language acquisition
A pidgin that has become the native language of the children of the pidgin speakers
Creole
In this method of second language teaching, the learner's second language (L2) is the medium of classroom instruction.
Immersion
double dissociation
In reference to language studies, the simultaneous existence of a situation in which language is impaired but other cognitive skills are normal, or a situation in which language is normal despite the impairment of other cognitive functions
Domain-general perspective
In regard to SLI, the situation in which the linguistic deficit is only one effect of more general cognitive problems that also affect non-linguistic processes.
Domain-specific perspective
In regard to SLI, the situation in which the linguistic deficit strikes at mechanisms that are particular to language, rather than ones that are shared with other cognitive abilities.
Auditory verbal agnosia
"Pure word deafness," a condition in which people hear speech as meaningless or garbled sound but usually can speak, read, or write without any trouble; their ability to process non-speech sounds, including music, seems to be mostly intact.
5 months
"babbling" making constant vowels
What is zero derivation?
It is when a word changes word class but the original word's form has not been altered. Therefore, you are adding a ''zero-derviation" E.g ADJ -> N = a (putting) GREEN ADJ -> V = to YELLOW
What range of methods do we find in use today?
-Experiments, naturalistic observation, computational modelling. -Cross cultural, cross linguistic. -Longitudinal, cross-sectional. -Experimental (elicitation, comprehension, intuitional, gaze observation or eye tracking) -CHILDES
What are the main milestones of early lexical development?
-First words and early word comprehension -50 words milestone -Vocabulary spurt and fast mapping -Mapping problems (over/under extensions) -Continued vocabulary expansion with changing composition -Acquisition of word formation processes
Facts on Phonology
-French newborns can distinguish French from Russian, but newborns from other cultures can't distinguish these differences. -Normal Speech=800 Phonemes/minute -By 36 months, infants track almost all 800 Phonemes/ minute.
What do we know about infants early sensitivity to speech/What are the first signs of sensitivity to sound contrasts?
-In utero, heart rates go up when hearing their mother's voice. -A few days after birth, they react to passages read in utero, prefer speech over other human noises and prefer their mother tongue over other languages. -They are attuned to human speech like they are attuned to human faces. -Habituation: A research procedure used with infants to assess their ability to discriminate between two stimuli.
Milestones after one year
-Vocal play -Canonical babbling -Name recognition -First word -Beginning of intentional communication -Attention-sharing behaviour
General Constraints
-Whole object bias -Mutual exclusivity - Shape bias
premack principle
-activity as reinforcement - one activity can act as a reinforcer to another activity
What are the 2 inflectional suffixes that can be added to adjectives and what are their functions?
1) -er (comparative) 2) -est (superlative)
What is the 1 inflectional suffix that can be added to nouns and what is its function?
1) -s (plural)
What are the 7 inflectional morphemes in English and their function?
1) -s (plural) 2) -ed (past tense) 3) -ing (progressive) 4) -en/-ed ((past)participle) 5) -s (singular 3rd person present) 6) -er (comparative) 7) -est (superlative)
What are the 4 inflectional suffixes that can be added to verbs and what are their functions?
1) -s (singular 3rd person present) 2) -ed (past tense) 3) -ing (progressive) 4) -en/-ed ((past) participle)
What happens in back-formation?
1) A sequence is reanalysed as an affix. 2) The affix is removed from the sequence seen as the root, breaking up the original root. 3) The remainder of the previous root is now analysed as the new root.
What are the two subcategories of synthetic languages?
1) Agglutinative 2) Fusional
What are the 3 inflectional categories associated with NOUNS?
1) Case 2) Number 3) Gender
What are the 7 categories of Inflectional Morphology?
1) Case 2) Number 3) Gender 4) Person 5) Aspect 6) Tense 7) Degree
What is the 1 inflectional category associated with ADJECTIVES?
1) Degree
What are the 3 categories of morphological typology?
1) Isolating / analytic 2) Synthetic 3) Polysynthetic
What are the characteristics of a fusional language and what is an example?
1) One morpheme contains more than one meaning. 2) Contain Portmanteau Morphemes An example is Russian
What are the 3 inflectional categories associated with VERBS?
1) Person 2) Tense 3) Aspect
What are the characteristics of a polysynthetic language and what is an example?
1) They have the largest numbers of morphemes per word (sometimes 10 or more) 2) A complete sentence may consist of only one word. An example is Mohawk
Hockett's design features of human language (16)
1) vocal-auditory channel 2) broadcast transmission and directional reception 3) rapid fading 4) interchangeability 5) total feedback 6) specialization 7) semanticity 8) arbitrariness 9) discreteness 10) displacement 11) productivity 12) traditional transmission 13) duality of patterning 14) prevarication 15) reflexiveness 16) learnability
P600
An ERP effect in which a waveform shows a positive voltage peak about 600 ms.
N400
An ERP in which a waveform shows a negative voltage peak about 400 ms.
Derivational Morphology
An affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from its base.
Action potential
An electrical pulse that travels down the axon of a neuron to a synapse, resulting in the release of neurotransmitters.
What is the developmental path of narrative skills?
225, 306-308 Phase 1: Children's talk about the past is typically elicited and maintained by an adult. Adults provide scaffolding by introducing past event as topic Phase 2: depend less on scaffolding (questions) & produce longer contributions with new info -Increase in: frequency of spontaneous mention of past events, length of narrative, remoteness of past events, structural complexity & use of narrative devices (orient to time and place, evaluate event) -Narrative skills increase notably from 2-4 y/o -5 y/o not mastered tense system narrative skill still lacking Sources of improvement: 1) increased mastery of linguistic devices (clear temporal order, pronoun reference, link clause) 2) increased understanding of structure of a story
What observations suggest there are correlations between theory of mind and language? What are the four potential explanations for these observations?
255-258 Theory of Mind (ToM): The cognitive understanding that other people have mental states (i.e. intentions, desires, emotions, and beliefs)
Head-turn preference paradigm
An experimental framework in which infants' speech preference or learning is measured by the length of time they turn their heads in the direction of a sound.
Protoword
An idiosyncratic sound sequence that children use with consistent meaning meaning but which is not clearly derived from a word in the target language.
Language Acquisition Device
An innate mechanism that contains the grammatical rules common to all languages and aids in language acquisition. Evidence: -Children know how to make things plural -Deaf children brought together in Spain created their own language. -Sensitive period- time when grammar and words are learned quickest. -Brain evidence
Concept
An organizing principle derived from experience
Aphasia
Any language disruption caused by brain damage.
Aphasia
Any range of language disorders caused by brain damage.
Wernicke's aphasia
Aphasia associated with fluent speech that is well articulated but often nonsensical, and enormous difficulty in understanding language. Also called sensory or receptive aphasia.
Broca's aphasia
Aphasia characterized by halting speech and tremendous difficulty in choosing words, but fairly good speech comprehension. Also called motor aphasia or expressive aphasia.
Overextension
Apply word too broadly.
Under extension
Apply word too narrowly.
Universal Features of Human Language
Arbitrariness/ Displacement/ Discreteness/ Discreteness
What is the developmental path of conversational skills?
302-206 -No clear landmarks that signify entry into conversational participation -Relative burden in sustaining conversation becomes more balanced as children develop understanding that they have responsibilities as conversational participants 1. Understands that a response is needed: responds with action, even when it is not appropriate 2. Different responses to different utterance types: by 2 y/o children show turn-taking and response is constrained by utterance of previous speaker; understanding sometimes based more on form than content 3. Initiate topics: age initiation; nonverbal verbal; type change (here-and-now to environment and absent things) 4. Repairing miscommunication: failures repeat (1-3 y/o) or revise (3-5) 5. Sustain dialogue & contingent response: relevance length; older = noncontingent/imitative contingent; initiation easier than sustenance cognitive-processing demand; contextual v. linguistic contingency -Mother's effort to elicit response (ask questions) children's responsiveness -Mother's effort to follow children's lead sustaining dialogue
What does the evidence about gender marking suggest about language and thought?
303, 231-233 Arbitrary nature of gender categories: the same noun can belong to different genders in different languages Suggests that thought (whether a noun is masculine or feminine) is dependent on language I.e. German speakers described key(masculine) as hard, heavy, metal, etc., while Spanish speakers described key(feminine) as golden, little, shiny, intricate, etc.
Brodmann areas
Areas of the human cerebral cortex that are distinct from each other anatomically and in cellular composition, as determined by Korbinian Brodmann.
What are some of the criterion of syntactic typology?
Articles, adverbs etc. Freeness of word order (fixed vs. free) Basic word order based on grammatical roles (subject [s], object [o], verb [v])
What is the general course of development of deaf children with sign language?
330-334 Deaf children who have a deaf parent and who are exposed to sign language from birth: course of sign language development is essentially the same as the course of the development of spoken language. Manual babbling → Single-sign development → multisign combinations → morphological development and more complex syntax. Make overregularization errors in their use of morphological
What is the general course of development of deaf children in oralist settings?
333-334 - Joint attention is blocked for blind children, so mapping words to objects by way of visual attention is impossible for them. Phonologically, they have trouble producing phonemes that include visual components (/p/, /b/, /m/), but are fine with non-visual ones (/k/, /g/, /h/). Vocabulary consists more of tangible, concrete objects (piano, drum) rather than abstract visual ones (moon, flag). Language use features more unanalyzed wholes and reliance on social routine But otherwise, generally follows typical children
What types of sounds do infant produce before speech?
6-10 months: canonical babbling 10 months and older: variegated babbling, inventory expansion, jargon, emergence of protowords -[h,w,j,p,b,m,t,d,n,k,g]
Specific Language Impairment (SLI)
A disorder in which children fail to develop language normally even though there are no apparent neurological damages or disorders, no general cognitive impairment or delay, no hearing loss, and no abnormal home environment that would explain this failure.
Recognition heuristic
A higher value is placed on the more easily recognized alternative.
INFINITELY GENERATIVE PROPERTY OF LANGUAGE
A limited number of symbols an be combined an infinite number of ways
Event Related Potential (ERP)/Electroencephalogram (EEG)
A measure of brain activity. Electrodes placed on the scalp record record voltage fluctuations in the brain as the individual perceives or responds to presented stimuli. These voltage fluctuations are electrical potentials associated with the experimenter controlled events, and the location of the potentials is taken as evidence of where in the brain the processing of that event occurred.
