Latin IV Test II

Commentaries

; his account was in such clear, simple language that it is a model of military description. Caesar wrote an account of his visits to the "mysterious" island of Britain and of his campaigns in Gaul known as Caesar's "___________." Wherever this great man went, he conquered; but after the Gauls had once surrendered, he was so kind that many of them began to wish to learn Roman ways.

apostle Paul

A Roman captain in Jerusalem bound the ___________ and ordered him to be scourged; but one of his officials whispered, "This man is a Roman," and then the captain was greatly alarmed because he had ventured even to bind a Roman.

Rich and poor in Rome

A Roman was no longer satisfied to live on a little farm and till it with his own hands; he must own a wide estate and have it cultivated for him. So many wanted these large estates that land became dear, and a poor man could not buy even a small farm. He could not easily get work to do on one of these large places, because most of them were no cared for by slaves. It was a common custom to sell as slaves the people of a conquered city; and the Romans had taken so many cities that slaves had become exceedingly cheap. It was far less expensive to buy them than to pay wages to free men. Some poor men went to the towns and hung upon some wealthy men for their support. Some became soldiers and fought, not to save their country or to strengthen her power, but merely to get their wages and the plunder of conquered cities. There was little hope of any one's becoming a senator unless he was rich. The Romans were divided into two classes: the rich, who cared for little but display and amusements, and the poor, who were becoming more and more anxious to be idle and luxurious, and who did not care who supported them if they could only get rid of work. The rich were getting richer, and the poor were growing poorer, and both cared chiefly for living idly and comfortably and being amused.

Alexander the Great

About the time the Romans were subduing the Latins, __________ began his conquests. His father, Phillip II, had left him Macedonia and Greece; but this was a small realm compared with what he meant to win, and he began a wonderful series of victories. When he died, he ruled not only Macedonia and Greece, but also Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Persia, and part of India. This empire was divided among his generals. Possibly _________ himself could have governed this enormous domain, but his generals could not. They and their successor quarreled and fought, and finally the vast empire broke up into three kingdoms: 1. Egypt. 2. Syria and Asia Minor. 3. Macedonia and Greece.

Masinissa

About the time when Corinth began to be rebellious, _________, king of Numidia, attacked Carthage, and Carthage appealed to Rome for help. The Romans sen envoys but _______ was an ally of Rome, and they decided everything everything in his favor. Cato was sent to Carthage and the Romans sided with his opinion that Carthage much be destroyed. Naturally, when ________ attacked the Carthaginians a second time, they did not call upon Rome, who had failed to defend them and had stood by their enemy, but did their best to defend themselves. They did not succeed, and now they were they were terrified at the thought of how Rome might punish them for breaking the treaty. They sent envoys to Rome to try to excuse themselves and make their peace with her. Rome demanded three hundred boys of the chief families as hostages. These were sent. Then Rome made them give up all their arms. They then demanded that they tear down Carthage and make a new settlement ten miles from the ocean. The Carthaginian envoys begged for mercy, but Rome rarely showed mercy. The Carthaginians in despair determined to fight to the death. For nearly three years their siege of the city went on. Then Publius Scipio Aemilianus was put in command. He made a line of fortifications across the isthmus which connects the site of Carthage with the mainland, and thus shut off the land supplies from the city. He build a wall across the mouth of the harbor, but the Carthaginians dug a canal and brought out their galleys. He built another wall, he stormed the town and scaled the walls; and even then all the Carthaginians resisted desperately. Not until the city was fully in the hands of the Romans would the fifty thousand Carthaginians surrender who remained alive. These were sold as slaves. The city was plundered and then the town was burned, its site was sloughed up, and it was solemnly declared that a curse would rest upon him who tried to rebuild the city.

Zela

After Caesar defeated Pompey and helped Cleopatra, he went to Asia, for the son of Mithridates was arousing rebellion against Rome. Caesar met him at ______ and defeated hi so promptly that the conqueror told the whole story in three words, "Veni, vidi, vici."

Cleopatra

After Caesar defeated Pompey, there was a contest in Egypt between the boy king and his sister ______ for the throne. Caesar decided in favor of _____ and helped her to establish himself.

Phillip V

After Hannibal was subdued, war broke out with _______ again, and with most excellent reason. He and King Antiochus of Syria plotted to divide Egypt between them. If this plan should succeed, _____ would control the Greek cities on the shores of the Aegean Sea. A vast amount of trading was carried on in the Aegean Sea, the Black Sea, and the eastern part of the Mediterranean, and from this part of the world came much of the grain needed in Italy. If ______ was successful, then he, an enemy of Rome, could shut off a large part of her food whenever he chose. This was enough to arouse the interest of the Romans. _____ did not trouble himself about what the Romans might think, but attacked Egypt and Athens. The king of Egypt was a boy, and his guardians appealed to Rome for help. As for Athens, that had for some time been an ally of the Romans. Rome warned _____ not to harass the friends of her people. _______ replied the the should prefer peace, but that if they wished to fight, they would learn tat Macedonia was as powerful as sRome. Then the armies of _______ and the Romans met in Greece at the Cynoscephalae. _______ was thoroughly defeated by the Roman general Flamininus.

Caesar's actions as dictator for life

After being made dictator for life, Caesar set to work to rule the world as wisely as possible. He made just laws for settling debts; he sent the poor of the cities to live o farms; he gave land to his veterans and settled them in colonies; he gave citizenship to people of conquered countries, not carelessly, but where he was sure it would be appreciated; he reformed the calendar, so that the festivals of the gods would come at the same season each year; he planned a vast collection of Greek and Latin books, magnificent public buildings, the draining of the Pontine Marshes, an enormous aqueduct for the city, a survey of the state land, the rebuilding of Corinth and Carthage, a code of the Roman laws, a superb artificial harbor, a road along the Apenines, and a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Enormous wealth had come into his hands, and he spend it freely upon the state.

Greece

After carrying on warfare for a long period, the Romans now tired to imitate the ways of the East, and especially of _______. It had become the fashion to look down upon everything Roman and to think everything _______ian far superior. That Latin language now seemed to the Romans common and unpolished. They learned _______ and sent their sons to ________ for the last years of their education. They scorned the old simple ways and delighted in the Eastern fashions of living in luxury and spending a great deal of money for amusements.

Caesar after his victory

After defeating Pompey, helping Cleopatra, defeating the son of Mithridates, and overcoming his opponents at Tuapsus in Africa, Caesar returned to Rome. He pardoned those who had been his most bitter enemies. The senate named him as dictator for ten years and censor for three years. No Roman had ever held so much power. He was called away for a short time to suppress a revolt of the sons of Pompey in Spain, then he returned to Rome. The senate could not plan honors enough for him. They made him dictator for life; they gave him etc title of "Father of is Country;" they changed the name of the month in which he was born to Julius; they stamped their money with his image; they allowed him to wear a crown of laurel at all times, and at public festivals to robe himself in garments worn by conquerors at their triumphs; they carried his image with those of the gods; they even dedicated temples and altars to him.

Pompey's death

After his defeat by Caesar, Pompey was a fugitive. He fled to Egypt. The king's councillors held a meeting. If they received him, Caesar would be angry; if they refused, he might some day become powerful enough to punish them, and moreover, Caesar might be displeased that they had not delivered Pompey up to him. They decided to invite him to come and then kill him. Pompey was slain as he was landing from a boat. Caesar had followed Pompey to Egypt, and when the bloody head of his enemy was brought to him he turned away in horror, then wept with profound grief and pity. He ordered funeral honors to be paid to the murdered general and afterward punished those who slew him.

Pompey vs Caesar

After taking control in Rome, Caesar went to Spain and defeated Pompey's troops and added them to his own army. He then gained Sicily and Sardinia and started for Greece. He sailed from to Macedonia where Pompey's camp was. Caesar made an attack and was repulsed; then Pompey sounded a retreat. Caesar withdrew to Thessaly and Pompey pursued. On the plains of Pharsalus came the battle which decided who should rule the world. Caesar's friend Marcus Antonius commanded the left wing and Caesar the right. Caesar knew that the calvary was made up of wealthy young men who were not used to wounds and valued good looks so he commanded his soldiers to aim for their faced. Pompey's calvary fled and ruined Pompey's plans, beginning his total defeat. Caesar used his victory mercifully and pardoned many persons of rank.

