Labeling Theory

What is sensitization?

"The process whereby harm, wrongness, or deviance is attributed to the behavior, condition, or phenomenon that is routinely ignored when the same consequences are caused by or attributed to more conventional conditions" (Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 1994)

The Interest Group Approach

**Most widely used perspective When professional associations, police departments, the media, religious groups, educational organizations, and so on, have a stake in bringing forth an issue, that is independent of the elite, and have a role in generating and sustaining moral panics by being active in the movement themselves. Their purpose is for advancing status and material interest of the group who believes in the movement e.g., Black Lives Matter movement.

How did labeling theory develop?

-Arose in late 1960s-1970s during Civil Rights Movement, Vietnam War, Kent State shootings, Watergate scandal, etc. -Time when people wondered what role the state (or govt) played in causing crime-"Big 3" theories criticized for ignoring role of the state & unjust social arrangements in crime causation-"New criminology" arose

How does Chiricos et al. (2007) fill the gap in labeling theory literature?

-Available evidence on whether conviction is related to recidivism is limited to juveniles, misdemeanor DV, & 1st-offending drunk drivers. -Nothing on how felony conviction plays out in life course of adults

What were Chiricos et al. (2007) main findings?

-Felons formally adjudicated (formally labeled) were 2x more likely to recidivate than those who adjudication withheld -Effect of being adjudicated guilty was stronger for whites, females, & those who reach age of 30 w/o prior convictions -Higher for those who would otherwise be considered less likely to recidivate (have more to lose w/ stigma) "consequences of formal sanctions may be contingent on the characteristics of the offender"

To what 2 types of rules does Becker refer on p.2? Give your own example of each type.

-Formal rules are enacted into laws and they are enforced by police or people in power. An example, of a formal rule is Speed Limit, which is a law enforced by police and if you break this law you are penalized and fined. -Informal rules are either newly made agreements or old upheld traditions that are enforced by various informal sanctions. An example of an informal rule is when your mother asks you to take your shoes off before entering the house and stepping on the carpet.

How are the 3 models on moral panics interrelated?

-Grassroots provides fuel or raw material for a moral panic -Organizational activists' issues of morality provide the content of moral panic -Interests provide the timing -Elite-engineering doesn't seem to work for most moral panics, but grassroots model enables us to see what fears and concerns are made use of and the interest group model enables us to see how this raw material is mobilized & intensified

Symbolism Interactionism

-Labeling theory is a direct descendent of this -Basis of society is human interaction; structure=merely patterned interaction -To understand human behavior, one needs to understand interaction -Primary product of human interaction=social meaning, humans learn the meaning of all aspects of reality from others -Meanings are negotiated, shared, & then re-negotiated through interactions -People come to define themselves according to how others perceive them

What is the significance of Chiricos et al. (2007) article?

-Looks at state of FL and how they allow individuals who have been found guilty of a felony to avoid the label of a convicted felon. -Judges have the option to "withhold adjudication" of those sentenced to probation.

Grassroots model

-Panics originate with the general public -The general public holds concerns about a particular threat that is "widespread and genuinely felt". -Politicians, political groups, the media, law enforcement, etc. tend to bring attention to or put in a spotlight issue that has been underlying in the public which causes for a moral panic -e.g., After 9/11, many Americans have held a stereotypical views against all muslims, seeing them in a negative light and defining them as terrorist. Trump building a wall along the U.S.-Mexico border

What is the significance of Erikson (1964) article?

-Review of Howard Becker's Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, which provided the foundations for labeling theory -Becker argues that labeling people as outsiders makes them become outsiders -Thus, deviant behavior "is created by society" -Labeled deviants come to accept label as legitimate and become attached to it -Study of deviance must include consideration of the rule violator & rule enforcer.

What were Chiricos et al. (2007) methods?

-Sample of approx. 96K men and women in FL -Consider 4 individual-level contingencies: race, sex, prior record, "stakes in conformity" (30+ w/ no prior convictions) -DV: recidivism -IV: adjudication or no adjudication of felony convict label

How are rules variable?

