LESSON 9 (Chapter 12 pg. 285-299)

Class vs. Caste (2 different types of stratified societies) pg. 290

1)The key to understanding this fundamental distinction is social mobility. ~Social mobility is the ability of people to change their social position within the society. ~In class systems, a certain amount of upward and downward social mobility exists. In other words, an individual can change his/her social position dramatically within a lifetime. ~Members of a class society are able to elevate their social position by marrying into a higher class. ~Caste societies, on the other hand, have no social mobility. ~Membership in a caste is determined by birth and lasts throughout one's lifetime. ~Caste systems are strictly endogamous (allowing marriages only within one's own caste). 2) Another important distinction is how statuses (positions) within each type of society are allocated. ~Class systems are associated with an achieved status, whereas caste systems are associated with an ascribed status. ~Achieved status (CLASS)- the status an individual acquires during the course of her/his lifetime. ~Ascribed (inherited) status (CASTE)- the status a person has by virtue of birth.

Caste System Characteristics pg. 295

1. Caste membership is directly related to economic issues such as occupation, workloads, and control of valuable resources. THE HIGHER CASTES HAVE MORE RESOURCES AND DO LESS! 2. Members of the SAME CASTE share the SAME SOCIAL STATUS, largely b/c of their strong sense of caste identity, residential and social segregation from other castes, and uniformity of lifestyles. 3. Caste exclusiveness is further enhanced because each caste has its OWN SET OF SECRET RITUALS, WHICH TEND TO INTENSIFY GROUP AWARENESS. 4. The HIGHER CASTES are generally more interested in MAINTAINING THE CASTE SYSTEM FOR THE OBVIOUS REASON THAT THEY BENEFIT FROM IT THE MOST!

Societal Types (Morton Fried-1967)

1. Egalitarian 2. Rank 3. Stratified

3) Middle Class pg. 291

~ 30% OF US. POPULATION ~ hardworking people of modest income, such as SMALL ENTREPRENEURS, TEACHERS, NURSES, CIVIL SERVANTS, AND LOWER-LEVEL MANAGERS. ~make a modest income, enjoy relatively security (threatened occasionally by rising taxes and inflation), and have the potential for upward social mobility.

Varnas pg. 295

~ Caste groups in Hindu India that are associated with certain occupations! ~Even though local villagers may not always agree about who belongs to which varna, MOST PEOPLE ACCEPT THE VARNA categories as fundamentally essential elements of their society. ~the 4 major varnas ORIGINATED from the BODY OF PRIMEVAL MAN.

Class systems in the U.S. pg. 295

~ our national mythology includes the belief that the U.S. offers a good deal of social mobility ~no formal or legal barriers to equality ~Studies of social class in the U.S. have shown that most people remain in the class into which they are born and marry within that class as well! ~it also showed that members of a social class tend to associate more often with one another than with people in other classes! ~A PERSON'S LIFE CHANCES, THOUGH NOT DETERMINED, ARE VERY MUCH INFLUENCED BY SOCIAL CLASS!!!

C. Wright Mills- Power (pg. 286)

~1956, insisted that power was concentrated in the hands of a power elite comprising corporate, government, and military leaders

William Domhoff- Power (pg.286)

~2009, has arrived at a similar conclusion. ~The power elite share many of the same values, belong to the same clubs, sit on the same boards of directors, are graduates of the same schools, and even vacation at the same resorts. ~According to Mills and Domhoff, the concentration of real power in the hands of an elite in the U.S. has remained constant for much of the nation's history. (pg. 287)

Class Societies (stratified society) pg. 290-294)

~A class system is a ranked group within a stratified society characterized by achieved status and considerable social mobility. ~In a class society, the class into which one is born determines access to wealth, prestige, and power. ~A segment of a population whose members share similar lifestyles and levels of wealth, power, and prestige. ~Class membership is fluid in that the possibility exists for individuals to move up or down in class status. ~However, in modern class societies such as our own, class mobility is actually limited and few people ever move up or down more than a few slots.

Egalitarian Society

~A society in which every individual is born with equal opportunities to achieve the highest positions appropriate to their sex/age category. ~In terms of their material possessions and well-being, all people in egalitarian societies are virtually indistinguishable. ~A society in which there are as many positions of prestige in any sex/age category as there are persons capable of filling them. ~However, persons may later acquire greater or lesser wealth or prestige, but not power. ~ In other words, any status differences that later emerge are achieved by an individual through talent and hard work, rather than being ascribed (inherited).

