LING 1 FINAL

Phonology summary

1) our knowledge of phonology includes the: -contrastive features/phonemes of our language -phonological rules for pronouncing words and morphemes in context (allophones, allomorphs) 2) rules affect natural classes of sands by changing featured to be more like or different from surrounding sounds; often motivated by ease of articulation or ease of perception 3) these same rules are the cause of language (sound) change over time.

2 or more sounds are allophone of the same phone when

1) phonetically related 2) never occur in the same phonetic context 3) are in complementary distribution w/ one another -complementary distribution: the occurrence of speech sounds in mutually exclusive contexts

Sound Change

1) place of articulation assimilation Old Spanish seMda--> modern seNda Latin ocTo--> oTTo 2) vowel nasalization Latin bON--> French bon, port bom 3) epentesis (vowel insertion) -Latin Schola--> spanish EScuela

1) The regularity Hypothesis 2)The Relatedness Hypothesis

1) sound change is ordered and systematic languages do not change in random 2) when differences among 2 or more languages are systematic and regular the languages are related; descended from a common source

Speech errors

1) spoonerism: a kind of speech or performance error in which sounds are transposed. ex: you have hissed my mystery lecture and tested the whole worm "you have missed my history lecture and wasted the whole term ex: we're not the only with screw looses "We're not the only ones with loose screws

Derivation of yes/ no questions D-structure S-structure

1) the basic declarative sentences is generated by PS rules- D(eed) structure: Ex: The man HAS eaten a rotten fish. 2) The 'Aux movement' rule applies to produce the question from -S (surface)- structure Ex: Has the man eaten a rotten fish Transformational (movement) rules are structure dependent and generate S-structure.

What do PS rules and the generate?

1) the hierarchical organization of a sentence 2) the word order for the language 3) the syntactic categories of the words and phrases of a sentence

How languages Differ

1) word order 2)how questions are formed 3) How negation is done

Morphological Change

1)regularization to inflectional morphology past tense" clomb--> climed dove--> dived more recent: i've eaten--> i've ate I've driven--> i've drove

Prefixes and suffixes categories

Prefix: un + Adj--> Adj Suffix Adj + ness--> N v + able --> adj ex: laughable, believable

Inflectional Affixes/Morphemes

mark properties like tense, number, person and so forth. they affect the grammatical function of the root, not the meaning Ex: dance--> dances walk--> walked cat--> cats Do not create new words, they create a "version" of the original word

summary of constituency test

move as a unit replace by a pronoun stand alone not all constituents need to be pass as long as one passes we good

Circumfixes Affix

Morphemes that are attached to a base morpheme both initially and finally ex: in CHckasaw the negative is formed by surrounding the affirmative form w/ both a preceding IK and a following -O working together a single negative morpheme Ex: IKakno (it isn't yellow" Iktiwwo "he deosn't open it"

Open and close class words

Open--> can regularly add new words to these classes like facebook, blog, online Close class--> conjunctions, prepositions or pronouns, they do not admit new words

Principle of compositionality

The meaning of a sentence is determined by the meaning of its words and its syntactic structure. Ex: structural ambiguity The cop shot the man with a gun 1) The cop shot the man using a gun (instrumental) 2) the cop shit the man who was holding a gun (possession)

Intensifier (bond mopheme)

"intensifies" ass, vulgar and colloquial ex: big- ass chimichanga Cold-ass Hard- ass exam

scalar implicatures

* John ate some of the cookies * John did not eat all of teh cookies -languages have words that form scales some < many < most < all might< must < is - using a weaker expression on a scale triggers the implicature that a stronger one cannot be used

Synonymy

-2 sentences are synonyms if they are always true in the same set of circumstances. Ex: congress passed the bill. the bill was passed by congress. congress postponed voting on the bill congress put off the voting on the bill.

Lexicon/ words arbitrari (chance)

-a mental dictionary -relationship b/w the form and meaning of a word is arbitrary -spoken and signed language are arbitrary *words of a particular language have the meanings they do only by convention

Universal Grammar (innate [unlearned] language)

-can be thought of as 'laws of language, a blueprint that all languages follow. -reversal features common to all languages All languages: 1) have nouns and verbs 2) have a way to indicate whether an event is complete or not 3) have ways of making negative, asking a question, indicating more than one

Syntax

-know how to build phrases and sentences Spanish: un pero blanco a dog white English: a white dog SVO--> I see a white dog.

