Lifespan Development

Describe how the correlation scale works

-1 or close to one means a strong correlation or a perfect correlation -1 or close to negative one means a strong negative correlation. 0 or close to zero means a weak or no correlation

Brief summary of the Late Adulthood

-65 and older -Specifically in the industrialized countries, this period of life has increased with life expectancy -young old (65-74 years old), old old (75-84 years old), and oldest old (85+ years old) -young old is similar to middle adults, possibly still working, active, and healthy -old old have some health problems and challenges with daily living activities -the oldest old are often frail and in need of long term care -the aging process ranges from optimal aging, normal aging, impaired aging

Define a Cohort

-A cohort is a group of people who are born at roughly the same time period in a particular society. -Members of a cohort have experienced the same historical events and cultural climates which have an impact on the values, priorities, and goals that may guide their lives.

Explain how development is multidimensional

-A complex interplay of factors influence development across the lifespan, including biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes. -Interaction between these factors is what influences an individual's development. -Ex: Puberty encompasses a broad range of domains like growing taller and voice getting deeper, understanding abstract concepts, and starting to date, illustrates multidimensionalality

What is a socioeconomic status?

-A way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income, and occupation. -Members of a social class tend to share similar lifestyles, patterns of consumption, parenting styles, stressors, religious preferences, and other aspects of daily life.

Describe Observational Studies

-Also called naturalistic observation -Involve watching and recording the actions of participants and their surroundings -May take place in a natural setting or in a laboratory setting -The researcher may be a participant or a non-participant. -Strength: allowing the researcher to see how people behave rather than relying on self-report -Weakness: do not allow the researcher to explain causal relationships -People knowing they are being observed may effect results

Brief summary of the Early Childhood

-Also referred to as preschool years, which are after older years but before formal schooling (2-5) -The child shows amazing growth in learning language, growing in independence, and becoming familiar with the physical world. -Demonstrate interesting perceptions of time, space, and distance. -Develop guilt for breaking the rules

Explain how development is Contextual

-Baltes identified three biological and environmental types of influences that operate throughout the life course to influence development.: normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded influences, and nonnormative influences. -their effects accumulate with time, are lifelong, and are responsible for how our lives develop

Describe longitudinal design

-Beginning with a group of people of the same age and cohort, and measuring them over a period of time. -Used to examine behavior in the same individuals over time. -people are followed through time and compared to their younger selves -Changes with age over time can be measured -Disadvantages: expensive, time consuming, and participants dropping out -The practice effect may occur, which is When individuals become better at a task because they do it over and over -The data findings are limited to only one Cohort Ex: 20 year old results to technology would not apply to 20 year olds in the 1950s -Participants are tested at different periods in history, so the variables of age and time of measurement could be mixed up

Define a Culture

-Blueprint or guideline shared by a group of people that specifies how to live; passed down from generation to generation; learned from parents and others -Teaches us what is right and wrong, what to strive for, what to eat, how to speak, what is valued, as well as what kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations -Values an tradition in a culture serve to help members function in their own society and value their society

Describe Surveys

-Can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. -involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects, either open ended or multiple choice -In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set -Surveys yield surface information on a wide variety of factors, but do not provide an in-depth understanding of human behavior. -Useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. -Based on self-report, or what people say they do rather than on observation, and this can limit accuracy. -Validity refers to accuracy and reliability refers to consistency in responses

Define different types of Research

-Descriptive research: research focused on describing an occurrence -Correlational research: research that formally tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables -Experimental research: research that involves randomly assigning people to different conditions and using hypothesis testing to make inferences about how these conditions affect behavior (Uses explanatory studies) -Evaluation research: research designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs

Explain how Development is lifelong

-Development its not completed at any one stage, it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death. -The study of development traditionally studied development from conception to adolescence with little development after adolescence -The current view of development views development in all stages of life as a lifelong process, and easier events effect people development later in life -As individuals move through life, they are faced with many challenges, opportunities, and situations that impact their development.