-The creators and enforcers of rules have discretion -Whether an act is treated as deviant depends on who commits the act -Who feels the harm of the act -The nature of the act (the perceived harm) -Rules are applied to some people more than others -The reaction to the act

According to Becker, who are less/more likely to be labeled and experience more punishment

-The middle-class boy is less likely than the lower-class boy -Whites are less likely then Blacks (e.g., if a Black man kills a White man, he is more likely to be severely punished than a Black man who murders another Black man or a White man who murders a Black man) -Cites Sutherland: crimes committed by corporations are usually tried as civil, rather than criminal cases -An unmarried pregnant woman receives more shame/criticism than unmarried man who got her pregnant

What are the two types of models of deviance Becker describes?

-The simultaneous model: claims that particular behaviors occur as a result of a number of variables arising at the same time -The sequential model contends that meticulous behaviors are caused by sequence of occurrences.

What is symbolic interactionism?

A micro-level theory based on the idea that people act in accordance with shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions •Focus is on etiology (vs epidemiology), the process by which a person becomes deviant •e.g., labeling theory

What are folk devils?

A person or group of people who are portrayed in folklore or the media as outsiders and deviant, and who are blamed for crimes or other sorts of social problems

Master status

A status that assumes priority, overrides other status considerations (auxiliary traits) -e.g., A Black doctor is considered Black before being considered a doctor -e.g., the deviant status is on the same level as being Black (a master status) (see p. 33)

What are the critical elements of labeling theory?

AKA societal reaction theory (Becker) -Deviance is a label, rather than an act (it is socially constructed) -Our reactions contribute to the label -Response to the act defines deviance, not the act itself -Focus shouldn't be on behavior, but rather on how/why we define particular behaviors & our reactions to them -Reactions of formal social control causes further deviations/crime (self-fulfilling prophecy)

How does Becker define deviance?

According to Becker, deviance is created by society. He says: "social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance; and by applying those rules to particular people and labeling them outsiders" (Becker, 1997). -Hence, "deviant behavior is behavior that people so label" (p. 9). -"Whether an act is deviant, then, depend on how other people react to it" (11). -"Deviance is not a quality that lies in behavior itself, but in the interaction between the person who commits an act and those who respond to it" (p. 14) Becker disagrees with sociological views that define deviance as "the infraction of some agreed-upon value" because they ignore the fact that deviance is created by society.

Who is Howard Becker?

An American sociologist whose 1963 book Outsiders provided the foundations for labeling theory. Becker is often called a symbolic interactionist or social constructionist, although he does not align himself with either method. A graduate of the University of Chicago, Becker is considered part of the second Chicago School of Sociology, which also includes Erving Goffman and Anselm Strauss. **Fun fact: Becker received his BA at 18 and PhD at 23.

What is a moral panic?

An exaggerated response or concern by the public to an issue that is seen as threatening the moral standards of society, however the harm exposed may be minimal to none, usually ignited by the media, higher officials, action groups and so forth . Cohen launched the term (see Goode & Ben-Yahuda, 1994)

What are moral entrepreneurs? (Becker, 1963)

An individual, group or formal organization that seeks to influence a group to adopt or maintain a norm. Moral entrepreneurs are those who take the lead in labeling a particular behavior and spreading or popularizing this label throughout society. This can include attributing negative labels to behavioR as well as the removal of negative labels, positively labeling, or removing positive labels. The moral entrepreneur may press for the creation or enforcement of a norm for any number of reasons, altruistic or selfish. Such individuals or groups also hold the power to generate moral panic. Some examples of moral entrepreneurs are: MADD (mothers against drunk driving), the anti-tobacco lobby, the gun control lobby, anti-pornography groups, LGBT social movements, and the pro-life and pro-choice movement Moral entrepreneurs fall into roughly two categories: rule creators, and rule enforcers. Moral entrepreneurs create the crusade.

