KNES 454 Exam 3

Anaerobic power declines at a slower rate than aerobic endurance.

True

Describe the major age-associated changes in performance that have been recorded in each of the following sports:

(a) Baseball hitting - amount of power and whole-body coordination declines with age - both variables peak at 27 yrs of age. (b) Bowling - high scores can be maintained for a very long time because it does not require the level of power, endurance, and reactive capacity required of other sports. (c) Golf - Accuracy is much more important in golf than power and senior golfers do not play as a long a course in competition so age-related differences in driving distance are negated.

Compare the performances of Masters Athletes and younger high-level athletes in the following sports. Identify the most striking differences in performance noted for each sport:

(a) Track and Field - running, throwing, jumping: 80-84 yr old masters runners' records in 100 m is only 42% slower than national record. (b) Swimming: Both men and women maintained their performances closer to the world record in the shorter 50-m race versus longer 1,500m race, suggesting that anaerobic performance is maintained with aging better than aerobic performance. (c) Cycling: Velocity of 69-yr old male cyclists is only 9% slower than record of 35 yr old cyclists. Women's cycling records are also impressive. (d) Rowing: Relative decline in performance times for women is linear while it is curvilinear in men. (e) Weightlifting: Record holders, whatever their weight class, can only lift about 43% of the world record for their weight by age 79. Masters-level competitive lifters provide the best data to indicate how much strength can be maintained over the years if a person systematically and scientifically undergoes resistive strength training.

Studies have shown that the strongest contribution to a decline in cognitive function is hypertension. True or false?

True

The fear of becoming dependent because of physical disabilities is one of the greatest fears of older adults. True or false?

True

Identify FOUR important cognitive processes that support cognitive function.

1) Attention (mental energy) 2) working memory 3) information-processing speed 4) psychomotor ability 5) perception.

Identify THREE diseases that have been shown to impair neuropsychological function in older adults.

1) Diabetes 2) Coronary Heart Disease 3) Cerebrovascular Disease 4) Atherosclerosis

Briefly describe the results from exercise intervention studies as they relate to the FOUR categories of cognition identified by Colcombe and Kramer (2003).

1) Processing speed - largely equivocal results. Some studies report significant improvements in Reaction Time while other studies show no improvement. 2) Visuospatial Processing - Exercise has a positive effect on this category. 3) Controlled processing - largely equivocal results; some studies show an increase in Choice Reaction Time while others do not. Meta-analysis provides support for improved function with exercise. 4) Executive control - positively influenced by exercise. In fact, exercise seems to be most beneficial for this cognitive function.

Identify three reasons why administering and/or interpreting the results of high capacity tests to adults over 60 years are likely to be more problematic than when administered to younger adults.

1. CVD more prevalent in older adult groups must be considered 2. OAs dissipate heat less efficiently which presents problems when performing endurance testing 3. Interpretation of aerobic capacity is complicated by age-related differences in body composition.

Briefly describe FOUR physiological hypotheses that have been used to explain the influence of exercise on well-being.

1. Cardiovascular HO - exercise increases integrity of cardiovascular fxn and thus maximizes brain function in areas that control emotional responses; 2. Monoamine Ho - monoamine transmitters in brain are affected by short- and long-term exercise; 3. Release of endorphins - high levels of endogenous opiates are produced in brain in response to exercise - believed to positively influence anxiety, mood, depression; 4. Thermogenic Ho - Increasing body temperature via exercise produces a variety of therapeutic effects (e.g., reduce muscular tension).

Briefly describe the effects of exercise on FOUR major areas of brain function.

1. Cerebrovascular function - Aerobic exercise increases ability of red blood cells to carry more oxygen and transport it to active cells. Three mechanisms proposed - (a) angiogenesis; (b) increased oxygen transport; (c) increased cerebral blood flow and velocity. 2. Glucose Utilization - exercise improves local GU in striatum, motor cortex, and hippocampus. 3. Neurotransmitter function - positive change in direction of catecholamine neurotransmitters; enhanced brain cholinergic function and spatial learning. 4. Neurohormonal System - Increases arousal of CNS and facilitates some types of information processing; tune neuroendocrine adaptationshelps maintain general hormonal regulation.