Gauls

After the First Punic War, The Romans began to think about pushing to the north; and they founded colonies on the land that they had taken from the ______ long before. They had already built the great road called the Flaminia Way, and now they extended it much further north. The _______ were alarmed, and they made ready to come down upon Rome. Now it was the turn of the Romans to be frightened, for they remembered an old prophecy that some day ______ would occupy a part of the Roman territory. There is a tradition that to fulfill this prophecy and so make themselves safe, they seized two _____ and buried them alive in the city. Then they sent for the troops that were away from Rome, and with their help the ______ic forces were almost utterly destroyed.

Second Triumvirate

After the Senate and Octavianus defeated Antonius, Octavianus was made consul. He then asked Antonius and Lepidus to meet him on a little island in the river Rhine. For three days these men, the __________, talked and planned. There was much to decide, for they were dividing the world among them. At length they agreed that Octavianus should rule in the West; Lepidus in Africa; and Antonius in the East. They concluded that the only way to make themselves safe was to kill all those who would be likely to oppose them. Among those proscribed was Cicero. Although Cicero was a dear friend of Octavianus, Antonius demanded that the orator be given up. Thus, the greatest orator of Rome was murdered by assassins.

Capua

After the battle of Cannae, Hannibal himself had lost an immense number of men, not only in battle, but by the sufferings and dangers of the march from Spain. He begged Carthage for more men and for money to pay his troops, but his country men were slow in helping him. He was disappointed that so few of the Italian cities joined him. _____ and Syracuse were the only places of importance that would form an alliance with him, and the alliance with ______ proved in some ways an injury. He spent the winter within its walls. His soldiers drank and feasted; and when spring came they were not so ready to continue the war as they would have been in the previous autumn. The Romans, however, would not give him the chance that he wanted to continue the war, for they had become wiser than at first and would not meet him in the open field. They were also becoming stronger; but the longer the Carthaginian army waited, the weaker it became.

Illyria

After the first Punic War, Rome was also gaining power to the eastward. For a long time the people of ________ on the eastern shores of the Adriatic, had been a nation of pirates. If a rich merchant vessel sailed into the Adriatic Sea, it was quite likely to meet a fleet of pirate ships darting out upon it from behind some promontory. These pirates made the Ionian Sea almost as unsafe as the Adriatic and even attacked the coast cities of Italy and Greece. The Romans broke up this piracy completely, and so won the gratitude of the Greeks.

Fabius, Cunctator

After their defeats at Ticinus, Trebia, and trasimenus by Hannibal, the Romans were in great distress. A dictator was chose, _______. He saw to it that sacrifices should be offered and games and temples vowed to the gods. He strengthened the walls of Rome, cut down the bridges over the Tiber, and also burned the houses and destroyed the growing corn where Hannibal was expected to march. Then he set out to pursue the invader. Hannibal had meanwhile crossed Italy to the Adriatic shores, and was moving slowly southward, plundering as he went. Fabius did not dare to engage in open battle, for if he lost, Rome could hardly be save; but he kept close watch of Hannibal, cut off scattered parties of soldiers, and harassed the Carthaginian army in every way possible. The Romans could not have acted more wisely but the soldiers were almost frantic. They angrily called him "________" the delayer. The Roman people believed that they had made a mistake in choosing him as dictator, and they now chose another commander as co-dictator. This co-dictator attempted a battle; but if _____ had not hurried to his assistance, the army would have been lost. Then the Romans began to see that _____ had been wiser than they. They hailed him as savior of his country, and his nickname of _______ became a title of honor.

Social Wars

As soon as the Italians heard of the murder of Drusus, they saw that the only way to gain what they believed their rights was to fight for them. They fought with such energy and determination that the Romans were greatly alarmed lest the republic be overthrown. Marius took up arms and overcame them in a great battle. When the Romans at least learned that they could not resist all Italy, they yielded, but very grudgingly. First, they gave citizenship to those communities that were not fighting against them; then to all Italians who within two months should declare before a magistrate that they wished to be Roman citizens. This struggle was called the __________. When it was over, nearly all the Italian freemen had become Roman citizens.

Cimbri, Teutones

At the time Marius was consul, the Romans were obliged to carry on war to defend their own state. There came tidings from the north that a vast company of barbarians were marching toward Italy. These barbarians were called _______ and _______. They belonged to the German race whose home had been on the shores of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. They had wandered southward as far as Gaul, or what is now France, and there they had burned and plundered and killed. Then they had come still farther south. Some Roman forces met them in battle beyond the Alps and were defeated as badly as their countrymen had been at Canae. The most mortifying part of this defeat was that a barbarian tribe of Switzerland, that had joined the others, compelled a Roman army to pass under the yoke. The Romans were fairly terrified. Just at this time Marius returned from his victory over Jugurtha. The people cried to make Marius consul again. This was contrary to the custom, but the Romans were so alarmed that they thought only of choosing a general who could overcome the barbarians; therefore Marius was elected. He was made consul again. He was elected year after year, for the barbarians delayed and the fear of them increased. Marius defeated the barbarians.

Octavianus

Caesar had made his grand-nephew, _______, his heir. This nephew was only eighteen, and when he demanded his rights, Antonius treated him like a troublesome child. _______ was hardly more than a boy, but he was wise, and Caesar's old soldiers liked him. Cicero made fourteen burning speeches against Antonius. The senate decided in favor of _______. This was the beginning of war between the senate and ________ on one side, and Antonius on the other. Antonius had no army, but his friend, Lepidus, was governor in Spain and part of Gaul, and he had an army. A battle followed, and Antonius was defeated.

Marcus Antonius

Caesar's friend _________ had secured Caesar's private papers, and now his will was read. His estate was given to the people and every Roman in the city was to receive a sum of money. _______ shoed the people Caesar's robes, pierced with the twenty-three sword thrusts, and they were wild with rage. They caught up firebrands and rushed through the city to find the murders and burn their houses; Then they went back to the forum to make a funeral pyre and burn Caesar's body. Meanwhile, Brutus and the other conspirators had escaped from Rome. Caesar's soldiers were eager to avenge his death, and at first they sought ______ as their leader. This was just what he wanted for he had planned to gain the chief power for himself. However, after Cicero's speeches, the senate decided in the favor of Octavianus. This was the beginning of war between the senate and Octavianus on one side, and _______ on the other. _______had no army, but his friend, Lepidus, was governor in Spain and part of Gaul, and he had an army. A battle followed, and _______ was defeated.

Manilian Law

Caius Manilius formerly proposed to put Pompey in charge of defeating Mithridates. Julius Caesar supported him, and Cicero made a brilliant speech in favor of the ____________, as this proposal was called. the law was passed.

Philippics

Cicero had been recalled, and in the senate house he made fourteen burning speeches against ________. Three hundred years before this, Demosthenes, the most famous of Greek orators, had made some thrilling speeches against King Philip of Macedonia. These were called the ________, and now the same name was given to these orations of Cicero. This was the beginning of war between the senate and Octavianus on one side, and Antonius on the other. Antonius had no army, but his friend, Lepidus, was governor in Spain and part of Gaul, and he had an army. A battle followed, and Antonius was defeated.

Citizenship after the Social Wars

Citizenship was a valuable right, but the people who lived in Rome still remained the real rulers, because those who lived away from the city could not often come to Rome to vote. No one had yet thought of having one man chosen to represent each community. The Italians, then, had gained the right to vote, but they could not exercise it; and it must have been most exasperating to have the idlers and vagabonds of Rome make laws for them simply because these idlers lived in the city and they did not.