Linguistic competence and linguistic performance

-linguistic competence: knowledge of words and grammars of a speaker's language -Linguistic performance: how we use this knowledge in actual speech production and comprehension _ can be affected by memory limitations, shits in attention and interest

Phonemes contrastive/non-contrastive

-same sound differences in a language are contrastive others are not -contrastive: relationship between 2 different elements, different phonemes ex: [t] vs. [d] tie/die, tune/dune [m] vs. [n] moon/noon, mice/nice non-contrastive [t] vs. [r]: u[t]er/ u[r]er [ph] vs. [p] phot/pot [t^h]ip/tip

Comprehension Error

-the horse raced past the barn feel -the ball thrown in the air dropped

Semantic Relations

1) Synonym--> same set of semantic features automobile/car, purchase/but 2) Antonym: different by one feature value aunt.uncle, cold/hot 3) polysemy: same-sounding words w/ the same meaning ex: face (of a person of a building) 4) Homonymy: same pronunciation different features ex: tall/tale, to/two

Syntactic effect of meaning

1) count nouns (+countable) 2) mass nouns (-countable) 1)eventive verbs: kiss Mary! 2) stative verbs: John needs mary today.

Prescription rule of English

1) don't end a sentence with a preposition. Do not say: This is something i can't deal with. Do say: this is something which I cannot deal. 2) don't use who in place of whom don't say: Who did you invite to the party Do say: whom did you invite to the party 3) don't use double negative

Features: Distinctive Vs. Non-distinctive

1) Distinctive (contrastive) features can result in a new word w/ a new meaning ex: voicing [paet] vs. [^t beat], nasalization on consonants 2) non-distinctive: (predictable) features do not affect meaning ex: aspiration [paet] vs. [p^haet], nasalization on vowels [bon vs. bon] -languages differ in which features are distinctive

Lexical Change

1) New words are created 2) words become obsolete (outdated)

conversational Maxims

1) Quantity: don't say too much! or too little 2) Quality: don't lie or say something you don't have evidence for 3) Relevance: be relevant 4) don't be obscure: be orderly

Minial Pair

2 words w/ different meanings that are identical except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in each word. ex: cab, cad

what is Language?

one way of approaching languages: function -communicate -speakers encode speech sounds into meaning -knowledge

Coreference

A relationship where 2 Np's refer to the same individual ex: I saw John yesterday. He seemed happy. he=John it is universal

Morpheme Moral story

Complex words are not just a string of morphemes morphemes have a hierarchical structure

Free Morphemes (compounds)

Compounding: pounding two or more free morphemes together Ex: N +V baby + sit =babysit

Semantics

Meaning of language count nouns--> a chair, nine chairs but not *much chairs, Ten pounds Mass nouns: much wine, five gallons of wine but not *a wine *many wines

Functional Categories

Determiners: a, the, that, this, your , my specific if a noun is indefinite/ definite Auxiliares: will, might, can, must, be, have T(ense)= modal auxiliaries like Many, might, can , could -modify the tense of a sentence Complementizer: that, for, if, whether, -they embed one sentence inside another ex: John think that Mary is pretty John wonders whether/if Mary will date him

Indo-European language

English, Russian, Hindi, Italian, Turkism. Related languages all descended from a language known as proto-Indo-European. Indo european is are constructed language, based on the comparative method.

Form and meaning and onomatopoeic

Form (sounds and meaning (concert) and there is a collectional and arbitrary relationship between both. onomatopoeic--> words that make noise like buzz. oink oink. This sound symbolism , they imitate the sounds associated w/ the object or actions they refer to. sounds sequences allow us to determine what is a possible word sounds differ from language to language and reflect the particular sound system of the language

Grammars (descriptive/prescriptive)

Grammar: are rules that govern all spoken languages descriptive grammar: doesn't tell you how to speak it; describe you basic linguistic knowledge. Prescriptive grammar: intend to teach people how they should speak according to some arbitrary standard.

Compounds and compositionality

In compounds the meaning is not completely compositional (predictable from the meaning of its parts)

Implicatures

Inferences that maybe draw from an utterance in context which are neither expressed directly nor strictly implied. Ex: mary it's cold in here -mary is implies to that she wants the heat turned up, she could have said directly just said it but choose to imply it. -implicatures occur b/c speakers and heaters operate according to conversational maxims.

Romance languages

Italian, portugal, Spain, France, Cat, Ru

Turnt conditions

Knowing the meaning of a sentence involves knowing the conditions under which it would be true. ex: John dances John dances (swimming) false! sentences are either true or false depending on a context.

No long sentence

our creative knowledge of language allows us to produce long sentences and there is no limit to how long a sentence can be. Creativity is a universal property of human language Linguistic creativity exist b/c we know rules that can be applied repeatedly (e.g roles for coordinations, subordination, recursion or adjectives, PP's)

Lexical Ambiguity

polysemous words and homonyms create lexical ambiguities. ex: Republicans Grill IRS chief over lost emails Grill--> example of a polysemy

Cognates

related words in language descended from a common source

phonology

sounds patterns in our language

Presuppositions

S1: presupposes S2 in and only if S1 entails S2 and not S1 entail S2 Ex: S1: John stopped smoking presupposes S2: John used to smoke S1: John didn't stop smoking Presupposes S2 S1: did John stop smoking? presupposes S2 Presuppositions 'are sticky.' They stay around even when a sentence is negated or questioned.