Identify Four age-related changes in the respiratory system.

1. Changes in structure of lungs and airways 2. Changes in lung volumes 3. Impaired efficiency of gas exchange 4. Alterations in the ventilatory pump

Identify THREE categories of potential predictors of physical disability and provide 1-2 examples within each category.

1. Chronic diseases - hypertension; arthritis 2. Lifestyle behaviors and conditions - smoking, physical inactivity 3. Cognitive dysfunction - depression

Describe FIVE cardiovascular benefits an older adult can expect to gain from regular engagement in physical activity/exercise.

1. Decreased RHR 2. Enhanced stroke volume 3. Increased total blood volume and tone of peripheral veins 4. Decreased systolic and diastolic BP 5. Increased HDL cholesterol.

Identify the THREE most important age-associated changes in vision that affect coordination and control.

1. Decreased contrast sensitivity - require 3 times more contrast to see stimuli at slow frequencies; 2. Declines in depth perception - important for judging distance from cars, climbing stairs, and negotiating curbs. 3. Progressive loss of peripheral vision - inability to view objects in periphery - changing lanes when driving; also affects quality of motion perception.

Identify FOUR non-physiological reasons why the performances of female Masters Athletes decline more than their male counterparts with age.

1. Decreases in training 2. Decreased zeal for competition 3. Lower numbers of women in older age groups 4. More negative societal attitudes relative to competitive sport participation directed at women.

Competitive fervor decreases in older Master athletes when compared to younger performers. Describe the differences in how older weightlifters approach a competition when compared to younger weightlifters to illustrate this point.

1. Do not use the type of lift-enhancing equipment and techniques used by younger lifters. 2. Younger lifters more likely to do things to elevate fight-or flight response prior to lifting (e.g., face slapping, ammonia inhalation) versus older adult lifters, 3. Older lifters less likely to us performance-enhancing drugs versus younger lifters 4. Younger athletes more willing to take risks with health versus older athletes who have, through experience, discovered that they are neither invincible nor immortal.

Describe FOUR effects of physical activity on self-efficacy.

1. Primary source of information to shape self-efficacy (SE) 2. S-E growth pattern is curvilinear - faster in beginning and then waning 3. S-E is enhanced by exercise programs in different clinical groups 4. Has more impact on S-E than do physiological fitness changes.

Identify FIVE benefits of annual physical function assessment for older adults.

1. Evaluation of an individual's functional status 2. Basis for planning exercise programming 3. Ways to assess effects of exercise programming 4. Basis for referral to physician 5. Basis for motivation to continue exercise program.

Identify SIX factors that make it more difficult to test the physical function of older adults.

1. Fluctuations in fatigue or pain level; 2. Temporary distractions or lack of concentration; 3. Impaired cognitive ability; 4. Reduced information-processing speed; 5. Changing medical conditions or medications 6. Fluctuations in mood, anxiety, and level of depression.

Identify the TWO major categories of domains that make up the health-related quality-of-life framework described on page 235. Provide THREE examples within each domain.

1. Functioning Domains - physical functioning (aerobic fitness, strength, etc); Cognitive function (e.g., self-management; financial management); Engagement with life (e.g., social activities, etc); 2. Well-Being Domains - Emotional well-being (e.g., positive and negative feeling states; self-concept, etc).

What are the most common risk factors targeted in multifactorial interventions aimed at reducing falls?

1. Gait and balance impairments 2. Muscle weakness 3. Transfer difficulties 4. Number and type of medications 5. Cardiovascular risk factors 6. Environmental hazards in the home

Identify THREE reasons why exercise versus traditional therapies used to treat depression may be advantageous.

1. It's relatively inexpensive 2. Has more positive than negative side effects 3. Not limited to a specified time period for health insurance regulations.

Identify FOUR reasons why Masters athletes reduce both the frequency and intensity with which they train.