Primary Deviance

An initial deviant, not necessarily criminal, act Deviations are peripheral to the individual; don't define him i.e., guy drinks a lot, but sees himself as a college student not a "drunk"

Who are the "outsiders" to whom Becker's (1963) book title refers?

An outsider is someone who goes against the average and social norms. Outsiders break the rules set up by a social group; rules which everyone chooses to follow to maintain social organization. They either do not accept the rule they are being judged for breaking, or they do not accept those who judge them as credible, competent or entitle to do so. --However, Becker also says that the rulebreaker may also feel his judges are "outsiders" (p. 2)

How should we consider moral panics according to Goode & Ben-Yehuda (1994, p. 169-170)?

As long-term social processes that are crucial in social change. They are not like fads, trivial in nature and inconsequential in their impact. e.g., they can leave an institutional legacy and even if they don't they often leave normative or informal traces that prepare us for later panics or other events.

How does Becker view human nature (i.e., are humans inherently deviant or not)?

Becker disagrees with the idea that some people have deviant motivations while others don't (e.g., strain). Instead, he argues "there is no reason to assume that only those who finally commit a deviant act actually have the impulse to do so. It is more likely that most people experience deviant impulses frequently. At least in fantasy, people are much more deviant than they appear" (p. 26). Also, Becker says that a "normal" person is able to restrain deviant impulses when he has stakes in conformity (see p. 27-28) -For Becker, everyone has the inclination to be deviant, but only some people get labeled deviant because they are already heavily surveilled (see Goffman's On the Run) -Makes similar arguments as control theorists

What is the statistical way to define deviance?

calculating the distance of the behavior in question from the average. Also deviance is anything that departs from social norms (e.g., crime, homosexuality, divorce, mental illness, etc.)

Does labeling theory subscribe to the consensus or conflict model?

Conflict "Modern situations are not simple organizations in which everyone agrees on what the rules are and how they are to be applied in specific situations. They are, instead, highly differentiated along social class lines, ethnic lines, occupational lines, and cultural lines" (Becker, 1963, p. 15) "Differences in the ability to make rules and apply them to other people are essentially power differentials (either legal or extralegal). Those groups whose social position gives them weapons and power are best able to enforce their rules. Distinctions of age, sex, ethnicity, and class are all related to differences in power, which accounts for differences in the degree to which groups so distinguished can make rules for others" (18). "The rules created and maintained by such labeling are not universally agreed to. Instead, they are the object of conflict and disagreement" (Becker, 1963, p.18)

What are the potential negative consequences of formal social control according to labeling theory?

Direct consequences: -Social controls has potential negative consequences according to labeling theory (attributes sanctions to others, labels, continues behavior) -Powerless groups (e.g., YBMs) are disproportionately labeled. -The individual who is labeled deviant is unable to carry on with the "routines of everyday life open to most people." Consequently, he must develop illegitimate routines (p.35) Indirect consequences: -internal shame, psychological change in status

Secondary Deviance

Individual no longer separates himself from his deviation -The reaction by others determines this **This is what labeling theory really explains **criminal status can move from secondary to master status

Who are the rule enforcers? (Becker, 1963)

Individuals who have discretion in rule enforcement and implementation. Rule enforcers just feel the need to enforce the rule because that is their job; they are not really concerned with the content of the rule. As rules are changed, something that was once acceptable may now be punished and vice versa. Such officials tend to take a pessimistic view of human nature because of constant exposure to willful deviance. -They are compelled by two drives: the need to justify their own role, and the need to win respect in interactions. E.g., police officers

What is an example of a moral panic?

Marijuana! -In 1930, only 16 states had written laws outlawing marijuana possession and sell -Still, even in these states there was "relatively lax" enforcement of the laws; and few Americans smoked marijuana or knew anyone who did -By 1937, all 48 states passed a law outlawing marijuana & passage of federal legislation, the Marihuana Tax Act -sensationalism around the drug -Becker attributes the shift in legislation to the key efforts of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (moral entrepreneurs) -"The FBN created a crisis where no basis for it existed, and the campaign created a "new class of outsiders--marihuana users" (Becker 1963, Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 1994) -marijuana users & dealers were targeted as deviants

What is Becker's main argument about moral entrepreneurs?