Mithridates

During the time of the war with the gladiators and the pirates, a third war with ______ was going on. After his victory over the pirates, many Romans believed that Pompey could bring the war with ______ to an end. Pompey was made commander of all the forces outside of Italy while he was still in the east. He had the authority to make peace or war with any nation. This war with _______ had begun more than twenty years earlier. Peace had been made twice; but ______ had taken up arms again, for he had brought together an excellent army and he believed that he could become ruler of Asia. Pompey was sent to take the place of Lucullus. Pompey allowed the money-lenders and tax-gatherers to resume their former ill treatment of the natives. Then he set to work to harass the allies of _______. The king was forced to stand alone. His army was destroyed by the Roman leader and he himself barely escaped. Pompey pursued and _______ was driven beyond the Caucasus Mountains. Pompey made Pontus into a Roman province and subdued Syria and Phoenicia and Judaea. He also besieged Jerusalem. While Pompey was in these countries, _____ was trying to raise an army and follow Hannibal's plans of invading Italy from the north. However, Pompey soon received news that _____ was dead; he had killed himself on the revolt of his son Pharnaces.

Publius Scipio Aemilianus

For nearly three years the Romans' siege of Carthage went on. Then ________ was put in command. He made a line of fortifications across the isthmus which connects the site of Carthage with the mainland, and thus shut off the land supplies from the city. He build a wall across the mouth of the harbor, but the Carthaginians dug a canal and brought out their galleys. He built another wall, he stormed the town and scaled the walls; and even then all the Carthaginians resisted desperately. ______ returned to Rome and had a splendid triumph. Some years later he was sent to Spain, for Numantia had revolted against the Roman sway. For nine years the city withstood a siege, then famine set in and it was obliged to surrender. This city, too, was torn down.

End of First Punic War

For twenty-four years the war went on. Then peace was made. The Carthaginians paid Rome a large sum of money, surrendered their prisoners, and gave up all claim to Sicily. Both nations were exhausted, but neither expected peace to last for long. The first question for Rome to settle was how to govern Sicily. Up to this time she had used two methods of government for conquered peoples. The Latins she treated almost like equals. She gave them some of the rights of citizens and also the hope that if they were faithful to her, they should some time become full citizens. The other tribes of Italy she allowed to govern their own cities, but required them to be obedient to her. Sicily she made into a province; that is a district ruled by magistrates sent from Rome. She collected taxes from the islanders, but she gave them no hope that they could ever become Roman citizens. The Romans gained a second province because she forced Carthage to yield Sardinia and Corsica. These she ruled in the same way as Sicily; the people were not allies but subjects.

Scipio

Hannibal was marching to Rome. But meanwhile what had the Romans been doing to defend their country? They had done what they supposed was wise, for they never dreamed that Hannibal would attempt to march through Gaul and come down upon them from the north. They sent one army to Sicily, thence to Africa; and another under _______ to Spain. On the way to Spain ______ learned that Hannibal had already crossed the Pyreness, and pursued him as far as the Rhone. There he found that the Carthaginian general was three days ahead. He understood then what Hannibal was planning to do. The Romans now sent troops to northern Italy by rapid marches, for news had come that the Gauls were joining the lines of the Carthaginians.

Ticinus

Hannibal's army and the Roman army met on the banks of the _____ River. The Romans were much troubled for a wolf entered their camp and bees were in a tree above the general, and they feared these as omens of evil. The Carthaginians were happy and eager for battle, looking forward to the promise of land and money and citizenship. Then came the battle of the _______. Hannibal was victorious there and also later on, in the battles fought at the Trebia River and the Lake Trasimenus

Corinth

In conquering lands, Rome usually claimed that she was giving freedom to the people. They were not always pleased with her "freedom." The people of _______, in particular had no idea of accepting the Romans as rulers, and persisted in making war upon Sparta, although the Romans sent envoys to protest against their so doing. The foolish _________ians hooted and yelled an insulated the envoys in every way, finally driving them from the assembly. One of the leaders made a violent speech, saying that he wished to be a friend of the Romans, but "had no taste for them as masters." Roman legions were sent swiftly to _____. Then the ______ians learned what it was to resist Rome and insult her messengers, for the citizens were either killed or sold as slaves, shiploads of statues and paintings were sent to Rome, and enough to load many more ships were destroyed by soldiers. Then the city was torn down and burned.

Regulus

In the first Punic War, the Romans won another great naval victory; then the consul _______ led them to the coast of Africa. There they burned and robbed and destroyed. If it had not been for the wisdom of a Greek who was in Africa, Carthage may have been conquered at once. "You have cavalry and elephants," he said to the Carthaginians, "but you try to use them on the hills. Choose a level battlefield and you will win." They begged him to lead them. He did so and won. ______ had been taken prisoner. Meantime the war was going on in Sicily. The Romans had learned to meet the charge of elephants, and now they not only won a victory by repulsing the animals, but captured them and carried them to Rome. A number of Carthaginian nobles were taken captive in this same battle, and the Carthaginians sent ______ to Rome to propose an exchange of prisoners and to offer terms of peace. They thought this would surely be brought about because they had made him promise to return if the Romans refused their offers. They did not know how brave and unselfish he was. He did not think it would be for the gain of Rome to exchange prisoners, or to make a treaty with Carthage, and he persuaded the senate not to consent to it. Then he went back to the torture and death the he knew were awaiting him in Carthage.

citizens

In the struggle of Rome with Carthage, Rome had one great advantage; namely, most of their soldiers were ______ or hoped to become _______, and were eager that she should win. The soldiers of Carthage, on the contrary, were hired to fight. They cared little whether Carthage or Rome was the winner, provided they had their pay. After they were sent home from Sicily, there was no pay ready, for the treasury was empty. Then the Carthaginians saw what a mistake they had made in not being as fair as the Romans to the countries that they had conquered, for the soldiers had little trouble persuading the Carthaginian colonies to revolt. Savage war followed; and if Carthage had not had an especially brilliant general (Hamilcar), she might possibly have been destroyed without the attacks of the Romans.

theatre, gladiatorial combats

In their amusements the Romans were as stern and cruel as in their warfare. Their entertainments were chiefly the _______ and _________

Marcus Livius Drusus

It was no wonder that the Italians were eager to become citizens. Many of them had fought of the republic, and they thought it only right that they should have a share in the government. ______________, a tribune, came out boldly and proposed that the Italians be made citizens. The Romans were indignant at such a suggestion, and _______ was murdered in his own house.

First Punic War

Just between Carthage and the "toe" of Italy lies the island of Sicily, only ninety miles from the African shores. The Carthaginians traded with Sicily, and finally planted colonies on the western coast. On the eastern coast were some Greek colonies, settled soon after the founding of Rome. The Greeks were traders as well as the Carthaginians, and the two peoples carried on a constant warfare. In the midst of this enmity, some military adventurers form Italy took possession of Messana, the Sicilian town nearest Italy. The Greeks attempted to drive them away, and the Italians asked the Romans for aid. The Romans did not wish to help these pirates; but if aid was refused, they would ask the Carthaginians to become their allies, and Messana would become a Carthaginian town. That would never do for the Romans, and so the ___________ with Carthage began.

Perseus

Macedonia was not yet subdued, for although Philip had died, his son ______ had long been plotting revenge and was eager for a chance to meet the Romans. They met at Pydna and _______ was defeated. Rome had overcome the East as well as the West, and now Macedonia, Greece, and Asia Minor were in her power.

Brutus and Cassius

Octavianus, Antonius, and Lepidus and slain their enemies in Rome, but ______ and _______ had collected a great army in Macedonia, and they must be overcome. Two battles were fought at Philippi; ______ and ______ were defeated, and both committed suicide.

Rhone

On Hannibal's journey to Rome, he came to the wide and rapid river ______. It would be difficult to carry so many thousand men across. Hannibal bribed the people on the right bank to lend him all their boats and even to build more. So the Gauls set to work to make "dug-outs" and the soldiers made crafts. On the farther bank was a hostile tribe of Gauls. Hannibal did not wish to do any unnecessary fighting, so one dark night he and some troops went farther up the river. They crossed, and in the darkness slipped around behind the Gauls. In the morning, Hannibal kept close watch, and at length he saw the signal of his men, a thread of smoke rising slowly across the sky. His boats were ready; and soon the savage Gauls were at the water's edge, for the Carthaginian troops were springing ashore form their boats. The Gauls shook their shields above their heads, brandished their weapons, and shouted war songs. Suddenly they heard cries of terror from their rear, for Hannibal's troops that had crossed farther up stream were upon them. With enemies before them and enemies behind them, they were helpless. They ran away, and Hannibal did not pursue them.

