Lecture exam 2 review

Amy studied at her desk for 7 straight days for her nursing board exams. Soon, she noticed extreme pain and swelling on the point (olecranon) of both her elbows. What had happened?(hint: "student's elbow).

* Too much pressure on elbow such as leaning against a hard surface. * Elbow (olecranon) bursitis occurs when the fluid-filled sac, or bursa, at the tip of the elbow becomes inflamed

The femur is the strongest bone in the body, but it is also one of the most often fractured bones in the skeleton-especially in elderly people. How come the strongest bone can break so often?

A femoral neck fracture happens 1 to 2 inches from your hip joint. This type of fracture is common among older adults and can be related to osteoporosis. This type of fracture may cause a complication because the break usually cuts off the blood supply to the head of the thighbone, which forms the hip joint.

At each end of a long bone is an expanded, knobby region called the

Diaphysis; Epiphysis

Action potentials travel quickly from one cardiac cell to another due to which of the following?

Gap junctions and intercalated discs

A 75-year-old woman and her 9-year-old granddaughter were victims of a train crash. In both cases, trauma to the chest was sustained. X-ray films of the grandmother revealed several broken ribs, but her granddaughter's ribs did not break. Explain these different symptoms.

Older woman had weaker bones (osteoporosis) and the force caused her bones to more brittle, her granddaughter probably had more cartilaginous bones that were more resilient and caused her bones not to break.

Which bone cells secrete osteoid (the initial semisolid form of bone matrix)?

Osteoblasts

Which cells are responsible for the production of new bone?

Osteoblasts

Why do many elderly people develop "bowed backs" and appear shorter than they were in younger years?

Osteoporosis- bones demineralized and loose mass (get "shorter")

Skeletal muscle cells cannot divide. How does skeletal muscle repair itself when injured?

Surgical techniques, physical therapy, biomaterials, and muscular tissue engineering as well as cell therapy.

Why are skeletal muscles multinucleated?

The cells are multinucleated as a result of the fusion of the many myoblasts that fuse to form each long muscle fiber.

Cyndi fractured the middle of the diaphysis of her right tibia in a skiing accident. The surrounding soft tissue (in the middle of her leg) was also damaged by the force of the accident. After prolonged immobilization of the limb in a cast, it was found that the fracture was not healing. Can you explain why?

The damage may have caused damage to her vascular system which would decrease the healing process, also from being immobilized her body may have started to reabsorb some of her bone instead of fixing it because it wasn't being used.

in the spinal cord form larger groups, which are called _____. a.pathways b.nuclei c.nerves d.columns

d

Which of the following congenital skeletal disorders results from excessive cartilage formation at the epiphyseal cartilages?a)osteomalacia b)osteoporosis c)gigantism d)Marfan's syndrome

d) Marfan's syndrome

List the correct sequential list of the muscle connective tissue coverings going from superficial to deep.

epimysium, perimysium, endomysium

Yellow bone marrow contains a large proportion of

fatty tissue

After her first day of skiing for the season, Jamie woke up with stiff, achy muscles. What caused the sore muscles and should Janine head out to the slopes for a second day of skiing? Be sure you include what is going on at the cellular level and be specific.

microscopic damage to muscles and the surrounding connective tissues, which leads to inflammation and shifts of fluid and electrolytes. When your body starts to repair the damage, you begin feeling sore. It is best to rest.

Individual skeletal muscle cells are known as

muscle fibers

After the threshold level has been reached in the axolemma of most neurons, the membrane permeability to which ions changes?

na + k

Which of the following connective tissues divides the muscle into a series of internal compartments with fascicles?

perimysium

Which is the best sequence regarding a nerve impulse over a reflex arc?

receptor, sensory neuron, integrating center, motor neuron, effector

What controls voluntary response?

visceral motor system

Which of the following describes the general sequence of events at a neuromuscular junction? 1.Receptor binding may lead to the generation of an action potential in the axon (if the postsynaptic cell is a neuron) or sarcolemma (if the postsynaptic cell is a skeletal muscle fiber). 2.Arrival of the action potential at the terminal bouton triggers release of neurotransmitter from secretory vesicles, through exocytosis at the presynaptic membrane. 3.The neurotransmitter molecules are either enzymatically broken down or reabsorbed. 4.Receptor binding results in a change in the permeability of the postsynaptic cell membrane. 5.The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.

