias
Differences in the characteristics of subjects entering (or not entering) a study(ex. Patients that self-select to enroll in a study about exercise and diet may be more health conscious than the general population.)
Exposure
Factors (variables) in epidemiology that are tested for their relationship to the outcome of interest Depends on your interest and research question Examples: Asbestos --> Mesothelioma Physical activity --> Colorectal cancer
A study limitation is an observable phenomenon that enables the researcher to test if the predicted outcomes can be supported.
False
Randomization
From a given sample, participants are randomly assigned to groups •The assumption is that the groups do not differ at the beginning of the study. •This helps with history up to the point of the experiment •Maturation due to the same passage of time •Issues of regression, selection bias, and selection-maturation are issues due to nonrandomization.
Odds Ratio
Given an exposure, i.e. having vs not having a certain risk factor, the odds an outcome will occur compared to absence of the exposure.
Categorical Variable
Group assignment based on similar traits. •Sex, age group, sport, etc. •Used to determine if a variable changes the cause-and-effect relationship
Individuals performing well merely because they are being observed (and not necessarily because of any effect of treatment) are considered to be under the influence of the
Hawthorne effect
Threats to Internal Validity
History •Events that are not part of treatment Maturation •Events due to passage of time Testing •Effects of more than one test administration Instrumentation •Change in calibration of measurements Expectancy •Influence of experimenters on participants
Which of the following were limitations of the study?
Homogeneous population Multiple components in intervention 'package' Small sample size
Time (Duration)
How long the activity takes place (minutes per session)
Frequency
How often PA is performed (times per week)
Instruments
Information about the tools used to collect data in the study. •Device •Test •Questionnaire Additional considerations... •Validity •Reliability •Access and time
Methods
Interviews •Individual/group •Formal/informal •Formal interviews may use a pilot-tested protocol Focus groups Observational data
A strength of this study was the use of an accelerometer to assess physical activity before and after the intervention. This allowed for...
Objective and continuous measurements of physical activity
f OR = 1
Odds in exposed is equal to odds in non-exposed
If OR > 1
Odds in exposed is greater than odds in the non-exposed
If OR < 1
Odds in exposed is less than odds in non-exposed
Double-Blind Setup
Participants and researchers do not know if they are receiving the experimental or control treatment. (may help with expectancy)
Blind Setup
Participants do not know if they are receiving the experimental or control treatment.
Which of the following statements would appear in the procedures part of the methods section of a research report?
Participants in the experimental group exercised three days per week for 30 minutes per day for 10 weeks.
Social Desirability Bias
Participants over/under report certain behaviors due to stigma/hurt/invasion of privacy/etc.(ex. People will under report alcohol use and over report exercise or healthy food intake.)
Participants
People who are subjects in the study •Think about target population •Categorical variables of importance
Hot Stuff Bias
Popularity of a topic may cause scientists/journals to 'bandwagon' on a topic and lose scientific rigor.(ex. COVID)
The part of the methods section of the research paper that describes the activities of each treatment group is called the
Procedures
Informed Consent
Process of informing the participant about the details of the study.Important details can include but are not limited to: 1. Explanation of procedures 2. Description of discomforts or risks 3. Benefits 4. Data usage and confidentiality 5. Offer to answer any inquires 6. Free to withdraw at anytime At the end of the day, you follow the guidance of the institution.
Paper and pencil
Pros • Better response rate • Generally, study team is present Cons • Not totally environmentally conscientious • Ability to meet with people• Hand‐writing
Electronic survey
Pros • Easy to send to a lot of people • Nice for the environment • Usually quicker to take Cons • Lower response rate • Can get into the hands of the wrong population • If financial compensation, scammers become an issue
Studies have shown that physical activity after a cancer diagnosis improves outcomes with regards to mortality, quality of life, and recurrence of some cancers. Physical activity is an example of a...?
Protective factor
RECAP
Qualitative research can answer important questions. •Research techniques require training and practice. •Attention to details is imperative to get good data and arrive at appropriate conclusions.
Types of Questions
Ranking • Good at understanding importance or reason for a behavior Scaled Items • 2 types: - Bipolar - Monopolar
Yardley's 4 Principles
-Sensitivity to context -Commitment and rigor -Transparency and coherence -Impact and Importance
The odds ratio is a good estimate of relative risk when...
