KMAGYOYO
List three Earth-Sun conditions that result in much longer-period climate cycles (say, 1,000 years or more):
) Precession of the Equinoxes (26,000 years) "spinning top" ore wobble. b) Range of Tilt of Earth's Axis or Axial Inclination or Axial Tilt (41,000 years) c) Ice ages (albedo) (100,000 years) that related to Earth's orbit around the Sun (circular to elliptical)
6. Define and describe several conditions related to an Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO).
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What is the difference between a natural levee and an artificial LEVEE? Name at least 3 types of levee failure related to artificial levees?
ANSWER: A levee may fail by overtopping, seeping through, or piping. Even where a levee is not overtopped, water may percolate through porous areas to cause seeps, landslides in its flanks, and ultimate collapse. Seepage from the river channel beneath the levee can rise behind the levee to form sand boils and, ultimately, flooding on the floodplain.
. Give a definition of El Niño
ANSWER: Basic: The accepted definition is a warming or cooling of at least 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) averaged over the east-central tropical Pacific Ocean. El Niño is characterized by elevated sea-surface temperatures that lead to dramatic changes in weather in some areas every few years—for example, rains in coastal Peru and western Mexico and SW California.
Define "adiabatic lapse rate. What is the relationship between a wet adiabatic lapse rate and a dry adiabatic rate for rising air?
ANSWER: The rate of change of temperature as an air mass changes elevation. • . . . refers to the change in temperature of a parcel of air as it moves upwards (or downwards) without exchanging heat with its surroundings. ANSWER: Figure 10-3 SATURATION REDUCES ADIABATIC RATE The wet adiabatic lapse rate is half the dry adiabatic lapse rate for rising air. Once a rising air mass reaches 100 percent relative humidity, condensation occurs; this releases heat back to the air mass. Note that the wet adiabatic rate applies only to rising air, as indicated by the upward arrow; the dry adiabatic rate can apply for rising or falling air.
What is urbanization and how does it contribute to flooding
ANSWER: Urbanization involves transforming natural landscape through logging, paving, and building. This affects flooding because water cannot soak into pavement or rooftops, so wherever roads or buildings cover the ground, the water is forced to run off rapidly into nearby streams, causing flooding.
29. You work at an international airport in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. Your airport has just canceled all flights for the next 3 days and shut down all flight operations. Explain to angry customers why their flights have been canceled.
Ash from erupting volcanoes can cause serious problems for aircraft because jet engines can freeze up and stall as they enter an ash cloud. Past examples include June 1982 when a Boeing 747 flew into an ash cloud, lost engine power, and fell about 7,000 feet before the crew was able to restart the engine
1. What is the difference between climate and weather?
Climate is the weather of an area averaged over a long-period of time. Weather refers to the conditions—temperature, humidity, air motion, and pressure—of the atmosphere at a particular place and time.
30. What are some strategies used to mitigate damage from volcanoes?
Controlling lava flows with barriers and levees and installing warning systems to alert people of mudflows. Even though these systems are in place, they have varying success
From the video "A Global Warning?," list at least five types of evidence that scientists have studied and developed to explain long term climate changes on Planet Earth.
Drop Stones carried by glaciers found in Death Valley (Earth was once covered in ice) Dinosaur remains in the Great Karoo (wildlife mass extinction) Sunspot Observations Flood Basalt Eruptions (Siberian Traps) Fossilized plants with reduced numbers of 02 and C02 pores. Methane release from ocean floor and lakes Coral reefs and rate of calcium carbonate layer changes Core samples from cave floors (some layers have no fossils) Core samples from Greenland to analyze thickness of snow layers Thickness of glacier changes (Peru and Greenland)
List 3 primary (direct) hazards that are immediately caused by a strong (M=7.0 or greater) earthquake and 3 secondary (or indirect) hazards.
Ground shaking Liquefaction Fire Ground collapse Landslides Utility outages Ground cracking Building Failure Supply shortages Surface faulting Foundation damage Sickness and Disease
28. Why do people to settle close to active volcanoes?
Growing populations and great fertility of volcanic soils. [p. 164] - Volcanic materials give rich, fertile soil for agriculture - Majestic volcanic peaks give beautiful vistas - Hawaiian climate appeals to retirees - Little fear of eruptions/few get killed
. Describe at least 3 indications of a La Niña weather pattern. What parts of the U.S. are experiencing La Niña, and what makes you think so?