Moral entrepreneurs (rule creators and rule enforcers) launch moral crusades, which sometimes turn into panics, to make sure that certain rules take hold and are enforced.

According to Becker, what is major a gap in empirical and theoretical research on deviance?

Most research if focused on the people who break the rules, rather than those people who make and enforce the rules. We need to study both to achieve a full understanding of deviant behavior.

What does labeling theory focus on?

Not criminal behavior per se, but the reactions to criminal behavior. -Becker said labeling theory should really be called "societal reaction" theory. -The behavior itself doesn't matter-->we need to loon at how/why we define particular behaviors and how we react to it. -Labeling theory is also concerned with deviation from group deviances, how groups identify deviants, reaction to the application of the label by those considered deviants, and psychological & social processes associated with it.

What are the 4 types of deviant behavior? (Becker, 1963)

Obedient Behavior 1. Conforming behavior (not perceived as deviant) 2. Falsely accused (perceived as deviant) Rule-breaking Behavior 3. Pure deviant 4. Secret deviant

What is social constructionism within the context of social problems according to Goode & Ben-Yehuda (1994)?

Social problems are constructed phenomena -i.e., what constitutes a problem is the concern that segments of the public feel about a given condition -the problem doesn't need to have concrete harm or damage -usually evidence will show that the social problem causes no harm at all or less harm than what we expected given the moral panic associated with it. -"Constructionism forces us to see the social dynamics behind the creation of conditions as problems. And the moral crusade is one crucial avenue through which certain conditions are constructed and validated as social problems" (p. 152)

What is conforming behavior? (Becker, 1963)

That which obeys the rule and what others perceive as obeying the rule.

What is the purpose of Erich Goode and Nachman Ben-Yehuda's (1994) article, "Moral Panics: Culture, Politics, and Social Construction"?

The authors explore the meanings behind moral panics, what contributing factors ignite the panics, who or what may be the cause of moral panics and so forth all while with providing interesting examples. They also propose five criterias that goes into defining moral panics

Which theories are the best to study moral panics (Goode & Ben-Yehuda, 1994)?

The grassroots model and interest group model "By itself, the grassroots model is naive; by itself, the interest group model is cynical and empty. Together, the two help illuminate the moral panic; interest groups coops and make use of grassroots morality and ideology" (p. 168).

Elite-engineered model

There is a small and powerful group that work in an organized strategical way to divert attention away from the real problems in the society (that may affect the elite group) by generating and upholding fear, concern, and panic over the public on issues that are not considered to be harmful to society in general -ideology is a mechanism for elite hegemony. It's a means by which the powerful protect their interests, primarily economic, and maintain their rule and the stability of capitalism -The media reproduces the definitions of the powerful

What are social rules according to Becker (1963)?

They are what "define situations and the kinds of behavior appropriate to them, specifying some actions as 'right' and forbidding others as 'wrong.'

What is the secret deviant? (Becker, 1963)

When a crime or improper act is committed and no one notices it or reacts to it as a violation of the law. (e.g., gay person in the closet, a functioning addict)

What is the falsely accused situation? (Becker, 1963)

When a person is seen as having committed a crime or other improper action, but hasn't done so. Aka a "bum rap"

How are deviant careers built according to Becker?

When an individual is caught and publicly labeled as deviant and subscribes to the label of deviance, commits more crime, is further labeled and the cycle continues (p. 31). Note: to be labeled a criminal, a person only needs to commit ONE criminal offense.

In what ways does labeling theory have some parallels with subcultural theory?

Becker points out that what one may define as a deviant; another perhaps in a different society would not. In addition "the person who is thus labelled an outsider may have a different view of the matter" and may believe that those that have judged them not to be "legitimately entitled to do so" so then the rule breakers may see those that judged as outsiders (Becker 1963). -"The lower class delinquent who fights for his "turf" is only doing what he considers necessary and right, but teachers, social workers, and police see it differently" (p. 16). -Becker also says that people learn from others how to participate in a particular subculture that is organized around a deviant activity. -When labeled, an individual may develop a deviant career, a deviant subculture, and deviant peers who teach him rationales for continuing in deviant activity , avoiding trouble, and repudiating conventional world.

