Literary Terms-6
Verbal Irony
"I will not marry yet; and, when I do, I swear it shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate, rather than Paris." (Romeo & Juliet by William Shakespeare) uliet does not like the decision of her father to marry with Paris, whom she dislikes and instead adores Romeo. Hence, she makes a decision to marry Romeo and tells her mother about it ironically that whenever she would marry, it would be Romeo whom she dislikes and not Paris, and thus makes her mother confused. Example 2 "She is tolerable but not handsome enough to tempt me". (Pride & Prejudice by Jane Austen) We can find many finest examples of this form of irony in Pride and Prejudice. In this example, we relish ironic flavor of Darcy's statement that we later figure out that the woman whom he finds unsuitable to dance with, in reality, finds her place in his heart. Example 3 The title of the poem, "The Unknown Citizen" employs verbal irony, as poet describes a person as the one whom everyone knows, but he is still unknown. Also by deliberately capitalizing the common words, speaker makes them sound meaningless, ironic and sarcastic: "the Greater Community", "Social Psychology", "Union", "Public Opinion" and "High Grade Living" etc. These all words sound formal, pompous, bureaucratic and arrogant. Simply, through verbal irony, the poet shows how governmental agencies, which should serve human beings, have rather enslaved them. (The Unknown Citizen by D.H Lawrence) Example 4 All types of ironies are prevalent throughout the entire play, "Oedipus Rex." One fine example of verbal irony occurs when Tiresias refuses to reveal the prophecy to Oedipus. Thus, Oedipus is ignorant and presses Tiresias into saying, "You are all ignorant. I will not reveal the troubling things inside me, which I can call your grief as well." Oedipus responds, "Do you intend to betray me and destroy the city?" I fact, Oedipus misunderstands Tiresias' statement "which I can call your grief as well." By this, Tiresias means that if he reveals the truth, it would become Oedipus' grief that he is murderer of his King Laius. This is a verbal irony which Oedipus fails to realize that this "grief" is going to be an impending fate for him that Tiresias hesitates to tells him about. (Oedipus Rex by Sophocles) Example 5 "I rather recommend buying the children alive and dressing them hot from the knife, as we do roasting pigs." (A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift) Verbal irony is a dominant literary device in this novel. For instance, in the following statement author intends to point out that government should not treat Irish like animals, in fact he compares them to animals. Example 6 "Today was a very cold and bitter day, as cold and bitter as a cup of hot chocolate; if the cup of hot chocolate had vinegar added to it and were placed in a refrigerator for several hours." (Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography by Lemony Snicket) Snicket uses verbal irony by employing ironic simile. Then, he proceeds and breaks down this simile, by overturning its meaning. By making a complex structure, author creates verbal irony to let readers enjoy.
Stream of Consciousness
"Let's see, what else do I need to buy? I've got chips, chocolate...oh, and I need to get that awful prune juice for Harold. I can't believe he actually thinks this cleanse thing is gonna work. And to think he wanted me to do it with him. As if I need to lose weight. Hmm, I wonder how late the gym is open tonight." "I've got to get this spreadsheet done by the meeting. I hope Miller likes it better than last time. I can't believe he liked Joe's work better. What a brown-noser. And he's wearing the stupidest suit today. Oh shoot, I've got a mustard stain on my sleeve." _____________________________________________ 1. James Joyce successfully employs the narrative mode in his novel "Ulysses" which describes the day in life of a middle-aged Jew, Mr. Leopold Broom, living in Dublin, Ireland. Read the following excerpt: "He is young Leopold, as in a retrospective arrangement, a mirror within a mirror (hey, presto!), he beholdeth himself. That young figure of then is seen, precious manly, walking on a nipping morning from the old house in Clambrassil to the high school, his book satchel on him bandolier wise, and in it a goodly hunk of wheaten loaf, a mother's thought." These lines reveal the thoughts of Bloom. He thinks of the younger Bloom. The self-reflection is achieved by the flow of thoughts that takes him back to his past. 2. Another 20th Century writer that followed James Joyce's narrative method was Virginia Woolf. Let us read an excerpt from her novel " Mrs. Dalloway": "What a lark! What a plunge! For so it always seemed to me when, with a little squeak of the hinges, which I can hear now, I burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning; like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as I then was) solemn, feeling as I did, standing there at the open window, that something awful was about to happen ..." By voicing their internal feelings, the writer gives freedom to the characters to travel back and forth in time. Mrs. Dalloway went out to buy flower for herself and on the way her thoughts moves in past and present giving us an insight into the complex nature of her character. 3. We notice the use of this technique in David Lodge's novel "The British Museum Is Falling Down". It is comic novel that imitates the stream of consciousness narrative techniques of the writers like Henry James, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf. Below is an excerpt from Chapter 3 of the novel: "It partook, he thought, shifting his weight in the saddle, of metempsychosis, the way his humble life fell into moulds prepared by literature. Or was it, he wondered, picking his nose, the result of closely studying the sentence structure of the English novelists? One had resigned oneself to having no private language any more, but one had clung wistfully to the illusion of a personal property of events. A find and fruitless illusion, it seemed, for here, inevitably came the limousine, with its Very Important Personage, or Personages, dimly visible in the interior. The policeman saluted, and the crowd pressed forward, murmuring 'Philip', 'Tony', 'Margaret', 'Prince Andrew'." We see the imitation of the typical structure of the stream-of-conscious narrative technique of Virginia Woolf. We notice the integration of the outer and inner realities in the passage that is so typical of Virginia Woolf, especially the induction of the reporting clauses "he thought" and "he wondered" in the middle of the reported clauses. ________________________________________________ Example #1 I grow old ... I grow old ... I shall wear the bottoms of my trousers rolled. Shall I part my hair behind? Do I dare to eat a peach? I shall wear white flannel trousers, and walk upon the beach. I have heard the mermaids singing, each to each. I do not think that they will sing to me. ("The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" by T.S. Eliot) This is one of the early examples of stream of consciousness