Indications of La Niña in parts of the world: (opposite of El Nino) • Fall in surface pressure over the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, and Australia; • Rise in air pressure over Tahiti and the rest of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean; • Trade winds in the south Pacific strengthen or head west; • Cold air rises near Peru, causing drought in the northern Peruvian deserts; • Cold water spreads from the east Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the we`st Pacific. It loses rain with it, causing extensive drought in the eastern Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry eastern Pacific.
. Other than an increase in temperature, what would be the most prominent changes in weather with global warming, and what would these changes produce in the way of hazards or disasters?
More extremes in weather; more storms, including hurricanes; more floods in the southwest; smaller snowpack and earlier runoff/less flow in summer; streams in arid countries to dry up for more of the year.
33. Where is the safest place to be in an Which of the following Cascades volcanoes is closest to Seattle, Washington? earthquake? Justify your answer with what you know about earthquakes and the circumstances under which casualties (deaths and injuries) occur.
Outside (with nothing overhead). [pp. 88-90] ANSWER: Unbraced (weak) ground-floor garages (or storefronts), too many windows on any floor, walls not well secured to floors cause collapses of buildings and therefore the most deaths and injuries. [pp. 82-88]
32. List 5 hazards produced by volcanic eruptions that are deadly to humans:
Pyroclastic flows and surges (nuee ardente) Lava flow Ash and pumice falls Poisonous gasses Mudflows (lahars)
What is seismic gap theory? What role did seismic gap theory play before and after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake which heavily impacted the San Francisco Bay area?
Seismic gaps are segments of active fault that lack historic (or recent) earthquakes: - (before LP) More likely to be location of next large earthquake; - (before LP) Length of gap clue to max. possible length, that is, the greater the break, the greater the potential magnitude; - (after LP) 1989 Loma Prieta EQ filled in an area earlier identified 'Southern Santa Cruz Mountains gap;' - (after LP) areas on either side of the gap have had earthquakes. [p. 74]
San Andreas Fault in historic time. What is the name of this area, and what are the 4 states that make up this area.
The New Madrid Earthquake Fault Zone: SE Missouri, NW Arkansas, western Tennessee, and western Kentucky
Explain how flood forces create a dangerous hazard for residents trying to evacuate in their vehicles from flood waters.
The force of water against wheels forces an object downstream. Lateral force. 11.8 inches (1 foot of water) b) Buoyancy force at 23.6 inches (2 feet of water). c) Fast moving water erodes roads underneath, not visible. The drop into deep water causes drowning. If your car is sinking, get out through window or kick out windshield. Act quickly. d) Once car sinks, doors and windows will not open.
5 factors important in saving lives in the Haicheng EQ
Time of day - foreshocks - long term knowledge - educating the public - public data gathering
What evidence do scientists use to decide whether a volcano may be getting ready to erupt?
Whether a steam or ash cloud contains shreds of fresh volcanic glass, whether the flank of the volcano is bulging or tilting, whether volcanic gases show an increase in emissions of sulfur compounds or the ratio of sulfur to chlorine, and/or whether the surface temperature of the volcano is increasing
. The Japan Earthquake was the 5th largest earthquake to have occurred since 1900. The largest earthquake since 1900 was
a. 1960 Chilean Earthquake at Valdivia
25. An example of a convergent plate boundary would be:
a. The Himalayas
What type of event has repeatedly generated very high tsunami waves in coastal fjords of southeastern Alaska?
a. a large rockfall into the fjord
Why don't many coastal communities try to educate visitors and new residents about natural hazards in their areas (Ch. 1)? They view such information as __________.
a. bad for business
33. Which type or types of earthquake waves arrive at a distant seismograph most quickly by traveling by moving through the mantle of the Earth?
a. both P and S waves
21. What is a transform fault characterized by?
a. lithospheric plates sliding past each other
the costs of catastrophic events continue to increase primarily because __________.
a. more people are moving into more hazardous areas
As it enters a bay, the height of a tsunami wave __________.
a. rises because more water from each wave is forced into less space
13. Most of the Earth's volcanic and earthquake activity is found in an area known as
a. the Pacific Ring of Fire
29. The point at which earthquake movement (rupture) begins is known as
a. the focus
34. What does the Richter Magnitude Scale depend on?
a. the maximum amplitude of earthquake waves on a seismograph
35. A magnitude 7 earthquake has how much higher ground motion than a magnitude 6 earthquake on a seismogram?
b. 10 times higher
22. The principle of "isostacy" keeps the Appalachian Mountains standing as a mountain range even though they have been continuously eroding since they formed hundreds of millions of years ago. Which explanation is the correct one?
b. As material is eroded off the range, it floats higher, just as removing ice from the top of an iceberg causes it to float higher.