2-5-4-1-3

List the correct sequence of steps in the initiation of a muscle contraction: 1 -Calcium ions bind to troponin, producing a change in the orientation of the troponin-tropomyosin complex that exposes the active sites on the thin filaments. 2 -The change in transmembrane potential of the muscle fiber leads to the production of an action potential that spreads across its entire surface and along the T tubules. 3 -Repeated cycles of cross-bridge binding, pivoting, and detachment occur, powered by the hydrolysis of ATP. 4 -The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) releases stored calcium ions, increasing the calcium concentration of the sarcoplasm in and around the sarcomere. 5 -At the neuromuscular synapse, ACh released by the synaptic terminal binds to receptors on the sarcolemma.

5, 2, 4, 3,

Which of the following is a characteristic of slow fibers? a)They have high myoglobin content. b)They contain few mitochondria. c)The tension produced by their muscle fibers is very high, resulting in powerful contractions. d)Their fiber diameter is large compared to that of fast fibers

A

Which of the following is nota function of synovial fluid? a)attacks pathogens and foreign particles b)lubricates the articulating surfaces c)distributes stresses evenly across the joint d)nourishes the articular cartilage's chondrocytes

A

Which type of fracture occurs when an affected area is shattered into a multitude of bony fragments?

A comminuted fracture

In order for a muscle to relax, the myosin cross-bridges must detach. What is the triggering mechanism to get the cross-bridges to detach?

ATP bind to myosin head

Which of the following carries sensory information to the central nervous system?

Afferent nerve fibers

Limited regeneration occurs in the central nervous system, partially due to the fact that scar tissue is formed by _____, which also release chemicals that block axonal regrowth.

Astrocytes

Which of the following statements regarding fast skeletal muscle fibers is TRUE? a)They have high fatigue resistance. b)They are white in color. c)They have many mitochondria. d)They have a high myoglobin content

B

All of the following characterize a synovial joint except a)enclosed by a fibrous joint capsule b)fluid-filled cavity separates articulating bones c)typically permits little or no movement d)articulating surfaces covered by articular cartilage

C

Which term describes a joint injury in which the articulating bones have separated? a)sprain b)strain c)dislocation d)bursitis

C

A marathon runner steps on an exposed tree root, causing a twisted ankle. After being examined, she is told the ankle is severely sprained, not broken. The ankle will probably take longer to heal than a broken bone would. Which structures were damages and why would they take so long to heal?

Because of limited blood flow to the ligaments of the ankle, more severe ankle injuries may take between three and six months to heal.

Within the past 10-20 years, several countries have initiated the practice of taking leg muscle biopsies of track athletes in an effort to determine their chances of success at sprints of long-distance events. What anatomical fact is the basis of this assumption?

Bulkier muscle will be better for sprinting since it will make the person run faster; Long distance runners should have less muscle for endurance.

Which of the following describes a collection of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system?

Ganglia

Which thyroid gland hormone encourages calcium deposition from blood into bone and inhibits osteoclast activity?

Calcitonin

Chickens are capable of only brief bursts of flight, and their flying muscles consist of fast glycolytic fibers. The breast muscles of ducks, by contrast, consist of slow and fast oxidative fibers. What can you conclude about the flying abilities of ducks?

Can fly fast for a short period of time and can fly slow for a long period of time

Ming posed the following question: "If the epiphyseal growth plates are growing so fast, why do they stay thin? Growing things are supposed to get larger or thicker, but these plates remain the same thickness". How would you answer her?

Chondrocytes divide rapidly During the growth towards the ends of bones, the chondrocytes that were originally dividing in closest proximity to the center of the bone die and become resorbed matrix. This matrix soon becomes calcified. Because the proliferation and destruction of chondrocytes occur at the same rate, the epiphyseal plate does not change thickness. It does, however, grow away from the middle of the bone.

List the correct sequence of events that occur during the process of endochondral ossification of a limb bone.