Alps

On Hannibal's journey to Rome, he reached the foot of the ______. It is no wonder that his men were terrified at the thought of trying to cross the snow-covered mountains. People from some of the barbarous tribes appeared with wreaths on their heads and waved branches of trees to show that they were friendly. They offered to lead the army up the _____; and after a while Hannibal concluded to follow them. These false guides led them into a narrow defile where the path was only a ledge with the precipice above and a furious river below. While they were struggling to make their way along the path, the savage people climbed the cliffs above them and rolled down masses of rock. Finally, the army succeeded in getting through the defile.

Flamininus

Philip V was thoroughly defeated at Cynoscephalae by the Roman general ___________. _________ went to Corinth to announce his victory to the Greeks. They were celebrating ht eIsthmian games in honor of the gods, when the blast of a trumpet was heard, the signal for silence. A herald went forward and proclaimed, "The senate and people of Rome and Titus Quinctius ________, their general, have subdued King Philip of the Macedonians, and do now restore liberty to all states which have been under subjection to King Phillip." "Again, again!" cried the people, for some had not fully heard and others could not believe the good news. The herald declared his proclamation a second time. Then from the thousands of joyful Greeks there arose a shout of joy that, according to an old historian, the crows overhead fell into the theatre from shock. The games were hurried through. No one cared for them or thought of them, for everybody was eager to come near ________ and touch his hand. The brave young general was not accustomed to run from his enemies, but when he saw the whole assembly throwing garlands and ribbons and rushing to embrace him, he did run from them and hid away to keep from being suffocated by his grateful admirers

Roman ships

Rome wished to conquer the whole island of Sicily, but they lacked warships. A Carthaginian warship was wrecked on their coast, and they thought they could make this serve as a model. At length the ships were ready. As soon as a Roman vessel was brought near a Carthaginian galley, down fell a drawbridge, and a heavy spike at the end pierced the enemy's deck, holding the two ships together. Over the drawbridge rushed the fierce Roman soldiers. It was not long before they had taken nearly half the Carthaginian fleet.

Julius Caesar

Some of the men whom Sulla put to death were enemies of him and his party; some were wealthy, and either he or some of his friends wanted their riches. One young man of eighteen was put on the list because his aunt had been the wife of Marius, and hi sown wife was the daughter of Cinna. Friends interceded for him, and finally Sulla agreed to spare him if he would divorce his wife. It is said that Sulla spared him unwillingly. The boy would not divorce his wife, but he left Rome for a while. This was _______, who afterward became the most famous of all the Romans.

Lepidus

Soon after Sulla's rule there was trouble in every corner of the republic and in Rome itself. Sulla had brought the senate and the nobles into power again, but no one respected them or their rule. Becfroe he had been dead many months, there was a revolt in Etruria, and the two consuls were sent to settle it. But the consuls had set out without solemnly swearing to not allow their armies to fight each other. One of the laws recently passes was that no one should be made consul for two years in succession, but ______, one of the consuls, demanded a second term. This was refused, and then _______ and his army made ready to attack Rome; but they were defeated by the other consul and his army

End of Second Triumvirate

The Roman World was in the hands of Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepidus; but now Antonius and Octavianus were strong enough to support themselves without Lepidus; and they asserted that he had been plotting to unite with the son of Pompey against them, and he was dropped from the Triumvirate. It was decided that Octavianus was to rule Rome and the West, while Antonius was to rule the East. Antonius went to the East to put his territory in order and met Cleopatra; he was delighted by her. In Rome, everyone was amazed that Antonius should remain in Egypt. They heard that he no longer behaved like a Roman, but like an Eastern rule. There were even rumors that he meant to make Alexandria his capital, and from there go forth to conquer Rome. So it came about that Octavianus and Antonius met in battle off Actium on the western coast of Greece. Antonius was defeated, and committed suicide. Cleopatra was taken prisoner. She tried to win over Octavianus as she had won Antonius, but did not succeed. She heard that he intended to carry her to Rome to walk in chains at his triumph, and she killed herself. The story was told that she had an asp brought to there in a basket of fruit, and died of its sting. After this, Egypt was a Roman province, and the Roman world was its eh ands of one man, the young Octavianus.

Livius Andronicus

The Roman's first knowledge of the theatre came from an educated Greek of Tarentum named _______. When the Romans captured Tarentum, they brought him to Rome as a slave. He learned Latin and translated some Greek plays. This was a new diversion for the Romans. They gave him a building on the Aventine Hill and went in crowds to see him act. From his times, the Romans had like the drama; that is they liked comedy, and they wanted plays that were amusing and full of jests, often the coarser the better. Tragedy seemed to them dull and stupid; and, indeed it is no wonder that a man who had seen the destruction of Carthage or Corinth should think a tragedy as acted on the stage a rather tame proceeding.

gladiators

The Romans had always been stern, and now they had become cruel and often brutal. In the athletic contests they were no longer satisfied with racing and wrestling; they demanded to see real fights and the spilling of real blood. At first they were entertained by watching battles between wild beasts, but this soon ceased to be interesting. The Romans soon wanted the excitement of seeing men fight and die. It was an old custom among the Etruscans to have combats between prisoners at the grave of a warrior. This was introduced into Rome, and the Romans found it so enetertaingin that they soon ceased to limit it to funerals or to single pairs of combatants. These fighters were called ______. At first the ________ were all slaves and criminals. Sometimes they were promised freedom if they fought for a certain number of years and were not slain. These men fought savagely but not always skillfully, and the Romans were soon a little bored by seeing fighting done in a clumsy fashion. Schools were established where ________ were trained to fight, and from which they could be obtained at any moment. Not only slaves, but some of the wild, reckless men of Rome went to these schools.

Lucullus

The Romans had sent ______ to Asia to wage war with Mithridates.______made just laws for interest and taxes and forbade the creditors to take more than one fourth of a debtor's income. The money lenders and collectors were indignant and sent angry protests to Rome. The soldiers of ________ did not like him and when they heard of these protests they mutinied.. The Romans did not send him reinforcements, and ________ lost the reward of hi years of toil. This was the condition of affairs when Pompey was sent to take his place.

Sulla

The Romans now made ready an army to punish Mithridates. The senate gave command to ______, one of the consuls. _______ had served as lieutenant under Marius in the war against Jugurtha. The honor of the triumphal procession had of course been given to Marius as commander of the army; but so many gave all the glory of the war to young ______ that Marius became intensely jealous of him. In the Social War and the wars with t he Cimbri and the Teutons, Rome had been in such danger that there was no room for jealously, and both Marius and _____ had done their best; but this war with Mithridates would bring to the commanding general glory and wealth, and now to have the management of it given to his former lieutenant was most exasperating to Marius, and he was furiously angry. Marius persuaded a tribune to propose a law giving to him, instead of to ______, command of the army. Now ______'s soldiers had something to say, for they were devoted to their general. The struggle between the law and the army had begun. The army was victorious, for ______ led his troops into Rome and drove Marius into exile. Then he set off for war. While Marius was ruling in Rome, his rival ______ was carrying on war with Mithridates.

Privileges of Roman citizen

The Romans were the only people who had full citizenship. If a Roman was condemned to die or to be flogged, he had the right of appealing to the people. Away from Rome, if a petty Roman officer flogged a non-citizen or killed him, he was in small danger of punishment; but in the farthest corners of the realm, it was a protection to a man to be able to declare himself a Roman citizen.

Roman treatment of slaves

The citizens who watch the gladiatorial shows year after year become more and more brutal. Toward one another they had to keep up some appearance of courtesy, but they had no feeling whatever for their slaves. These slaves were often of much finer breeding and education than their masters and had been used to living more luxuriously; but when a shipload of them arrived at Rome, their purchaser drove them off in chains to his farm, branded them with his name or mark with red-hot irons, and set them at hard labor. If the work of a slave was not satisfactory, or if his master became angry with him, he was flogged or tortured or even crucified. If he was sick, no one paid any attention to him, for it was cheaper to buy another slave than to care for a sick man. Even the good Cato, who had tired so hard to get the people back to the simple ways of their forefathers, looked upon his slaves as little more than machines, and when they could work no longer, he either sold them or turned them off to live or die as they might.