writing from the twentieth century (it was published in 1915). T.S. Eliot explores his narrator's inner life throughout the poem, moving from one thought to the next quickly. The above excerpt shows several different thoughts within the space of just a few lines. However, the use of stream of consciousness in this poem belies a real depth of feeling, as the narrator seems to want to make himself understood throughout the poem and struggles with that connection. Example #2 I could hear Queenie's feet and the bright shapes went smooth and steady on both sides, the shadows of them flowing across Queenie's back. They went on like the bright tops of wheels. Then those on one side stopped at the tall white post where the soldier was. But on the other side they went on smooth and steady, but a little slower. (The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner) One of the characters in William Faulkner's novel The Sound and the Fury is Benjy, a cognitively disabled man. His section of the novel is written in a stream of consciousness style, documenting Benjy's sensory experiences of the world without the advantage of being able to really understand them. In this excerpt, Benjy describes moving in a carriage and Faulkner imagines the details that stream though Benjy's mind as he has this experience. Example #3 For Heaven only knows why one loves it so, how one sees it so, making it up, building it round one, tumbling it, creating it every moment afresh; but the veriest frumps, the most dejected of miseries sitting on doorsteps (drink their downfall) do the same; can't be dealt with, she felt positive, by Acts of Parliament for that very reason: they love life. (Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf) In the above example of stream of consciousness from Virginia Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway, the character of Clarissa is walking to a flower shop. She is noticing beauty around her and feeling happy to be alive. In her happiness she thinks of how a homeless person might be able to see the same things and feel the same happiness. Woolf uses stream of consciousness here as a bit of foreshadowing; Clarissa's husband will later see a homeless woman on the street and have a different impression than Clarissa does here. By introducing the reader to Clarissa's thoughts here on this matter, the reader later is able to understand more of the significance of her husband's different views. Example #4 Gibraltar as a girl where I was a Flower of the mountain yes when I put the rose in my hair like the Andalusian girls used or shall I wear a red yes and how he kissed me under the Moorish wall and I thought well as well him as another and then I asked him with my eyes to ask again yes and then he asked me would I yes to say yes my mountain flower and first I put my arms around him yes and drew him down to me so he could feel my breasts all perfume yes and his heart was going like mad and yes I said yes I will Yes. (Ulysses by James Joyce) The above excerpt is the famous conclusion to James Joyce's monumental work of stream of consciousness, Ulysses. In it, the character Molly is seemingly reflecting on accepting a marriage proposal from Bloom, her husband. The lack of punctuation or stops and starts is characteristic both of Joyce's writing style and stream of consciousness in general. The repetition of the word "yes" is the connective tissue between all of Molly's disparate thoughts.
Symbolism
-dove=peace -red rose or red color= love and romance -black= evil or death -ladder= connection between heaven and earth -broken mirror= separation __________________________________ To develop symbolism in his work, a writer utilizes other figures of speech, like metaphors, similes, allegory, as tools. Some symbolism examples in literature are listed below with brief analysis: Example #1 We find symbolic value in Shakespeare's famous monologue in his play As you Like It: "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; they have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts," The above lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in course of their life perform different roles. "A stage" here symbolizes the world and "players" is a symbol for human beings. Example #2 William Blake goes symbolic in his poem Ah Sunflower. He says: "Ah Sunflower, weary of time, Who countest the steps of the sun; Seeking after that sweet golden clime Where the traveler's journey is done;" Blake uses a sunflower as a symbol for human beings and "the sun" symbolizes life. Therefore, these lines symbolically refer to their life cycle and their yearning for a never-ending life. Example #3 Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights presents almost every character, house, surroundings and events in a symbolic perspective. The word "Wuthering", which means stormy, represents the wild nature of its inhabitants. The following lines allow us to look into the symbolic nature of two characters: "My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I'm well aware, as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but necessary." The phrase "foliage of leaves" for Linton is a symbol for his fertile and civilized nature. On the contrary, Heathcliff is likened to an "eternal rock" which symbolizes his crude and unbendable nature. Example #4 Sara Teasdale in her poem Wild Asters develops a number of striking symbols: "In the spring, I asked the daisies If his words were true, And the clever, clear-eyed daisies Always knew. Now the fields are brown and barren, Bitter autumn blows, And of all the stupid asters Not one knows." In the above lines, "spring" and "daisies" are symbols of youth. "Brown and barren" are symbols of transition from youth to old age. Moreover, "Bitter autumn" symbolizes death.
Tone
The author's attitude toward the subject being written about
Theme
The main idea or meaning, often an abstract idea upon which a work of literature is built
Style
The manner in which an author uses and arranges words, shapes ideas, forms sentences, and creates a structure to convey ideas __________________________ Expository or Argumentative style Expository writing style is a subject-oriented style. The focus of the writer in this type of writing style is to tell the readers about a specific subject or topic and in the end the author leaves out his own opinion about that topic. Descriptive style In descriptive writing style, the author focuses on describing an event, a character or a place in detail. Sometimes, descriptive writing style is poetic in nature in, where the author specifies an event, an object or a thing rather than merely giving information about an event that has happened. Usually the description incorporates sensory details. Persuasive style Persuasive style of writing is a category of writing in which the writer tries to give reasons and justification to make the readers believe his point of view . The persuasive style aims to persuade and convince the readers. Narrative style Narrative writing style is a type of writing where the writer narrates a story to. It includes short stories, novels, novellas, biographies and poetry.