24. The Basin and Range landscape of the western and southwestern United States was formed by which of the following plate movements?
b. Divergent
All of the following are secondary hazards produced by the Japan earthquake EXCEPT?
b. Ground shaking
19. If the Atlantic Ocean floor is getting wider, why is the Earth not becoming larger?
b. Old ocean floor sinks at subduction zones (trenches).
23. Along which type of a lithospheric plate boundary are basalt-flow eruptions most abundant?
b. Spreading, or divergent
19. In the video, "In the Path of a Killer Volcano," which of the following was not a DIRECT hazard produced by the main event on June 16, 1991?
b. drop of 1o C of mean global temperature
25. Highly explosive magmas are controlled by which of the following?
b. high silica content and high water
catastrophic natural disaster losses in developed countries primarily involve which of the following?
b. large financial costs to individuals and companies
17. What two main factors result in more violent eruptions?
b. more water and higher viscosity of the magma
27. Faults are fractures in crust along which rocks on one side move past rocks on the other. Vertical slipping in the downward direction is known as
b. normal faulting
40. Which is NOT a hazard typically produced by an earthquake?
b. storm surge
36. A magnitude 7 earthquake has how much higher energy release than a magnitude 6 earthquake on a seismogram?
c. 32 times higher
1. What causes a cold front?
c. A cold air mass moves in under a warm air mass.
Mt. Pinatubo eruption, what seemed to be the biggest and most long-lasting hazard produced by the event?
c. Massive lahars that filled in river valleys
31. Seismic waves that compress and expand ("push-pull") are known as
c. P-waves
15. Which of the following is true?
c. Rift zones are areas where oceanic crust is formed.
26. Why do shield volcanoes have very gently sloping sides?
c. Their basalt flows have low viscosity, so the lava solidifies as gentle slopes.
Why are even good swimmers often killed by tsunami waves?
c. They are impacted by debris carried in the waves
16. Which is the most dangerous location for a tsunami hazard?
c. a bay with a nice sandy beach at its end
What is often the first indication of the arrival of a tsunami at the coast
c. a rapid drop in sea level
18. Very few volcanic eruptions occur
c. at continent-continent collisions or transform boundaries
all of the following were given as reasons for why we need to study hazards EXCEPT
c. because of new career opportunities in emergency management
22. Which of the two main volcanic gases is heavier than air, collects in low areas, and can asphyxiate people or animals if it is in high concentrations?
c. carbon dioxide
12. Tectonic plates consist of
c. combination of Crust and part of the Upper Mantle
28. Stress build-up along a reverse/thrust fault is_____________________.
c. compressional
2. Where is a relatively safe place to be in a lightning storm?
c. in your house
Chapter 1 of your text suggests that areas of cities that are subjected to significant natural hazards should be used for which of the following?
c. parks and golf courses
38. Moment magnitude depends on what main factor(s)?
c. shear strength of the rocks displaced, total surface area of rocks ruptured, and average slip distance on the fault
Tsunami waves nearing the open coast __________.
c. slow down because they drag more on the shallower bottom than in the deep ocean
32. Which type of earthquake waves shake with the largest amplitudes (largest range of motion)?
c. surface waves
11. Which is NOT true about tectonic plates?
c. that tectonic plates are propelled by the speed of the rotation of the Earth.
14. An example of a "triple junction" (the intersection of 3 plates) underlies the Tokyo-Yokohama-Kawasaki metropolitan area in Japan. The 3 plates that make up this triple junction would be:
c. the Eurasian-Philippine-Pacific Plates
3. What should you do to avoid being killed by lightning if caught out in the open in a storm with no place to take cover?
d. Crouch down on the balls of your feet with your feet together.
15. If you are at the beach and feel a large earthquake, what should you do, and when should you do it?
d. Immediately run up slope as far as possible.