Syntactic change order

SVO, VSO, SVO word order changed from OE to Me

Semantic and Pragmatics meaning

Semantic/ sentence meaning: the literal (compositional) meaning of a sentence. ex: John has 3 kids Pragmatic meaning: the message the speaker intends to convey w/ his utterance it is context dependent. ex: the reason John is so tired is b/c he has three kids

entailment

Sentence 1 entails sentence 2 if whenever sentence 1 is true, S2 is also true S1: john dances wonderfully S2: john dances S1: obama poses like superman S2: Obama poses

Summary of Both Hypotheses

Sentences have a tree like (hierarchy) structure, which can be shown by constituency test sentences that has 2 distinct trees are structurally ambiguous

Syntactic Categories

Syntactic category: a family of expression that can substitute for one another w/ out loss of grammaticality. Ex: The child, John, a police officer being the syntactic category noun Phrase (NP) Np--> det and N Np: John, him and he/ fish Vp--> V NP/PP * PP is followed by a NP like -in the park, on the ruff, w/ a balloon

Regular sounds correspondence/ Sound Shift

The [ai]- [a] correspondence of these 2 dialects ex: [u:]-[au (now)} when [U:} became [au] ect.

Phonemic vs. Allophonic differences

speakers of language easily hear differences in segments that are contrastive or phonemic in their language. -allophones of the same phoneme tend to be treated as the same sound

Overextension

when a child uses one word to refer to many object that have the same characteristics. ex: a child uses the word doggie to refer to a cow a horse, cat b/c they all have 4 legs.

Case Morphology

when case is marked by inflectional morphemes -Russians have a great case morphology while english has a limited one, on the possessive is and to its system of pronouns.

Different kinds of verbs transitive/intransitive

Transitive: verb requires a direct object ex: aten. hit, push, sit the man caught a ball Intransitive--> verbs do not take an object but can take a PP. ex: the dog slept on the bed. some verbs take a full sentences as a complement know, think hope... the student hope that linguistics is fascinating

Derivational Affixes/ Morphemes

When added to a base, a new word with a new meaning is derived Ex: happy--> unhappy love--> loveable they may (but need not) change the grammatical category of the root.

Semantic Feature

words can be grouped into natural classes meaning of a word is divisible into smaller units, semantic features. Ex: dog: [+mammal, +canine, +domesticated] Dingo: [+mammal, +canine, -domesticated]

De-prefix

words form with the indicate the reversal of an action de + v--> v De--> does not attach to N, Adj

conditioned sound change

a sounds is lost or changed in a particular environment

Bound Morphemes [Affixation (suffix/prefixes)]

add prefix and suffixes to an existing word to build a new word 1) prefixes attach at the beginning of the root word ex: undo, rewind, prehistoric suffixes--> attach the end of the root word ex: e.g double, historic, quickly

Universal Grammar

all languages have recursive rules (rules that add to or embed one sentence inside another) 1) coordination: and and 2) subordination: that, that, that

Infixes Expletive-infixation

are inserted in the middle of a word Ex: fan-frggin-tastic expletive-infixation--> can be inserted only before a stressed syllable Ex: FantAstic--> fan-friggin-tastic AbsoLUTE--> Absofriggin-lutely

creative aspect of language

being able to know a language and knowing that a language can create new sentences as well as understand them. our knowledge of language allows us to produce and understand infinite number of well formed sentences this shows our linguistic creativity.

Shm- Reduplication in english

book, Shmooks Flue, Shmu understandable, undershmandable

The Germanic Languages

english, dutch, German, Danish, Swedish, Turkish

unconditioned sound change

every instance of the sound is affected regardless of context.

Semantic Anomaly

ex: colorless green ideas sleep furiously -metaphor often depends on semantic anomaly * the clouds sailed across the sky

word can change meaning

hund=dog --> hand dog Tweet= a type of bird vocalization --> a message sent by twitter

Reduplication (found in a lot of languages)

infelct a word through the repetition of part of all the word. Ex: Total reduplication rumah rumahrumah house houses' Partial reduplication ex: bili bibili buy will buy Ex: I talked to him last week, but i didn't talk talk to him.

HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE LINGUISTIC

the branch in linguistics that deals with how language has changed over the years and what lands has the changed occur in. Historical because it deals with the history of particular languages Comparative: b/c it deals w/ relations among languages.

Morphology

the study of the form of words -morphology lets us build more complex words she talks/is talking/talked

morphology

the study of the internal structure of words and the rule for combining parts of words (building blocks) to make morphologically complex words we know how to combine elements to build new words Ex: member + ship= membership know how to decompose words into their parts ex: sooner= soon + er decompose= de + compose

Contradictory sentences

two sentences are contradictory if S1 and S2 can never be true in the same situation ex: S1: John came to class S2: John didn't come to class

How words are built

we build complex words from rules that combine elements smaller than the word morphemes Morphemes: differ. -ent, iate