Syntax
The organization of language into meaningful structure or a pattern of words; used to produce rhythm or melody in the lines
Synecdoche
The phrase "gray beard" refers to an old man. The word "sails" refers to a whole ship. The word "suits" refers to businessmen. The word "boots" usually refers to soldiers. The term "coke" is a common __________ for all carbonated drinks. "Pentagon" is a ________when it refers to a few decision makers. The word "glasses" refers to spectacles. "Coppers" often refers to coins. Boots on the ground—refers to soldiers New wheels—refers to a new car Ask for her hand—refers to asking a woman to marry Suits—can refer to businesspeople Plastic—can refer to credit cards The White House—can refer to statements made by individuals within the United States government _____________________________________________ Example #1 Coleridge employs synecdoche in his poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner: "The western wave was all a-flame. The day was well was nigh done! Almost upon the western wave Rested the broad bright Sun" The "western wave" is a synecdoche as it refers to the sea by the name of one of its parts i.e. wave. Example #2 Look at the use of synecdoche in the lines taken from Shakespeare's Sonnet 116: "O no! It is an ever-fixed mark That looks on tempests and is never shaken." The phrase "ever-fixed mark" refers to a lighthouse. Example #3 Look how Shelly uses synecdoche in his poem Ozymandias: "Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, The hand that mocked them." "The hand" in the above lines refers to the sculptor who carved the "lifeless things" into a grand statue. Example #4 Observe the use of synecdoche in the following lines from The Secret Sharer by Joseph Conrad: "At midnight I went on deck, and to my mate's great surprise put the ship round on the other tack. His terrible whiskers flitted round me in silent criticism." The word "whiskers" mentioned in the above lines refers to the whole face of the narrator's mate. Example #5 Jonathan Swift in The Description of the Morning uses synecdoche: "Prepar'd to scrub the entry and the stairs. The youth with broomy stumps began to trace." In the above lines the phrase "broomy stumps" refers to the whole broom. Example #6 Note the use of synecdoche in The Lady or the Tiger? by Frank R. Stockton: "His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces about her." "Faces" refers to people (not just their faces). _______________________________________ Example #1 GHOST: Now, Hamlet, hear. 'Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard, A serpent stung me. So the whole ear of Denmark Is by a forgèd process of my death Rankly abused. But know, thou noble youth, The serpent that did sting thy father's life Now wears his crown. (Hamlet by William Shakespeare) In this excerpt from Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet, the ghost of Hamlet's father implies that he was killed by Claudius instead of being stung by a snake. The synecdoche example in this excerpt is the usage of the word "ear." The ghost refers to "the whole ear of Denmark." This means that the whole population of Denmark has heard a particular story about his death. This is not the only time that Shakespeare used "ear" to refer to a greater group of people. Mark Antony's famous quote from Julius Caesar also uses this synecdoche: "Friends, countrymen, lend me your ears." Example #2 I had not intended to love him; the reader knows I had wrought hard to extirpate from my soul the germs of love there detected; and now, at the first renewed view of him, they spontaneously arrived, green and strong! He made me love him without looking at me. (Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë) In this excerpt from Charlotte Brontë's novel Jane Eyre, Jane talks about "the germs of love." The germs here refer to the early stages of love, and Brontë continues this metaphorical usage saying that the germs return "green and strong." Example #3 "About Gatsby! No, I haven't. I said I'd been making a small investigation of his past." "And you found he was an Oxford man," said Jordan helpfully. "An Oxford man!" He was incredulous. "Like hell he is! He wears a pink suit." "Nevertheless he's an Oxford man." "Oxford, New Mexico," snorted Tom contemptuously, "or something like that." (The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald) In this excerpt from The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald uses the synecdoche of being an "Oxford man." An Oxford man is a man who has attended the legendary English university. Oxford stands in for much meaning, including a certain level of class, wealth, and learning that is necessary to be an elite member of society. The character Tom Buchanan is suspicious that Jay Gatsby could possibly be an "Oxford man," thinking him to not contain these qualities. Example #4 The Eyes around - had wrung them dry - And Breaths were gathering firm For that last Onset - when the King Be witnessed - in the Room - ("I heard a Fly buzz - when I died -" by Emily Dickinson) In this famous short poem by Emily Dickinson, the second stanza contains an example of synecdoche. The speaker in the poem is at the point of death, and in the second stanza makes note of "The Eyes around." The eyes in this case refer to the audience that has gathered by the speaker's deathbed. The speaker doesn't refer to the people themselves, but instead to their eyes—which are now dry from having exhausted their tears—and breaths. Example #5 This is flesh I'm talking about here. Flesh that needs to be loved. Feet that need to rest and to dance; backs that need support; shoulders that need arms, strong arms I'm telling you. (Beloved by Toni Morrison) These lines from Toni Morrison's Beloved come from a sermon by the character Baby Suggs. In it, Baby Suggs is preaching to her people about the value of their lives. She does so by referring to the parts of the their bodies as having needs of their own. This affirms the importance of the community to which she is preaching and the individuals that make it up. Baby Suggs refers to the needs of the "flesh," "feet," "backs," and "shoulders." Though it may seem that breaking the people down into their parts would dehumanize them, instead the sermon shows just how human they are. Their bodies are not just for work, but instead for love, rest, dance, and support.
Voice
The real or assumed personality used by a writer or speaker. It can be active or passive. types Author's _____ - Author's voice is his particular style he employs in that particular story of a piece of writing. Character's ______ - A character's voice is the voice of the main character how he views the world. It is a common narrative voice used with first and third person point of views, and author uses a conscious person as a narrator in the story.