1. Many retain full-time jobs that carry multiple responsibilities. 2. OAs have a lifetime of experiences that enable them to place training time and sport competition within a broader perspective than 20 yr olds. 3. The best older competitors can achieve is a relative (within age group) versus absolute victory (winner over all ages). 4. Older lifters less likely to adopt performance-enhancing behaviors (e.g., tight body suits, face slapping, ammonia inhalation) commonly used by younger lifters.

Briefly describe THREE psychosocial hypotheses that have been used to explain the relationship between exercise and emotional function.

1. Mastery Ho - Perceptions of improved physical function resulting from engagement in exercise lead to increased feelings of mastery which enhance feelings of well-being; 2. Social interaction and approval Ho - Exercising in group settings may positively improve mood, lower anxiety, and/or depression; increased social reinforcement inside and outside of class also occurs. 3. Distraction Ho - Exercise takes time and may serve as a diversion from daily life - allows us to "get away from it"....

Briefly describe the THREE dimensions of physical health that relate to quality-of-life

1. Physical condition - presence and number of diagnosed medical conditions experienced; 2. Functional health status - degree to which medical conditions impact performance of ADLs; 3. Subjective health status - personal evaluation about own health.

Identify the FIVE major components of a Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment.

1. Physical health 2. Overall functional ability 3. Psychological health 4. Socioeconomic variables 5. Environmental characteristics.

Identify the FIVE levels of physical function into which older adults are categorized. Provide ONE example of a test that can be used to measure one or more dimensions of physical function in older adults in each category of physical function.

1. Physically elite - VO2 max tests 2. Physically fit - Bruce treadmill protocol 3. Physically independent - Fitness tests - jumping, hand strength, balance, etc. Both the Senior Fitness test AND AAHPERD fitness tests are appropriate for use with this group 4. Physically Frail - Physical performance Test (PPT) 5. Physically Dependent - ADL

Identify THREE reasons why it is important to study the performances of Master Athletes.

1. Scientists can obtain information about aging effects on specific physiological systems by studying rate of decline in performances that rely heavily on specific energy systems and structural integrity. 2. Information about athletic competitive performance can supplement lab measurements and contribute new hypotheses about how physiological mechanisms interrelate in aging. 3. Athletic performance in elite masters athletes represents the functional significance of physiological theory

Briefly describe TWO psychosocial factors that influence participation of older adults in sports.

1. Societal attitudes toward older participants in sports events (ageism) are negative versus younger athletes - competitive sport participation is more age-appropriate for younger athletes. 2. Societal gender bias discourages women from participating in competitive sports - some sports not "ladylike" - reduces opportunities for training and coaching and influences size of pool of competitive female athletes

How do Masters Athletes do it? Identify FOUR factors that contribute to their physical accomplishments well into older adulthood.

1. Superb genetic make-up 2. They have been lucky - have avoided debilitating accidents and/or diseases 3. They have maximized their potential by continuing to physically train and maintain good health habits 4. They possess a psychological make-up in which body and its functioning are a very important component of their self-awareness and esteem.

Identify TWO variables that one must consider when testing the physical abilities of very old adults. How are they likely to influence test outcomes?

1. Test anxiety and motivation - if older adults believe that test results will have implications for their living independently or participating in activities that they enjoy (e.g., driving) they may experience high levels of anxiety; conversely, if the older adults think that the test outcomes have little implication they may be less motivated to provide their best performance. 2. Many tests were first developed on younger persons, and performance norms were based primarily on those individuals. Consequently many norms are provided in 10-year intervals for younger adults. Not as useful for older adults due to the high level of heterogeneity in older adult samples. Comparisons are also not possible on some occasions because the test is too easy for the younger adults and therefore cannot be used to discriminate among younger adults, making comparisons with older adults impossible.

Identify the THREE dimensions of human frailty.

1. Time - drains energy and vitality 2. Disease - internal errors or external agents that damage body systems and lead to weakness, system fatigue, frailty, and eventually death 3. Disuse - unlike 1 and 2, this dimension is controllable

Identify the FOUR basics components of frailty.