Key points of Paul Baltes "Lifespan perspective" Theory

-Development occurs across one's entire life, or is lifelong. -Development is multidimensional, meaning it involves the dynamic interaction of factors like physical, emotional, and psychosocial development -Development is multidirectional and results in gains and losses throughout life -Development is plastic, meaning that characteristics are malleable or changeable. -Development is influenced by contextual and socio-cultural influences. -Development is multidisciplinary.

Explain Experimental Research

-Experiments are designed to test hypotheses in a controlled setting in efforts to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes -A variable is anything that changes in value. -Concepts are operationalized so the researcher must specify exactly what is going to be measured -The experimental method is the only research method that can measure cause and effect relationships between variables. -Three conditions must be met in order to establish cause and effect: The independent and dependent variables must be related, The cause must come before the effect, The cause must be isolated.

Describe Case Studies

-Exploring a single case or situation in great detail. -Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation. -Helpful in investigating unusual and individual situations -Can be used to explore areas about which little is known and can provide rich detail about situations or conditions. -Findings cannot be generalized(No control group and participants are not randomly selected)

Brief summary of death and dying

-Factors such as age, religion, and culture play important roles in attitudes and approaches to death and dying. -There are different types of death: physiological, psychological, and social -The most common causes of death vary with age, gender, race, culture, and time in history. -There is differences in how cultures view death, in death rituals, mourning, and grief. -A "good death" is described as a personal choice and the involvement of loved ones. -Palliative care is an approach to maintain dying individuals' comfort level -Hospice is a movement and practice that involves professional and volunteer care and loved ones -Controversy surrounds euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, and legality varies

How is recruitment a challenge in developmental science?

-Finding adults to participate is typically easier than recruiting children. -When recruiting, researcher must consider the number of participants needed and location. -For large groups, researchers will use birth records or pay a recruitment agency. -Less expensive methods are fliers and adds, and social media

Brief summary of the Middle Childhood

-From ages 6-11, school and interactions with peers is children main influence and experience. -Academics and learning become important, and assessing ones accomplishments by comparison to peers. -Schools instills this behavior by comparing students in academic and athletic achievements. -The brain reaches adult size at 7, but continues to develop. -Growth slows down and children children are able to refine their motor skills -Same sex relationships are particularly prevalent during this time

Encompass the Physical Domain of Human development

-Height and weight charts that pediatricians consult to estimate if babies, children, and teens are growing within normative ranges of physical development -Changes in children's fine and gross motor skills, as well as their increasing coordination, particularly in terms of playing sports. -Physical development also involves brain development, which not only enables childhood motor coordination but also greater coordination between emotions and planning in adulthood -Physical development also includes puberty, sexual health, fertility, menopause, changes in our senses, and primary versus secondary aging. Healthy habits with nutrition and exercise

Describe Sequential design

-Include elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs. -Features participants who are followed over time -Sequential research includes participants of different ages. -Individuals of different ages are enrolled into a study at various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same individuals as they age, and to account for the possibility of cohort and/or time of measurement effects. -Changes with age over time can be measured and compared with differences between age and cohort groups. -Practice effects may still be an issue, but attrition may not.

Ethical concerns of conducting developmental research

-Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) must review and approve all research projects that are conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions -The panel of experts ensure the research will be carried out ethically and the potential benefits outweigh the potential harm -Infants snd children are considered more at risk than adults, due to their limited cognitive capability, which makes consent an issue, and long term participation unsure -Similarly, adults with limited cognitive abilities are also more of a risk -There is an informed consent process, where participants are told the procedure and the benefits and risks, and sign their consent. Guardians must sign for children, who must be present at the study. -Children are not asked whether they want to participate until they are 7. -Researchers and parents must always protect the rights and wellbeing of children in the study

Brief summary of the Middle Adulthood

-Late 30s through mid 60s -Physiological aging becomes more noticeable -are at peak of love and work -often gaining expertise in certain areas and finding more efficient solutions to problems than before -More realistic about possibilities in life (Possibility vs likelihood) -Referred to as the sandwich generation, where they may be taking care of their children and/or parents -May be questioning their own mortality, goals, and commitments