1. Cases in sample are representative of all cases the population we draw cases from 2. Controls in sample are representative of the population we draw cases from 3. The disease is rare/infrequent
Some Criteria:
1. The cause must precede the effect in time. •A false start 2. The cause and effect must be correlated with each other. •Correlation does not = causation •No correlation = no causation 3. The correlation between cause and effect cannot be explained by another variable. •Extraneous variable
Threats to External Validity
Reactive or interactive effects of testing •Pretest may make participants sensitive to treatment. Interaction of selection biases and treatment •Treatment may work only on participants selected on specific characteristic Testing Reactive effects of experimental arrangements •Setting constraints may influence generalizability (lab vs applied) •Hawthorne Effect Multiple-treatment interference •One treatment may influence the next treatment (too much for one group)
f RR = 1
Risk in exposed is equal to risk in non-exposed (no association)
If RR > 1
Risk in exposed is greater than risk in the non-exposed (positive association; possibly causal)
If RR < 1
Risk in exposed is less than risk in non-exposed (negative association; possibly protective)
Procedures
Should describe how all the data were obtained and if it was an experimental design, the process of the treatments. •Collecting the Data •Planning the Experiment •Detailed outline of specific steps to be taken
Control Variable
That variable that is held constant or limited to some extent when thinking of the research question. •Could influence dependent variable
Extraneous Variable
That variable that may not have been considered when thinking of the research question. •It is not an independent variable in the study, but may have had an affect on the dependent variable
The Hypothesis
The anticipated outcome of a study •Should be testable •Study will support or refute
Intensity
The difficulty the exercise (light, moderate, vigorous)
Relative Risk
The ratio of risk of a disease in an exposed group compared to and unexposed group. 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 = 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑/𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
The Null Hypothesis
The statistical test that there is no difference or relationship among the outcome variables
Bias
The systematic deviation of a calculated (estimated) value from the true value • Affects internal validity of the study There are many, many, different biases that may affect ones' work
Continuous Variable
A quantitative value along a continuum. •Age - if using exact value
Which of the following was not a primary finding of this study?
This intervention increases long-term physical activity adoption and adherence among cancer survivors
The null hypothesis states that there is no difference among treatments or relationship among variables.
True
Experimental Design
A study design in which groups are randomly formed and sources of invalidity are controlled for. •This means thinking about threats to internal and external validity•Is there a trade off here? •Yeah, a little bit. Strong internal validity may hinder some generalization of the findings (external validity)
Confirmation bias
An individual looks for and uses information to support their own ideas and beliefs - and disregards those that do not support their ideas/beliefs(ex. COVID)
Protecting animal subjects
Animals must be well cared for and treated humanely.
A researcher thinks that there will be a inverse relationship between functional movement scores and number of injuries. This is an example of a
a research hypothesis
Survivorship bias
bias the comes from only enrolling people who have survived a certain exposure/to a certain point
A type of study that matches individuals with and without disease on factors such as age is an example of a
case-control study
The type of sport a person participates in would be a
categorical variable
Additional factors that can affect the relationship between physical activity and blood cholesterol, such as smoking, body fat, and so on, are called
confounding factors
In a research study in which the treatment involved quite intense physical training, 40% of the participants in the treatment group dropped out as compared with 5% of the control group. This threat to internal validity is called
experimental mortality (attrition)
An important principle regarding human subjects research is the right of informed consent which states that the researcher is obligated to
explain the major features of the study to the participants before the beginning of the study so that they have the opportunity to decline to take part
A qualitative research technique involves interviews of small numbers of participants in a group setting. These groups are called
focus groups
Of the surveys frequently used for measuring physical activity in epidemiological research, the shortest (one to four items) is the
global questionnaire
It can be advantageous to carry out a pilot study prior to the actual research study because
it permits a thorough check of the planned data collection and analysis procedures
In comparison to surveys, qualitative interviews tend to be
less structured
Scaled responses to questionnaire items such as strongly agree, agree, no opinion, and so on are referred to as ________ scale items.
likert
The first step in conducting a questionnaire survey is to
list specific objectives to be achieved
For confidentiality, the researcher should
make certain no unauthorized individuals have access to the research data remove names from data-collection instruments and replace them with a code
A double-blind experiment is one in which
neither the researcher nor the participants know which participants receive the experimental treatment
Prevalence of disease differs from incidence of disease in that prevalence refers to the number of
people who presently have a disease, whereas incidence relates to new cases
The term that denotes using ideas, writings, or drawings of others as your own is called
plagiarism
A study design uses, for example, two groups of people representing a disease-free population who are then classified as exercisers and nonexercisers. After a period of time, the mortality rates of each group are compared. This design is called a(n)
prospective cohort study
The one characteristic of true experimental designs compared to other study designs is that they have
random assignment to groups
The interpretation of data in qualitative research always involves some form of
sorting and categorizing
Survey
• A technique of descriptive research used to determine the present practices or opinions of a population
Summary of Epidemiology
• Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health in specified populations • Odds ratios and relative risk are two measures of association commonly reported in epidemiologic studies • Study design should be evaluated prior to execution for potential sources of confounding and bias
Categorical Response
• Generally used as control variables or the independent variable in an analysis
Limitations of Questionnaires
• It is specific to the participants experiences • selection bias/recall bias • pressure to "answer correctly" • honesty in filling out a survey
Gaps in Knowledge
• Most studies use large cohorts of males and females of multiple different sports • Sport specialization associated with sex, sport, school size, and age
2 - different tools for Surveys
• Questionnaires • Interviews
Strengths of Questionnaires
• can usually have a large population • relatively cheep research • relatively quick research • specific to the participants experiences • relatively easy to validate and test reliability
Experimental Mortality (attrition)
•Appropriate treatment
Testing
•Should there be a pre-test? Should they be able to practice?
Why is detailing the methods so important?
•So the study could be repeated •So you answer your question
How do we accomplish this as a scientific community?
•Training and oversight to protect the participant or animal in the study. •Training - Research, Ethics, and Compliance Training •Oversight - IRB
Instrumentation
•Valid, reliable, and/or correctly calibrated