1. musculoskeletal function 2. aerobic capacity 3. cognitive and integrative neurological function 4. Nutritional reserve

Age-related changes in many types of sport performance appear to be linear and gradual until age _____ years, at which time performance deteriorates more rapidly

70 years of age

Define the term "frailty."

A condition or syndrome that results from a multi-system reduction in reserve capacity to the extent that a number of physiological systems are close to, or past, the threshold of symptomatic clinical failure.

Are the benefits of exercise the same for young and older adults? Explain your answer

Depends on the model you choose to study the benefits. Tonic and Overpractice model (TOPE) suggests benefits are the same irrespective of age whereas moderator effects model suggests that older adults will benefit more form exercise than younger adults. Research results supporting latter model are mixed. Likely due to flawed research designs.

Explain why performance can be maintained and/or improved in some sports but not others with age.

Different physiological systems are crucial to success across sports. Those sports that require high levels of power and endurance result in greater age- associated declines versus sports requiring accuracy, accumulated skill, and patience.

Why are age effects in performance more evident for distance events than in short, power events?

Energy expenditure over a longer period of time (i.e., distance events) is greater than energy available.

When is exercise most likely to have a negative effect on an individual's well- being?

Exercise can have negative effects on well-being when it becomes compulsive. Once it becomes the focus of a person's life, personal and social obligations are often neglected to the detriment of family and other responsibilities.

ADL-IADL instruments are sensitive to declines in function in physically independent older adults except those on the lowest borderline. True or false?

False

Peak muscular power declines at a more rapid rate than maximal aerobic capacity. true or false?

False

Self-report measures can be used to accurately measure aerobic capacity. True or false?

False

Individual differences in the physical functioning of older adults are most apparent among the old-old (85-89) age group. True or false?

False, Old (75-84 years) AND Old-old. Group.

The fitness component thought to be related to cognition is flexibility. True or False?

False, aerobic fitness

Loss of muscle strength precedes the loss of bone, but the recovery of bone mass precedes the recovery of muscle strength.

False, recovery of muscle strength precedes the recovery of bone mass.

How does the term "frailty" differ from the term " disability"?

Frailty indicates instability and risk of loss whereas disability indicates loss of function.

In which types of sports do Masters Athletes tend to show the greatest declines in performance? Explain why this is the case.

Greatest declines are evident in sports requiring complex, whole-body coordination in addition to large expenditures of power from large muscle mass. Sports that require high levels of coordination, exquisite timing, spatial perception, flexibility, balance (i.e., discus, shot put, jumping events), and ability to withstand jarring force contacts with the ground (i.e., jumping events).

Identify the simplest but least accurate way to predict which systems are most affected by aging. What method provides greater accuracy?

Least effective - by observing the extent and rate of decline in records held by adults of different ages in specific sports; Most effective - use regression statistics to predict sport performance from age, allowing for gender differences.

What is the primary value of periodically assessing the physical function of older adults?

Routine assessments have great value in determining physiological reserve, extending active life expectancy, and enhancing the quality of life as a result.

Who are Masters Athletes and why does the age at which someone is eligible to become a Masters Athlete differ across sports?

Master athletes are competitors who exceed a minimum age specific to each Sport and who participate in competitive events designed for master athletes. Minimum age varies according to extent to which youth is a requisite for success.

Explain why there is such a dramatic gender difference in the rate of suicides in older adulthood.

Men find loss of physical independence more intolerable than women; very old men become more socially isolated.

What recommendations would you a group of older adults living in a senior living community who are concerned about becoming disabled?

Move a little more a little more often - frequent low-intensity exercise is more effective in maintaining and improving physical function; eat well, get at least 6-7 hours of sleep each day; keep doing what you love to do; engage with others as often as possible; learn something new every day; think and act positively; have a purpose in life; love yourself first and foremost.

Briefly explain the bidirectional relationship between physical activity and cognition.

PA influences cognition but cognitive competency also influences the nature and amount of PA. Older adults who report that they are "very active" score high on instrumental ADLs, have objective health, and perform better on cognitive tests.