Power in the U.S. (pg. 286-287)

~According to our democratic ideology, power is in the hands of the people. ~We all exercise our power by voting for our political representatives, who see to it that our will is carried out. ~According to Mills and Domhoff, the concentration of real power in the hands of an elite in the U.S. has remained constant for much of the nation's history. (pg. 287)

Wealth in the U.S. (pg. 286)

~Close correlation between income and level of education ~According to U.S. Census Bureau, average incomes vary widely with different levels of education, from $27,600 for those with less than a ninth-grade eduction to $88,600 for those with a bachelor's degree or higher. ~Average annual incomes chart on pg. 286

1) Wealth pg. (285-286)

~First, people are distinguished from one another by the extent to which they have accumulated economic resources, or their wealth. ~Wealth is the material objects that have value in a society ~Examples: 1. For the Mexican Farmer, wealth resides in the land 2. For the Samburu of East Africa, a man's wealth is measured by the number of cows he has 3. United Kingdom, most people equate their wealth with income earned in wages, property, stocks, bonds, equity in a home, or other resources that have a cash value. 4. Pygmies, there are virtually no differences in wealth

Caste Society

~No upward or downward mobility is allowed as one must remain a member of one's birth caste for life. ~Caste membership also determines much more of one's behavior than does a class system, including one's occupation, marriage partners, etc. ~ Examples of Caste Societies: Hindu Caste System in India and the system of apartheid that once existed in South Africa. ~In the Hindu system, at least, although caste membership is fixed, the relative ranking of castes can change over time.

Egalitarian Societies transformed.. (pg.288)

~Often egalitarian societies are transformed considerably when they come into contact with highly stratified (state-like) societies. ~Sometimes the transformation from egalitarian to non-egalitarian society is the result of normal cultural diffusion. ~Often it occurs because such a change meets the needs of colonial governments. ~Example: the Kikuyu people adhered to their egalitarian ideals and refused to recognize the legitimacy of these new government-appointed chiefs of the British colonial government (pg.288)

The Capitalist Class has played an increasingly prominent role in the political decision-making process through direct contributions (either individually or as representatives of corporations) to political campaigns: pg. 294

1. Members of the capitalist class are recruited for top-level positions in the federal government, such as cabinet posts and ambassadorships. 2. The capitalist class exerts untold pressure on all levels of government decision making through corporate lobbying efforts. 3. Many policy planning groups and private foundations are funded and represented by members of the capitalist class. 4. Virtually all mass media (television, newspapers), which have enormous influence on public opinion and public policy, are owned and controlled by the capitalist class.

Examples of Rank Societies (pg. 289):

1. Oceania 2. Native Americans of the Northwest Coast 3. Parts of Polynesia 4. Among Native Americans residing in a narrow coastal region b/w northern California and southern Alaska ~These cultural similarities are particularly noticeable in the area of status ranking.

What accounts for this increasing inequality over the last decades? pg. 294

1. The change from an industrial to a post-industrial society created a high demand for people with advanced training and education, most of whom are from the upper classes. 2. The influence of labor unions, which traditionally fought for higher wages for U.S. workers, has declined in recent decades. 3. Current trends in family life (higher divorce rates and more people choosing to remain single) have led to more female-headed households, which tend to have lower family incomes. 4. The tendency for U.S. corporations to become leaner and meaner through "downsizing" has had its most negative effects on the lower income groups. 5. The gap between the haves and the have-nots widened due to the substantial tax cuts during the administrations of Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush, which had the effect of helping the wealthy far more than the rest of the population.

Differential Status in Nootka Society (pg. 289-rank society)

1. The most visible symbol separating people of different rank is clothing (the hight the social position, the more ornate a person's dress- wearing ornaments of teeth and shells or robes trimmed with the fur of sea otters is the exclusive privilege of chiefs). 2. An individual's status is directly linked to the bestowal of certain hereditary titles that are the names of important ancestors. 3. Social position is expressed economically in terms of the amount of tribute (in surplus goods) a chief receives from the lower-ranked individuals who acknowledge his higher status. (the receipt of tribute does not enhance the personal wealth of the chief b/c he redistributes the surplus goods back to the society in the form of elaborate feasts and ceremonies). 4. Social rank is determined by one's success in potlatch ceremonies (validating rank), in which prominent men compete with one another to see who can give away the largest quantities of material goods, such as food, blankets, and oil. Unlike Western societies, which equate high status with the accumulation of material wealth, the Nootka confer high status on those who can give away the greatest quantities of material goods. (pg. 289-end of rank society)

