Lecture Final BIO 213 ( Liberty University)

------ is the body's ability to maintain a relatively stable internal condition ?

Homeostasis

coordinates muscle movement and balance

cerebellum

Function and placement of Carbohydrates

-Major source of energy, fuel for the CNS - Stored mainly in muscles and liver

Connective Tissue

...

Epidermal Strata

...

Modify proteins made by the cells Package & export proteins

Golgi Apparatus

location of melanocytes and tactile (merkle) cells

stratum basale

area where weblike pre-keratin filaments first appear

stratum spinosum

What are the four main classes of connective tissue?

•Connective tissue proper •Cartilage •Bone •Blood

Cells in Connective Tissue

"Blast" cells •"Cyte" cells

ability to make speech

Broca's area

What functions in two ways, lubricating points of friction, and dissipating force by distributing it through a fluid medium.

Bursa

What is the basic structural and functional units of an organism called?

Cells

Breaks down larger food molecules into smaller molecules Digests old cell parts

Lysosome

What type of epithelial tissue can be keratinized or non keratinized ?

Stratified Squamous

Is the Epidermis vascular?

no

sensory relay station

thalamus

Can some positive - feedback mechanisms be harmful?

Yes, such as decreased blood flow to the heart.

Skeletal System

...

Strengthen cell & maintains the shape Moves organelles within the cell

Cytoskeleton

What happens to blood vessels when the body is too cold?

The blood vessels constrict to reduce the amount of blood flow to the surface and retain as much heat as possible.

What happens to the blood vessels when the body is too hot?

The blood vessels dialate (open up) and allow more blood to reach the surface of this skin and release more heat.

The plasma membrane is much more permeable to K+ than to Na+. Why?

There are many more K+ leak channels than Na+ leak channels in the plasma membrane

-Hyaline -Fibrocartilage -Elastic

Types of cartilage

What is a plasma membrane composed of ?

phospholipid bilayer in which proteins are suspended (Fluid mosaic model)

In a plasma membrane,------form (s) the lipid bilayer, ------ determine (s) the fluid nature of the membrane, and ---- mainly determine (s) the function of the membrane ?

phospholipids Cholesterol Proteins

What do dermal papillae do for the body?

they form ridges that allow us to grip to surfaces

Is the dermis vascular?

yes

Other Cell Types in Connective Tissues

•Fat cells •Store nutrients •White blood cells •Neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes •Tissue response to injury •Mast cells •Macrophages •Phagocytic cells

Function of Nucleic Acids

- DNA synthesis

Function and placement of protein

- Regulation of body processes , transportation, protection, muscle contraction, structure and energy. - Found in the cell membrane

Function and placement of Lipids

- provide insulation and protection, regulation of physiological processes and form plasma membranes - They are used for energy storage as well -Found in adipose tissue

Cuboidal

-Cube-shaped ; wide as they are tall -Secretion and absorption -Simple cuboidal epithelium commonly differentiates to form the secretory and duct portions of glands

Columnar

-Has cells taller than they are wide (column-shaped) - Columnar epithelial cells are elongated and column-shaped and have a height of at least four times their width.

Biomolecules

...

Brain

...

Epithelial Tissue

...

If the tract name begins with "spino" (as in spinocerebellar), the tract is a sensory tract delivering information from the spinal cord to the cerebellum (in this case) • If the tract name ends with "spinal" (as in vestibulospinal), the tract is a motor tract that delivers information from the vestibular apparatus (in this case) to the spinal cord

...

Integumentary System

...

Major Joint Injuries

...

Six levels of organization from least to most complex

1. Atom 2. Cell 3. Tissue 4. Organ 5. Organ system 6. Organism

The rate of diffusion increases if ?

1. Concentration gradient increases 2. Temperature of a solution decreases 3. Viscosity of a solution decreases

What three things comprise the neuromuscular junction?

1. Motor neuron 2. Muscle fiber 3. Schwann cells

What are the 4 different types of bone cells?

1.Osteoclasts 2.Osteoblasts 3.Osteocytes 4Lining cells

6 Primary functions of skeletal system

1.Support 2. Protection 3. Movement (skeletal muscle is attached to bone so it pulls on the bone when it contracts). 4. Mineral homeostasis (stores calcium and phosphorus--minerals are released into the blood when needed). 5. Blood cell production 6. Storage (storage of minerals and lipids(fats)---yellow marrow stores fat --(found in long bones).

If the sharing of an electron becomes unequal and can produce a polar molecule that is electrically asymmetric what is occurring?

A polar covalent bond

What organic base has three phosphate groups attached to it ?

ATP

The movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration—in the direction against some gradient or other obstructing factor (often a concentration gradient).

ATP Transport

How is neurotransmitter released from a presynaptic terminal?

An AP depolarizes the presynaptic terminal stimulating the activation of voltage sensitive calcium channels. Calcium enters the cell and stimulate synaptic vesicle exocytosis. The amount of calcium entering the cells determines how much neurotransmitter is released. The neurotransmitter binds its receptor on the postsynaptic terminal and elicits an effect.

Carry sensory info to the brain (with three neurons), from receptor to the somatosensory cortex. Consist of: Posterior (Dorsal) Column, Spinothalamic Tracts, and Spinocerebellar Tracts.

Ascending tracts

Why or Why not does the muscle obey in the all-or-none law?

Because the contraction of the muscle increases according to the number of fibers are contracted.

What makes up the bone?

Bone is also made up of osteoblasts, which create and mineralize bone, and osteoclasts, which absorb and digest damaged or old bone cells. . Bone also contains osteoid, which is a mix of collagen and other protein and mineral salts made of calcium and phosphate.

come from osteoblasts which have become flattened

Bone lining cells

Function of bone tissue

Bone tissue forms the rigid part of the bones that make up the skeleton.

What can the effector do ?

Can adjust the value of a variable , usually back towards the set point. It provides a response.

-Chondrocyte is the only cell type present - Lacunae house cells, as in bone -Avascular —therefore, nutrition of cells depends on diffusion of nutrients through matrix -Heals slowly after injury because of slow nutrient transfer to thecells -Perichondrium is membrane that surrounds cartilage •Two layers: outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer •The inner cellular layer is responsible for the appositional cartilage growth.

Cartilage

Distinguish between the kinds of functions where bone is employed versus those where cartilage is found.

Cartilage: used where toughness and flexibility is important (ears, nose, trachea, intervertebral discs), where a smooth gliding surface is needed (joints) where bones meet, and as a model for future bone formation. Bone: used where rigidity is important, and flexibility isn't.

Separate chromosome pairs during mitosis

Centrioles

1. Mesenchyme (an embryonic tissue) = common tissue of origin 2. Have varying degrees of vascularity (blood vessels) 3. Have extracellular matrix •Connective tissue not composed mainly ofcells •Largely nonliving extracellular matrix separates cells •So can bear weight, withstand tension, endure abuse

Characteristics of Connective Tissue

These organelles are used for movement

Cilia and flagellum

Their nuclei are elongated and are usually located near the base of the cells. The cells here may possess microvilli for maximising the surface area for absorption and these microvilli may form a brush border. Other cells may be ciliated to move mucus in the function of mucociliary clearance.

Columnar Epithelium

Connective Tissue that looks like tree rings?

Compact Bone

Describe completely the cross-extension reflex.

Contraction of extensor muscles on opposite limb from one that is withdrawn - typically involved to maintain balance - Stimulus on one side of the body, effector activated from reflex on other side of body

Reflex where motor output happens on opposite side of body that stimulus is detected

Contralateral

Functions of Nucleus

Controls cell activities Contains the hereditary material of the ce

Function of Nuclear membrane

Controls movement of materials in/out of nucleus

This is formed when electron pairs are shared between atoms ?

Covalent Bond

Electrolytes

Covalent compounds (cation or anion) in a solution that send out electrical signals.

What is the difference between DNA and RNA ?

DNA resides in the nucleus and RNA carries info from the nucleus to Cytoplasm

Upper motor neurons (that originate in brain) descend through tracts in spinal cord to synapse in the lateral and ventral horns of gray matter to lower motor neurons. Consist of: Pyramidal System and Extrapyramidal System.

Descending tracts

What gland releases hormones that are absorbed directly in the blood?

Endocrine Glands "ductless" glands"

Carries materials through cell Aids in making proteins

Endoplasmic Reticulum

What are the 2 main layers of the skin

Epidermis and Dermis

What gland secretes through ducts ?

Exocrine Glands

Fibrous VS Cartilaginous VS Synovial Joints

Fibrous: essentially immovable joints Cartilaginous: typically allows a slight degree of movement Synovial: all are freely movable or diarthrotic

The plane that cuts the body lengthwise and seperates the body into anterior and posterior portions is ?

Frontal

What sequence of DNA determines the structure of a protein or RNA ?

Gene

When the action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, it provokes the release of a small quantity of neurotransmitter molecules, which bind to chemical receptor molecules located in the membrane of another neuron, the postsynaptic neuron, on the opposite side of the synaptic cleft.

How a neurotransmitter is released from the postsynaptic terminal

What is the major difference between Negative and positive feedback?

In a system with positive feedback, the system will respond to a change by extremifying the change. In a system with negative feedback, the system will respond to the change by working to cancel it out.

What is an atom that has gained one or more electron called ?

Ion

Generalizations about Epithelial Tissue

Limited amount of matrix material •Membranous type attached to abasement membrane •Avascular •Cells are in close proximity, with many desmosomes and tight junctions •Capable of reproduction

Spongy bone appearance

Looks like an irregular latticework (or sponge) with lots of spaces throughout. These spaces are filled with red bone marrow which is the site of hemopoesis or formation of blood cells.

Cylindrically shaped extensions of the plasma membrane that do not move, are supported by actin filaments , and may function in absorption or as sensory receptors

Microvilli

The plane that cuts through the body lengthwise and divides into equal left and right halves ?

Midsagital

Breaks down sugar (glucose) molecules to release energy Site of aerobic cellular respiration

Mitochondria

Matrix differences among CT types

Most connective tissues are variants of the second group, connective tissue proper where cells are interspersed among protein fibers in a fluid-filled matrix. Supportive connective tissues include cartilage and bone, more durable connective tissue types due to the semisolid or solid ground substance that accumulates in the matrix. Since the matrix of supportive connective tissues is either a semisolid or solid, cells of these tissues occupy small spaces or lacunae.

Functions of muscular system

Move food through GI Tract System Functions: Muscle #2 Heart's pumping action System Functions: Muscle #3 Mobility System Functions: Muscle #4 Body temperature regulation System Functions: Muscle #5 Protection (reflexes)

Microfilaments vs myofibrils vs muscles

Myofilaments are the filaments of myofibrils, constructed from proteins, principally myosin or actin. Types of muscle are striated muscle (such as skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle), obliquely striated muscle (found in some invertebrates), and smooth muscle.

Components of homeostasis

Negative and Positive feedback mechanisms

What is the normal charge of our internal environment of our cell?

Negative charge

Make ribosomes

Nucleolus

The cell organelle that contains DNA , the nucleolus, and is surrounded by a double unit membrane is ?

Nucleus

responsible for the formation of new bone

Osteoblasts

Responsible for the breakdown of bones

Osteoclasts

osteoblasts which have become trapped inside of the bone matrix

Osteocytes

What passively or actively regulates what enters or leaves the cell ?

Plasma Membrane

What are the 5 major functions of the integumentary system?

Protection, Regulation, Communication, Excretion, and Production of Vitamin D

Synthesizes proteins

Ribosomes

What is the basic unit of striated muscle tissue called?

Sarcomere

Squamous Epithelial Tissue

Single layer or flat; scalelike -allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosae.

What muscle is striated, voluntary and helps to form muscles which help to move bones and joints?

Skeletal muscle

This muscle is involuntary and stimulated by nerve impulses?

Smooth muscle

• Transmits proprioception sensations to the cerebellum

Spinocerebellar tract

Transmits pain and temperature sensations to the thalamus and then to the cerebrum

Spinothalamic tract

What is the major difference between simple epithelium and stratified epithelium ?

Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium in that it is multilayered

In order from deepest to most superficial, what are the 5 layers of the epidermis?

Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum

What is depolarization?

Sudden change within a cell, changes the membrane potential to a positive value.

Function of cell wall

Support (grow tall) Protection allows H2O, O2, CO2 to diffuse in & out of cell

What does the cytoplasm do ?

Supports and protects cell organelles

The study of external body structures to locate deeper tissues/organs is called ?

Surface Anatomy

Why can fignerprints be used to identify individuals?

The pattern of your epidermal ridges is unique and does not change during your lifetime.

The resting membrane potential depends on two factors that influence the magnitude and direction of Na+ and K+ diffusion across the plasma membrane. Identify these two factors

The presence of concentration gradients and leak channels. The concentration gradient and the large number of K+ leak channels allow for rather robust K+ diffusion out of a cell. In contrast, the concentration gradient and the relatively few Na+ leak channels allow for much less Na+ diffusion into a cell

Ions are unequally distributed across the plasma membrane of all cells. This ion distribution creates an electrical potential difference across the membrane. What is the name given to this potential difference?

The resting membrane potential is the charge difference across the plasma membrane

What function does the Sodium Potassium Pump possess ?

The sodium-potassium pump maintains the membrane potential by moving three Na+ ions out of the cell for every two [7] K+ ions moved into the cell

Muscular system

To contract (shorten) muscles, causing body movement

understanding language

Wernicke's area

Ionic bond

When electrons are transferred between atoms, creating oppositely charged ions.

Examples of Homeostasis

behavioral, endocrine, and renal mechanisms will all be put in play in an attempt to conserve total body water and maintain water homeostasis.

Example of a normal positive-feedback mechanism ?

blood clotting and childbirth/labor

Negative- feedback mechanism

consist of a receptor, a control center and an effector working together to maintain homeostasis.

Shortening of the muscle

contraction period

ATP function

drives metabolic reactions, to transport molecules against concentration gradients (active transport), and to produce mechanical motion (contraction of myofibrils and microtubules).

abstract though, emotional control, logic

frontal lobe

controls heart rate, breathing, blood pressure (autonomic functions)

medulla

Which organelle produces large amounts of ATP ?

mitochondria

Return to initial length

relaxation period

controls arousal, attention and focus

reticular formation

epidermal area exhibiting the most rapid cell division

stratum basale

scalelike dead cells, full of keratin, constantly slough off

stratum corneum

mitotic cells filled with intermediate filaments

stratum spinosum

Positive -feedback mechanism

usually result in deviations further from the set point