Symbolism
The use of one object to evoke ideas and associations not literally part of the original object
Sonnet
a popular form of verse consisting of 14 lines and a prescribed rhyme scheme - Italian - Shakespearean - Spenserian - Miltonic - Terza Rima - Curtal
Villanelle
1.Mad Girl's Love Song by Sylvia Plath "I shut my eyes and all the world drops dead; (A1) I lift my lids and all is born again. (a) (I think I made you up inside my head.) (A2) The stars go waltzing out in blue and red, (a) And arbitrary blackness gallops in: (b) I shut my eyes and all the world drops dead. (A1) I dreamed that you bewitched me into bed (a) And sung me moon-struck, kissed me quite insane. (b) (I think I made you up inside my head.) (A2) God topples from the sky, hell's fires fade: (a) Exit seraphim and Satan's men: (b) I shut my eyes and all the world drops dead. (A1) I fancied you'd return the way you said, (a) But I grow old and I forget your name. (b) (I think I made you up inside my head.) (A2) I should have loved a thunderbird instead; (a) At least when spring comes they roar back again. (b) I shut my eyes and all the world drops dead. (A1) (I think I made you up inside my head.)" (A2) Example #2 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce Are you not weary of ardent ways, (A1) Lure of the fallen seraphim? (b) Tell no more of enchanted days. (A2) Your eyes have set man's heart ablaze (a) And you have had your will of him. (b) Are you not weary of ardent ways? (A1) Above the flame the smoke of praise (a) Goes up from ocean rim to rim. (b) Tell no more of enchanted days. (A2) Our broken cries and mournful lays (a) Rise in one eucharistic hymn. (b) Are you not weary of ardent ways? (A1) While sacrificing hands upraise (a) The chalice flowing to the brim, (b) Tell no more of enchanted days. (A2) And still you hold our longing gaze (a) With languorous look and lavish limb! (b) Are you not weary of ardent ways? (A1) Tell no more of enchanted days. (A2) Example #3 Theocritus by Oscar Wilde O Singer of Persephone! (A1) In the dim meadows desolate (b) Dost thou remember Sicily? (A2) Still through the ivy flits the bee (a) Where Amaryllis lies in state; (b) O Singer of Persephone! (A1) Simætha calls on Hecate And hears the wild dogs at the gate; Dost thou remember Sicily? (A2) Still by the light and laughing sea Poor Polypheme bemoans his fate: O Singer of Persephone! (A1) And still in boyish rivalry Young Daphnis challenges his mate: Dost thou remember Sicily? (A2) Slim Lacon keeps a goat for thee, For thee the jocund shepherds wait, O Singer of Persephone! (A1) Dost thou remember Sicily? (A2) /******Oscar Wilde is famous for using ________ in his poems.
Villanelle
A French verse form calculated to appear simple and spontaneous but consisting of nineteen lines and a prescribed pattern of rhymes. Here are the major characteristics of it: 1. There is no well-organized meter in this but it has a set rhyme scheme. 2. There are no fixed numbers of syllables. 3. pattern-> (A1) refrain 1 Line 2 (b) (A2) refrain 2 Line 4 (a) Line 5 (b) (A1) refrain 1 Line 7 (a) Line 8 (b) (A2) refrain 2 Line 10 (a) Line 11 (b) (A1) refrain 1 Line 13 (a) Line 14 (b) (A2) refrain 2 Line 16 (a) Line 17 (b) (A1) refrain 1 (A2) refrain 2 Here the letters "a" and "b" denote two rhyming sounds, while "A" indicates refrain and the numerals 1 and 2 denote refrain 1 and refrain 2 respectively.
Sonnet
A Shakespearean one of these: "From fairest creatures we desire increase, That thereby beauty's rose might never die. But as the riper should by time decease, His tender heir might bear his memory: But thou, contracted to thine own bright eyes, Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel, Making a famine where abundance lies, Thyself thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel. Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament And only herald to the gaudy spring, Within thine own bud buriest thy content And, tender churl, mak'st waste in niggarding. Pity the world, or else this glutton be, To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee" ________________________________________________ Example #1: Petrarchan Sonnet When I consider how my light is spent, Ere half my days in this dark world and wide, And that one talent which is death to hide Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent To serve therewith my Maker, and present My true account, lest He returning chide; "Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?" I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need Either man's work or His own gifts. Who best Bear His mild yoke, they serve Him best. His state Is kingly: thousands at His bidding speed, And post o'er land and ocean without rest; They also serve who only stand and wait." ("When I Consider How My Light is Spent" by John Milton, 1600s) This Petrarchan sonnet example is written in English by the famous poet John Milton. He uses the conventions established by the first Italian sonneteers with a rhyme scheme of ABBA ABBA CDE CDE. There is also a noticeable turn toward a conclusion in the the ninth line of "That murmur, soon replies, 'God doth not need / Either man's work of His own gifts." Example #2: Shakespearean Sonnet Two households, both alike in dignity, In fair Verona, where we lay our scene, From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. From forth the fatal loins of these two foes A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life; Whose misadventured piteous overthrows Do with their death bury their parents' strife. The fearful passage of their death-mark'd love, And the continuance of their parents' rage, Which, but their children's end, nought could remove, Is now the two hours' traffic of our stage; The which if you with patient ears attend, What here shall miss, our toil shall strive to mend. (Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, 1594) This is a famous example of sonnet that opens William Shakespeare's tragedy Romeo and Juliet. We can see all the telltale signs of Shakespeare's style of sonnet, such as iambic pentameter, a rhyme scheme of ABAB CDCD EFEF GG, and a final conclusion asking the audience to pay close attention in the final couplet. Example #3: Spenserian Sonnet One day I wrote her name upon the strand, But came the waves and washed it away: Again I write it with a second hand, But came the tide, and made my pains his prey. Vain man, said she, that doest in vain assay, A mortal thing so to immortalize, For I myself shall like to this decay, And eek my name be wiped out likewise. Not so, (quod I) let baser things devise To die in dust, but you shall live by fame: My verse, your virtues rare shall eternize, And in the heavens write your glorious name. Where when as death shall all the world subdue, Our love shall live, and later life renew. ("Amoretti #75" by Edmund Spenser, 1594) This is one of Edmund Spenser's sonnet examples in which he uses his preferred rhyme scheme of ABAB BCBC CDCD EE. It is like Shakespeare's in its breaking of the poem into three quatrains and a final couplet written in iambic pentameter, turning toward the resolution in the last couplet. Example #4: Modern Sonnet One foot down, then hop! It's hot. Good things for the ones that's got. Another jump, now to the left. Everybody for hisself. In the air, now both feet down. Since you black, don't stick around. Food is gone, the rent is due, Curse and cry and then jump two. All