Logical Reasons on why unequal access to wealth, power, and prestige would be discouraged among nomadic foragers: (pg.288)

1. The very nature of a nomadic existence inhibits the accumulation of large quantities of personal possessions. 2. Because foragers do not hold claims to territory, individuals can forage in whatever areas they please. If one person wants to exercise control over others, the others can choose to live in some other territory. 3. Food collectors tend to be egalitarian b/c sharing maximizes their chances for adaptation. It would make more sense to share a whole carcass with everyone due to no refrigeration.

Dimensions of Social Inequality

1. Wealth 2. Power 3. Prestige ~Although wealth, power, and prestige are often interrelated, they can also operate independently (pg. 287)

Social Mobility (pg. 290)

The ability of people to change their social position within the society.

Primogeniture (pg. 289)

the exclusive right of the eldest child (usually the son) to inherit his father's estate.

5) Working Poor pg. 291

~ 13% OF US POPULATION! ~ barely earn a living at unskilled, low-paying, unpleasant, and often temporary jobs with little security and frequently no benefits! ~ Undereducated, functionally illiterate ~ LIVE FROM PAYCHECK TO PAYCHECK, often depend on food stamps, and have little or no savings as a safety net! ~ Just a layoff away from living on the streets or in a homeless shelter ~ The working poor in the US, despite their lack of rewards, MAINTAIN A STRONG WORK ETHIC!!!

2) Upper Middle Class pg. 291

~ 14% of US POPULATION, made up of business and professional people who have high incomes and considerable amounts of overall wealth. ~ the class MOST SHAPED BY EDUCATION!! ~nearly all members of the upper middle class are college educated, and many have postgrad degrees. ~lawyer, doctors, professionals

Chiefs in Rank Societies (pg. 289)

~ Even though the chiefs in a rank society possess great prestige and privilege, they generally do not accumulate great wealth; their basic standard of living is not noticeably different from that of an ordinary person. ~ Usually receive gifts of tribute from members of other kin groups, but they never keep them for their personal use (give them all away through redistribution). ~The chief may control land to the extent that he encourages people not to neglect either the land or their obligation to contribute to the chief's tribute, but the chief has no real power or control over the land. ~Maintains his privileged position as chief not by virtue of his capacity to improve his will on others but because of his generosity.

John Quigley, Steven Raphael, and Eugene Smolensky (Underclass- REASONS FOR HOMELESSNESS) pg. 292

~ Found that homelessness is caused largely by the high price of housing in general and the scarcity of low-income housing in particular! ~ Researchers found that the incidence of homelessness decreased when there were even just modest reductions in the cost of housing and increased availability of affordable rental properties. ~

Rank Society

~ In a rank society, there exist ascribed (inherited) differences in prestige but not in wealth or power. ~Individuals are born with differential prestige relative to one another; in other words, they are ranked from higher to lower in this quality. ~Oftentimes, the principle used to determine social ranking is kinship seniority, defined as genealogical nearness to the kin group founder.

"Elitism" - power (pg. 287)

~ Recently, the term elite has taken on a somewhat different meaning in political discourse. ~ In an attempt to divert attention away from their own "elitism," traditional conservatives (who constituted C. Wright Mills's original conception of the power elite) are now extending the mantle of elitism over a wide range of liberals in professions such as journalism, law, and university teaching. ~According to conservative politicians, what all of these liberal "elites" have in common is that they (1) have graduated from the top universities in the country and (2) are suspicious of totally uncontrolled markets. ~When conservative elitists try to label journalists and university professors as elitists, they are conveniently failing to mention one very important difference: the so-called liberal "elitists" advocate policies aimed at benefitting all members of the society, not just the wealthy and the powerful (pg. 287).

Prestige in the U.S. (pg. 287)

~ Research indicates that occupations in the U.S. carry different levels of prestige and that those rankings remained remarkably stable throughout the 20th century. ~ Essentially 4 factors separated the occupations at the top from those at the bottom during the 20th century: 1. The occupations at the top end offer higher salaries, require more education, offer greater autonomy (less supervision), and require more abstract thinking and less physical labor. ~ Since the year 2000, there has been some rearranging of occupational prestige in the US: firefighters, scientists, and teachers (receive very modest financial compensation for their noble and selfless labors) are among the highest prestige occupations, while bankers and real estate brokers (their selfish behaviors is considered to have led us directly to the recession of 2008) rank at the bottom.