Brief summary of the Early Adulthood

-Late teens, twenties, and thirties -At our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse -Main focus on making choices to further our future goals, as well as poetry the impression of a full adult -Love and work are the primary concerns -Common goals for young adults are moving out of their parents' homes, finish their education, take on work/careers, get married, and have children -"emerging adulthood," a stage introduced by Jeffrey Arnett, is between adolescence and early adulthood(18-29), where individuals are still exploring their identities and don't feel like full adults. -Cohort, culture, time in history, the economy, and socioeconomic status may be key factors in when youth take on adult roles.

Brief summary of the Prenatal Development

-Life inside the womb where conception and development occur. There are three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. The major structures of the body are forming and the mothers health is of great concern. Factors of this stage are -labor, delivery, childbirth, complications of pregnancy and delivery, newborn risks -The influences of nature and nurture are evident.

Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are because of nurture?

-Nature: The influences of biology and genetics on behavior -Nurture: Environmental, social, and cultural influences on behavior -We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as eye color, height, and certain personality traits -Beyond our basic genotype, however, there is a deep interaction between our genes and our environment.

Describe the relationship between genes and our environment.

-Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment.

Brief summary of the Adolescence

-Overall physical growth and sexual maturation, called puberty. Puberty may vary by gender, cohort, and culture (11-18) -Cognitive change occurs as well, and teens begin to consider abstract concepts like love, fear, and freedom. -They exhibit a sense of invincibility and impulsive behvaior which causes death rates and disease to be higher(STI) -Establishing ones own identity is a major developmental task. -Teens strive for independence from their parents and a sense of belonging amongst peers. -New roles are explored, like dating, driving, taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics, as well as mixed sex peer groups

Explain how development is Plastic

-Plasticity in development denotes that their are many pathways and possible development outcome, and that the nature of human development is much more open and pluralistic than traditional views imply. -Focuses on the potentials and limits of the nature of human development -Ex: Blind people having superior hearing compares to visual people, and that the brain rewires itself to rely on other senses more heavily, that are normally devoted to vision.

What are descriptive, or qualitative studies?

-Research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables -used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured. -Hypothesis is formed in later stages of the experiment -Used to gather more information about the topic before designing an experiment Ex: observation, case studies, surveys, and content analysis

Why is attrition something ti be considered with young children and infants?

-Studies with infants and young children tend to have higher attrition rates than studies with adults. -Children are harder to motivate to want to follow the tasks, and are more likely to be fussy and tired, or lose interest -For this reason, research sessions tend to be shorter with children

How do the three types of influence explain adolescent development?

-The age-graded influences would help to explain the similarities within a cohort -The history-graded influences would help to explain the differences between cohorts -The nonnormative influences would explain the individuality of each adolescent's development.

Explain how development is multidirectional

-The development of a particular domain does not occur in a linear fashion, rather the development of certain traits can show both an increase and decrease in effectiveness and progress. -Ex: Puberty allows for one to better control impulsiveness and emotions, yet in puberty children typically engage in spontanoes activities, which lead to impulsive behavior. -Baltes also argued that development is influenced by the "joint expression of features of growth (gain) and decline (loss)" -This relation between developmental gains and losses occurs in a direction to selectively optimize particular capacities.

Brief summary of the Infancy and Toddlerhood

-The first two years shows dramatic growth. A newborn with reflexes and great hearing but poor eyesight transforms into a toddler who can walk and talk, in a short period of time. Caregivers roles are transformed from managing eating and sleeping schedules to constantly moving and inspecting safety hazards for their curious and mobile children. -Brain, language, and physical growth happen at a remarkable rate -Interactions with primary caregivers and others change from separation anxiety and developed attachment styles. -Social and cultural issues consist of: Breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training, and whether or not to get vaccinations.

Explain the three conditions of cause and effect.