Pompey, Crassus, Caesar

The first triumvirate was made up of _______, ______, and _______.

Cannae

The following year after Fabius saved Rome from his co-dictator's haste, the Romans raised new tools, and now they thought they might venture to meet Hannibal in battle. They had twice as many men as he; but the hitherto invincible Romans had met their match, for at ______ in Apulia they experienced the most terrible defeat that Rome had ever known. There was rejoicing in Carthage, but Rome was almost in despair. The first thought of many was to flee; but the senate closed the city. Every one thought that Hannibal would attack Rome, but he did not. One of his officers urged him to do so, but he refused.

Hannibal's misfortunes

The loss of Capua was only the beginning of __________. The other cities that had joined him were alarmed when they saw that he did not conquer Italy so rapidly as they had expected, and one after another they began to do their best to induce Rome to pardon them for revolting against her. A second misfortune for Carthage came when the Roman's, meeting Hannibal's brother on his was way from Spain to Italy with more troops, defeated the tools at Metaurus River and killed the commander. Third, Scipio, the son of the Scipio who fought at the Trebia, was sent to Spain. It is said that at that time there was so little hope of success in Spain that no Roman general of reputation was willing to go there; so Scipio, a young man of twenty-seven years, offered himself. However that may be, he drove the Carthaginians out of the country and induced the Spaniards to stand by the Romans.

Crassus

The praetor whom the Romans put in charge of the war with the gladiators. The credit of the war belonged to ______, but Pompey wrote to the senate, "______ has beaten the gladiators in a pitched battle, but I have cut up the war by the roots." When the two generals returned to Rome, both were made consuls; but Pompey was honored with a triumph because of his victories in Spain. According to law, neither _______ nor Pompey should have been chosen consul; but ______ was enormously rich and Pompey was a favorite among the people.

Hannibal

The son of Hamilcar who swore to never be a friend of the Romans. He was put at the head of the Carthaginian armies in Spain at the age of twenty-six. Two years later he felt that he was prepared to conquer Rome. He began by besieging Saguntum. Saguntum was forced to yield to Carthage. The Romans did not bear tamely such treatment of their allies. They sent ambassadors to Carthage to demand the surrender of _______; the Carthaginians would not give them up. The Romans welcomed war. Meanwhile _____ was in Spain. He sent for African troops to defend Spain, and despatched Spanish troops to defend Africa. Then ______ decided to go from Spain by land and come down into Italy from the north, and so be in the very heart of the Roman possessions. He believed that the Gauls would be willing to help him and that the conquered Italian states would be on his side once they saw that he was on the way to success. He set off on his journey and conquered as he marched. The Gauls willingly allowed him to pass through their lands. He was ultimately defeated at Zama. For seventeen years ______ had been trying to conquer Rome, and all his struggles had come to nothing but this. Time passed, and ______ showed such ability as a statesman that Carthage soon began to prosper. The Romans were startled and demanded that he should be given up to them. To escape them, he fled from his country and became an exile.

Mithridates

The struggle between the army of Rome and the law-making power was postponed for a while because of amazing events that had come to pass in the East. __________, king of Pontus, kept close watch of what was going on in Rome, and when he saw that the Romans were fully occupied with the Social War, he seized the opportunity to get possession of nearly all the lands bordering on the Black Sea, and also to capture some of the Roman lands in Asia Minor. He did not have much time for these exploited, but he did have an exceedingly good opportunity, for the magistrates sent the countries conquered by the Romans had allowed the money-making Italians who followed them to extort money from the natives and treat them with such cruelty that they were ready to welcome the rule of ________. When the Social Wars had come to an end, ________ declared that the Romans would find no friends in his land, and by his orders the Italians living in the country were murdered by his officials. Sulla was put in charge of defeating _______. Sulla went first to Epirus, then to Attica, and laid siege to Athens. The Athenians defended their city valiantly, but Sulla had build a stockade about it, and soon there was famine. The forces of ________ were driven back into Asia, and before long he was begging for peace on the ground that he'd once been a friend of Sulla's father. At length, peace was made. The king was obliged to give up all the territory that he had seized and to pay a great sum to the Romans.

Sertorius

The trouble in the West arose because the people of Lusitania revolted against Rome. They wanted a leader, and they invited a Roman General, Quintus _________, to be that leader. He had been on the side of Marius and Cinna, though he did all that he could to prevent their cruelty. When Sulla came into power, ______ took refuge in Spain. The natives liked him for his bravery, kindness, and thoughtfulness. If any of them brought them a gift, however small, he never forgot to show his gratitude. One day a countryman captured a snow=white fawn and carried it to the general. This fawn became so fond of him that it followed him wherever he went. The deer was sacred to the goddess Diana, and ______ persuaded the people that this fawn was a gift from her to her favorite. they were glad to obey a favorite of the gods, and ______ set to work to form a good government in Spain and teach the people what the Romans had learned. Many Romans joined him who had fled from the rule os Sulla. Some people in Rome began to think that he was trying to found a rival city. They sent troops against him, but for several years he was more than a match for them. _______ was so strong that at one time the Romans were afraid they had lost Spain. To overcome him they sent the young general Pompey. Whether Pompey would have succeeded is not known, for some of the Romans in Spain became jealous of _____ and murdered him at a banquet. Now that the leader was dead, Pompey soon succeeded in making the Roman rule in Spain as strong as ever

corrupt governors

The victories of the Romans had brought a vast amount of wealth to Rome, for all the lands that she had conquered were obliged to pay tribute to her. There were new opportunities for men to make large fortunes; for instance, if a man succeeded in getting himself appointed governor of a province, he did not often try to rule the province for the good of the people, but got as much money form them as possible, and it made small difference to him whether by far means or foul. Then he returned to Rome to try to make more display than any one else. Occasionally, an unjust governor was prosecuted on his return; but this was small gain to the suffering provincials, for now the governors wrung all the more from them to make sure of having enough money to bribe their judges if they were brought to account.

Spartacus

The war with the gladiators began at Capua, where there was a gladiatorial school for Gallic prisoners who had been forced to become gladiators. They escaped from the town with only some weapons of the arena which they had seized; but soon they captured some weapons of war from a party sent out from Capua against them. They now numbered forty thousand, for slaves ad other gladiators had joined them, and they routed the troops sent against them from Rome. _______ had been chosen as their leader. He had very sensibly planned to get away from Italy as soon as possible, so hi sen could make their way to their homes in Gaul and Thrace. The others, however, had quite different ideas. They had been successful in several engagements, and they had wild hopes of staying in Italy and conquering Rome. At first the proud senators had felt annoyed and disgraced that a band of barbarians should overpower Roman troops; but now they began to feel alarmed, and they sent both consuls agains them. The consuls met with no success. Then they put the war into the hands of the praetor Marcus Crassus. ________ marched toward Sicily and paid some pirates to take him and his army, now consisting of a hundred and fifty thousand men, to the island. The pirates took the money and sailed away without the army. Then ________ made himself as strong as he could in Rhenium. Crassus dug a trench and build a wall across the peninsula upon which Rhenium stands; but one stormy night, ________ filled up the trench with with earth and wood and passed it with party of his army. He defeated some Roman troops; but this victory was his ruin, for now his men insisted upon meeting the army of Crassus in open combat. They had their way, but were defeated and _______ was slain.

Raising sheep

There was much misery among the freemen of Italy. This was increased by the range from tilling the soil to ____________. _________________ needs much land and few workmen. For a long while it had been hard for a poor man to find employment, and it was becoming doubly hard, now that so few workmen were needed. Rome had grown wealthy and powerful, but her citizens were fast becoming idle, extravagant, and dissolute.