Chondrocytes enlarge and the surrounding matrix begins to calcify. Enlarged chondrocytes die. Blood vessels grow around the edges of the cartilage. Perichondrial cells become osteoblasts and produce a superficial layer of bone. Osteoblasts replace calcified cartilage with spongy bone.

How can older adults prevent or reverse the effects of sarcopenia?

Combinations of aerobic exercise, resistance training and balance training can prevent and even reverse muscle loss

Which of the following statements regarding aging and the muscular system is TRUE? a)Regular exercise is more important than extremely demanding exercise in maintaining a healthy musculoskeletal system. b)The amount of glycogen reserves steadily increases with age. c)Blood flow to active muscles increases with exercise as rapidly in the aged as it does in younger people. d)The rate of decline in muscular performance is different in all individuals, depending on exercise patterns and lifestyle.

D

The layer of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the entire skeletal muscle is the

Epimysium

Which term describes when a stimulus is sufficient to start an action potential?

Excitability

A group of high school students suffered a serious car accident as they drove to the prom. Brad suffered multiple injuries to his lower left limb. Protruding through the skin was a splintered portion of the longest bone in the body. This bone was the ____ . Adrian didn't consider her injuries serious, so she walked several blocks to find help. Then she noticed that her right knee was not functioning normally; examination revealed a fractured kneecap. Another name for the kneecap is the ____ . She also realized she had fractured several toe bones, or ____ . Greg fractured his heel bone, more correctly called the ____.

Femur, patella, calcaneus

Most young children who break a bone in their upper or lower limbs experience a greenstick fracture.This type of fracture is quite rare in an adult. What is the reason for this difference?

In children the long bones are relatively supple and easily deformed in that the relative proportion of collagenous fibers to ossified calcium and phosphate salts is higher. This makes a greenstick fracture more common in children than adults. With increased age the proportion of collagenous fibers to ossified calcium and phosphate salts decreases, making the bones more brittle, thereby decreasing the frequency of greenstick fractures.

Your grandmother is complaining about chronic joint pain that her physician says is caused by arthritis. She asks you to explain what arthritis is. What would you tell her?

Inflammation of one or more joints, causing pain and stiffness that can worsen with age. Different types of arthritis exist, each with different causes including wear and tear, infections, and underlying diseases.

A unit of muscle structure that is composed of myofibrils, is enclosed within a sarcolemma, and is surrounded by endomysium is a ___.

Muscle fiber

What are the 2 main proteins of muscle contraction?

Myosin and Actin

Carlos went to weight-lifting camp in the summer between 7th and 8th grade. He noticed that the trainer put tremendous pressure on participants to improve their strength. After an especially vigorous workout, Carlos's armfelt extremely sore and weak around the elbow. He went to the camp doctor, who took X-rays and told him that the injury was serious because the "end, or epiphysis, of his upper arm bone was starting to twist off". What had happened? Could the same thing happen to his 23-year-old sister who was also starting a weight-lifting program? Why or why not?

Presumably the epiphyseal plate-bone junction has separated. This wouldn't happen to Carlos's 23-year-old sister because at her age, epiphyseal plates have been replaced by bone and are no longer present.

List the functions of skeletal muscle tissue

Produce skeletal movement, maintain posture and body position, support soft tissues, regulate entry and exit of material, maintain body temperature

What receptors monitor position and movement of skeletal muscle and joints?

Proprioceptors

A muscle impulse travels deep into the muscle fiber along the ___.

Sarcolemma

What is the cell membrane of a muscle fiber called?

Sarcolemma

The functional contractile units of a skeletal muscle fiber are the___.

Sarcomeres

Which cells participate in the repair of damaged nerves in the peripheral nervous system by forming a solid cellular cord that follows the path of the original axon?

Schwann

During the examination, his physician recorded that the normal roundness of the left shoulder was absent and that there was a bulge inferior to the lateral end of the left clavicle. What is your diagnosis?

Shoulder dislocation

Why might repeated pregnancies cause a woman to develop osteomalacia?

Since repeated pregnancies deplete maternal calcium and phosphorus stores, osteomalacia may be even more common among women with many children than among the women without children or who had experienced relatively few pregnancies.

What receptors provide pain, pressure and temperature?

Somatic

What hormone is secreted when Ca+2 levels are low? What cells/organs are affected?

The parathyroid glands produce and secrete PTH, a peptide hormone, in response to low blood calcium levels. PTH secretion causes the release of calcium from the bones by stimulating osteoclasts, which secrete enzymes that degrade bone and release calcium into the interstitial fluid. PTH also inhibits osteoblasts, the cells involved in bone deposition, thereby sparing blood calcium. PTH causes increased reabsorption of calcium (and magnesium) in the kidney tubules from the urine filtrate.

What is a membranous material that wraps around bones?

The periosteum

Explain why people confined to wheelchairs because of paralyzed lower limbs have thin, weak bones in their thighs and legs.

Wheelchair-bound people have thin, weak, legs and thigh bones because bones that are not subjected to weight bearing stress lose calcium.

What hormone is secreted when Ca+2 levels are high? What cells/organs are affected?

When blood calcium levels are high, calcitonin is produced and secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. As discussed earlier, calcitonin inhibits the activity of osteoclasts, reduces the absorption of dietary calcium in the intestine, and signals the kidneys to reabsorb less calcium, resulting in larger amounts of calcium excreted in the urine. (Kidneys)

Osteoporosis is prevalent in women after menopause. This is due to ____.

Women who have completed menopause have the greatest risk for osteoporosis because their levels of the estrogen hormone drop. Estrogen protects women from bone loss.

Which of the following statements is INCORRECT regarding osteopenia? a)The reduction in bone mass occurs between ages 40 and 50. b)Everyone becomes slightly osteopenic as they age. c)Ultimately, osteoblast activity continues to decline, while osteoclast activity continues at pre-osteopenic levels. d)The skeletons of men deteriorate at the rate of about three percent per decade, once osteopenia begins.

a)The reduction in bone mass occurs between ages 40 and 50.

Which of the following is the clinical term for a condition that is characterized by rigorous osteoblast activity despite low accumulation of calcium salts in the matrix? a)osteopenia b)osteomalacia c)achondroplasia d)osteomyelitis

a)osteopenia

A nerve impulse triggers the release of what chemical at a neuromuscular junction.

acetylcholine

Which of the following statements is TRUE? a.The peripheral nervous system is the seat of higher functions, such as intelligence, memory, and emotions. b.The central nervous system begins as a mass of neural tissue organized into a hollow tube early in development. c.The afferent division of the peripheral nervous system carries motor commands to muscles and glands. d.The efferent division of the peripheral nervous system begins at receptors.

b

Which of the following statements regarding peripheral nerve regeneration is TRUE? a.If the axon has been cut, new axons may begin to emerge from the proximal end of the cut within a few hours. b.In crushing or tearing injuries, the distal end of the damaged axon will die and regress for 1 cm or more. c.Satellite cells in the area of damage may divide and will release growth factors to promote axonal regrowth. d.Nerve function is not permanently impaired when a relatively small number of axons successfully reestablish normal axonal contacts.

b

Which of the following vitamins are essential for bone maintenance and repair? a)A and E b)A, C, and D c)B and D d)C, B, and D

b) A, C and D

Which of the following is NOT a function of neuroglia? a.providing a supporting framework for neurons b.maintaining the intercellular environment c.transferring and processing information d.acting as phagocytes

c

Which type of synapse requires a neurotransmitter to be released at the presynaptic membrane? a.gap junction b.electrical synapse c.chemical synapse d.nonvesicular synapse

c

Pituitary dwarfism results from: a)inadequate levels of vitamin D3. b)abnormal epiphyseal activity. c)inadequate production of growth hormone before puberty. d)an abnormality of a gene on chromosome 15 that affects the protein fibrillin

c)inadequate production of growth hormone before puberty.

he cell body (soma) of a neuron consists of all of the following except _____.

centrioles

Most neurons cannot undergo cell reproduction because they lack _____.

centrisomes

When a muscle fiber contracts, what slides toward the center of each sarcomere?

thin filaments