Briefly explain the role of physical activity in postponing disability and facilitating independent living.

Physical activity daily energy expenditure is linearly related to optimal physical function; also improves physical function of older adults with chronic disease; moderate to strenuous PA is also associated with improvements in balance, gait, and lower body strength

Identify three factors that positively affect subjective well-being and three factors that negatively affect it.

Positive - positive affect; self-esteem; happiness Negative - negative affect; anger, stress

How does sarcopenia differ from muscle atrophy?

Sarcopenia reduces the size of the contracting muscle mass while muscle atrophy reduces the amount of contracting muscle.

How does self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy differ from each other?

Self-concept = conscious awareness and perception of self and is a multidimensional construct whereas self-esteem is the respect and esteem that one has for him/herself, or the extent to which he/she feels positive about his/her self. Finally, self-efficacy is the belief that one has the capability to organize and execute a course of action necessary to achieve a certain goal.

Identify the MAJOR age-associated changes in the (a) sensory, (b) motor, and (c) cognitive systems that contribute to good balance.

Sensory - vision (reduced depth perception, reduced contrast sensitivity, reduced peripheral field of view); somatosensory (increased vibration threshold); vestibular (decrease in hair cells, reduced gain of VOR) Motor - slowed central processing and transmission; selective loss of fast twitch motor units. Cognitive - reduction in working memory, attention, fluid intelligence.

Describe the "vicious cycle" of physical inactivity among older adults and what is the result of this vicious cycle?

The less physically active they are, the less physical ability and endurance they have. The less physical ability they have, the less inclined they are to be physically active. And the less active they are the more physical capacity they lose. The less they move, the less they can move. They begin to feel old and act old, which includes not being physically active. And so the downward spiral continues......

How is the Physical Performance Test (PPT) used to operationally define different levels of frailty?

The total score determines the level of frailty. A score between 32-36 points = not frail; 25-31 = mildly frail; 17-24 = moderately frail.

Why was each of the sports in Q3 chosen for analysis?

Track and field, swimming, cycling, rowing, and weightlifting - More older adult competitors participate in these competitions than other sports. Rowing is also a whole-body sport and both field competition and lab-rowing ergometer data are available for comparison. Weightlifting requires extremes of power and strength. Baseball hitting - represents eye-hand, whole body neuromuscular coordination and reactive capacity Bowling and golf - require flexibility, coordination, and accuracy. Collectively, the task demands of these sports challenge the full range of physical capacities.

A lack of physical activity is negatively related to depression in nonclinical samples of older adults. True or false?

True

Low physical activity level and muscular weakness are predictors of disability in later life. True or false?

True

Poor functional health does not negatively influence the positive affect that contributes to quality-of-life. True or false?

True

Identify the type and characteristics of exercise that are most effective in elevating well-being among older adults.

Type - Most likely aerobic exercise is more beneficial for older adults based on current research findings; Characteristics - both acute and long-term exposure to exercise benefits appear to benefit different components of well-being. Environment in which exercise takes place may play a role, particularly if the goal of the intervention is therapeutic. Does not appear to matter as much as whether the person adheres to the exercise program.

List the visual functions that are important to driving that decline with increasing age.

Visual acuity, size of useful field of view, changes in motion perception

Define "Physical activity"

any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure.

Define "Health"

attribute of people related to many factors - genetics, nutrition, sleep, psychological stress, abstinence from smoking and drugs.

Define "functional fitness"

fitness components necessary to perform normal everyday activities safely and independently and without undue fatigue

Define "functional independence"

individuals are able to complete ADLS without difficulty

Define "function performance"

observable ability to perform tasks of daily living or field tests that simulate daily living tasks.

Define "Subjective health"

perceptions individuals have of their own health.

Define "Exercise"

physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive with improvement and/or maintenance of one or more components of physical fitness being an objective. Exercise is a SUBSET of physical activity.

Define "Physical fitness"

set of attributes that people have or achieve that relates to the ability to perform physical activity.

Define "Functional health"

way individuals function within the constraints of their subjective health