Is the Class System in the United States Changing? pg. 292-294

~ Since WWII, the relationship among the different classes has gone through 2 distinct periods! ~ Dennis Gilbert (2008), period from 1945-1975 was a time of "SHARED PROSPERITY" in which class differences were shrinking! ~ Since 1975, there has been a marked expansion of class disparities! ~Today, it has become harder o read a person's social status in the U.S. ~ According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the number of people living below the poverty line has continued to increase steadily during the 1st decade of the new millennium. ~MONEY IS INTIMATELY INTERCONNECTED WITH POLITICAL POWER AND INFLUENCE! ~the largest contributors to political campaigns in the U.S. are, not surprisingly, the wealthiest!

3) Prestige (pg. 287)

~ The social esteem, respect, or admiration that a society confers on people. ~ Because favorable social evaluation is based on the norms and values of a particular group, source of prestige vary from one culture to another. ~Examples: 1. Among certain traditional Native American groups, warriors on horseback held high prestige 2. In certain age-graded societies such as the Samburu of Kenya, old men were accorded the high prestige 3. In the U.S., high prestige is closely associated with certain professions

Sankritization pg. 297

~ a form of upward social mobility found in contemporary India whereby people born into lower castes can achieve higher status by taking some of the behaviors and practices of the highest (Brahmin) caste. ~involves taking on the behaviors, practices, and values associated with the Brahmin (highest) caste, such as being a vegetarian, giving large dowries for daughters, and wearing sacred clothing associated with Brahmins. ~ACCORDING TO PAULINE KOLENDA, people accomplish this type of upward mobility by acquiring considerable wealth and education, migrating to other parts of the country, or becoming political activists.

Caste Society pg. 295

~ a rigid form of social stratification in which membership is determined by birth and social mobility is nonexistent! ~unchangeable, people in different castes are segregated from one another, social mobility is virtually NONEXISTENT, and marriage between members of different castes is strictly prohibited! ~Castes, which are usually associated with SPECIFIC OCCUPATIONS, ARE RANKED HIERARCHICALLY! ~

4) Working Class pg. 291

~ approx. 30% OF US POPULATION ~ hold occupations that tend to be fairly routine and closely supervised and usually require no more than a high school education (BLUE-COLLAR AND SOME WHITE-COLLAR JOBS) ~ FACTORY WORKERS, SALES CLERKS, CONSTRUCTION WORKERS, OFFICE WORKERS, APPLIANCE REPAIRPERSONS. ~ because of their lack of higher education, members of this group tend to have little social mobility. ~ Subject to layoffs during recessions and justifiably feel threatened by our increasingly globalized economy, in which many jobs are going to workers abroad. ~ LOW RATE OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION!!! ~ MOST VULNERABLE TO THE SHIFT TO A POSTINDUSTRIAL ECONOMY WITH FEWER MANUFACTURING JOBS AND MORE HIGH-TECH POSITIONS REQUIRING HIGHER LEVELS OF EDUCATION!

K.R. Narayanan pg. 298

~ in 1997, India elected its first president from among the ranks of the Dalit Caste.

2) Power (pg. 286-287)

~Power is the capacity to produce intended effects for oneself, other people, social situations, or the environment. ~the ability to compel others to do what they otherwise would prefer not to. ~a result of the ability to apply social sanctions, either punishments (negative sanctions) or rewards (positive sanctions). ~Power is often closely correlated with wealth because economic success, particularly in Western societies, increases one's chances of gaining power. ~ Wealth and power do not always coincide. ~In center parts of the world, power can be based on factors other than wealth, such as specialized knowledge or eloquence as a speaker.

Stratified Society (pg. 289-290)

~Stratified societies maintain ascribed (inherited) differences in all three dimensions of social inequality. ~Societies can be stratified, that is to say, divided into distinct segments, on the basis of either class or caste.

Ascribed (inherited) Status (pg. 290) Caste Societies

~The status a person has by virtue of birth. ~has no control over it. ~statuses based on sex, race, and age. Which are found mainly in caste societies.

Achieved Status (pg. 290) Class Societies

~The status an individual acquires during the course of her/his lifetime. ~those that the individual chooses or at least has some control over. ~one that a person has attained as a result of her/his personal effort, such as graduating from college, marrying someone, or taking a particular job.

2) Rank Society (pg. 288-289)

~Unequal access to prestige and status but not unequal access to wealth and power. ~only unequal in terms of prestige!!! ~Usually a fixed number of high-status positions, which only certain individuals are able to occupy (others are systematically excluded regardless of their personal skills, wisdom, industriousness, or other personal traits). ~Kinship plays an important role in rank societies (Ex: Chief- largely hereditary, and distinguish among various levels of prestige and esteem). ~ Kin groups- genealogical proximity. So, the number of high-status positions in ranked societies is limited, and the major criterion for allocating such positions is genealogical.

Nootka of British Columbia (pg. 289- rank society)

~a hunting and fishing society ~live in an area so abundant in food resources (such as big game, wild edible plants, waterfowl, and fish) that their standard of living is comparable to societies that practice horticulture and animal husbandry. ~ Social ranking among the Nootka is closely related to the principle of kinship proximity. ~People are ranked within families according to primogeniture: position, privileges, and titles passed from a man to his eldest son. ~Younger sons are of little social importance b/c they aren't in direct line to inherit anything from the father. ~Nootka society does not have clearly marked social strata but rather a large number of individual status positions ranked relative to one another. Thus, no two individuals have exactly the same status.

Hindu Caste System pg. 295- 298

~best-known and best-described caste system! ~Hinduism's sacred Sanskrit texts rank all people into 4 categories, called VARNAS, which are ASSOCIATED WITH CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS!

3) Stratified Society (pg. 289-290)

~characterized by considerable inequality in all forms of social rewards (power, wealth, and prestige). ~The political, economic, and social inequality in stratified societies is both permanent and formally recognized by the members of the society. ~Various groups are noticeably different in social position, wealth, lifestyle, access to power, and standard of living. ~the unequal access to rewards is generally inheritable from one generation to the next. ~ Although distinctions in wealth, power, and prestige began to appear in the early neolithic period (approx. 10,000 years ago), the emergence of truly stratified societies is closely associated with the rise of civilization approx. 5,500 years ago. ~ A basic prerequisite for civilization is a population with a high degree of role specialization. ~As societies become more specialized, the system of social stratification also becomes more complex. ~Different occupations or economic interest groups do not have the same access to wealth, power, and prestige but rather are ranked relative to one another. ~ As a general rule, the greater the role specialization, the more complex the system of stratification.

1) Capitalist (upper) Class pg. 290

~in the US, approx. 1% of the population, consists of OLD WEALTH, CORPORATE EXECUTIVES, AND OWNERS OF LUCRATIVE BUSINESSES. (their incomes derive largely from returns on assets such as stocks, bonds, securities, and real estate). ~The OWNERSHIP OF THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION by the capitalist class affords them the power over jobs for the rest of society. ~Their CONTROL OF THE MEDIA largely shapes the nation's consciousness. ~because they are the main source of SOFT MONEY (a form of political contribution not covered by federal regulation, which works to the advantage of wealthy candidates and their benefactors) contributions to political campaigns, they exert enormous influence over national politics. (pg. 291) ~primarily b/c of the rapid development of the postindustrial economy, the number of people in the upper class has increased in recent decades. ~the size of their incomes has grown much faster than for any other class.

Reality of Class vs. Caste Systems (pg. 290)

~it is important to bear in mind that stratified societies CANNOT all be divided neatly into either class or caste systems. ~ Class systems are open to the extent that they are based on achieved statuses and permit considerable social mobility. ~Caste systems tend to be closed to the extent that they are based on ascribed statuses and allow little or no social mobility, either up or down. ~However, we must also realize that in the real world, class and caste systems OVERLAP! ~Most stratified societies contain elements of both class and caste. ~There are no societies that have either absolute mobility (perfect class systems) or a total lack of mobility (perfect caste systems). Rather ALL SOCIETIES found in the world fall somewhere between these two ideal polarities, depending on the amount of social mobility permitted in each.