the people out of work, Hold for three, then twist and jerk. Cross the line, they count you out. That's what hopping's all about. Both feet flat, the game is done. They think I lost. I think I won. ("Harlem Hopscotch" by Maya Angelou, 1971) This is an interesting example of sonnet that Maya Angelou has changed in a modern way. It can be called a sonnet because it contains three quatrains and a final couplet that are all held together by a strict rhyme scheme and even meter. However, Angelou has chosen a slightly unusual rhyme scheme for a sonnet, which is: AABB CCDD EEFF GG. She has also written this poem not in the common iambic pentameter, but instead in trochaic tetrameter, i.e., line of seven or eight syllables with an alternating stress starting on the first syllable. It is still recognizable as a sonnet, however, and shows how modern writers have played with conventions as befits them. ________________________________________ 1. Italian or Petrarchan Sonnet Italian or Petrarchan sonnet was introduced by an Italian poet Francesco Petrarch of 14th century. Being one day at my window all alone, So manie strange things happened me to see, As much as it grieveth me to thinke thereon. At my right hand a hynde appear'd to mee, So faire as mote the greatest god delite; Two eager dogs did her pursue in chace. Of which the one was blacke, the other white: With deadly force so in their cruell race They pincht the haunches of that gentle beast, That at the last, and in short time, I spide, Under a rocke, where she alas, opprest, Fell to the ground, and there untimely dide. Cruell death vanquishing so noble beautie Oft makes me wayle so hard a desire. (Visions by Francesco Petrarch) The rhyme scheme of Petrarchan sonnet has first eight lines called octet that rhymes as abba -abba -cdc-dcd. The remaining six lines called sestet might have a range of rhyme schemes. 2. Shakespearean Sonnet A Shakespearean sonnet is generally written in an iambic pentameter, there are 10 syllables in each line. The rhythm of the lines must be as below: From fairest creatures we desire increase, That thereby beauty's rose might never die. But as the riper should by time decease, His tender heir might bear his memory: But thou, contracted to thine own bright eyes, Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel, Making a famine where abundance lies, Thyself thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel. Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament And only herald to the gaudy spring, Within thine own bud buriest thy content And, tender churl, mak'st waste in niggarding. Pity the world, or else this glutton be, To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee (William Shakespeare) The rhyme scheme of Shakespearian sonnet is abab-cdcd-efef-gg and this is difficult to follow. Hence only Shakespeare is known to have done it. 3. Spenserian Sonnet Sir Edmund Spenser was the first poet who modified the Petrarch's form and introduced a new rhyme scheme as follows: What guile is this, that those her golden tresses She doth attire under a net of gold; And with sly skill so cunningly them dresses, That which is gold or hair, may scarce be told? Is it that men's frail eyes, which gaze too bold, She may entangle in that golden snare; And being caught may craftily enfold Their weaker hearts, which are not yet well aware? Take heed therefore, mine eyes, how ye do stare Henceforth too rashly on that guileful net, In which if ever ye entrapped are, Out of her bands ye by no means shall get. Folly it were for any being free, To covet fetters, though they golden be. (From Amoretti by Edmund Spenser) The rhyme scheme in this sonnet is abab-bcbc-cdcd-ee which is specific to Spenser and such types of sonnets are called Spenserian sonnets.
Verbal Irony
A discrepancy between the true meaning of a situation and the literal meaning of the written or spoken words Sarcasm Exaggeration or Overstatement Understatement
Synecdoche
A figure of speech in which a part signifies the whole or the whole signifies the part
Tragedy
A form of literature in which the hero is destroyed by some character flaw and a set of forces that cause the hero considerable anguish
Stream of Consciousness
A style of writing in which the author tries to reproduce the random flow of thoughts in the human mind
Syntax
Casual conversation: "I cannot go out" Poetry: "Go out I cannot" __________________________________ Syntax in Poetry The general word order of an English sentence is "Subject+Verb+Object". In poetry, however, the word order may be shifted to achieve certain artistic effects such as producing rhythm or melody in the lines, achieving emphasis, heightening connection between two words etc. The unique syntax used in poetry makes it different from prose. Let us consider the following examples of syntax: Example #1 In casual conversations, we can simply say, "I cannot go out" to convey our inability to go out. P J Kavanagh's in his poem Beyond Decoration does not rely on merely stating a prosaic "I cannot go out". Rather, he shifts the syntax and says "Go out I cannot", which lays a much stronger emphasis on the inability to go out conveyed by the word "cannot". Example #2 Similarly, Milton shifts words in his poems frequently. Let us analyze lines from his poem Lycidas: "Thee, Shepherd, thee the woods and desert caves, With wild thyme and the gadding vine o'ergrown, And all their echoes mourn" The modified word order in the above lines is Object+Subject+Subject Complement+Verb. Syntax in Prose Syntax affects the nature of a prose text as well. It enhances its meanings and contributes toward its tone. Quickness, decisiveness and speed are added to a text by using short phrase, clauses and sentences. Whereas, in a text where the subject matter is serious that requires contemplation, long, convoluted sentence are used to slow down the pace of a prose text. Example #1 "That night I sat on Tyan-yu's bed and waited for him to touch me. But he didn't. I was relieved." (The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan) Example #2 "They left me alone and I lay in bed and read the papers awhile, the news from the front, and the list of dead officers with their decorations and then reached down and brought up the bottle of Cinzano and held it straight up on my stomach, the cool glass against my stomach, and took little drinks making rings on my stomach from holding the bottle there between drinks, and watched it get dark outside over the roofs of the town." (A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway) The two syntax examples above show a distinct use of syntax. Amy Tan uses short sentences to communicate in a powerful and concise manner. Ernest Hemingway, on the other hand, uses long and complex structures to emphasize the laziness of his character. Syntax in Shakespeare Writing all of his plays and sonnets in iambic pentameter, Shakespeare habitually reversed the general order of English sentences by placing verbs at the end of the sentences. Example #1 In Romeo and Juliet, he writes, "What light from yonder window breaks?" instead of using a common expression "What light breaks from yonder window?" Example #2 In Richard III, he deliberately reverses the word order of a sentence, "and all the clouds that lowered upon our house buried in the deep bosom of the ocean." into "And all the clouds that lower'd upon our house in the deep bosom of the ocean buried."