Priming
A non-conscious form of human memory concerned with perceptual identification of words and objects. i.e. the word "yellow" will be slightly faster to recognise the word "banana."
Mental age
A person's overall level of cognitive functioning, related to the chronological age of a person with typical development.
Distinctive Feature
A phonetic feature that creates a phonemic distinction between two speech sounds (e.g. voicing).
Algorithm
A precise step-by-step set of rules that will reliably generate solution to a problem
Familiarization phase
A preparation period during which subjects are exposed to stimuli that will serve as the basis for the test phase to follow.
Canonical Babbling
A reduplicated series of the same consonant-vowel combination in clear syllables (e.g. da-da).
What is a stem?
A root + derivational morpheme/s. The root is always fully contained within the stem, and the stem is always fully contained in a word.
Availability Heuristic
A rule of thumb which the frequency of an event's occurrence is predicted by the ease with which the event is brought to mind.
Complex Utterances
A sentence that contains more than one clause.
heuristic
A shortcut to a problem solving; also known as a rule of thumb
Borrowing
A source of language change that involves adopting aspects of one language into another.
Grammar
A system of rules that allows us to communicate with others.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A technique for studying how language is processed that records subtle changes in the magnetic fields generated within the brain.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
A technique related to electroencephalography that detects changes in magnetic fields caused by the brain's electrical activity.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
A term coined by Noam Chomsky to refer to the mental faculty that underlies the human ability to acquire language.
Overgeneralization
A type of error children produce in which verbs are used with arguments that are not allowed in the target language, yielding utterances such as "I said her no". E.g. child using kitty for lions and horses (four legged animals)
Overextension
A type of error in children's early word usage that seems to reflect an overly inclusive meaning in the mind of the child (e.g. all four legged animals are doggies).
Collective Monologues
A type of pseudo conversation engaged in by preschool children. The children take turns speaking, but each speaker's contribution to the conversation has little to do with the content of what other speakers are saying.
Syllable
A unit of linguistic structure that consists of a syllabic element and any segments that are associated with it.
Canonical Forms
A whole-word sound pattern that young children sometimes use as a basic for pronouncing new words.
Open/Closed Class Word
A word from the categories of noun, verb, adjective, adverb; labeled open class words because those new words can readily be coined and added to the language.
Whole Object Assumption
A word learning constraint according to which children assume that a new word refers to a whole object, not to a part or property of an object.
Mutual Exclusivity Assumption
A word-learning constraint according to which children assume that objects can have only a single name.
Allophones
Acoustically different speech sounds that are not functionally different in a particular language.
Aphasia
Acquired language impairment Conceptual knowledge still intact Semantic memory intact Deficits in perception
This hypothesis states that second language acquisition is influenced by attitude and emotional factors
Active-Filter
Listening
Attentive hearing
This method of second language teaching emphasizes listening and speaking before before reading and writing
Audiolingual
Hearing
Auditory sounds
Simultaneous Bilinguals
Bilingualism that results from a person's being exposed from birth or shortly after birth to two languages.
Sequential Bilinguals
Bilingualism that results from a person's learning a second language after acquisition of the first language is well under way.
Example of phonemes
Blending, such as "th"
Comprehension vs. Production
Children understand more than they can speak (comprehension >production) Children say more things than they fully understand (production >comprehension) Comprehension studies benefits: -To distinct from abstractness -To test for Principles -Antecedent contained DELETION (ACD) -To know if children really understand the constructions they use
This phenomenon occurs when a bilingual substitutes a word or phrase from one language to a word or phrase from another language
Code Switching
Words in different languages that have the same meaning and similar root (ex: accident in English is accidente is Spanish)
Cognates
Narrative skills
Coherence: The structure of a story; the sequence of events must be related to each other in a meaningful way. Cohesion: The use of linguistic devices to link sentences. Story Grammar: Refers to the structure all (Western) stories follow. Orientations: Structural elements; time, place, person, and cause/effect. Evaluations: References to internal motivations and mental states.
According to these models of bilingual language processing there is a single lexicon for words of both languages
Common-store
What are the other 7 processes of word formation?
Compounding, Truncation, Acronyms, Initialisms, Blending, Back Formation, Zero Derivation
Semantics
Comprehend words before they produce words.
This hypothesis suggests that language acquisition occurs when learners receive messages that they can understand.
Comprehensible Input
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
Comprehension, speech production, & acquisition
Semantics
Concerned with meaning and what words represent, requires episodic memory, syntactic ambiguity.
What is case?
When affixes are added to words to depict whether the subject is nominative, accusative, genitive and dative
What is number?
When inflectional morphology distinguishes between singular and plural (or dual in some languages)
What are the characteristics of language development in Williams Syndrome children?
Williams Syndrome: A chromosomal disorder that produces mild to moderate mental retardation. Individuals with Williams Syndrome show severe visual-spatial deficits but relatively strong language skills. 342-345 Individuals with Williams Syndrome have general IQ similar to that of individuals with Down Syndrome Unlike individuals with Down syndrome, people with Williams syndrome speak in longer, grammatically complex sentences, use rich vocabulary, and can tell coherent + complex stories. They are more verbal and more conversational than typical children Central issue in Williams syndrome is: dissociability of language and cognition. Their mental capacity for language was separate from general mental capacity Lexical development precedes the cognitive development that usually accompanies. Lack of visual-spatial skills, morphosyntactic knowledge, and deficit in comprehension of nonliteral language (i.e. sarcasm, jokes, and lies) Infants with Williams syndrome seem to do more processing of faces and voices than most infants do They seem to rely on memorizing language/vocabulary than learning system of rules in language → They don't have a "learning device"
How do bilingual and monolingual vocabulary sizes compare?
With respect to vocabulary size, a difference between monolinguals and bilinguals has been found at every age tested, and it may be a lifelong difference because vocabulary development does not have a point at which it is complete.
Context-Bound Word
Word use that is tied to particular contexts.
Grammatical Morphemes
Words and word endings that mark grammatical relations, such as articles,prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and noun and verb endings.
How do complex sentences emerge and develop?
Words are combined to form phrases, and phrases are combined to form simple sentences. Complex sentences are formed by combining simple sentences; this is how the system acquires the capacity to generate an infinite number of sentences with a finite vocabulary.
What is borrowing?
Words borrowed from other languages are modified to fit the phonological pattern of the new language E.g Karaoke, deja-vu
Affix
a morpheme that comes at the beginning (prefix) or the ending (suffix) of a base morpheme.
Conferencing
a personal conference may have more impact on the student than handing the student a written evaluation. Conferences may also be a way to build rapport between the student and the teacher.
Figurative Language
a phrase that means one thing literally but is taken or processed to mean something different
Sequence organization
a reader who quickly determines the sequence can gain understanding of the material more easily. Examples include alphabetical order, order of occurrence, or geographical placement. A perceptive reader watches for word clues like first, next, before, after, and last.
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) that results from a person's experience or practice
Scoring rubrics
a scoring scheme that the teacher, evaluators, or teacher and class develop. Scoring rubrics are particularly helpful when assessing quality; rubrics can evaluate composition and writing as well as other subjects and other activities. Rubrics for evaluating compositions may vary depending upon the assignment and the goals. Using a predefined scheme helps to eliminate the subjectivity of the scorers and - when shared with the class - enables the students to focus on the goals of the assignment as they work.
Focused freewriting
a student focuses on an idea, word, or phrase and then writes everything possible about the focus topic that comes to mind within a given time limit.
Dialect
a subdivision of a language related to regional differences and/or to social class. Dialects may differ in sound (phonology), in vocabulary and in grammar from the original language.
interchangeability
a user of a language can send and receive the same message
evidence that supports the nurture view
accents, children are spoken to more are more advanced in learning, limitation of adults supports which idea of language ability
Availability Heuristic
how easily something you've seen or heard can be accessed in your memory
Framing
how people react to a particular choice in different ways depending on how it is presented
Compounding Stages for Agentive Deverbal Nominals
i. V+N (verb+agent) eg. open man ii. V (-er)+N (verb+theme) eg. break bottle, cutter grass iii. N+V-er (theme+verb+suffix) eg. truck driver
Monitor hypothesis
illustrates how the acquired system is affected by the learned system. For example, when second language learners monitor their speech, they are applying their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and initiate their communication.
Chomsky
argues that there are 6 Universal Stages of Language Acquisition and Development. Prelinguistic stage - includes a silent period with only crying and later cooing an babbling. Holophrastic stage - one-word communication. Two-word stage - two-word communication. Telegraphic stage (28 months) - the child may omit some syllables in words, substitute sounds, and use only a pivot word with other words. Intermediate development stage. Adult stage.
Natural order hypothesis
argues that there is a natural order to the way second language learners acquire their target language.
semantics
aspect of language centered on meanings
Revising
at this point in the process, students should be considering adding ideas to their piece, adding details and information, rearranging elements of the piece to make it flow smoothly and logically, deleting unnecessary words, enriching the vocabulary by changing words or ideas that may not express what they want to say as clearly as they want to say it, etc.
4 months
at this stage of developmental progression of language: BABBLING - CONSONANT VOWEL COMBO (BABAB)
10 months
at this stage of developmental progression of language: JARGONING - EXPRESSIVE BABBLING WITH INTONATIONS
2-3 years
at this stage of developmental progression of language: LANGUAGE EXPLOSION
12 months
at this stage of developmental progression of language: ONE WORD (SYNCRETIC SPEECH OR HOLOPHRASE) vocab spurt, over and under extension
18-24 months
at this stage of developmental progression of language: TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH / TWO WORD
7 months
at this stage of developmental progression of language: WORD SEGMENTATION
3-5 weeks
at this stage of developmental progression of language: COOING - REPEATING VOWEL LIKE SOUNDS
birth
at this stage of developmental progression of language: CRIES
3 months
babies test language
morpheme
basic unit of meaning that exist in a word (pre, re)
phoneme
basic unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word (letters)
skinner: skinner box
behaviorist that worked with rats and pigeons, placed pigeon in box and rewarded them with food when they completed a certain behavior
noam chomsky
believed in an interactionist view of language acquisition -- coined TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR (rules of syntax for transforming basic underlying thoughts into a variety of sentence forms
Overconfidence
bias in which a person's confidence in their judgments is greater than the accuracy of those judgments
Creoles
blended language with strict grammatical structure
Pidgins
blended languages with inconsistent grammatical structure elements of both languages.