What is the pure deviant type of behavior? (Becker, 1963)

Behavior that which both disobeys the rule and is perceived as doing so?

What are deviant careers and which deviance model can be used to study them?

Career=sequence of movements from one position to another in an occupational system made by any individual who works in that system. A sequential model can be transformed to studying deviant careers and people who have a fleeting contact with deviance, but turn away from it into conventional activities. This latter point may be more informative.

What 5 criteria define a moral panic?

Concern - There must be the belief that the behavior of the group or activity deemed deviant is likely to have a negative effect on society. Hostility - Hostility toward the group in question increases, and they become "folk devils". A clear division forms between "them" and "us". Consensus - Though concern does not have to be nationwide, there must be widespread acceptance that the group in question poses a very real threat to society. It is important at this stage that the "moral entrepreneurs" are vocal and the "folk devils" appear weak and disorganized. Disproportionality - The action taken is disproportionate to the actual threat posed by the accused group. Volatility - Moral panics are highly volatile and tend to disappear as quickly as they appeared because public interest wanes or news reports change to another narrative.

What are the critiques of labeling theory?

1. Life-course perspective shows stability of crime/deviance prior to formal intervention 2. Criminals are portrayed as innocent victims who were unfairly labeled; may have already been criminal 3. Has no empirical support 4. Societal reaction may be the result & not the cause of law-breaking 5. Ignores how structural inequality, disadvantage in inner-city communities, dysfunctional family life, delinquent friends, etc. effect crim behavior even before or more than effects of being arrested, jailed, etc. 6. Theory doesn't consider personality theory/human motivation (Erikson, 1964)

What are some of the policy implications of labeling theory?

1. Restorative justice 2. Reintegrative shaming

Who were the forerunners of labeling theory?

1. Tannenbaum (1938): "dramatization of evil" 2. Edwin Lemert (1951) primary and secondary deviance **Inspired Howard Becker (Outsiders, 1963) & others

What are the three theories of moral panics?

1. The grassroots model 2. The elite-engineered model 3. The interest group theory

What 2 dimensions distinguish the theories that have been advanced to explain moral panics?

1. The morality vs. interests dimension -addresses the question of motive -do concern and activism coalesce because of ideology, morality, worldview to b/c actors stand to gain something of value (e.g., jobs, power) 2. The elitism vs. grassroots dimension -Are many actors responsible for the creation and maintenance of the panic? -Does the panic start from the bottom and progress up, or does it work from the top down?

What are the 2 consequences of labeling?

1. Transformation of identity (criminal becomes "master status) 2. Structural impediments to conventional life that result from labeling (denied employment, stigma, can only associate w/ other criminals) **Also, males, minorities, & young people=powerless groups; disproportionately labeled

What are 4 ways in which a social problem can be measured or manifested? ( Goode & Nachman Ben-Yehuda, 1994)

1. an organized, collective action or campaign to do something about, call attention to, protest, or change a given condition ("social problems as social movements") e.g., Black Lives Matter movement 2. the introduction of bills in legislatures to criminalize or otherwise deal with the behavior and individuals having the behavior 3. the ranking of a condition or an issue in the public's hierarchy of the most serious problems facing the country 4. public discussion of an issue in the media

Who are rule creators? (Becker, 1963)

Often self-righteous persons who are interested in the content of rules. They frequently rely on expert advice when drawing up specific rules, but still have discretion in writing rules. -AKA crusading reformers or moral crusaders -Originate crusades aimed at generating reform, based on what they think is moral, therefore defining deviance. -Must have power, public support, generate public awareness of the issue, and be able to propose a clear and acceptable solution to the problem. -E.g., religious groups, lawmaking bodies, and stakeholders in a given field.