Style
Example #1 An excerpt from "The Pleasures of Imagination" by Joseph Addison The pleasures of the imagination, taken in their full extent, are not so gross as those of sense... A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures... A man should endeavour, therefore, to make the sphere of his innocent pleasures as wide as possible, that he may retire into them with safety ... Delightful scenes, whether in nature, painting, or poetry, have a kindly influence on the body, as well as the mind, and not only serve to clear and brighten the imagination, but are able to disperse grief and melancholy... This is an example of expository writing style in which the author describes advantages of imagination with facts and logical sequence and tells his delight of imagination. Then, he discusses its benefits and finally gives opinions in its favor. Example #2 Here is an excerpt from a poem. A drop fell on the apple tree, Another on the roof, And made the gables laugh, The breezes brought dejected lutes, And bathed them in the glee; And signed the fete away. (Summer Shower by Emily Dickinson) This poem is giving an example of descriptive style. Emily gives a description of a summer rainstorm in detail and visualizes with images so that the readers could visualize this storm in their own minds as if it is actually happening. Example #3 It is an ancient Mariner, And he stoppeth one of three.' By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, Now wherefore stopp'st thou me? The bridegroom's doors are opened wide, ... The guests are met, the feast is set: Mayst hear the merry din. (The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge) In this poem, Coleridge uses narrative style and tells a story about the ancient mariner. He uses dialogues, disputes, actions and events in a sequence, thus provides a perfect example of the narrative style of writing. Example #4 An excerpt from Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde "The studio was filled with the rich odor of roses, and when the light summer wind stirred amidst the trees of the garden... The sullen murmur of the bees shouldering their way through... or circling with monotonous insistence..." This is a good example of descriptive writing style since the author gives visualizations, feelings, description of a location and details about bees that could be seen and heard. ___________________________________________ Example #1 A few light taps upon the pane made him turn to the window. It had begun to snow again. He watched sleepily the flakes, silver and dark, falling obliquely against the lamplight. The time had come for him to set out on his journey westward. Yes, the newspapers were right: snow was general all over Ireland. ("The Dead" from Dubliners by James Joyce) riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs. (Finnegan's Wake by James Joyce) In these two contrasting examples of style, we can see a great leap from James Joyce's earlier works to his later works. His writing style in Dubliners is descriptive yet quite direct. However, in Finnegan's Wake, Joyce's writing is almost unintelligible. This line is the first in the novel—note that it doesn't even start with a capital letter—and already Joyce has used several barely understandable words. Example #2 In Moulmein, in lower Burma, I was hated by large numbers of people - the only time in my life that I have been important enough for this to happen to me. ("Shooting an Elephant" from Facing Unpleasant Facts by George Orwell) Power is not a means; it is an end. One does not establish a dictatorship in order to safeguard a revolution; one makes the revolution in order to establish the dictatorship. The object of persecution is persecution. The object of torture is torture. The object of power is power. (1984 by George Orwell) Here is another set of styles from the same author. George Orwell wrote many essays about his experiences, and uses a very drily witty style. However, when writing perhaps his most famous work of fiction Orwell is decidedly not witty and instead writes in a very cold and blunt style. Example #3 Emma Woodhouse, handsome, clever, and rich, with a comfortable home and happy disposition, seemed to unite some of the best blessings of existence; and had lived nearly twenty-one years in the world with very little to distress or vex her. (Emma by Jane Austen) Jane Austen was noted for her novels dealing with manner and class. This style example comes from the opening description of the eponymous Emma, and shows Austen's interest in social standing. Example #4 He was completely integrated now and he took a good long look at everything. Then he looked up at the sky. There were big white clouds in it. He touched the palm of his hand against the pine needles where he lay and he touched the bark of the pine trunk that he lay behind. (For Whom the Bell Tolls by Ernest Hemingway) Ernest Hemingway was particularly famous for his straightforward style. In this passage from the end of For Whom the Bell Tolls, we see hardly any adjectives even though it is a descriptive excerpt. Hemingway's style was to describe scenery only in the briefest way and without any unnecessary adornment. Example #5 Her sandals revealed an ankle bracelet and toenails painted vermilion. The sight of these nails gave Briony a constricting sensation around her sternum, and she knew at once that she could not ask Lola to play the Prince. (Atonement by Ian McEwan) Contemporary writer Ian McEwan is known for his psychologically astute and highly detailed style. In this example of style, we see the narrator Briony assessing another character in such detail that she makes judgments and decisions based on these miniscule details. Often the details are what end up changing the course of events drastically in McEwan's works.