Motherese
breakdown sentences for the child to process - mommy bye bye
Intuition
capacity to obtain or have direct knowledge and/or immediate insight, without observation or reason
Aphasia
cases where a local area of brain damage results in deficits that are specific to language
Representative Heuristic
categorizing a situation based on a pattern of previous experiences or beliefs about the scenario
recasting
changing the form of the sentence
parlov
classical conditioning (dog salvation) accidentally discovered the phenomena of CC when studying (dog digestive system)
Functional Fixedness
cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used
American Psychological Association (APA)
commonly used in the social sciences.
what is a language
communication system in which a limited number of signals - sounds or letters or maybe gestures - can be combined according to agreed upon rules to produce an infinite number of messages
Expressive language
communication through speaking, writing, and/or gestures. Involves selecting words, formulating them into ideas, and producing them through speaking, writing or gesturing. Expressive language involves word retrieval, rules of grammar, word and sentence structure, and word meaning.
1 year
comprehend vocabulary
Affective filter hypothesis
describes external factors that can act as a filter that impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Students who are motivated, confident and relaxed about learning the target language have much more success acquiring a second language than those who are trying to learn with the affective filter in place.
Similes
direct comparison of two things using "like" or 'as" to highlight similarities.
Cause-and-effect writing
does not necessarily have to progress from cause to effect; a writer might decide that presenting the effect and then discussing the cause is the most effective way to present the material. Teachers can guide students to watch for key words that indicate the cause-and-effect structure, including because, resulting in, why, as a result, and therefore.
Babbling Stage
early stage of language development in which children spontaneously produce nonsensical, unrelated sound
repeating
echoing
Editing and Evaluation
editing for spelling, grammar and punctuation.
Peer review
encourages a student to have a classmate read the writing and make suggestions; the student, meanwhile, reads and reviews the classmate's work.
equipotent
equal in power, ability, or effect
interval-fixed
every 30 seconds, scalloping with post reinforcement pause
ratio-ratio reinforcement
fixed, set # of responses, dependent on amount of work-- punch cards for free food on the 10th one
Cultural criticism
focuses on the historical, social and economic contexts of a work.
Reader-response critical approach
focuses on the reader and the reading process - not on the author or the text itself. The reader in this approach responds to the text personally. The real meaning is that which the reader's psyche - conscious and unconscious - creates in response to the work. There is a rejection of the idea that there is a fixed meaning in a work of literature. The method has lead to the use of reading circles, journal writing, and peer writing exercises in schools.
Telegraphic Speech
form of communication consisting of simple sentences of at least one noun and verb
creole
full complex language with grammar produced by children expose to pidgin EX: immigrant children, Kanzi (bonobo chimps)
shaping
gradually molding or training an organism to perform specific responses (behavior) by reinforcing any responses that are similar to the desired response
punishment guidelines, time out
has to be ASAP, intensity, consistent, warm, explanation, rephrase positively
Self-assessment
helps students to set realistic goals, monitor their own learning, and evaluate their performance. One method is keeping a reflective journal throughout the semester.
Adult's intentions
Learns what is the right way.
Referential Mapping Tasks
Mapping problem: an infinite number of hypotheses about word meaning are logically possible given the data the child has. Yet the child tends to figure out the meanings of the words that they hear. Able word learners. Fast mapping: between a new word and they hear and a likely candidate meaning. The whole-object assumption: assumption that words refer to whole objects rather than to part of an object, or to a property of an object The mutual-exclusivity assumption: is the assumption that different words refer to different kinds of things. E.g. members of the category labeled dog do not overlap with members of the category labeled cow. Children operate to such an assumption, label and object that is novel and nameless.
Declarative memory
Memory for facts and events (whether real or fictional) that can be spoken of ("declared").
Procedural memory
Memory for physical actions and sequences of actions.
Domain Specific
Mental capacities or abilities that are useful for only one task or domain. For example, if the mental capacity responsible for language acquisition were used only to acquire language and nothing else, it would be a domain specific capacity.
Neurotransmitter
Molecules produced by a neuron and released across a synapse in response to an action potential. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on a receiving cell (another neuron or a muscle cell), producing a response in the second cell.
Domain shifts
Moral terms: preschool Kinship terms: mid-elementary school.
What is the main characteristic of an agglutinative language and what is an example?
Morphemes can line up one after another with a one-to-one correspondence between morpheme and meaning. An example is Turkish.
Grammar can be broken down into
Morphology and Syntax
What is derivational morphology?
Morphology that creates new word, changes the word class and/or the basic meaning of its host stem. They sit 'inside', or closer to the root than inflectional affixes. E.g Pre+fix, Un+wise, Run + (n)er
What is inflectional morphology?
Morphology that encodes grammatical information about function in a clause but does not change the word class, nor its 'basic meaning'. Establishes how we should interpret a word in the context of the sentence it's in. E.g prefix-es, unwise+est, runner+s
THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE IS COMPRISED OF?!
Phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences
The Four Aspects of Language
Phonology/ Syntax/ Semantics/ Pragmatics
What are the 4 types of affixes?
Prefix, suffix, infixes, circumfixes
Acquire most rules of syntax by..
Preschool age
The order that learners follow has 4 steps
Produce single words. String words together based on meaning and not syntax. Begin to identify elements that begin and end sentences. Begin to identify elements within sentences and can rearrange them to produce questions.
ACOUSTIC STIMULUS
Production of patterns of pressure changes in an elastic medium via movement of the bodily structure; typically by forcing air from the lungs past a vibrating tissue
What is blending/ a formal blend?
Putting parts of words together to create one new word - NOT PORTMANTEAUS E.g Smog = SM(oke,f)OG
What effects can bilingualism have on the timing of development?
Recent studies make it clear that when children are exposed to and acquire two languages from birth, the rate of development in each language is somewhat slower than the rate of single language development in monolingual children. Bilingual children lag slightly behind monolingual children of the same age in their vocabulary and grammatical development when measured in each language separately.
At six months babies start to...
Reduplicate babbling
Subcortical
Refers to the internal regions of the cerebral hemispheres, lying beneath the cerebral cortex.
What is truncation?
Shortening an existing word without changing its meaning or word class ie. Tom, Will, Mel, Kim, Brissy, Tassie
Phonological awareness
The ability to consciously analyze and separate strings of sounds into their sub-parts.
Language Production
The ability to produce fluent language
Language Comprehension
The ability to recognize and understand fluent language
Communicative Competence
The ability to use language appropriately in communicative interaction, distinct from linguistic competence, which is the ability to produce and understand well-formed, meaningful sentences.
Vocal Play
The activity of producing a variety of different consonant and vowel sounds that is typical of infants between 16 and 30 weeks.
Phonological Awareness
The awareness of phonemes as units of words - a component of phonological awareness.
Phoneme
The basic building block of speech sounds
TRANSITIONAL PROBABILITY
The chance that one sound will follow another sound, pretty baby, not pretty b a bby
Event-related potential (ERP)
The change in electrical voltage (the potential) over large numbers of brain neurons, measured with EEG and lined up with the presentation of a relevant stimulus (the event).
Productive Vocabulary
The characteristic of all human languages such that they make use of a finite repertoire of sounds to produce a potentially infinite number of sentences.
Productivity of Language
The characteristic of all human languages such that they make use of a finite repertoire of sounds to produce a potentially infinite number of sentences.
Intentionality
The characteristic of having a purpose or goal (in speaking).
Taxonomic Assumptions
The child's assumption that words label categories of things of the same kind . This assumption is proposed as one word learning constraint that helps children learn the meaning of new words.
Pragmatics
The communicative functions or uses of language.
What is morphological typology?
The concept that languages can be classified according to the richness of their morphology, from simple to complex.
Process of Syntactic Development
The course of children's acquisition of the syntax and morphology of English. Stage 1: Combining words Stage 2: Add grammatical morphemes Stage 3: Different sentence modalities (negative and question) Stage 4: Complex sentences Stage 5: New forms of complex sentences
What happens if there is both inflectional and derivational morphology?
The derivational affixes must be as close to the root as possible. An inflectional affix cannot separate the root and a derivational affix. E.g Runners NOT Runser
What are the characteristics of language development in children with Specific Language Impairment?
Special Language Impairment (SLI): Language impairment in the absence of any cognitive, social, or sensory condition that would cause language impairment. Children with SLI begin to talk and understand spoken language later than others Have smaller vocabularies and have difficulty acquiring grammar Developmental delay: Language delay (i.e. 5-year-old children with SLI have productive language like that of typically developing 3-year-old children) Pragmatic difficulties Vocabulary delay Difficulty in morphology and syntax Difficulty in grammar (esp. Tense and agreement markers on verbs)
Combinatorial Speech
Speech in which words are combined in utterances.
SEGMENTATION
Speech is continuous, babes as young as SEVEN months old can differentiate the different words, even if they donʻt understand their meaning
Private Speech
Speech produced for one's self as opposed to another listener.
Phonemes
Speech sounds that signal a difference in meaning in a particular language.
Echolalic Speech
Speech that merely repeats part of what the previous speaker said. Producing echolalic speech is a characteristic of individuals with autism.
Telegraphic Speech
Speech, typical of two year old children that includes primarily content words and omits such grammatical morphemes as determiners and on nouns and verbs. So named because the result sounds like sentences adults use in writing telegrams.
Representativeness Heuristic
Stimuli similar to a prototype are believed to be more likely than stimuli that are dissimilar to a prototype.
Whorfian Hypothesis
Strong version: Thoughts are shaped by language/ Weak version: The language you speak influence your thoughts
Longitudinal Studies
Studies that examine language development over an extended period of time.
What is the relevance of Gleason's Wug study?
The 'wug' test presents children with nonsense words and asks them to supply respective inflected forms. By age four, children are able to correctly indicate the rules that apply to voicing even with an irregular word. Gleason's study concluded that this test demonstrates that their linguistic knowledge went beyond the individual words in their vocabularies, and that they had rules of extension that enabled them to inflect the nonsense words.
Syntactic Bootstrapping
The hypothesis that children find and use clues to the meaning of new words in the syntactic structure of the sentences in which new words are encountered.
Dominant Language Switch Hypothesis
The hypothesis that children tern to learn a second language more completely than adults do because children, more than adults tend to switch to the second as their dominant language and use it more.