Brutus

There were men in Rome who could not forget that, well as Caesar was ruling, he had lawfully no right to rule at all, and that the Roman state was no longer a republic. Many believed that he meant to assume the title of king, and the Romans hated the very sound of that word. A conspiracy was made against him. The leaders were _______ and his friend Cassius; although both these men, as, indeed, to almost all of those who joined the plot, Caesar had done many favors. On the 15th of March, 44 BC, the senate met. The conspirators gathered around him as if to offer some petition. At the signal agreed upon, they drew their swords. Caesar struggled to break through the ring. Then he saw among them ________, the friend whom he so admired and loved. He cried, "You, too, ______!" drew his robe over his face and fell. _____ tried to explain to the senators why this deed had been done, and to declare that the old days of the republic were now to return, but they would not hear him. On the following morning they tired to pacify both Caesar's friends and his murderers by granting Caesar the honors due to a god, and also bestowing much power and authority upon ______ and his followers, whom they made governors of provinces.

governors, kingdoms

There were two ways in which Rome might govern her new possessions. One was to send Roman _______ to them and make laws for them directly. The other was to divide them into small ________ and let them fight together and weaken one another. Rome followed the second course, and after a while there was always an opportunity for Rome to step in, settle their quarrels, and take the rule herself.

First Triumvirate

These three men, Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar, the __________, as they are called, bargained together. The first two were to help Caesar become consul; then he was to pass a law giving land to Pompey's soldiers. This was done. Caesar wanted an army and a chance to make conquests, and he succeeded in being appointed governor of Gaul for five years. But he did not wish to go from Rome without weakening the power of the senate as much as possible, therefore one of his supporters presented some laws the would do this. There were two men in the senate whom he could not silence, Cato and Cicero. This same supporter brought it that Cato should be sent away to govern the island of Cyprus. Next he proposed that any magistrate who had put Roman citizens to death without trial should be exiled form Rome. This drove Cicero into exile. Then Caesar set out for Gaul.

Saguntum

When Hannibal felt he was ready to conquer Rome, he began besieging ________, a Greek colony in Spain. ______ had made a treaty with Rome, and Rome sent Hannibal a formal warning not to harass the friends of the Roman people. Hannibal paid no attention to the warning and pushed on the siege. The day came when the people of _______ saw that they must yield. They meant that the Carthaginians should gain as little as possible by the surrender, so they build a great fire, and into it they tossed all their most valuable possessions. Then in utter despair they threw themselves into the flames.

Sulla's return

When the war with Mithridates was over, _____ was ready to return to Rome. He sent a letter in advance to the senate, recounting what he had done for the Roman people and declaring that he would soon take vengeance upon the guilty who had wronged him. ______ had a devoted army, and the Romans knew that he meant to bring his army into the city. The Romans were very frightened, and their fear increased when the Capitol caught fire and burned, with the famous Sibylline books. ______ landed with his army and there was a great contest just without the city walls; the people who favored Marius opposed him, and the Samnites did likewise for they thought that this was a good opportunity to revenge themselves for the battles lost in former days to the insolent Romans. ______ was victorious and master of Rome. He killed every one who opposed him. He published a list of eighty names at once; each day he added to the number. ______ meant to rule Rome as he would, but he preferred to have it appear that the Romans had chosen him as ruler. Therefore he went out of the city for a few days, and sent back a letter saying that it seemed to him wise for a dictator to be chosen for an indefinite time until the government should be well established again. He made it clear that he expected to be the choice of the people, and they did not dare to refuse him. Then he set to work to make new laws that should give the senate more authority. Suddenly he resigned the dictatorship, no one knows why, and withdrew to his country house. A few months later he died.

End of triumvirate

While Caesar was in Gaul, he kept watch on Rome. Crassus and Pompey became consuls, and then the three men arranged matters to suit themselves. Caesar was to remain in Gaul five years longer. Crassus was to rule the province of Syria for the same length of time; and Pompey was to rule Spain for five years. Crassus was soon slain, and now the world was in the hands of Pompey and Caesar; but each wanted the whole world. Pompey induced the senate to let him govern Spain for ten years instead of five. Caesar was aroused. In five years he would have to return to Rome and disband his army, while Pompey would have his army for five years longer. Nothing would be easier than for him to bring about Caesar's ruin. Pompey had been married to Caesar's daughter Julia; but just at this time she died, so there was nothing to hold the two men together. They no longer pretended to be friends or even to belong to the same party. Pompey stood by the nobles and the present government. Caesar stood by the people and changes in the government. Caesar asked to be made consul so that when he returned to Rome he would have as much power as Pompey. The senate refused and commanded him to disband his army. The consul drove out from the senate house the two tribunes who had presented Caesar's request. Caesar declared that the tribunes of Rome had been insulted and that his soldiers must take up arms to defend them. He crossed the Rubicon with his army, declaring war against Rome. There was great confusion and panic in Rome. However stories of Caesar's kindness found their way to these terrified people. Caesar marched on through Italy. City after city yielded to him without the striking of a blow. When he reached Rome, he did not repeat the massacres of Marius and Sulla, but treated people kindly and justly, even those who ventured to oppose him.

Syracuse, Archimedes

While Carthage's army was weakening in Capua, the alliance with _______ did not last for long, for the Romans soon laid siege to the city. On the land side they moved up wooden towers higher than the city walls, and from these soldiers could shoot, or they could throw out a sort of drawbridge and cross over the top of the walls. They had battering-rams. They also used machines for throwing darts, and others for hurling great stones. On the other hand, the people in the town defended themselves by letting down monstrous pincers to catch hold of the Roman battering-rams, and tongs to seize the men who were climbing up on the calling ladders, and they threw darts and stones and firebrands. On the ocean side was a fleet of Roman vessels which carried wooden towers and battering-rams like those of the land forces. There was small chance for a town besieged by land and by sea; but a wise many named ________, who lived in _____, invented many machines to defend the city. For example, he is said to have build a machine that acted somewhat like the old-fashioned well-sweep, only instead of a bucket it had a heavy iron grapple. If a ship came a little too near the walls, the team bent over it, and the grapple caught up its prow, then suddenly dropped it, thus swamping the ship with great quantities of water. He also is said to have set the Roman fleet afire by arranging mirrors to reflect the sun's rays. In spite of his masterly defense, the Romans captured the city. The Roman commander had great respect for ______, so he sent a soldier to bring him to the camp to make sure he would not be harmed. However the soldier killed him out of anger because in the midst of the ruin the philosopher sat calmly and told the soldier to not disturb his circles. The Romans also regained Capua.

Cataline

While Pompey had been subduing the East, Rome had been in a most turbulent condition. Law and order had almost vanished and everything was in confusion. In the midst of this turmoil a conspiracy was formed which nearly destroyed what little government there was left. ________ made a plot to overthrow the state. He was a reckless young noble, and it was easy for him to find many others who were as deeply in debt as he, and were equally ready to seize upon any means, no matter how dishonorable, to get wealth into their hands. He first tired to have himself elected consul, in order to get possession of some of the revenues of the state; and when he failed, he determined to murder the consuls and other leading en and to burn the city, that in the confusion he might seize whatever he chose. ______ planned to invite the gladiators to join his army. It happened, however, that the orator Cicero was consul that year. He learned of ______'s plots and called the senate together at once in the temple of Jupiter. He exposed every detail of the infamous plot. ______ tried to clear himself but he was forced to be silent. Still, the senate was half afraid to seize I'm, and he went out of the city to his camp in Etruria. He was afterward slain in a battle with the Romans. Meanwhile, the conspirators who remained in the city were taken prisoners. Julius Caesar thought that their property should be seized and they themselves sent to different Italian cities as prisoners for life. Cato demanded that they should be put to death.