-The independent and dependent variables must be related: When the independent variable is altered, the dependent variable must change. -The cause must come before the effect: The independent variable must change before the dependent variable -The cause must be isolated: No outside or unknown variables may be causing the effect

What is selective optimization with compensation.

-The sacrificing of other functions -individuals prioritize particular functions above others, reducing the adaptive capacity of particulars for specialization and improved efficacy of other modalities. Ex: Adolesence must sacrifice a fast reaction time to stimuli and not engage in spontaneous or creative activities if they are constantly required to think about their decisions and regulate their emotions.

What is research Design

-The strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information -Research design dictates which methods are used and how. -Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and Sequential Design

What determines how strong the correlation coefficient is?

-The strength of a correlation has to do with how well the two variables align. -If an association has many exceptions, it is considered a weak correlation. -If an association has few or no exceptions, it is considered a strong correlation. -A strong correlation is one in which the two variables always, or almost always, go together. -The stronger a correlation is, the tighter the dots in the scatterplot will be arranged along a sloped line.

Define Confirmation bias

-The tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence.

Encompass the Cognitive Domain of Human development

-Toddlers learning language too fast -Differences in age groups ability to think logically about the concrete world around them. -Cognitive development includes mental processes, thinking, learning, and understanding, and it doesn't stop in childhood. -Adolescents develop the ability to think logically about the abstract world, Moral reasoning, practical intelligence -Wisdom, Memory abilities and different forms of intelligence tend to change with age. -The brains development and ability to change and compensate for losses is significant

Describe Cross-sectional design

-Used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time. -Less expensive and time consuming -Ex: Comparing drug use in 9th vs 10th vs 11th vs 12th graders in one school, of the same year. -Results yield information about age differences not necessarily changes with age or over time. -Age may not be the only factor. Cohort, race, culture, etc may also be a factor. -Limited in one time of research

Define Correlational Research

-When scientists passively observe and measure phenomena -Researchers do not intervene and change behavior, as they do in experiments -The goal is to identify patterns of relationships, but not cause and effect. -Can examine only two variables at a time (No more, no less) Ex: The more money someone donates to charity, the happier they are. This does not mean donating money causes happiness.

What is an achievement gap?

-persistent difference in grades, test scores, and graduation rates that exist among students of different ethnicities, races, and sexes. -Research suggests these differences are influenced by differences in socioeconomic factors that exist among the families of these children

Encompass the Psychosocial Domain of Human development

-psychological and social development -Early on, the focus is on infants and caregivers, as temperament and attachment are significant. -As the child grows, different social relationships like friends and teachers become important -Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, self-esteem, and relationships. -Peers become more important for adolescents, who are exploring new roles and forming their own identities. -Dating, romance, cohabitation, marriage, having children, and finding work or a career are all parts of the transition into adulthood. -Other developmental issues involve family, friends, parenting, romance, divorce, remarriage, blended families, caregiving for elders, becoming grandparents and great grandparents, retirement, new careers, coping with losses, and death and dying.

List the steps of finding Qualitative data.

1. Begin with a broad area of interest and a research question 2. Gain entrance into a group to be researched 3. Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest 4. Ask open-ended, broad "grand tour" types of questions when interviewing subjects 5. Modify research questions as the study continues 6. Note patterns or consistencies 7. Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed 8. Report findings

Explain the Scientific Method

1. Determining a research question 2. Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review) 3. Determining a method of gathering information Conducting the study 4. Interpreting the results 5. Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research 6. Making the findings available to others (both to share information and to have the work scrutinized by others)

What are the 8 stages Developmentalists often break the lifespan into?