Linguistic Determinism
The hypothesis that language determines thought, with the corollary that speakers of different languages may, as result, think differently. Also known as Whorfian hypothesis.
Whorfian Hypothesis
The hypothesis that language influences thought and, therefore, that differences among languages cause differences in the cognition of speakers of those languages. Also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
Word Spurt
The increase in the rate at which children acquire new words; it occurs sometimes around the achievement of of a 50-word vocabulary, or about 18 months of age.
Preferential Looking Paradigm
The infant is presented with an audio stimulus and presented with two pictures. The infant's looking behaviour is recorded through a peephole by a camera behind the screen. The amount of time the infant looks at the matching picture and the speech with which the infant first moves his eyes to look at the matching picture are measures of word recognition and speed of word recognition.
What happens if there is no inflectional morphology?
The largest stem is also the word - may not be a word
What are some of the outcomes of second language development?
The learner already knows one language, and properties of the first language may influence the sort of hypotheses the child entertains in trying to figure out the second language. A child's native language influences the errors he or she makes while learning a second language. The special language acquisition capacity available in infancy may no longer be available to older learners, and thus later language acquisition is accomplished differently. While virtually all children succeed a acquiring a first language, second language acquisition is more variable.
Word Mapping
The logical problem of learning word meanings that arises because an infinite number of hypotheses about word meaning may be consistent with information in the nonlinguistic context of use. Indeterminacy of Word Meaning: The problem that for any particular instance of a word's use, multiple meanings are possible in the situation.
American Sign Language (ASL)
The manual language used by the deaf in the United States and english speaking provinces of Canada. It is not a system of pantomime; rather, it shares the same structural features as other natural languages.
Semantics
The meaning of a word or sentence
Semantics語意
The meaning of a word, phrase, or sentence
Episodic Memory
The memory of autobiographical events and personal experiences.
Word Segmentation
The mental process of separating the speech stream into separate words.
Babbling Drift
The notion that the sounds in infants' babbling are influenced by the ambient language. Their babbling "drifts in the direction of the speech the infant hears".
Cerebral cortex
The outer covering of the rain's cerebral hemispheres.
Categorical Perception
The perception of stimuli that vary along a physical continuum as belonging to discrete categories.
Test phase
The period in which subjects' responses to the critical experimental stimuli is tested following a familiarization phase.
Transfer
The process by which the first language influences the interlanguage grammar.
Fast Mapping
The process children engage in when they hypothesize a meaning for a newly heard word on the basis of hearing the word once or at most a few times.
STATISTICAL LEARNING
The process of learning transitional probabilities and forming a representation; reliable prediction based on data
Learnability Approach
The question of whether language, or some aspect of language, could, in facet, be learned by children. If language is not learnable, it must be innate. The learnability approach to the study of language acquisition focuses on explaining how language could be learned, in contrast to the development approach, which focuses on explaining the course of language development.
Relational Meaning
The relation between the referents of the words in a word combination.
Phonemic Representations
The representation that consists of the phonemes to which allophones belong.
Cognitivism
The theoretical perspective that seeks to explain behaviour in terms of processes that occur inside of the mind.
Functionalist
The theory that the structure of language has basis in the communicative functions language serves.
Voice Onset Time
The time lag in the production of a consonant between the release of air and the beginning of vocal cord vibration. Consonants with a VOT greater than 25 milliseconds are perceived as voiceless and consonants with VOTs less than 25 milliseconds are perceived as voiced.
False Belief Task
The understanding that other people can hold beliefs that contradict reality and that they will act on those beliefs. False-belief understanding is an important component of theory of mind understandings.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
The use of electrodes placed on the scalp to measure changes in electrical voltage over large numbers of neurons in the brain, thus obtaining information about the timing of responses in the brain.
Process of Pragmatic Development
The use of language to serve communicative functions. Stage 1 (Perlocutionary): Birth to ten months; Behaviour has consequences but is not produced with communicative intent. Stage 2 (Illocutionary): 10-12 months; Behaviour has communicative goals but does not use the forms of the target language. Stage 3 (Locutionary): 12 months forward; Behaviour has communicative intentions and adultlike forms.
Paralinguistic use
The use or manipulation of sounds for emphasis, clarification of meaning, or emotional color but not as an element in the composition of words or sentences.
Formalist
The view that the structure of language is arbitrary and cannot be explained in terms of the meanings language conveys or the communicative functions language serves.
Pragmatics
The way language conveys meaning indirectly -Metaphor: "United States is a melting pot" -Sarcasm: "Nice haircut" -Irony: "as clear as mud"
Pragmatics
The ways that words and sentences in a language convey meaning indirectly, by implying rather than asserting 間接 隱喻 幽默
Definition of Language
The words, their pronunciation, and the methods of combining them used and understood by a community
Dorsal stream
Theoretical "knowledge stream" of dorsal neural connections (i.e., located in the upper portion of the brain) that process knowledge about "how."
Ventral stream
Theoretical "knowledge stream" of ventral neural connections (i.e., located in the lower portion of the brain) that process knowledge about "what."
What are the characteristics of an isolating language and what is an example?
There is one morpheme per word and they lack inflectional morphology. An example is Vietnamese or Mandarin Chinese
First and Second Language Acquisition and Development
Until about 1957, the general belief was that children acquired language through imitation. In 1964 Noam Chomsky revolutionized the study of language acquisition with his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in which he advanced his belief that language acquisition was innate - not acquired. This innate faculty, or set of rules about language, he refers to as the Universal Grammar.
Affect Heuristic
We choose between alternatives based on emotional or "gut" reactions to stimuli.
syntax
in a given language, the set of "rules" that specify how linguistic elements are put together so that their meaning can be clearly understood
vicarious reinforcement
in observational learning, the consequences experienced by models because of their behavior, that effect the learners likelihood of imitating the behavior
Fixation
inability to adopt any different or new perspective on a problem
Chronological order
information is related in the order in which it happened.
Cognitive Benefits of Bilingualism
inhibitory control, multitasking ability, and enhanced memory
Stephen Pinker
interactionist view for language, how heredity and the environment interact -- machinery is there, just need to flip a few switches
Shared inquiry approach
involves a leader and a group. The leader does not present information or express opinions; instead, the participants are guided in reaching their own interpretation of the writing. This active approach involves using the text, one's own experiences, and reasoning to reach an interpretation. Members listen and give consideration to the opinions of others in the group. Members learn to modify their opinions and to communicate their ideas effectively to others. Debate is a characteristic of the method.
Topic selection
it is typical for teachers to assign writing topics or to provide prompts to which students must respond. However, writers allowed to select their own topics will feel they are in control, enabling them to write about topics they know about and that matter to them.
broadcast transmission and directional reception
language can be heard from many directions, but it is perceived as coming from one particular location
displacement
language can be used to communicate about things that are not present in time and/or space
reflexiveness
language can be used to refer or describe itself
productivity
language can be used to say things that have never been said before, and yet are understandable to the receiver
prevarication
language can deliberately be used to make false statements
aphasia
language disorder in which a person might hear and understand language input but be unable to vocally repeat the information
vocal-auditory channel
language is produced in the vocal tract and transmitted as sound; it's perceived through the auditory channel
Sequential
learn second language later in life
pidgin
makeshift combination of two languages for practical tasks with no grammar
duality of patterning
many meaningful units (words) are made by the combination of a small number of elements (sounds) into various sequences. For example, pat, tap, and apt use the same sound elements combined in different ways to make different word units. In this way, tens of thousands of words can be created from several dozen sounds
Experts
may be the most demanding - often theorists or practitioners on a particular topic.
Managerial audience
may have more information than the lay audience, but need particulars to make an informed decision.
Semantics
meaning of words
Concept
mental grouping of similar things used to remember and understand what they are, what they mean
vicarious punishment
model is punished and the learner will be less likely to model the behavior
The assumption that each object has only one label
mutual exclusivity
labeling
naming things properly that the child points out
Delimiting a topic
necessary so students can address the topic within the time allowed or within the word or page limits given.
Consider the audience
necessary so students can tailor their writing to the intended readers.
Publishing
presenting the writing in final form and sharing it with the target audience.
Kind of babbling characterized by the repetition of consonant-vowel syllables (ex: mamamama)
reduplicated
Feminist criticism
seeks to correct or to supplement what is regarded as a predominantly male-dominated critical perspective with a female consciousness. It attempts to understand literature from a woman's point of view.
Broca's aphasia
semantics intact while syntax affected
total feedback
senders of a message can hear and internalize the message they've sent
Algorithm
set of instructions for solving a problem or completing a process
LAD
set of linguistic processing skills that naturist believe to be innate; presumably enables child to infer the rules governing speech and then use rules to produce language
Semantics
set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes.
Heuristic
simple, efficient rules people use to form judgments and make decisions, mental shortcuts
Morphemes
smallest meaningful words - dog, tall
Phoemes
smallest unit sound of language - d.o.g
Bilingualism
speak two different languages fluently
Critical Period
specific state of development
Receptive language
spoken or written by others and received by an individual, that is listening or reading (decoding or getting meaning from spoken words or written symbols.) In order to receive language, the individual must be able to attend to, process, comprehend, retain, and/or integrate spoken or written language.
Language
spoken, written, or even signed words and how they are combined to communicate meaning
Two-Word Stage
stage when children start using two-word sentences more than just using single words for everything
generalization
stimuli that are similar to the CS, will evoke some level of the CR
Organizing thoughts
strategies include making lists, semantic webbing, drawing or sketching, and discussion with teachers and peers.
Freewriting
students let their minds roam free and write about ideas as they think of them.
Rewriting
students proofread their work and make corrections.
Language acquisition
subconscious, has an emphasis on communication and reception, and results in fluency.
Define a purpose
such as to explain or inform, to persuade, or to express personal thoughts, feelings or opinions.
motherese/child direct speech
synchronous and responsive; involves short simple sentences, spoken slowly and in a high pitch voice, often with much repetition and with exaggerated emphasis on key words
Wernicke's aphasia
syntax affect while semantic intact
Grammar
system and structure of language, consisting of syntax and semantics
universal grammar
system of common rules and properties of language that may allow infants to grow up learning any of the world's languages
expansion
tactic used by adults where they respond to a child with a more grammatically complete expression of the same thought
This constraint predicts that children will label similar objects with the same word (ex: they may call a dog a "cat")
taxonomic
A kind of speech used by young children that is characterized by omission of function words
telegraphic
Confirmation Bias
tendency for a person to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
Mental Set
tendency to approach situations the same way because that way worked in the past
recursion
the "nesting" of related clauses or other linguistic units within each other
word segmentation
the ability to break the stream of speech sounds into distinct words
discrimination
the ability to distinguish one stimuli from another, responding only to the CS
Creativity
the ability to produce new ideas
Syntax
the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences
Four major regions of the brain that devote to language comprehension and production
the auditory cortex/ Wernicke's area（理解語言）/ Angular gyrus/ Broca's area(產生語言）
joint attention
the awareness between two or more individuals that they are paying attention to the same thing
Phonemes (音素)
the basic sounds that compose a language
Universal Grammar
the basis upon which all human languages are built.
Prototype
the best example or cognitive representation of something within a certain category
Metaphors
the comparison of two unlike things to compare them to one another create a new concept or image.
Emendation
the effort to eliminate all the errors found in even the best manuscript.
extinction
the gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned resposne when it is no longer reinforced
Linguistic Determinism
the idea that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought
Semantics
the meaning of a word, phrase, sentence, or text
arbitrariness
the meaningful associations between language and the world are arbitrary
prosody
the melody or sound pattern of speech, including intonation, stress and timing with which something is said
Language
the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way
Modern Language Association (MLA)
the most frequently used for work in the liberal arts and the humanities.
Prewriting
the planning phase of the writing process. Prewriting techniques include brainstorming, thinking/reflecting, talking/remembering, jotting ideas/drawing, reading/researching, and observing/viewing. Structures to use for planning include an outline, story maps or diagrams, thought or word clusters, and considering purpose, audience, point of view, and format.
specialization
the production of the sounds of language serves no purpose other than to communicate
Persuasive writing
the purpose is to influence or persuade the reader in some way.
Holistic scoring
the reader or evaluator regards each piece of writing as a unit and assigns a single score based upon the total quality of the essay. The premise of holistic scoring is that the overall effect of an essay is a combination of several elements, including organization, sentence structure, mechanics, and word choice.
Phonological rules字的發音規則
the rule for generating words/ pronunciation of non-words
Syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
Recension
the selection, after thorough examination of all possible material, of only the most trustworthy evidence on which to base a text.
Phonemes
the smallest distinctive SOUND unit. 40 phonemes in English language
Morphemes
the smallest unit that carries meaning, may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix).
Morpheme
the smallest units of speech that convey meaning
rapid fading
the sound produced by speech fades quickly
traditional transmission
the specific language that's adopted by the user has to be learned by exposure to other users of that language; its precise details are not available through genetic transmission
One-Word Stage
the stage in which children speak mainly in single words
discreteness
the units of language are separate and distinct from one another rather than being part of a continuous whole
Problem-and-solution organization
the writer can state the problem and then either offer several solutions or present the best answer for the reader.
Semantic roles in a sentence that convert information regarding who is doing what to whom (ex: agent and patient)
thematic roles
semanticity
there are fixed associations between units of language and aspects of the world
Acquisition learning hypothesis
there are two systems of language that are independent but related - the acquired system and the learned system.
wernicke's area
this area of the brain is used for speech comprehension
brain areas of language: Broca's areas
this area of the brain is used for speech production
A: ABC
this is for antecedent - environment stimuli and events that precede the behavior
B: ABC
this is for behavior - specific responses
C: ABC
this is for consequences - stimuli and events immediately following the behavior
continuous reinforcement
this is reinforcing every response, rapid acquisition, and use when 1st learning behavior is new
Garcia
this person had biological predisposition
positive punishment
this type of punishment is about application of something aversive
negative punishment
this type of punishment is about removal of something desirable
positive reinforcement
this type of reinforcement is application of reward
negative reinforcement
this type of reinforcement is of removal of something aversive
partial reinforcement
this type of reinforcing behavior is reinforcing only some responses, best if unpredictable, and prevents extinction
neurolinguists
those who study how the physical brain relates to language behavior
18-24 months
two-word sentences
Ordered list
typical in content-area text books. Using an ordered list, the author can present facts and information more quickly and concisely than is possible using the paragraph format.
Expository writing
typical of that in most textbooks. The purpose of most writing is to explain and clarify ideas. While the expository writing may have narrative elements, that aspect is minor and subservient to that of explanation.
Phoneme
unit of sound in speech, doesn't have any inherent meaning by itself
evidence that supports the nature view of language ability
universal grammar and language acquisition device support which idea of language ability
ratio-variable
unpredictable # of responses (slot machine)
Belief Perseverance
unwillingness to admit that foundational premises are incorrect even when shown evidence to the contrary
12 months
use one-words sentences
Wug test
used by Gleason to demonstrate that children possess implicit morphology (imaginary creature that Gleason drew in creating the test)
Descriptive writing
used to set the scene for a novel or to describe a place in a geography text. Typically, the writer of fiction describes the time and characteristics of the setting. Descriptions should encourage readers to feel some kind of connection to the information.
learnability
users of one language can learn to use another, different language
Historical criticism
uses history to understand a literary work more clearly. It looks at the social and intellectual currents in which the author wrote.
Biographical criticism
uses knowledge of the author's life experiences to gain a better understanding of the writer's work.
Textual criticism
uses two main processes - recension and emendation.
Subtractive bilingualism
學L2,L1變差
Problem of Ambiguity
歧異句
S. Pinker
語言本能
Vervet monkeys
-Acoustically different alarms calls for different predator classes.
Pragmatic Constraints
-Adult's gaze -Adult's emotional state -Adult's intentions
What does the evidence about number suggest about the relationship between language and thought?
-Amazonian tribe that does not have words for numbers greater than 2 ->perform poorly on tasks that require ability to discriminate numbers - cannot conceptualize the numbers ->evidence that language shapes our thoughts (Whorfian hypothesis)
Brain evidence: Language specific impairments
-Aphasia's -Broca's Aphasia -Wernick's Aphasia -Williams Syndrome -Human specific
Gould and Gould
-Captured bees and showed them food on lake -Released bees back to hive and let them dance -listener bees did not approach the lake.
Milestones after two years
-Clear evidence of representational phonology -50 word productive behaviour -Vocabulary spurt -Onset of two word combination -Broadening range of communicative purposes
syndrome
"occurring together"; a group of symptoms that collectively characterize a medical or psychological disorder or condition
What is gender?
(associated with nouns) Many European languages have grammatical gender informed by inflectional morphology. Sometimes this is only shown in plural forms however. E.g The French has 'masculine/feminine', Danish has 'common/neuter' and German has 'masculine, feminine, neuter'
Bandura and observational learning
*BOBO doll experiment -modeling -- imitating a behavior after observing it
Word Learning
-0-12 months: many children don't produce words at all -12-> : exponential vocabulary growth -24 months: 1 new word every 2 hours -5 year old: Vocab as large as 10,000 words.
Linguistic Determinism
-Language and its structures limit and determine knowledge or thought -Different language speakers see the world differently. -25 words for snow in Lapp language. -Colour studies -Gender affects descriptors.
Vervet monkeys communication does not imply words because:
-Limited to here and now -Predicted by context -No creativity with respect to new objects events -No abstract role or combination
The waggle dance (Bees)
-Longer time the "waggle", the further the patch -Quality of food= "Vigorousness" of dance -Direction of food relative to the sun= direction of strait run relative to gravity.
SLI
-Lower global self esteem. -Increased risk of ADHD. -Social problems. -IQ can be normal. -Non verbal cognitive skills in normal range. -Perform poorly on phonological STM tests.
4 Parts of language
-Phonology -Semantics -Syntax -Pragmatics
What do children know about repairing miscommunications?
-Preverbal children repeat/modify signal until achieve desired outcome -Older = more frequently verbal -Younger repeat, older revise
What are the phonological characteristics of children first words?
-Simple syllable structure (CV) -Single or reduplicated syllables -Small inventory of vowels and consonants -Comparable segments to those used in later babbling (late babbling is language specific) -Inconsistent in articulation, lots of variation (Avoidance of difficult sounds, lexical selection of words containing favoured sounds) -Not regular or rule-governed, variable in form and non adult-like Phonological Idioms: surprisingly accurate words that are considered exceptions to the child's general phonological system e.g. [gaga] for water or cocodile
Intentional Communication
Intentionality: The characteristic of having a purpose or goal (in speaking).
Domain General Cognitive
A description of the domain-general learning capacities that serve language development and of the sources of information in input that those learning procedures use.
What is an example of an exemption to the rule that most roots are free morphemes?
-cieve
Developmental Dysphasia
A delay in language development in the absence of any clear sensory or cognitive disorder; also referred to as specific language impairment.
Throndike law of effect
-the behavioral response is affected by the consequences of the behavior -behavior changes because of the consequences EX: trial and error (stamped in or out), reward behavior likely to reoccur
How bees locate food
-the round dance (for food at short distances) -the waggle dance (for food at long distances)
Why do children make errors in grammar?
Make errors in applying rules, and not b/c they have heard the rule misused by adults.
Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL)
1978 - First public school for the deaf opened in Nicaragua. The children who came together had no shared language, only home sign. Home Sign: Gestural communication systems that deaf children typically invent to communicate if they are not exposed to sign language. Once these children were in daily contact with one another they developed a new language; NSL. The language moved from structurally simple to more complex primarily in the signing of those who learned the language at an early age. Older learners were unable to learn the complexities of the evolved form. The changes that have occurred in NSL over time depended on children acquiring the language, thus it is the children more than adults who are able to continue creating the language.
What is the evidence that children use distributional learning to develop phonetic categories?
88 Distributional Learning: The learning of the central tendency and variability of a range of stimuli, such speech sounds varying on some acoustic property. Infants' learning of the distributional properties of acoustic signals is thought to underlie the formation of phonetic categories.
Why is statistical learning not considered sufficient?
91-92 Statistical Learning: Learning of the co-occurrence probabilities of experienced stimuli. For example, babies presented with sequences of sounds appear to learn the conditional probability of one sound following another i the sequence they heard. This is one mechanism for learning the patterns in input that could contribute to learning language.
Chomsky
A Linguist concerned with Universal Grammar rules
Functional MAgnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
A brain imaging technique that yields information on areas of high brain activity during the performance of cognitive tasks.
Corpus callosum
A bundle of neural fibers that connects and transfers information between the two hemispheres of the brain.
Egocentrism
A characteristic of pre-school children, according to the developmental theory of Jean Piaget, that makes them unable to consider what a situation is like from the point of view of another person.
Developmental dyslexia
A common learning disability with a strong hereditary basis that leads to difficulties in learning to read, without any apparent spoken language or other learning problems.
Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)
A common measure of grammatical development. It is the average length of the utterances in a sample of spontaneous speech, usually counted in terms of the number of morphemes. MLU=total number of morphemes/ total number of utterances
What is referential communication?
A communication task in which the speaker must indicate to a listener which item to select out of an array of items.
Adult's Gaze
Adults words attend to what adult is looking at. The child will see that and learn what that object is.
What is derivation?
Affixes which attach to roots and stems and change their word class or meaning. This affects all OPEN word classes in English. E.g we can add -able to a verb to change the meaning and turn it into an adjective - FIXABLE
Critical period of language
Age 0-17 downwards curve
What are the characteristics of language development in children with Autism Spectrum?
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): A range of developmental disorders that involve severe social and communicative impairment and may or may not be accompanied by mental retardation. Lower-Functioning Individuals with Autism: Those with more severe cognitive impairments either do not speak at all or have echolalic speech, or meaningless repetition of word/sentences No clear success in teaching language skills to low-functioning people with autism Higher-Functioning Individuals with Autism: Higher-functioning children do acquire language, but the level of language achieved varies. The prosodic features (i.e. tone of voice) of speech produced are odd (they usually sound almost mechanical) This may be because they have problem with expressing themselves, and lack of attention/interest to how others sound. Children with autism lack social communications and overall social skills (lack eye contact from childhood) Individuals with autism seem less impaired in semantic properties of language Syntactic development is slower than normal children Conversation tend to have limited topics and they tend to short (hard to continue)
At four months babies start to...
Babble
U-Shaped Development
Babies start out as universal listeners, able to perceive most of the contrasts used in the world's languages like all babies, and by the end of their first year, become tine to the categories of two languages. On the way from their initial states to their dual language competence, however, the infants exposed to two languages go through a phase of apparently not noticing contrasts that apply in only one of their languages.
Phonemes
Basic speech sounds
What are the characteristics of language development in blind children?
Blind children who have no other handicapping condition babble, produce first words, produce word combinations, and acquire syntax and morphology on essentially the same timetable as do sighted children. Make more errors producing speech sounds that have highly visible articulatory movements (b, m, f) as opposed to speech sounds produced by non-visible articulatory movements (t, k, h). Have fewer words for objects that can be seen but not touched and more words for things associated with auditory change. Less likely to to overgeneralize and often fail to generalize at all. This suggests that visually accessible information plays a role in learning the extensions of categories. Blind children show a greater use of social routines and analyzed, formulaic speech than sighted children do. They are more dependent than sighted children on speech as a means of social interaction, they are motivated to adopt a "pick it up and use it before you have time to analyze it" approach to language.
What are the 2 main processes of word formation?
Borrowing, Derivation
What is the main difference between the study in Saffran et al 1996 and Marcus et al 1999? Why is this important? (boxes 3.3 and 3.4)
Box3.3 This shows information about the Saffran study which supports the idea that infants use Statistical Learning to learn words. What's important to note here is that SL is a non-linguistic cognitive process. What explains babies learning nonsense "words" in a stream is that they kept track of the transitional probabilities between syllables. Box 3.4 Information from Marcus. This study shows that babies do generate rules about possible words and their syllables. They abstract patterns and apply it to new data. This serves to explain why they would prefer to listen to a syllable pattern that wasn't present in a training condition. (e.g. preferring "Wo Fe Fe" which has an ABB structure, even though they were trained with "Ga Ti Ga" which has as an ABA structure.)
Broca's Aphasia
Broca's aphasia is a disordered way of speaking that can occur after brain damage to the Broca's Area which is located in the front left side of the brain. Usually occurring after a stroke Broca's aphasia is characterized by being unable to form complete sentences and difficulty understanding sentences. Patients suffering from this type of aphasia (disruption in speech production, comprehension, and/or understanding) essentially speak in nouns and leave out words that form complete sentences like 'the', 'and', and 'is'.
White matter
Bundles of neural tissue (axons) that act as the brain's information network, allowing products (signaling molecules) from one processing area to be shuttled to another area for further processing.
Watson
CC: developed behaviorism and set out to demonstrate that fears can be learned EX: little Albert experiment: this person and Raynor present the infant with a white rat, but began pairing that with a loud noise, which made him fear the rat
RECURSIVE PROPERTY OF LANGUAGE
Can create an unlimited number of grammatical sentences
Universal Adaptability
Can reproduce sounds in any language; lost by 1 year of age
Telegraphic speech
Make up of simple sentences.
Hemodynamic changes
Changes in blood oxygen levels and direction of blood flow.
Code-Switching
Changing from one type of language use to another, such as switching from a formal to an informal register when talking to people who differ in status. Term is also used to describe the switching between two languages that is characteristic of bilingual language use.
CHILDES
Child Language Data Exchange System. A computer program for the analysis of transcripts, and an archive of previously collected transcripts of children's speech.
Mutual Exclusivity
Child already know what one is so the other thing must be what is being pointed out. Ex: Child knows what a ball is, so they the thing that is being pointed out is a blicket.
Poverty of Stimulus argument
Children acquire language quite easily yet they are exposed to very little correctly formed language. When people speak, they constantly interrupt themselves, change their minds, and make slips of the tongue and so on. Yet children manage to learn their language all the same. Children do not simply copy the language that they hear around them. They deduce rules from it. Rules which they use to produce sentences that they have never heard before. They do not learn a repertoire of phrases and sayings, as the behaviorists believe, but a grammar that helps the child generate an infinite number of new sentences.
Is language innate? Bickerton (1984)
Children are able to create grammar even if not exposed to a proper language
Overextensions and Underextensions of First Words
Children do not always use the words they produce in adultlike ways. Children may use words in a more restricted fashion = underextensions. Children sometimes use their words more broadly than the meaning truly allows, calling all four-legged animals doggie = overextensions (taken as evidence of incomplete meanings.) Word spurt: the word explosion, the naming explosion. Occurs around the achievement of a 50-word productive vocab.
Chomskyyan view of language (Universal Grammar)
Children have the innate capacity to learn language and through experience this capacity is exploited.
What are the 2 functions that morphology is broken into?
Derivational, Inflectional
In this method second language teaching all teaching is done in the second language and the focus is on conversation
Direct
What are the characteristics of language development in Down Syndrome children?
Down Syndrome: A chromosomal abnormality that causes moderate to severe mental retardation and typically affects language development. 340-342 Language in children with Down syndrome is more impaired than other cognitive functions (especially grammar); both language production and comprehension. Overall delay in language development: Onset of canonical babbling is delayed by about 2 months Phonological development after infancy is delayed Phonological process continue into adolescence and adulthood Strengths of children with Down syndrome: Communicative development and pragmatic development Children seem to be MORE interested in social interaction and LESS interested in objects. Children have trouble achieving secondary intersubjectivity, which requires engagement with another person about a third entity (Does not comment much about their environment)
TORO, TROBALON, SEBASTIAN-galles 2005
Effects of backwards speech and speaker variability in language discrimination by rats. rats differentiate language spoken forwards, but both are bad at doing this with languages spoken backwards.
Ions
Electrically charged particles; the charge can be positive or negative. Ions that are especially important in neural signaling include sodium (NA+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), and chloride (Cl-).
Pragmatics
Extra linguistic information/Give-and-take of communication.
Translation from the first language to the second language
Forward Translation
What do studies suggest about the relation between executive function and language?
Executive Function: A set of related cognitive skills that includes cognitive inhibition, attentional control, mental shifting, and working memory. Being bilingual appears to benefit the development of executive function skills. 281
Stroop Effect
Experiment to say the colour of the word rather than the actual word. Demonstrates interference of reaction time. Brain processes word faster than colour.
Dichotic listening
Experimental task in which subjects listen to spoken words over headphones, with a different word spoken into each ear.
Axon
Extension of a nerve cell (neuron) along which informational "output" travels to another neuron.
What is an example of an infix?
Fan-bloody-tastic, abso-bloody-lutely
Williams Syndrome
Far below normal on intelligence tests, but language is completely intact. -Rapid speech, many idiomatic phrases, and surprisingly advanced vocabulary items.
Williams syndrome (WMS)
Genetic syndrome of particular interest to language researchers in which language and function appears to be relatively preserved despite more serious impairments in other areas of cognitive function
Chomsky reduce of language to its grammar
He seems to regard meaning as secondary. A sentence such as "Colorful blue seas sleep furiously" may be considered as part of the English language, for it is grammatically correct. A sentence such as "My father, she no like oranges," on the other hand, is of no interest to the Chomskian linguist.
THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE!
Hierarchical & Governed by rules
At one year children start to...
Holophrastic, say single words.
AQUISITION OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
How do we learn language?...
SPEECH PRODUCTION OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
How do we produce language?...
COMPREHENSION OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
How do we understand spoken & written language?...
Morphology
How phonemes can be arranged to form morphemes.
Wernicke's Aphasia
Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia have difficulty understanding spoken language but are able to produce sounds, phrases, and word sequences. While these utterances have the same rhythm as normal speech, they are not language because no information is conveyed.
B.F. Skinner
Infants need to be taught
Noam Chomsky
Infants teach themselves
Is language innate? Chomsky(1965)
Innate knowledge of grammatical structure/ LAD: linguistic acquisition device
Social Pragmatics View
Jean Berko Gleason Social interaction facilitates language.
Piagetian Account of Language Acquisiton
Jean Piaget's unsuccessful nonlinguistic basis of language acquisition. He was interested in how children come to understand their physical world than in how children learn to talk. Symbolic Function: The capacity to have mental representations in the absence of any physical referent. Argued that language is one manifestation of the child's symbolic function, that arises from the child's sensorimotor interactions with the world but when developed allows the child to have mental representations is the absence of any physical referent (symbolic play). Symbolic Play: Play in which one object represents another such as holding a banana and pretending its a telephone.
Language Achievements of the Various Primates in the Human Language Training Studies
Kelloggs' Gua: Raised along side Donald, did not learn to talk. Hayes' Viki: After six years could approximate the sounds of mama, papa, cup and up. Gardner's Washoe: Only interacted to using sign language. Learned to produce 132 signs and could produce many sign combinations. Name recognition achieved with a variety of objects. Patterson's Koko: Claimed that she understood everything you say to her and could communicate via sign. Confused the public on apes' ability to learn human language due to media coverage. Terrace's Nim Chimpsky: Learned more than 100 signs and produced many sign combinations. Nim did not increase his MLU, and his occasional long utterances were highly repetitious. Unable to produce utterances alone; dependant on his teachers (imitations, reductions, expansions). Inappropriate sign use, unaware of referents.
Specific Language Impairment (SLI)
Language impairment in the absence of any cognitive, social, or sensory condition that would cause language impairment.
What is 'unpacking' a derived word?
Looking at all the different stems on the way to building the word
Semantic dementia
Loss of semantic knowledge Good at lexical decision tasks
Amusia
Loss of the capacity to make sense of music (but not of language).
Reduplicated babbling
Lots of sounds, words like ma-ma
Semantic Ambiguity
Multiple meanings. I.e. "I made her duck". Structure remains same but individual words are interpreted differently.
What is the difference between mutual exclusivity and principle of contrast?
Mutual Exclusivity: A word-learning constraint according to which children assume that objects can only have a single name. Eg. Children avoid calling their dogs both a 'dog' and an 'animal'. Principle of Contrast: A pragmatic principle that, by hypothesis, leads children to assume that different words have different meanings. Eg. Comparisons (fatherly vs. paternal)
What is the most common type of compound words?
N+N
According to this hypothesis, the order of acquisition of syntactic rules is the same across languages
Natural Order in Acquisition
What type of affixes do not change the word class?
Negation affixes
Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI)
Neuroimaging technique that track show water molecules are diffused in the brain, providing a view of the brain's "white matter highway."
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields to measure hemodynamic changes in the brain while the brain is engaged in a task, on the assumption that such changes are a measure of brain activity.
Positron emission tomography (PET)
Neuroimaging technique that uses radioactivity to measure hemodynamic changes.
Dendrites
Neuronal extensions that receive informational "input" from other neurons.
Nativist View
Noam Chomsky proposed that humans have a Language Acquisition Device: an instinct to acquire and produce language.
Genie's Language Achievements
Normal five-year old vocabulary: -Complex utterances -Express meaning -Vocabulary and semantic skills exceed her syntactic skills -Grammar deficient (production and comprehension) -Utterances were telegraphic, lacking grammatical morphemes. -Failed to understand passive constructions/distinctions marked by tense
PERCEPTION OF WORDS IS
Not based on stimulus energy as receptor levels, meaning it may be a top down process of perception
What is the noun bias, and what explanations have been proposed? What does evidence from other languages suggest about these explanations?
Noun Bias: In most languages nouns are learned earliest. Object interest, specifically imageable or concrete nouns, including proper names.
Earliest morphemes in any language are specific to...
Objects or people.
Yang's Article
One issue we have in the Language Sciences is how much should we trust the Chomskyan concept of Universal Grammar (language structure is innate, language instinct, etc) as true. Some people think that we can stop relying on innate structure and replace it with simple statistical learning. Yang thinks we should combine both ideas. --- Part 1 of the paper: Word segmentation requires prior knowledge or structure of phonology before statistical learning makes sense. When plugged into a computer, pure statistical learning only got a 41% for precision and 23.3% for recall. With a prior structure, performance jumped to 73.5% precision, 71.2% recall. --- Part 2 of the paper: Grammar learning can't be wholly innate. It has to be helped by statistical learning. The Principles and Parameters stance, a UG thing, (I think) proposes that parameters (in the form of grammar rules) are innate. Children have a default grammar. and when children get enough input, this "TRIGGERS" a shift in the grammar rules. If triggering is true, English children SHOULDN'T be doing subject-drop with object-drop since it's a Chinese-style grammar thing and NOT an English grammar thing. Yang's Variational Learning proposes that we build candidate grammars and they compete via input from environment as to what will emerge as the "learned" grammar. This competition uses statistical learning and not just an innate structure. His model can explain why grammar mastery is gradual and not sudden. Page 4 graph: The Variational Learning model predicts that candidate grammars will linger until they are phased out. That means, we'll hold on to possible grammar structures until we're sure we don't need them anymore (???). He shows this by comparing Chinese-style Grammar which (supposedly) does subject-drop and object-drop, and English-style Grammar which doesn't. The graph shows the rate of subject-drop and object-drop in same-age Chinese speakers and English speakers. He says that literature shows that English children will access Chinese-style Grammar and drop objects when they drop subjects when the conversation or context allows it. The short line of English running alongside Chinese supports this prediction, and suggests that the English kids are accessing a Chinese-style grammar when they subject-drop and object-drop together.
What type of morphology does morphological typology apply to?
Only inflectional morphology
What mistakes do children make when it comes to grammar?
Over-regularize: Use a rule even when inappropriate
What do children know about registers?
Register: The style of language use associated with a particular social setting. -Sociolinguistic development = development as competent language user -Registers: styles of language use associated with particular contexts (setting, addressee, topic) -Implicit conversational rule: be politer (less direct) with higher-status -1) older (3;5-4) use more varied forms and more indirect than younger (2;10-3;5); 2) both perceive 'nicer' as less direct -3+ y/o can use less direct form to request politely -4+ y/o can adjust register to different addressees - to adults: longer MLU, more complex structure; to 2 y/o: more directive, attention-getting devices, repetitions, less questions, less attuned to young child -Older child-directed speech more like mother's firstborn develop some aspects of language faster due to more support from mother, instead of siblings -Gender-specific style: boys - more assertive and demanding; girls - politer and more cooperative
Priming by repeating a stimulus (ex: prime: dog/ target: dog)
Repetition Priming
Language Characteristics of Special Populations
Research motivated to help children having difficulty acquiring language and addressing fundamental questions about how different human abilities contribute to the language acquisition process. One of the major issues in the field of language development concerns the extent to which language is separate from other cognitive abilities.
Cross-sectional Study
Research that investigates and compared children (or groups of children) of distinct ages.
What are some examples of verbs formed using back-formation from nouns?
Resurrect, Enthuse, Liaise, self-destruct, paddle
PROSODIC REGULARITIES
Rhythym, stress, intonation of language; no meaning, pattern recognition
Syntax
Rules for the order and organization of words to produce phrases and sentences.
Syntax
Rules governing word combinations
Prescriptive Rules
Rules of grammar that define how language should be used, as taught in writing classes and specified in style manuals.
Descriptive Rules
Rules that describe speakers' linguistic knowledge.
Phonological Processes
Rules that map the sounds in the target language to sounds in young children's limited production repertoire. Phonological processes that are common to many children give young children's speech typical features, such as pronouncing /r/ as /w/.
What are the 6 possible word orders and what are the most common?
SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OVS, OSV SVO and SOV are the most common, followed by VSO.
Contrast
Segments are said to contrast when they can be used to distinguish between words (e.g. sip and zip)
Priming that is based on the meaning of the stimuli (ex: prime: cat/ target: mouse).
Semantic Priming
Hierarchically organised -
Sentence, phrase, word, morpheme, phoneme
According to these models of bilingual language processing, there are two separate and distinct lexicons
Separate-store
Jargon
Sequences of variated babbling that have the intonation contour of sentences.
The second language is acquired after the first language
Sequential Bilingualism
A HIERARCHICAL LANGUAGE STRUCTURE
Series of components that can be combined to form larger unites (words to form phrases -- phrases to form sentences)
Lexical/Functional Categories
The term in Chomsky's Government and Binding Theory for categories of words (such as noun and verb) that carry thematic content.
Behaviorism
The theoretical perspective that seeks to explain behaviour in terms of factors outside of the mind.
What is aspect?
Similar to tense, inflectional morphology can indicate (among other things) whether an action was completed or not. Aspect can be combined with different tenses.
The first and the second language are acquired at or about the same time
Simultaneous Bilingualism
Synapse
Site of connection between the axon terminal of a neuron and the receptors of another neuron or muscle cell.
Skinnerian view of language
Skinner believed that children learned language by reinforcement principles. Baby says mom, parent praises, baby repeats behavior
PHONEMES
Smallest unit of speech in language. No meaning! Just a simple sound.
Morpheme
Smallest unit of speech that has meaning.
Morphemes
Smallest units of meaning in a language
This is an example of language mixing
Some Spanish speakers say "mopear" to refer to "mop". They are adding the suffix -ar, one of the regular verb endings in spanish, to the english verb "mop".
What is tense?
Some inflectional morphemes can be added to demonstrate if the action occurs/ed in the past/present/future.
What is person?
Some languages add affixes to words to demonstrate person. English only distinguishes 3rd person from other persons and only in the present singular on verbs (-s).
What is a ROOT?
The 'core' morpheme in a word consisting of more than one morpheme. Most roots are free morphemes.
What happened in Xu & Carey's experiment? What does this suggest about the relation between concepts and words?
Subjects: 10-month olds and 12-month-olds Demonstration/Experiment: A book emerges from behind an opaque screen and then return; then a cup emerges from behind the screen and then return. When the screen was removed there only was a cup. Expected Result: 12-month-olds looked longer at the cup than at both objects, this means that they were surprised that there only was a cup, not both a cup and a book. 12-month-olds responded the same way adults would. Unexpected result: 10-month-olds showed no surprise at seeing only a single object; hence, there is no evidence that 10-month-old babies expected two objects to be behind the screen. Interpretation: 10-month-olds perceive things as "objects" but not as separate, different objects. They understand the concept of "object" but they don't fully understand different words for different objects. On the other hand, 12-month-olds share the adult view that a cup and book are two different things. Suggestion: When child hears a new word, the setting usually contains multiple candidate referents of the word. There is a relation between nonlinguistic development of concepts as individual things and comprehension of words that label these categories of individual things.
In this method of second language teaching, the learners are placed in the second language environment where they are surrounded by speakers of the second language
Submersion
THE PROPERTY OF LANGUAGE!
Symbolic, semantic, recursive, and infinitely generative
SEMANTIC PROPERTY OF LANGUAGE
Symbols carry meaning
Language is generative -
Symbols represent concepts and can be combined to form novel messages. Generate messages in different languages.