Verres

While ruler, Sulla had passed an important law that a man accused of crime must be tried before a jury of senators. Soon an event occurred which made it possible to repeal this law. This was the trial of ______, governor of the province of Sicily. When Rome began to make some o her conquered countries into provinces, she ruled them fairly and kindly; but little by little the rule of the governors had become almost unbelievably cruel and shameless. _______ had taken the greater part of the grain raised by the farmers, sometimes the whole of it. He stole gems, states, paintings, tapestry, gold and silver vessels, even columns from the temples. No one in Sicily could hold an office or win a cause without making extravagant presents to this infamous governor. Furthermore, ______ dared to imprison Romans without a trial, to scrounge them, to put them to death, even by the slave's death of crucifixion. _____ knew that at the end of his three years of office he would probably be brought before the courts; but that did not alarm him, for he thought he could easily buy up his judges. Indeed, he boasted that there was no reason for him to be troubled; one third of his gains would give him an immense fortune, and the rest he was perfectly willing to use to buy his acquittal. Unfortunately for his scheme, the Sicilians engaged a young lawyer, Cicero, who had once held an important office in their island, to prosecute him. Long before witnesses had all testified, _____ saw that his case was hopeless. He took as much of his wealth as possible and fled o Massilia. The corruption of the senate jury was shown so plainly that few could venture to oppose the law providing that one third of a jury should be composed of senators, but the other two thirds should always be of equites.

First Macedonian War

While the Romans were contending with Hannibal, the king of Macedonia, Phillip V., who was an ally of the Carthaginians, attacked some Greek cities which were under the protection of Rome. This led to the ________.

Caesar

____ was of an old patrician family, but he had been a follower of Marius, and a most daring one. He would not divorce his wife, Cinna's daughter, to please Sulla. When ______ became aedile, he had charge of the public games and but on excellent and expensive games. This was all done on borrowed money, and when, somewhat later, he was appointed governor of Farther Spain, his creditors demanded their pay so persistently that he appealed to Crassus for help. In Spain he was successful in war and he governed well in peace. He treated the natives so much more fairly than they had been treated before that they were greatly pleased with him. He acted as if he were really interested in them, for he made some plans for teaching them Latin and behaved toward them as if they were good for something besides paying taxes.

Tiberius Gracchus

_____ was the grandson of Scipio Africanus. He had seen for himself how the poor were suffering because the great landowners held so much land and worked it with slaves. There was an old law that no one should have more than two hundred and fifty acres of the pubic land; but the poor could not see to it that the law was enforced and the rich would not. ________ proposed a new law, which was in reality almost the same as the old one; but there was little hope of its being passed. The rich men who held vast estates of this public land were indignant. Often the land which they held had been in their families for many years, and they had come to feel that it must be their own. They did not care to remember that if it was not just to take the land in the first place, holding it a long while had not made the act any more just. ______ was an eloquent speaker, and he pleaded most earnestly for the poor. But no matter how eloquently _____ spoke, the senators could not be brought to look at the matter as he did. That was not so very important, for if the ten tribunes, of whom ______ was one, agreed to propose this law to the assembly of tribes, or meeting of plebeians who were landowners, there was little doubt that it would be passed. But no law could even be proposed unless all ten of the tribunes desired it. The senators induced one of the ten to refuse to present it. Legally, _______ could do nothing more; but he reasoned that when a man refused to agree to so good a law, he was not fit to be tribune, and he induced the assembly to pass a vote putting the man out of office. When the tribune refused to give up his office, then by orders of ______, he was pulled down from his place. However good this new law may have been, it was exceedingly difficult to carry it out, and, what was worse, ______ had broken the laws in passing it. As long as he was a tribune, he was safe; and therefore although this, too, was illegal, he tried to get himself elected tribune for the following year. The nobles were angry and indignant. They rushed out of the senate house. A riot followed and ______ was slain. Before this, the different parties in Rome had tried their best to get their own way; but this was the first time that they had tired to get what they wanted unlawfully and with violence. If the government of any country allows lawbreakers to go unpunished, or even if the citizens are permitted to uphold the laws by unlawful means, that country is sure to become weak. So it was that the act of kind, honest, mistaken ________ in 133 BC was the beginning of the downfall of the Republic.

Caius Sempronius Gracchus

_____ was the grandson of Scipio Africanus. Ten years after his brother's death, he proposed that a law should be passed requiring the state to sell grain to the people at much less than the usual price. Then he won over the merchants, bankers, and other business men (equites) by getting laws passed giving them instead of the nobles control of the courts. The common people of the men whose property was in money were friends of _______; but the senators, whose property was chiefly in land, were his enemies, for they were afraid he would propose a land law, or agrarian law, like that brought forward by his brother Tiberius. They had good reason to be afraid, for this is exactly what he did do. Then he founded colonies at Tarentum and Capua. No one objected to his founding colonies; but when he proposed that the Latins should have all the rights of Roman citizens, the proud people of Rome were indignant. Before long, there was a riot and ______ was slain.

Cicero

______ exposed the infamous plot of Cataline. At the end of his term as consul, it was customary that he should swear that he had obeyed the laws. Instead of following the usual form, _____ said, "I swear that I have saved my country and preserved the state." Caesar and the tribunes were not at all pleased at ______'s becoming so popular. They proposed a law calling Pompey and his army back to suppress him; but Cato spoke against it eloquently. Nevertheless, there were many who did not forget that during his consulship Roman citizens had been put to death without a trial (Cataline's fellow conspirators).

piracy of the Mediterranean Sea

______ had become a real business. The _______ were master of four hundred cities. The Romans had been so occupied by the wars on land that they had paid little attention to the water, and the ______ had grown so bold that no vessel would venture to sail on the Tuscan Sea. Then the Romans began to arouse themselves. Italy had come to depend upon Sicily and Africa for much of her grain; and there was danger of famine. It was decided to put the whole matter in to the hands of Pompey, and to give him for three years the power of a dictator over the Mediterranean Sea and for fifty miles inland. They had put their trust in the right man. Pompey divided the Mediterranean Sea into thirteen parts and sent a squadron to each. Within three months the pirates and their strongholds had been captured. Mercy to prisoners was not common in those days, but instead of putting his twenty thousand captives to death, Pompey scattered them among the small towns of Cicilia. They were and welcome inhabitants because he was wise enough to give each town a large addition of land.

Pompey

______ had won such victories that the Romans were proud of him, and he had brought about peace after the long war with Mithridates. He had much power, not only because of the devotion of his soldiers, but because when he had arranged a government for the provinces which he had conquered, he had put friends of his own into all the chief positions.

Hamilcar

______ was the especially brilliant general of Carthage during the time when the soldiers and Carthaginian colonies revolted. He had met the Romans in Sicily, and had fought successfully agains them. He had insisted upon asking for peace, because he saw that Carthage must have time to train soldiers before she could hope to stand against Rome; money too was needed; and it was decided that the best way to get it was for ______ to go to Spain and gain firm hold of the southern part of the country and also develop the mines of gold and silver. He was soon ready to start but before he left for war he made his son Hannibal swear to never be a friend of the Roman people. The vessels set sail for Spain. ____ understood how to deal with the natives, and by his wisdom and kindness more than by warfare, he gained for Carthage the country as far as the Tagus River. Nine years later he was slain in battle.

Jugurtha

_______ of Numidia said of Rome, "O city, you would sell yourself if you could only find a buyer." He had good reason to make this speech. Masinissa, the king of Numidia, had died and _______ had seized the kingdom. The rightful heirs appealed to Rome for help. Rome sent generals and soldiers to regain the kingdom and punish _____, but for a long time he found it an easy matter to bribe the generals. At length however, he was conquered by a commander named Caius Marius. He was brought to Rome and had to walk in chains as the triumph of Marius. When the procession was about to ascend to the Capitol, he was thrust into the Mamertine dungeons and left to die of hunger.

Marius' exile and return

_______ took refuse on a little vessel and sealed down the coast. He was driven ashore by a storm, and had to hide in the woods to escape horsemen who were searching for him. He begged his sailors not to desert him. He claimed that when he was a child an eagle's next with seven young ones in it fell into his lap, so he should be consul seven times. The sailors deserted him and he wandered about through marshes until he came to a cottage. He begged the owner to save him, and he hid near a river and covered himself with reeds. He was soon discovered and carried into the nearest town. A proclamation had been sent out that he was to be put to death wherever he might be found, and the magistrates sent a man to kill him. The man came back without his weapon. H had rushed into the gloomy cell with drawn sword, but int he darkness he had seen the flash of the old general's eyes and heard a voice demanding solemnly, "Do you dare to kill ______?" He had thrown down his sword and fled. Then the people cried out that the man who had saved Italy should be set free. He sailed for Africa, but the Roman governor forbade him to set foot in Africa. Then he heard some good news. The party of the people, led by the consul, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, were in power. Marius collected as many volunteers as he could in Africa and Etruria and appeared at the mouth of the Tiber. He burned and plundered and destroyed. He got possession of the grain that was on its way to Rome, and the starving city was forced to yield. Then the streets of Rome ran with the blood of her nobles. _______ was taking a fearful revenge for every insult and slight. The time for the annual election drew near, but _______ and Cinna had put themselves above the law. They did not what for an election, but simply declared themselves consuls, and no one ventured to contradict them. This was _______'s seventh consulship. He had reached the height of his ambition, but it had brought him neither glory nor happiness. He now held power, but not honor; he had flatters, but no friends. ______ was a wretched, miserable old man. He died only a few days after he had seized the consulship.