39. A Benioff Zone is also referred to as a "dipping seismic zone." Which of the following is NOT true about a Benioff Zone?
d. It is common along the Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the Atlantic Ocean.
30. Body waves produced by an earthquake are transmitted through geologic material. Which of the following are known as body waves?
d. L-waves and R-waves
Which of the following Cascades volcanoes is closest to Seattle, Washington?
d. Mt. Ranier
The height of tsunami wave depends on all of the following EXCEPT
d. Ocean temperature
18. Why does oceanic lithosphere almost always sink beneath continental lithosphere at convergent plate boundaries?
d. Oceanic lithosphere is denser than continental lithosphere.
26. Which of the following geographic locations would be an area where a major earthquake (M7.0 or greater) has not occurred?
d. Sao Paulo, Brazil
16. Which of the following is NOT true?
d. Subduction zones are areas where ocean floor rocks are formed.
24. If you see an extremely large volcano with very gentle slopes, what kind of a volcano is it, and what rock is it likely made of?
d. a shield volcano made of basalt lava flows
10. Four major scientific developments led to the development of present-day "Plate Tectonics." All of the following theories contributed to the development of this paradigm EXCEPT:
d. evidence of glacial drop stones found globally, and in unexpected places like Death Valley.
Although the Atlantic coast of North America experiences few large earthquakes, what specific other event could generate a large tsunami wave that could cause catastrophic damage there?
d. flank collapse of a volcano in the Canary Islands
. From the Introductory Lecture, one definition of a natural hazard was given as, ". . . a naturally occurring or man-made geologic condition or phenomenon that presents a risk or is a potential danger to life or property." Which of the following perspectives does this definition represent?
d. geological
23. Which of the following locations five kilometers from the crater of a volcano would likely be safe from a large ash flow, if any?
d. none of these: ash flows can flow over large hills, can cross large expanses of water, and can fell very large trees
37. Which of the following is a way to measure the intensity of an earthquake by describing damage?
d. the Mercalli Intensity Scale
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, scientists theorized that the Earth was once a giant supercontinent named Pangea, fitting present-day continents together much like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. However different explanations were given for how the supercontinent broke apart. All of the following were theories of the break-up EXCEPT
d. the belief that the landmasses were carried on giant plates that float in the earth's semi-molten upper mantle.
21. Magnitude of events of volcanic eruptions depend on all the following EXCEPT
e. Types of previous eruptions (size of historical events)
9. What was the primary reason why Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was rejected?
e. Wegner could not find the mechanism for moving continental crust through strong basaltic oceanic crust.
20. To the north of Los Angeles, CA, the San Andreas Fault is primarily __________.
e. a transform fault
17. Along which type(s) of lithospheric plate boundary(ies) are earthquakes common?
e. convergent, divergent, and transform
8. Which of the following was NOT used as early evidence for the theories related to "continental drift"?
e. evidence that over geologic time, the Earth's magnetic poles reverse.
Which of the following physical change in the Earth did NOT occur as a result of the the 2011 Japan (Sendai, Honshu) megathrust earthquake?
e. it added new land to the Honshu peninsula
All of the following can cause a tsunami EXCEPT
e. oceanic transform fault movement
. What is the "Coriolis effect" and how does it relate to the northern and southern hemispheres?
• ANSWER: Rotation of the Earth from west to east under a fluid such as the atmosphere or oceans permits that fluid to lag behind Earth's rotation. • NORTHERN HEMISPHERE: • Oceans and air masses near Equator move from east to west because they are fluid and not pulled at same speed as solid (under) Earth's rotation which has a LARGER and stronger rotational velocity; "NE Trade Winds" • (Think of a rug being pulled out from under you - sends you in the opposite direction). • Upper latitudes, rotation not as strong, so oceans and air rotate west to east; "mid-latitude westerlies" • SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE: just the opposite.
What were some of the negative impacts on people who experienced the Dust Bowl? (5 points)
• Children and elderly died of "dust pneumonia" • 500,000 Americans were left homeless • Land became barren • Homes went into foreclosure; farm equipment repossessed by creditors • 2.5 million people left-moved West • 200,000 went to California (CA) • One-third that arrived in CA were white-collar
Explain how a human activities in an upstream watershed—fires, logging, and overgrazing—impact stream processes.
• Deforestation of watershed by fire, heavy logging or overgrazing causes increased sediment load. • Streams become choked with sediment, become braided, slopes become steeper. • Lack of forest soil to soak up water. • Fire removes soil protection, decreases soil permeability. • Clear-cut logging methods remove brush, from skid trails and logging roads that focus downslope drainage and add sediment to streams. • Grazing removes surface vegetation, increasing soil erosion.
2. What is the difference between an earthquake swarm and an earthquake storm?
• Earthquake swarms are events where a local area experiences sequences of many earthquakes striking in a relatively short period of time. • An earthquake storm is a recently proposed theory about earthquakes, where one triggers a series of other large earthquakes—along the same plate boundary—as the stress transfers along the fault system.
If you owned a home in California in a seismically active area, list at least 3 things that you would do to protect your home:
• Evaluate structural weaknesses in home in order to retrofit: - Walls should be anchored to floors and foundation - Bolt bookcases and water heaters to walls - Secure chimneys and vents with brackets - Make water and gas mains flexible - • Consider purchasing earthquake insurance - Most well-built wood-frame houses will not collapse, but may be rendered uninhabitable or worthless; - Extremely expensive, not part of homeowners insurance; - Covers only cost of house, not land.
Name 5 "ingredients" that scientists use for disseminating a good earthquake "prediction,"
• Gives location of the event. • Gives the geographical area affected. • Gives the time interval. • Gives the expected magnitude. • Gives the expected intensity and distribution of damage.
. List 5 environmental hazards related to weather and/or climate:
• Many hazards are related to weather - Floods - Hurricanes and nor'easters - Thunderstorms and tornadoes - Droughts, desertification - Heat waves - Snow and ice, blizzards
31. Describe a pyroclastic flow, and explain why they are so dangerous?
• Mixture of hot volcanic ash and steam that flows downhill because too dense to rise - Also called ash flow, nuee ardente, glowing avalanche, ignimbrite deposit • Race down side of volcano at 50-200 km/hr • Form as part of eruption column collapse • Ash-rich, shock wave surge may race ahead of pyroclastic flow, up to 600 km/hr • Pyroclastic flow means certain death unless near edges, in building or vehicle • Hottest pyroclastic flows glow at 800-850oC, hot enough to fuse into solid mass, welded ash
1. Explain the difference between: 1) a natural hazard; 2) a natural disaster; and 3) a catastrophe.
• Natural hazard: natural process which poses threat to human life or property; • Natural disaster: natural event that causes significant damage to life or property; • Catastrophe: natural event that kills or injures large numbers of people or causes major property damage.
6. Name at least (2) STRUCTURAL and (3) NON-structural means that residents and government planners can choose to reduce and/or prevent damage and lives lost from flooding.
• People can take advantage of the government's "buy-out" program and relocate their homes and businesses. • People can buy flood insurance. • Community planners can implement zoning regulations to prevent building in floodplains. • Local leaders can take steps to qualify their communities for participation in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) to receive aid and assistance given a Presidential declaration for a disaster. • Public Education and Involvement
5. Why do people settle in floodplains?
• People settle on floodplains for cheap land, fertile soil, scenic views. • Tendency to underestimate risk: • Forget major floods too soon, believe that similar floods unlikely to happen again in the near future. Lack of experience. • Believe that flooding unlikely if has not occurred lately; "gambler's fallacy." • People feel that floodplain regulations infringe on personal rights • Individual's choice to build on floodplain can infringe on many other individuals' rights, and can be extremely costly to public
Discuss the set of circumstances that led to the Great Dust Bowl of the 1930s. (5 points
• Settlement was encouraged by the federal government by a series of acts (Homestead/Timber) in a region not conducive to agriculture. • Poor Farming Practices: • Each year, the process of farming begins with preparing the soil to be seeded. • Farmers had plowed the soil too fine. They would come back into a plowed field with a set of disc harrows that would break the clods into fine soil particles. • The native grasses that covered the prairie lands for centuries, holding the soil in place and maintaining its moisture, had been eliminated • In the 1920s and early 30s, most farmers on the plains plowed their fields right after the previous harvest, leaving the soil open for months until it was time to plant again. • Economic pressures in the late 1920s (WW1) pushed farmers on the Great Plains to plow under more and more native grassland. Farmers had to have more acres of corn and wheat to make ends meet. •