Theme
Examples of this in Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice" are matrimony, love, friendship, and affection. The whole narrative revolves around the major one of matrimony. Its minor ones are love, friendship and affection. ____________________________________ Example #1 Love and friendship are frequently occurring themes in literature. They generate emotional twists and turns in a narrative and can lead to a variety of endings: happy, sad or bittersweet. The following are famous literary works with love and friendship themes: Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Example #2 The theme of war has been explored in literature since ancient times. The literary woks utilizing this theme may either glorify or criticize the idea of war. Most recent literary works portray war as a curse for humanity due to the suffering it inflicts. Some famous examples are: Iliad and Odyssey by Homer War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway Arms and the Man by Bernard Shaw A Band of Brothers: Stories from Vietnam by Walter McDonald Example #3 Crime and mystery are utilized in detective novels. Such narratives also include sub-themes such as "crimes cannot be hidden", "evil is always punished" etc. Some well-known crime and mystery theme examples are: The Murders in the Rue Morgue by Edgar Allan Poe Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle Bleak House by Charles Dickens Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown Example #4 Revenge is another recurrent theme found in many popular literary works. A character comes across certain circumstances that make him aware of his need for revenge. The outcome of his action is often bitter but sometimes they may end up being satisfied. Examples are: Hamlet and Macbeth by William Shakespeare The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexander Dumas The Girl Who Kicked the Hornet's Nest by Stieg Larsson A Time to Kill by John Grisham ___________________________________________ Example 1 "i carry your heart with me(i carry it in)" by E. E. Cummings: i carry your heart with me(i carry it in my heart)i am never without it(anywhere i go you go,my dear;and whatever is done by only me is your doing,my darling) i fear no fate(for you are my fate,my sweet)i want no world(for beautiful you are my world,my true) and it's you are whatever a moon has always meant and whatever a sun will always sing is you here is the deepest secret nobody knows (here is the root of the root and the bud of the bud and the sky of the sky of a tree called life;which grows higher than soul can hope or mind can hide) and this is the wonder that's keeping the stars apart i carry your heart(i carry it in my heart) This poem's major theme is clear: love. Minor themes include fate, togetherness, and desire. Example 2 Atonement by Ian McEwan is an example of a novel whose theme is its title. Here are a few revealing excerpts: How can a novelist achieve atonement when, with her absolute power of deciding outcomes, she is also God? There is no one, no entity or higher form that she can appeal to, or be reconciled with, or that can forgive There is nothing outside her. In her imagination she has set the limits and the terms. No atonement for God, or novelists, even if they are atheists. It was always an impossible task, and that was precisely the point. The attempt was all. This section reveals the main theme of atonement along with other minor themes such as the life of the writer and forgiveness. ____________________________everyday ex Example 1 A man, fueled by an urge for power and control due to his own pride, builds a supercomputer. That supercomputer then takes over the world, causing chaos and struggle galore. This sci-fi style story contains many common themes. A few of its themes include: Danger of excessive pride The risky relationship between humankind and developing technology Example 2 A boy and a girl fall in love. The boy is forced to join the army and fights to survive in a war-torn country as his beloved waits at home. When he returns from war, the two are united and married. The love story also has many common themes in literature: The power of true love Fate, which sometimes tears lovers apart and then joins them together War As can be seen from these examples, themes can range widely from ideas, as large as love and war, to others as specific as the relationship between humankind and technology.
Tone
Father: "We are going on a vacation." Son: "That's great!!!" - The son's response is very cheerful. "Can someone tell me what the hell is going on here?" -This is aggressive. "I'm so glad that jerk was fired; now I won't have to deal with him anymore." Vs. "It's terrible that Tony was let go; he was such a great colleague!" "The movie was amazing! I was laughing so hard I cried!" Vs. "You can only watch infantile humor for so long before you want to punch yourself in the face." "The principal just called to say that our son was in a fight. I can't believe he would do that." Vs. "I'm proud of Billy for sticking up for himself. That bully had it coming." "I'm so excited that he called! I've been hoping to hear from him." Vs. "Why is that weirdo calling me again after all this time?" ________________________________ Examples in Common Speech We adopt variety of tones in our day-to-day speech. This intonation of our speech determines what message we desire to convey. Read a few examples below: Example #1 Father: "We are going on a vacation." Son: "That's great!!!" - The tone of son's response is very cheerful. Example #2 Father: "We can't go on vacation this summer." Son: "Ok. Great! That's what I expected." - The son's tone is sarcastic in the given response. Example #3 "You will get good grades like in the previous exams" - The tone is pessimistic in this example. Example #4 "Can someone tell me what the hell is going on here?" -This has an aggressive tone. Examples of Tone in Literature Tone has a significant place in literature as it manifests writers' attitude toward different subjects. Example #1 Holden Caulfield in J.D Salinger's "Catcher in the Rye" unfolds his personality through the tone he adopts throughout the novel. Let us have a look at some of his remarks: "All morons hate it when you call them a moron." "If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she's late? Nobody." "******* money. It always ends up making you blue as hell." "Catholics are always trying to find out if you're Catholic." Holden's tone is bitterly sarcastic as he criticizes the nature of things in real life. His character may reveal the attitude of the writer towards life as it is common for writers to use their characters as their mouthpieces. Example #2 Observe the tone of a short story "The School" by Donald Barthelme: "And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don't know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn't the best. We complained about it. So we've got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we've got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing." The use of adjectives "dead" and "depressing" sets a gloomy tone in the passage. As trees signify life here, their unexpected "death" from an unknown cause gives the above passage an unhappy and pessimistic tone. Example #3 Robert Frost in the last stanza of his poem The Road Not Taken gives us an insight into the effect of tone: "I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference." Frost tells us about his past with a "sigh", this gives the above lines an unhappy tone. This tone leads us into thinking that the speaker in the poem had to make a difficult choice. _____________________________________ Maus by Art Spiegelman: Melancholy, Anguished—Maus is a son's story as he reflects on the horrors that his father lived through. The son struggles with the knowledge of these horrors, and thus the work is quite somber. The Diary of Anne Frank by Anne Frank: Youthful, Optimistic—In retrospect, the reader knows that things ended tragically for Anne Frank. Her diary, however, is full of hope, even as she deals with an incredibly difficult situation. Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut: Deadpan, Spare—Kurt Vonnegut was present for the firebombing of Dresden, and relates the events of that night, as well as the rest of the book, in extremely unemotional terms. He is very matter-of-fact about the horrors of war, which allows the reader to inhabit the anger and sorrow of the destruction. Catch-22 by Joseph Heller: Satirical—Similar to Slaughterhouse-Five, Catch-22 lays bare the absurdities of war. Though the tone can be humorous at times, the subject matter is very serious and this contrast creates the effect of parody. Examples of Tone in Literature Example #1 Having thus lost his understanding, he unluckily stumbled upon the oddest fancy that ever entered into a madman's brain; for now he thought it convenient and necessary, as well for the increase of his own honor, as the service of the public, to turn knight-errant. Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes: Ironic In this example of tone, Cervantes calls Don Quixote "a madman" and says he has "lost his understanding." The narrative voice clearly thinks that Don Quixote's decision to become a knight-errant is foolish, and much of the novel pokes fun at Don Quixote's attempts to prove his valiance. Cervantes creates an ironic distance between himself as the author and Don Quixote's heroic quest. Example #2 The founders of a new colony, whatever Utopia of human virtue and happiness they might originally project, have invariably recognized it among their earliest practical necessities to allot a portion of the virgin soil as a cemetery, and another portion as the site of a prison. The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne: Skeptical In this early excerpt from The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne describes a new colony that hopes to be a Utopia, yet first constructs a cemetery and a prison. These are two things that one might assume a Utopia would not need, and thus the author sets up expectations that things will not go as the citizens of the town hope. Example #3 I couldn't forgive [Tom] or like him, but I saw that what he had done was, to him, entirely justified. It was all very careless and confused. They were careless people, Tom and Daisy - they smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money or their vast carelessness, or whatever it was that kept them together, and let other people clean up the mess they had made. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Disillusioned The narrator of The Great Gatsby, Nick Carraway, changes tone throughout the novel. At times he is in great admiration of Jay Gatsby, while at others times he scorns the wastefulness and foolishness of the upper class. Here he calls Tom and Daisy "careless people" and clearly feels no love lost for either of them. After he passes the summer in their company his tone has changed so that he is not in admiration of their lifestyle at all anymore. Example #4 Neighbors bring food with death and flowers with sickness and little things in between. Boo was our neighbor. He gave us two soap dolls, a broken watch and chain, a pair of good-luck pennies, and our lives. But neighbors give in return. We never put back into the tree what we took out of it: we had given him nothing, and it made me sad. To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee: Nostalgic The narrator of To Kill a Mockingbird is a young girl, Scout, though the story is told in retrospect. The novel is a coming-of-age story where Scout begins to understand the injustices in the world. In this tone example, Scout acknowledges the things that she took from neighbor Boo Radley without having given anything back. Though she is talking about literal things here, her nostalgia about not having done enough for Boo extends to intangible things as well.
Tragedy
Hamlet is an example of this because everyone dies, either at their own hand or at someone else's. There is little in way of redemption offered to the characters. _________________________________________ *****A. Christopher Marlowe(His characters of tragedies are the great men of history who become victims of their own fate.): Tamburlaine, Doctor Faustus, The Jew of Malta, Edward III *****B. William Shakespeare: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, Troilus and Cressida ******C. John Webster (a Jacobean dramatist who modeled his tragedies on the Shakespearean model) -Titus Andronicus, The White Devil, The Duchess of Malfi *****D. Henrick Ibsen (father of realism) A Doll's House, Hedda Gabler, The Wild Duck, Emperor and Galilean *****E. Arthur Miller: All My Sons, Death of a Salesman, The Crucible, A View from the Bridge, The Misfits
Voice
In Harper Lee's "To Kill a Mockingbird", Scout narrates the whole story. Though she is an adult, she tells her story from her childhood's point of view. When she grows older, her language becomes more sophisticated. Scout uses first person narrative to create a realistic sense, as audience notices the child grows up. Her dialogue allows readers to hear the language of younger Scout. Also, it enables the readers to feel the voice of an adult in her actions as well thinking. ____________________________________________ Example 1 Stream of Consciousness Voice Stream of consciousness is a narrative voice that comprises of thought process of the characters. James Joyce's novel, Ulysses, William Faulkner's novel, As I Lay Dying and The Sound and Fury, are modes of stream of consciousness narrative. Example 2 Character Voice Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, is a very good example of a character's voice, in which a character, Scout narrates the whole story. Though she is an adult, she tells her story from her childhood's point of view. When she grows older, her language becomes more sophisticated. Scout uses first person narrative to create a realistic sense, as audience notices the child grows up. Her dialogue allows readers to hear the language of younger Scout. Also, it enables the readers to feel the voice of an adult in her actions as well thinking. Example 3 Unreliable Voice Edgar Allan Poe' short story, The Tell-Tale Heart, is an example of first person unreliable narrative voice, which is significantly unknowledgeable, biased, childish and ignorant, who purposefully tries to deceive the readers. As the story proceeds, the readers notice the voice is unusual, characterized by starts and stops. The character directly talks to the readers, showing highly exaggerated and wrought style. It is obvious that effectiveness of this story relies on its style, voice and structure, which reveal the diseased state of mind of the narrator. Example 4 Epistolary Voice Epistolary narrative voice makes use of letters and documents to convey the message and reveal the story. It may use multiple persons' voices, or there could be no narrator at all, as the author may have gathered different documents in a single place to shape a story. For instance, Mary Shelley in her novel, Frankenstein, employs epistolary form in which she uses a sequence of letters to express the voice of her narrator -a scientific explorer, Captain Robert Walton, who presents the story through his letters. He attempts to reach North Pole where he meets Victor Frankenstein, and then records his experiences and confessions. Example 5 Third-person, Subjective Voice Third person narrative voice employs category of a third person point of view. In a third person subjective voice, a narrator describes feelings, thoughts and opinions of one or more characters. Hemingway's novel, Old Man and the Sea, and George R.R Martin's fantasy novel, A Song of Ice and Fire, present examples of third person point of view. Example 6 Third-person Objective Voice In third person objective, a narrator narrates the story without showing character's feelings and thoughts and gives unbiased and objective point of view. A typical example of this voice is Ernest Hemingway's Hills Like White Elephants.