JATI pg. 296

~local subcastes/subgroups found in Hindu India that are strictly endogamous; local family groups! ~All members of a jati, who share a common social status, are expected to behave in ways appropriate for that jati. ~A person's jati commands his/her strongest loyalties, serves as a source of social support, and provides the primary basis for personal identity. ~THE JATI IS THE IMPORTANT SOCIAL ENTITY IN TRADITIONAL HINDU SOCIETY! ~the members of each jati maintain its corporateness in 2 ways: 1. through egalitarian socializing WITH MEMBERS OF THEIR OWN JATI 2. By scrupulously AVOIDING any type of egalitarian socializing (such as marriage or sharing of food) with members of OTHER JATI! ~today most members of the traditional leather-worker caste are landless laborers. ~FOR THE ECONOMY TO WORK, LOWER CASTES SELL THEIR SERVICES TO THE UPPER CASTES IN EXCHANGE FOR GOODS.

1. Egalitarian Society (pg. 288)

~located at the low end of the inequality continuum ~no individual or group has appreciably more wealth, power, or prestige than any other. ~personal differences in certain skills are acknowledged (hunting, adept at crafts, skills at settling disputes) ~Even though certain individuals in this society may be highly esteemed, they are not able to transform their special skills into wealth and power. ~Whatever esteem an individual manages to accrue is not transferable to his/her heirs. ~The number of high-status positions for which people must complete is not fixed ~ Everyone, depending on her/his personal skill level, has equal access to positions of esteem and respect. ~Examples: (food collectors/nomadic foragers) 1. the Ju/'hoansi of the Kalahari region 2. The Inuit 3. Hadza of Tanzania

6) Underclass pg. 291-292

~lowest rung of US society! ~ UNEMPLOYED (OR SEVERELY UNDEREMPLOYED), HOMELESS, AND OFTEN SUFFER FROM SUBSTANCE ABUSE AND IN SOME CASES MENTAL ILLNESS! ~ urban areas plagued by violence, gangs, and drugs ~ ONE OF THE MOST VISIBLE TRAITS OF MEMBERS OF THE UNDERCLASS IS HOMELESSNESS! ~ most of the newly homeless people are not chronic members of the underclass, but rather working-class people who have lost their jobs and lost their homes through foreclosure!

The Untouchables pg. 296

~technically OUTSIDE THE CASTE SYSTEM! ~outcasts ~ confined to the lowest and most menial types of work, such as cleaning latrines or leather-working, are considered so impure that members of the 4 legitimate castes must AVOID ALL CONTACT WITH THEM!

4 major VARNAS (categories)

~the 4 major varnas ORIGINATED from the BODY OF PRIMEVAL MAN: 1. The Brahmins (priests and scholars)- HIS MOUTH 2. The Kshatriyas (warriors)- emanated from HIS ARMS 3. The Vaishyas (tradesmen)- came from HIS THIGHS 4. The Shudras (cultivators and servants)- sprang from HIS FEET ~each of these four castes is HIERARCHICALLY RANKED ACCORDING TO RITUAL PURITY! ~Each of these 4 categories (varnas) is further SUBDIVIDED and STRATIFIED!

Class Society in U.S. (pg. 290)

~the U.S. is a good example of a CLASS SOCIETY! ~Examples: 1. Coal-mining towns in Appalachia (2 classes) : a) the haves and b) the have-nots ~Social scientists have identified a number of social classes: 1) capitalist (upper), 2) upper middle, 3) middle, 4) working, 5) working poor, and 6) underclass

Dalit pg. 296

~the politically correct term for those formerly called Untouchables in India! ~"crushed" or "oppressed" people

European Gypsies (Roma) pg. 298-299

~the present-day, migratory version of Indian Untouchables in Europe. ~ Wherever they arrived in Europe, they were met with hostility and discrimination. ~ Expelled or subjected to forced labor. ~ The Roma remain an oppressed underclass, often living in squatter settlements, experience high levels of unemployment, and being denied adequate educational opportunities for their children. ~"Decade of Roma Inclusion"-provides state funds to improve housing, employment, health, and education among Roma populations: ~8 countries involved: 1)Bulgaria, 2)Croatia, 3)The Czech Republic, 4)Hungary, 5)Macedonia, 6)Romania, 7)Serbia/ Montenegro, 8)Slovakia ~Some skeptics have suggested that it may be easier to eliminate poverty among the Roma than to eliminate the centuries of social exclusion they have had to endure.

B.R. Ambedkar (former Dalit) pg.298

~tried to eliminated some of the worst features of the caste system by making it a criminal offense to discriminate against dalits. ~also established the world's FIRST AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PROGRAM BY ESTABLISHING QUOTAS FOR DALITS (and other underprivileged groups) for proportional representation in the parliament, government jobs, and education.