LANGUAGE
Symbols that convey meaning with agreed upon symbols used to generate an infinite number of messages to convey thoughts, feelings, ideas, and experiences
What is an acronym?
Taking the first letters of multi-word descriptions of a thing etc. and pronouncing the letters as a word E.g Radar = RAdio Detecting And Ranging
What is initialism?
Taking the first letters of multi-word descriptions of a thing etc. and pronouncing the letters separately (not as a new word) - known as 'alphabetism' E.g University of Queensland = UQ
At two years old children start to use...
Telegraphic speech.
What happens if there is no derivational morphology?
The root is also the (only) stem - may not be a word.
What happens if there is neither inflectional nor derivational morphology?
The root is the only stem and is a word
Phonology語音
The rules for combing sound
Syntax語法
The rules for combining different types of words in sentences
Syntax
The rules of a grammar which govern the way morphemes are combined to form sentences. **Gives language GENERATIVITY!**
Syntactic Ambiguity
The same sequence of words is interpreted as having different syntactic structures.
What is morpheme is usually the root in English words?
The second morpheme
Phonotactics
The set of constraints on how sequences of segments pattern.
Referent
The set of entities to which a word or expression refers (Denotation or Extension).
Universal Grammar (UG)
The set of principles and parameters that describes the structure of all languages of the world; hypothesized by some to be part of the child's knowledge.
Morpheme
The smallest unit of meaning in a language
MORPHEMES
The smallest unit of meaning in language ie prefizes & suffixes eg break; breakable; unbreakable
Brain lateralization
The specialization of the brain's right and left cerebral hemispheres for different functions.
Nonword Repetition Tasks
The standard task for measuring phonological memory. Children are given nonwords (grall, ballop, brasterer) and asked to repeat them. Individual differences in the accuracy with which children repeat the sounds in these nonwords are related to their concurrent vocabulary, predict future vocabulary growth, and among adolescents, predict vocabulary learning in foreign language instruction as well. Nonword repetition accuracy also predicts grammatical development and children with language disorders reliably score below typically developing children on nonword repetition tasks.
Phonology
The structer of the sounds that can be used to produce the words in a language
Language Differentiation
The task faced by children growing up exposed to two (or more) languages to figure out that they are hearing two different languages rather then one language that is some combination of both.
Adults Emotional State
Through the adults emotions, the child can learn what the right way of doing things are.
This method of second language teaching focuses on grammar lessons in the first language and translation from one language to the other
Traditional
Gricean Maxims
Two basic rules: take turn & cooperate Quality: don't say what you believe to be false or have no evidence for Quantity: as informative as possible; neither more nor less Relation: be relevant Manner: be clear, brief, orderly and unambiguous
Shape Bias
Using shapes that are known to identify other similar shapes.
Underextension
Using words with a range of meanings narrower than the meaning of the word in the target language. E.g. child using kitty, only for her own cat.
Speech Act
Utterance as behaviour; the notion that talking is 'doing things with words'.
Transitional Forms
Utterances such as vertical constructions that children produce between producing single-word and clear two-word utterances.
Do preschoolers understand grammar?
Yes
Why are babies considered 'citizens of the world' from a phonetic perspective?
Young infants can distinguish all the possible speech sounds of the world's language. Patricia Kuhl
Universal adaptability and babies...
Younger babies more sensitive than older babies. By 6m, babies organize speech sounds into the phonemic categories of their language.
Separate the word apples into it's different morphemes.
[(apple)]s *no derivational morphemes **stem=root
Separate the word runners into it's different morphemes.
[(run)er]s
Separate the word unwisest into it's different morphemes.
[un(wise)]est
Separate the word conformist into it's different morphemes.
[{con(form)]ist} *there are two stems - conform, conformist
What is the role of adults in children's narrative development?
_ Parents provide useful scaffolding for children's early narrative, i.e. asks questions to elicit info _ Elaborative style: questions that move narrative forward; not immediately helpful but influence later development _ Repetitive style: questions that seek same info
Portfolio
a collection of a student's work completed over a period of time. Students feel a sense of ownership - and can see their own improvement - when they are allowed to select some of the materials to include. For teachers, the portfolio provides an effective way not only to monitor student progress but also to assemble authentic evidence of that progress to share with parents at conferences.
functional grammar
an analysis of the semantic relations (meanings such as naming and locating) that children express in their earliest sentences
Idioms
an expression that has figurative meaning unrelated to the literal meaning of he sentence of utterance.
Sandwich method of offering constructive criticism
any comment that might be construed as negative is sandwiched between two positive remarks, so the overall impression is positive.
ABA
application of learning theory: applied behavior analysis, intense, systematic - Identify: behavior to be targeted, environmental conditions contributing to the behavior, obtain baseline, functional analysis, and reassess for effectiveness
behavior modification
application of learning theory: applying principles of operant conditioning to changing specific behaviors
systematic desensitization
application of learning theory: repeated exposure to the aversive stimulus to reduce sensitivity
token economy
application of learning theory: token is an item that can be traded for a reinforcer, each token is a step toward a reinforcer
Input hypothesis
argues that learners progress along the natural order only when they encounter second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the natural order.
Language learning
conscious, has an increased emphasis on syntax and grammar, and fluency is not a guarantee.
Untrained or lay audience
expects background information and more description; they may benefit from graphics or visuals and may connect with the human interest aspect of writing.
Comparison writing
explains the similarities between two or more things. The reader can often identify this type of writing by looking for cue words such as alike, same as, and similar to. Contrast writing is when the writer contrasts things or indicates how they are different.
Creative writing
expresses the writer's thoughts and feelings in an imaginative, often unique, and poetic way. Creative writing is guided more by the writer's need to express feelings and ideas than by the restrictive demands of factual and logical progression of expository writing.
Pragmatics
extra properties of language to help convey meaning
The idea that young children are able to learn a new word after only one exposure
fast mapping
10 months
learned at home language
latent learning
learning occurs but is not evident in behavior, children can learn from observation even though they do not perform the learned responses
operant conditioning
learning theory: "instrumental conditioning" form of learning in which freely emitted acts become more or less probable depending on the consequence they produce
social learning
learning theory: developed by Bandura, which holds that children and adults can learn novel responses merely by observing the behavior of a model, making mental notes on what hey have seen, and then using these metal resp. to reproduce the model's behavior
classical conditioning
learning theory: stimulus with no initially effect come to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicits a response
Simultaneous
learning two languages at same time
Whole object bias
learns things as whole objects ex: a bicycle
What are the various ways we conceptualize the relationship between language and cognition? Can you explain each and identify a concrete dimension to each claim?
o Language as expression: The hypothesis that language and thought (or cognition) are entirely independent of each other Jean Piaget's developmental theory: Cognition develops as a result of the child's nonlinguistic interactions with the world o Theory Theory (Gopnik): The theory that the developing child constructs his or her understanding of the world on the basis of experience, much as scientists construct theories of the world on the basis of data. o Thinking for speaking: A core cognitive notions that are innate/universally acquired independent of language (Slobin). Similar to the idea that the way we speak shapes our thoughts, especially applied in different languages. o Language as carrier of information: The role of language in cognition is that language is a source of cognition-advancing information. (i.e. children learn from what others say) o Whorfian hypothesis: The hypothesis that language shapes thought Differences in thought would follow from differences in language o Language as medium of thought: Language is a tool for thinking; hence, language influences cognition.
It is set in childhood by exposure to a particular language
parameter
Formal criticism
pays particular attention to formal elements of the work, such as the language, structure, and tone. It analyzes form and meaning, paying special attention to diction, irony, paradox, metaphor, and symbols. It also examines plot, characterization, and narrative technique.
Words that children use frequently and ten to occur in the same position (ex: more car, more read, more cereal)
pivot
What evidence supports phonological differentiation in simultaneous bilingual learners?
• Infants' sucking behaviors show preference to both languages, and a different procedure is used to demonstrate that they were able to discriminate between the two languages.
24 + months
rapidly complete sentences
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period
Cognitive language
received, process into memory, integrated with knowledge already integrated, and made a part of the knowledge of the individual from which new ideas and concepts can be generated.
Sensitive Period
receptive to environment experiences
Learned system
relates to formal instruction in which students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language. Studying the rules of syntax is part of the learned system.
Acquired system
relates to the unconscious aspect of language acquisition. Includes the idea that people learn their first language by speaking the language naturally in daily interaction with others who speak their native language. Speakers are less concerned with the structure of their utterances than with the act of communicating meaning.
4 months
respond to some words
pragmatics
rules specifying how language is to be used appropriately in different social contexts to achieve goals
syntax
rules specifying how words can be combined to form meaningful sentences in a language
interval-variable
varying time period, unannounced pop quiz, steady
Insight
when a solution to a problem presents itself quickly and without warning
Syntax
words placed into a sentence gramatically - the dog is tall
Drafting
writers begin to put their ideas on paper. Students should not be terribly concerned with word choice or other details and technical aspects at this point.
Separate the word unlockable into it's different morphemes.
{[un(lock)]able} *unlock is a stem {un[(lock)able]} **lockable is a stem
Early Stages of Phonological Development
· From birth: reflexing crying & vegetative sounds. · 6-8 weeks: cooing & laughter. · 16-30 weeks: vocal play (consonant-like sounds and vowels combined), onset of babbling. · 6-10 months: canonical babbling (true syllables) [dada] · 10 months and older: variegated babbling, inventory expansion, jargon, emergence of protowords - [h, w, j, p, b, m, t, d, n, k, g]
Types of Illocutionary Acts
— assertive = speech making Speaker say TRUTH of the expressed proposition. (ex. reciting a creed). — directive = speech making Audience to take a particular action. (ex. commands, advice, request). — commisive = speech making Speaker to commit a future action (ex. promises and oath) — declarative = speech Changing the Reality (ex. pronouncing someone guilty, pronouncing a marriage). — expressive = speech expressing Speaker's attitude and emotion (ex. congratulatory, excuses, thanks)
What evidence supports syntactic differentiation in simultaneous bilingual learners?
• Children do not use words from one language in word order of another language • For the same construction (negation), children use different word orders for different languages _Bilingual children show awareness of which people in their environment understand which language - they do not randomly select a language regardless of their listener
Additive bilingualism
學L2 ,但L1仍流利