Marius

_______ took up arms and overcame the Italians in a great battle of the Social Wars. He became intently jealous of Sulla whom so many gave all the glory of the war against Jugurtha. He was very angry when his former lieutenant was given management of the army in the war with Mithridates. He was nearly seventy years old, but he went to eh Campus Martius everyday and exercised with the young men to prove that he was equal to the toils of a campaign. He persuaded a tribune to propose a law giving to him, instead of to Sulla, command of the army. Now Sulla's soldiers had something to say, for they were devoted to their general. The struggle between the law and the army had begun. The army was victorious, for Sulla led his troops into Rome and drove ____ into exile.

Cato

_______ was a brilliant commander and he had first been made consul, then censor. He was much troubled because so many of the Romans were giving up the plain, simple ways of their fathers and were beginning to like luxury and to avoid work. ______ cultivated his land with his own hands; he never wore costly garments; and even when he was consul, he drank the same wine as his slaves. When he became censor, the people who like luxury trembled. They had good reason, for ______ had a list made of the carriages, jewelry, rich clothing, and expensive furniture of each household and its real cost. Then he counted the value as ten times as much and taxed it heavily on that valuation. When he was sent to Carthage, he returned and reported to the senate, "Carthage is not so humble as you imagine. It is a wealthy city; it is well supplied with arms and stores and whatever is needed in warfare, and it is full of men able to bear arms. They are not a weaker, but a more skillful enemy to us than they were." After this, whenever he made speech in the senate, no matter what the subject was, he always ended by saying, "And my opinion is that Carthage must be destroyed."

Scipio Africanus

_______ was sent to Spain and drove the Carthaginians out of the country and induced the Spaniards to stand by the Romans. Meanwhile little was being done in Italy. The Romans could not drive out Hannibal, and Hannibal could not conquer Rome. Even Hannibal saw, after his brother had failed to reach him with more troops, that he had nor further hope of conquest. _____ was making trouble in Africa and Hannibal was recalled to that country. ______ had by this time concluded that since he had conquered Spain, the best thing of him to do was to attack Africa; he felt this would make the Carthaginians send for Hannibal. The senate and Fabius disapproved his plan. ______ had become consul, however, and finally the senate yielded, but so unwillingly that they would not grant him a proper number of troops. The common folk had the utmost confidence in him; and when he called for volunteers they promptly filled up the lines. _____ crossed the Mediterranean to Africa and laid siege to Utica. He destroyed the Carthaginian army in Africa by tricking them into thinking that he was thinking about making peace so that he could find out about the arrangement of the camps. Then he set fire to the camps and killed the escaping men. It was after this disaster that the Carthaginians ordered Hannibal to bring his troops home to defend their capital. So it was that Hannibal left Italy. He did no good by returning home, however, for he had a terrible battle with ________ at Zama, and the second Carthaginian army was destroyed. ______ returned to a magnificent triumph.

Crassus

_______ was strong because he had an enormous fortune. When Sulla sold the property of his enemies, ______ bought a large amount of it - very cheap of course. Then, when houses tumbled down or caught fire, he promptly offered to buy them, and the discouraged owners sold them at a low price. Of his many slaves, more than five hundred were architects and builders, so he could repair the houses at small expense. Although he got his wealth from the troubles of others, he had a pleasant obliging manner and that gather with his money gave him much influence in Rome.

Caius Marius

________ conquered Jugurtha, king of Numidia. He had entered the army as a young man and was so brave and obedient that his general, the famous Scipio Africanus, began to take special notice of him. Before long he became a tribune. While he held this office, he carried a law that lessened the power of the nobles. Then the common folk admired him. Soon he opposed a law which the common fold wanted, but which he thought not best for them; and now the nobles were inclined to admire him. As an officer in the army, _______ was so wise that the other officers respected him, and so simple in all his ways that the common soldiers loved him. When he wished to be elected consul, he had little difficulty in getting the office. He was now at the head of the army, and a strong, powerful he made it. He trained the soldiers to take long marches, to carry their baggage, and to care for their own food; they came to be known as "________'s mules." Just as the barbarians were marching towards Rome, ______ returned from his victory over Jugurtha. He was made consul again. He was elected year after year, for the barbarians delayed and the fear of them increased. At length, the barbarians started for Italy. _______ had not wanted the time of their delay; he had trained his soldiers more and more perfectly, and had kept them busy digging canals and doing other work, so that instead of growing weak, they had become stronger and more ready for battles. The battles came, and ______ defeated the barbarians and destroyed their whole army except sixty thousand, who were sent to Rome to be sold as slaves. In this battle, two companies, or cohorts, of Italians had been so fearless and valiant that as a reward he mad them all Roman citizens, even though he had no right to do such a thing. _______ returned to Rome and the people were eater to give him whatever he wanted. Just at this time there was another revolt of the slaves in Sicily, and with the same result - defeat, torture, and crucifixion. Before the revolt was fully quieted, there was trouble in Rome, and _______ united with some men who were trying to overthrow the government. He had been consul five times, but he was eager for even greater honors. He was the ablest general of his age, but he had no idea who to behave in political life. He seems to have tried to keep free froth crimes of his allies, but to have been more than willing to profit by them. Finally, he became so unpopular that he left Rome for Asia.

Pompey

________ was called on to overcome Sertorius but Sertorius was murdered before he fought him. Now that Sertorius was dead, _______ too succeeded in making the Roman rule in Spain as strong as ever. While returning from Spain, Crassus was fighting the war with the gladiators. He met five thousand of the rebels and cut them down. The credit of the war belonged to Crassus, but ______ wrote the senate and declared that he had "cut up the war by its roots." When the two generals returned to Rome, both were made consuls; but _______was honored with a triumph because of his victories in Spain. According to law, neither Crassus nor ______ should have been chosen consul; but Crassus was enormously rich and ________ was a favorite among the people. Moreover, _______ had promised them that if he was elected, he would have a law passed giving back to the tribunes the power which Sulla had taken away. During Rome's fight against piracy, It was decided to put the whole matter in to the hands of _______, and to give him for three years the power of a dictator over the Mediterranean Sea and for fifty miles inland. ________ was then sent to defeat Mithridates. He succeeded and when he and his army returned to army he had a splendid triumph. Instead of slaying the captives according to custom, ____ forbade this and sent all but two back to their own countries.

Antiochus

_________, king of Syria, was not pleased with the result of the war between Phillip and Rome. He was then in Greece, and he declared that he meant to free the Greeks from the Romans. That was easier said than done, and in a short time he was hurrying across the Hellespont to escape from the Roman legions. The brother of Scipio Africans overcame him at Magnesia in Asia Minor, and therefore took the surname of Asiaticus in honor of his victory. By the treat of peace which followed, _________ had to give up much o Asia Minor to the Romans. They demanded, also, that he should give up his guest Hannibal, for when Hannibal was forced to leave Carthage, he had fled to _________. Hannibal now made his way to Bithynia; but there, too, the Romans pursued him. When he saw that he could no longer escape them, he poisoned himself rather than fall into their hands.

Cornelia

_________, the mother of Tiberius and Caius Gracious, brought her sons up with the greatest care. The story is told that a friend who was visiting her displayed some beautiful jewels and asked to see hers. ______ put her off for a little until the children came in from school. Then she said to her friend, "These are my jewels."