1. Prenatal Development 2. Infancy and Toddlerhood 3. Early Childhood 4. Middle Childhood 5. Adolescence 6. Early Adulthood 7. Middle Adulthood 8. Late Adulthood There is a ninth stage which is Death and Dying

Advantages and disadvantages of Sequential research

Advantages: -Examines changes within individuals over time -Examines changes between participants of different ages at the same point in time -Can be used to examine cohort effects -Can be used to examine time in history effects Disadvantages: -May be expensive -May take a long time -Possibility of practice effects -Some participant attrition

Advantages and disadvantages of Cross-Sectional research

Advantages: -Examines changes between participants of different ages at the same point in time -Provides information on age differences Disadvantages: -Cannot examine change over time -Limited to one time in history -Cohort differences confounded with age differences

Advantages and disadvantages of Longitudinal research

Advantages: -Examines changes within individuals over time -Provides a developmental analysis Disadvantages: -Expensive -Takes a long time -Participant attrition -Possibility of practice effects -Limited to one cohort -Time in history effects confounded with age changes

What is Attrition and Selective Attrition?

Attrition: when participants fail to complete all portions of a study. -To account for Attrition, the sample group should be large Selective Attrition: certain groups of individuals may tend to drop out. Ex: Less educated or in worse health individuals -That means that the remaining participants may no longer be representative of the whole population, as they are, in general, healthier, better educated, and have more money. -To account for individuals who drop out, they could randomly recruit individuals to replace them

Describe a basic experimental design.

Beginning with a sample group(Subset of the population), and randomly assigning subjects to ether the experimental or control group. The participants should not know which group they are in. -The experimental group will be exposed to the independent variable -The control group will be used for compassion and will not be exposed to the independent variable -Advantage: Establishes cause and effect -Weakness: Performing the experiment in a laboratory setting, about human behavior, can be difficult to accomplish

Define psychosocial change

Changes in emotional experience, social roles, and relationships that occur across the lifespan.

Describe Content analysis and Secondary content analysis

Content analysis: looking at media such as old texts, pictures, commercials, lyrics or other materials to explore patterns or themes in culture. -Advantage: researcher does not have to go through the time and expense of finding respondents -Weakness: cannot know how accurately the media reflects the actions and sentiments of the population Secondary content analysis (archival research): analyzing information that has already been collected or examining documents or media to uncover attitudes, practices or preferences. -The researcher does not have to recruit subjects but does need to know the quality of the information collected in the original study. -The research is limited to the data collected originally

Define a correlation coefficient(r), and positive vs negative correlation.

Correlation coefficient(r): provides information about the direction and strength of the association between two variables. Positive correlation: the two variables go up or down together. (r value is positive) Negative correlation: the two variables move in opposite directions (r value is negative)

Describe Discontinuous development

Development takes place in unique stages and that it occurs at specific times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more sudden. -The idea that development takes place in unique stages and occurs at specific times or ages

Explain normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded influences, and nonnormative influences.

Normative age-graded influences: Milestone in life based on biological and environmental factors that have a strong correlation with chronological age or age based social practices, like puberty or starting school Normative history-graded influences: specific time period that defines the broader environmental and cultural context in which an individual develops. Ex: The Great Depression and WWII Nonnormative influences: unpredictable and not tied to a certain developmental time in a person's development or to a historical period, and are unique experiences of an individual, whether biological or environmental, that shape the development process. Ex: Going through a divorce as a child.

Explain Physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development

Physical development involves: -growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. Cognitive development involves: -learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves: -emotions, personality, and social relationships.

Define Human Development

Physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of humans throughout the lifespan.

contrast Quantitative vs Qualitative data.

Quantitative: -Typically used in the Scientific method -Relies on numerical data or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied. Qualitative: -theoretical ideas are "grounded" in the experiences of the participants, who answer open-ended questions

Who Studies Human Development? and why?

Researchers in the areas of health care, anthropology, nutrition, child development, biology, gerontology, psychology, and sociology, among others. -It is studied to describe and explain changes.

Is development essentially the same, or universal, for all children, or does development follow a different course for each child, depending on the child's specific genetics and environment?

Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal Ex: Children from around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence -Our development is influenced by multiple contexts, so the timing of basic motor functions may vary across cultures. However, the functions are present in all societies.

In this course, we will...

Strive to learn about each phase of human development and the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes, all the while making cross-cultural and historical comparisons and connections to the world around us.

Describe Continuous development

Views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills. With this type of development, there is a gradual change. -The idea that development is a progressive and cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills