Logic Exam

Denying the Antecedent Fallacy

(F) Suppose you hear barking and reason like this: if it barks, then it's a dog. It's barking. Therefore it's a dog. IF it barks, then it's a dog. It's not barking. Therefore it isn't a dog. That is NOT valid.

begging the question

A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt.

Hasty Generalization

A fallacy in which a conclusion is not logically justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence.

Fallacies of Defective Induction

A fallacy in which the premises are too weak or ineffective to warrant the conclusion.

Amphiboly fallacy

A fallacy of ambiguity caused by a vagueness of grammar that disguises or alters meaning

Slippery Slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

Red Herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Accident Fallacy

A fallacy that occurs when a generally true statement is applied to a specific case that is unusual.

Straw Man

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.

Appeal to Ignorance

A fallacy that uses an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as proof of the conclusion's correctness.

create an invalid argument with two true premises and a false conclusion

All cats are mammals; All dogs are mammals; Therefore, All cats are dogs

create an invalid argument with two true premises and a true conclusion

All cats are mammals; All dogs are mammals; Therefore, All horses are mammals

create a valid argument with two true premises and a true conclusion

All cats are mammals; All mammals are animals; Therefore, All cats are animals

create an invalid argument with one true premise, one false premise, and a true conclusion

All cats are mammals; All mammals are dogs; Therefore, All dogs are mammals

create a valid argument with two false premises and a true conclusion

All frogs are cats; All cats are amphibians; Therefore, All frogs are amphibians

Appeal to Force

Arguer threatens reader/listener

Fallacies of Clarity

Arguments that fail because they contain words, phrases, or syntax that distort or cloud their meaning.

Tu Quoque

Avoiding having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser - answering criticism with criticism.

False Dichotomy

Consists of a consideration of only the two extremes when there are one or more intermediate possibilities

Fallacies of Relevance

Fallacies that occur whenever irrelevant premises are offered in support of a conclusion

paraphrase the following: Some over-the-counter medicines should not be given to very young children. For example, cold medicines contain decongestants and antihistamines. These substances raise blood pressure and heart rate. If an overdose should occur in a young child, the result can be fatal.

P1. Cold medicines contain decongestants and antihistamines. P2. Decongestants and antihistamines raise blood pressure and heart rate. P3. If an overdose of decongestants and antihistamines should occur in a young child, the result can be fatal. C. Some over-the-counter medicines should not be given to very young children.

paraphrase the following: Research leading to the development of a scramjet engine is worthwhile. Commercial aircraft incorporating such an engine could cross the Pacific in as little as two hours. This would relieve the fatigue of flights from New York to Tokyo. Also, such an engine could power future orbiting spacecraft.

P1. Commercial aircraft incorporating scramjet engine could cross the Pacific in as little as two hours P2. Crossing the Pacific in as little as two hours relieves the fatigue of flights from New York to Tokyo. P3. The scramjet engine could power future orbiting spacecraft. C. Research leading to the development of a scramjet engine is worthwhile

paraphrase the following: The development of carbon-embedded plastics, otherwise called "composits," is an important new technology because it holds the key for new aircraft and spacecraft designs. This is so because these composits are not only stronger than steel but lighter than aluminum.

P1. Composits holds the key for new aircraft and spacecraft designs P2. Composits are stronger than steel P3. Composits are lighter than aluminum C. The development of "composits" is an important new technology

paraphrase the following: The mineral source of many manufactured items is not commonly known. For example, few people are aware that pencil lead does not contain lead metal but is really made of the soft black mineral called graphite. Talcum powder is ground-up rock made from the mineral talc. And the common mineral quartz is the main ingredient in ordinary glass and is the source of silicon for computer chips.

P1. Few people are aware that pencil lead is made of graphite. P2. Few people are aware that talcum powder is made from talc. P3. Few people are aware that ordinary glass and computer chips are made of quartz. C. The mineral source of many manufactured items is not commonly known

paraphrase the following: We should not eat oysters or lobsters, because God said that we should not eat that which has no fins or scales.

P1. God said that we should not eat that which has no fins or scales. P2. Oysters and lobsters do not have fins or scales. [Hidden] P3. We should not do what God tells us to avoid. [Possible hidden] C. We should not eat oysters or lobsters.

paraphrase the following: . If pacifism were true, then all cases of killing would be wrong. But, surely, killing in self- defense cannot be wrong.

P1. If pacifism were true, then all cases of killing would be wrong. P2. Killing in self-defense cannot be wrong. P3. Not all cases of killing are wrong. [Possible hidden] C. Pacifism isn't true. [Hidden]

paraphrase the following: It really does matter if you get enough sleep. We need sleep to think clearly, react quickly, and create memories. Studies show that people who are taught mentally challenging tasks do better after a good night's sleep. Other research suggests that sleep is needed for creative problem solving.

P1. People who are taught mentally challenging tasks do better after a good night's sleep. P2. sleep is needed for creative problem solving. P3. We need sleep to think clearly, react quickly, and create memories. [This is actually an interim conclusion of P1 and P2.] C. It really does matter if you get enough sleep. [This may be redundant. You could take P3 as the real conclusion of the argument.]

paraphrase the following: Since private property helps people define themselves, since it frees people from mundane cares of daily subsistence, and since it is finite, no individual should accumulate so much property that others are prevented from accumulating the necessities of life.

P1. Private property helps people define themselves. P2. Private property frees people from mundane cares of daily subsistence P3. Private property is finite. C. No individual should accumulate so much property that others are prevented from accumulating the necessities of life.

paraphrase the following: The budget deficit will not be brought under control because to do so would require our elected leaders in Washington to do the unthinkable—act courageously and responsibly.

P1. To bring the budget deficit under control would require our elected leaders in Washington to act courageously and responsibly. P2. Our elected leaders in Washington will not act courageously and responsibly. [Hidden, but suggested by the claim that it is unthinkable.] C. Our budget deficit will not be brought under control.

diagram: [1] No government can ever guarantee that the small investor has an equal chance of winning. [2] It is beyond dishonest to pretend that rules can be written to prevent future financial scandals. [3] No set of regulations can insure fairness and transparency in the [securities] markets

The closest proposition here is (1). And (2) and (3) each seem to support it individually

what fallacy is being committed here? . Michael Moore, the documentary filmmaker, argues that capitalist institutions are ravaging America's middle class and walking away with billions of dollars in their pockets. But Moore is just a big, fat, populist rabble-rouser, and a multimillionaire to boot. He should keep his mouth shut.

This can be read as either an Abusive ad hominem or a Tu quoque, or both. It attacks Moore's character but also points out that he's a multimillionaire - and is therefore a hypocrite for criticizing capitalism.

which fallacy describes the following?: Poor Scooter Libby should never have been sent to jail for lying to a grand jury. Scooter is an honorable man. He devoted his whole life to working for his country. One administration after another asked for his help. And Scooter was always there, ready to serve. Scooter deserved a medal, not jail time.

This can be seen as an Appeal to Pity or as a Red Herring. The former is motivated because the author is highlighting Libby's sacrifice as a reason to avoid jail time. The latter is motivated because all his previous deeds are immaterial to the fact of his lying to the jury, which is what sent him to jail.

which fallacy describes the following?: Ferguson's argument in favor of deregulating the banking system isn't worth a hoot. Consider this: Ferguson is a banker himself, and if banks are deregulated, he will earn millions.

This is a Circumstantial Ad Hominem - dismissing Ferguson's argument merely on the basis of his circumstances, his occupation.

which fallacy describes the following?: Mrs. Gladstone's arguments against cuts in Social Security are worthless. As a recipient of Social Security benefits, she would naturally be expected to argue exactly the way she does.

This is a Circumstantial Ad Hominem. The author doesn't argue against Gladstone's position, but dismisses them outright on the basis of her circumstances.

what fallacy is being committed here? Former Senator Robert Packwood of Oregon became so angry at the state's leading newspaper, the Portland Oregonian, that in response to a request from that paper for a quote, he offered this: "Since I quit talking to the Oregonian, my business has prospered beyond all measure. I assume that my business has prospered because I don't talk to the Oregonian. Therefore I will continue that policy. Thanks."

This is a False Cause. Packwood is assuming a causal relation between not talking to the press and prosperity on the basis of a mere correlation.

what fallacy is being committed here? Bill Gates and Warren Buffet give millions of dollars to charitable causes every year. It must be the case that all wealthy people give huge amounts of money to charity every year.

This is a Hasty generalization. Moving from a premise about only two wealthy people to a generalization about all of them.

which fallacy describes the following?: Senator Dawson argues in favor of legalizing gay marriage. But did you know that the senator has been married three times? And his last divorce was a real doozie. His wife went on and on about their sex life. Apparently the Senator is no good in bed. Enough about that issue ... . Shall we move on?

This is a Red Herring, but could also count as an Abusive Ad Hominem. It is a Red Herring because it completely changes the subject from legalizing gay marriage to Dawson's sex life. It is an Abusive Ad Hominem because it is disparaging about his marriage and his sex life and that might be taken to imply that his opinions about marriage and sex should be ignored.

which fallacy describes the following?: Betty is opposed to capital punishment by lethal injection. But doctors inject patients with all sorts of medicines every day. For example, vaccines against flu, pneumonia, and tetanus are injected into millions of patients. Antibiotics are injected for a whole host of bacterial infections, and insulin is injected for diabetes. Obviously, Betty's views are not supported by the evidence.

This is a Red Herring. Clearly, the fact that "doctors inject patients with all sorts of medicines every day" is irrelevant to, and distracts from, the question of capital punishment by lethal injection.

what fallacy is being committed here? The Surgeon General recently issued a report arguing that one third of the cancer fatalities in the United States can be attributed to smoking. But this claim is ridiculous. Smoking produces a great deal of enjoyment for millions of Americans. What would life be like if you can't enjoy something once in a while?

This is a Red Herring. The fact (if it is one) that smoking brings enjoyment to many people in America does not bear t all on whether the claim that it causes cancer is ridiculous. It is completely irrelevant to that claim and the author's bringing it up is merely meant to distract us.

what fallacy is being committed here? Dog owners have asked that they be allowed to bring their pets to the beach. This request will have to be denied. If dogs are allowed on the beach, then soon we will have horses and cows. Before long there will be sheep, goats, pigs, and chickens. All that potential food will attract the owners of jaguars, lions, and tigers. In the end, the beach will be a war zone.

This is a Slippery Slope. Obviously, there's no reason to think that just allowing dogs into the park necessitates the expansion of this allowance to any animal which would then lead to the calamity described.

which fallacy describes the following?: Adrian argues that it should be illegal for private individuals to carry concealed weapons. Obviously Adrian wants to abolish gun ownership altogether. Just go out and confiscate all the guns. That's what Adrian wants. Well, the Second Amendment gives us the right to bear arms, so Adrian's argument is ridiculous.

This is a Straw Man.

which fallacy describes the following?: Frank Larsen argues for stricter gun control. It appears that Frank wants to abolish access to guns altogether. But if law-abiding citizens can't own a gun, then they will have no means of defending themselves against criminals. Obviously Frank's argument is no good.

This is a Straw Man. It presents Frank's argument for gun control as the much more radical (and perhaps absurd) position of abolishing access to guns altogether.

what fallacy is being committed here? Senator Barrow advocates increased Social Security benefits for the poor. It is regrettable that the senator finds it necessary to advocate socialism. Socialism defeats initiative, takes away promised rewards, and leads directly to inefficiency and big government. It was tried for years in Eastern Europe, and it failed miserably. Clearly, socialism is no good.

This is a Straw man. Barrow's support for increasing social security benefits is portrayed as an endorsement of socialism.

which fallacy describes the following?: A spokesman for the government has argued that our insistence on a twelve percent increase in pay for steel workers is inflationary. But the government's own actions are far more inflationary than ours. The government just gave a fifteen percent increase to every single employee of the giant federal bureaucracy.

This is a Tu Quoque. It doesn't address the government's argument, but blames it for hypocrisy.

what fallacy is being committed here? Picasso is the greatest artist of the twentieth century. We know that this is so because art critics have described him in these terms. These art critics are correct in their assessment because they have a more keenly developed sense of appreciation than the average person. This is true because it takes a more keenly developed sense of appreciation to realize that Picasso is the greatest artist of the twentieth century.

This is a case of Begging the question. They appeal to the authority of critics to claim that Picasso is great, but it supports the authority of those critics by appeal to their endorsement of the claim that Picasso is great.

what fallacy is being committed here? . The twenty-story Carson Building is constructed of concrete blocks. Each and every concrete block in the structure can withstand an earthquake of 9.5 on the Richter scale. Therefore, the building can withstand an earthquake of 9.5 on the Richter scale.

This is a case of Composition. Moving from features of the whole - bricks withstanding earthquakes - to attributing that same feature to the whole - the building.

what fallacy is being committed here? Johnson is employed by the General Services Administration, and everyone knows that the GSA is the most inefficient branch of the government. Therefore, Johnson must be an inefficient worker.

This is a case of Division. The premise makes a claim about the inefficiency of a collective, or whole, the GSA. And the conclusion claims that a part of that collective - Johnson - is inefficient.

which fallacy describes the following?: . Johnny, you better not tell anyone that I stole the apple from the teacher's desk. I'm sure you don't want to come to class with a bloody nose and a black eye tomorrow.

This is a clear Appeal to Force. It tries to convince Johnny to do something by threatening him.

which fallacy describes the following?: You shouldn't worry a minute about dropping these tabs of ecstasy. Absolutely everyone who is the least bit cool is doing it.

This is a clear Appeal to the People. The speaker is trying to convince the listener to do something because everyone else is doing it. Because it's 'cool'. Appealing to a sense of belonging.

what fallacy is being committed here? Professor Harris gives a number of reasons why we should turn off our cell phones during class. It appears that Harris is one of those Luddites who are opposed to technology altogether. No laptops, no iPods, no digital cameras - that's what Harris wants. But that's just ridiculous. Thus, it's clear that Harris is wrong.

This is a clear Straw Man - The author rejects Harris' claim by portraying it an absurd light. Harris isn't opposing all of technology (which would, of course, be absurd); he just wants turn off cell phones in class.

which fallacy describes the following?: The editors of the Daily Register have accused our company of being one of the city's worst water polluters. But the Daily Register is responsible for much more pollution than we are. After all, they own the Western Paper Company, and that company discharges tons of chemical residue into the city's river every day.

This is a clear Tu Quoque. The author isn't addressing the complaints of the Daily Register, but dismisses them by claiming that the Daily Register editors are hypocrites.

what fallacy is being committed here? The farmers of our state have asked that we introduce legislation to provide subsidies for soybeans. Unfortunately, we will have to turn down their request. If we give subsidies to the soybean farmers, then the corn and wheat growers will ask for the same thing. Then it will be the cotton growers, citrus growers, truck farmers, and cattle raisers. In the end, the cost will be astronomical.

This is a special case of False cause - A Slippery slope. The claim moves from subsidies for soybeans to subsidies for everything else.

which fallacy describes the following?: Professor Smyth argues for the adoption of stronger standards covering food imported from China. But Smyth is a disgusting leftist ex hippie who reportedly has sex with his female students. Smyth's arguments are trash, just as he is.

This is an Abusive Ad Hominem. It dismisses Smyth's position by making disparaging remarks about his character.

which fallacy describes the following?: Pauline's argument for stricter drug laws is as worn out as she is. Her brain has practically calcified, she can hardly remember anything, and she confuses the letter carrier with the gardener. I'm afraid we'll just have to pass over her argument.

This is an Abusive Ad Hominem. The author dismisses Pauline's position, not by addressing it, but by claiming that she is somehow defective and therefore not worth considering.

what fallacy is being committed here? . Freedom of speech is guaranteed by the First Amendment. Therefore, your friend was acting within his rights when he shouted "Fire! Fire!" in that crowded theater, even though it was only a joke.

This is an Accident/Misapplication. The first amendment is a general rule, but it does not extend to cases that would endanger people, like shouting 'Fire!' in a crowder theater.

what fallacy is being committed here? Mr. Prime Minister, I am certain you will want to release the members of our National Liberation Group whom you currently hold in prison. After all, I'm sure you will want to avoid having car bombs go off in the centers of your most heavily populated cities.

This is an Appeal to force. The author/speaker is threatening the PM with violence.

what fallacy is being committed here? No one has proved conclusively that America's nuclear power plants constitute a danger to people living in their immediate vicinity. Therefore, it is perfectly safe to continue to build nuclear power plants near large metropolitan centers.

This is an Appeal to ignorance. We're moving from what we don't know - the risks of nuclear plants - to a conclusion that they are safe.

what fallacy is being committed here? Surely architect Norris is not responsible for the collapse of the Central Bank Tower. Norris has had nothing but trouble lately. His daughter eloped with a child molester, his son committed suicide, and his alcoholic wife recently left for Las Vegas with his retirement savings.

This is an Appeal to pity. The fact that Norris had such pitiful experiences has no bearing on whether or not he's responsible for the collapse of the tower.

what fallacy is being committed here? Professor Andrews, surely I deserve a B in logic. I know that I have gotten F's on all the tests, but if you give me an F for my final grade, I will lose my scholarship. That will force me to drop out of school, and my poor, aged parents, who yearn to see me graduate, will be grief stricken for the rest of their lives.

This is an Appeal to pity. The pitiful consequences of receiving an F, does not have any bearing on whether someone deserves a B.

explanation or argument ? That all who are happy, are equally happy, is not true. A peasant and a philosopher may be equally satisfied, but not equally happy. Happiness consists in the multiplicity of agreeable consciousness. A peasant has not the capacity for having equal happiness with a philosopher.

This is an argument. [P] A peasant and a philosopher may be equally satisfied, but not equally happy. [P] Happiness consists in the multiplicity of agreeable consciousness. [P] A peasant has not the capacity for having equal happiness with a philosopher. [C] That all who are happy, are equally happy, is not true.

explanation or argument ? Man did not invent the circle or the square or mathematics or the laws of physics. He discovered them. They are immutable and eternal laws that could only have been created by a supreme mind: God. And since we have the ability to make such discoveries, man's mind must possess an innate particle of the mind of God. To believe in God is not "beyond reason."

This is an argument. [P] Man did not invent the circle or the square or mathematics or the laws of physics. [P] Man discovered [the circle, the square, mathematics, and the laws of physics]. [P] [The circle, the square, mathematics, and the laws of physics] are immutable and eternal laws that could only have been created by a supreme mind: God. [P] Since we have the ability to make such discoveries, man's mind must possess an innate particle of the mind of God. [C] To believe in God is not "beyond reason."

explanation or argument ? . To name causes for a state of affairs is not to excuse it. Things are justified or condemned by their consequences, not by their antecedents.

This is an argument. [P] Things are justified or condemned by their consequences, not by their antecedents. [C] To name causes for a state of affairs is not to excuse it.

explanation or argument? Rightness [that is, acting so as to fulfill one's duty] never guarantees moral goodness. For an act may be the act which the agent thinks to be his duty, and yet be done from an indifferent or bad motive, and therefore be morally indifferent or bad.

This is an argument. It tries to convince us of a controversial matter - that acting in a way that fulfills one's duty doesn't guarantee moral goodness. [P] An act may be the act which the agent thinks to be his duty [P] An act may be done from an indifferent or bad motive [P] An act may be morally indifferent or bad [This is an intermediary conclusion of the previous premise, which is why we have a 'therefore' before it. Nonetheless, the first proposition is the main conclusion of the argument.] [C] Rightness never guarantees moral goodness

explanation or argument ? Three aspects of American society in recent decades make cheating more likely. First, there is the rise of a market-drenched society, where monetary success is lauded above all else. Second, there is the decline of religious, communal, and family bonds and norms that encourage honesty. Finally, there is the absence of shame by those public figures who are caught in dishonest or immoral activities. No wonder so many young people see nothing wrong with cutting corners or worse.

This is an explanation. It seeks to explain what makes cheating more likely in American society. It isn't trying to convince the reader that cheating is likely in American society, but to explain why it is so.

explanation or argument ? The nursing shortage in the United States has turned into a full-blown crisis. Because fewer young people go into nursing, one-third of registered nurses in the United States are now over 50 years of age, and that proportion is expected to rise to 40 percent over the next decade. Nurses currently practicing report high rates of job dissatisfaction, with one in five seriously considering leaving the profession within the next five years. . . . Hospitals routinely cancel or delay surgical cases because of a lack of nursing staff.

This is an explanation. The explanandum (that is, what is being explained) is the fact that there is a nursing shortage in the US. The explanans are contained in the rest of the paragraph. One clue that it is an explanation is the title of the article from which it was taken. That's part of the context we talked about in class. However, you might also think that it is an argument that aims to support the claim that the nursing shortage is in full-blown crisis. The last sentence, especially, seems to be providing evidence to support that conclusion. But, the other propositions can also be read as supporting that same conclusion.

explanation or argument ? Animals born without traits that led to reproduction died out, whereas the ones that reproduced the most succeeded in conveying their genes to posterity. Crudely speaking, sex feels good because over evolutionary time the animals that liked having sex created more offspring than the animals that didn't.

This is an explanation. The explanandum (what is being explained) is why sex feels good. It would be odd to think that this is an argument that tries to convince the reader that sex feels good.

which fallacy describes the following?: Practically everyone has driven home at one time or other after having had a few drinks. Therefore, you shouldn't have any problem with driving home now, even though you're a bit tipsy.

This is another Appeal to the People. The author is saying that everyone is doing it, so you should do it too.

what fallacy is being committed here? If you want a life full of sexual pleasures, don't graduate from college. A study to be published next month in American Demographics magazine shows that people with the most education have the least amount of sex.

This is another False Cause. Another mere correlation, between amount of education and amount of sex, is treated as a causal relation.

what fallacy is being committed here? There are more churches in New York City than in any other city in the nation, and more crimes are committed in New York City than anywhere else. So, if we are to eliminate crime, we must abolish the churches.

This is, once more, a False cause. The correlation between number of churches and crime is treated as a causal relation.

Appeal to the People

Uses the views of the majority as a persuasive device (very similar to bandwagon).

Equivocation

When a writer uses the same term in two different senses in an argument.

diagram: [1] Married people are healthier and more economically stable than single people, and [2] children of married people do better on a variety of indicators. [3] Marriage is thus a socially responsible act. [4] There ought to be some way of spreading the principle of support for marriage throughout the tax code.

[1] and [2] jointly support [3] which supports [4]

diagram: (1) It appears that animals may be able to predict earthquakes. (2) Prior to a major quake in China, hundreds of snakes suddenly appeared from hibernation and froze to death in the snow, (3) fish were seen leaping from rivers and lakes, and 4 cows and horses refused to enter barns. Also, (5) prior to a quake in Fremont, California, a flood of callers reported strange behavior from their pets and domestic animals.

[1] is the conclusion and each of the other propositions independently supports it.

diagram: . [1] Finance as we know it today grew out of and lies between economics and accounting. [2] Economists developed the notion that an asset's value is based on the future cash flow the asset will provide. [3] Accountants provided the information about the likely size of those cash flows. So, [4] people who work in finance require knowledge of both economics and accounting.

[2] and [3] jointly support [1], and [1] supports [4]

diagram: (1) The conditions under which many food animals are raised are unhealthy for humans. (2) To keep these animals alive, large quantities of drugs must be administered. (3) These drugs remain in the animals' flesh and are passed on to the humans who eat it.

[2] and [3] jointly support [1].

diagram: . (1) When parents become old and destitute, the obligation of caring for them should be imposed on their children. (2) Clearly, children owe a debt to their parents. (3) Their parents brought them into the world and cared for them when they were unable to care for themselves. (4) This debt could be appropriately discharged by having grown children care for their parents.

[2] and [4] jointly support [1]. And [3] supports [2].

diagram: [1] All algae photosynthesize their own food, as plants do. [2] Algae are also widely distributed in bodies of fresh water and in oceans. Because [3] they are so numerous and because [4] they capture energy from sunlight in the food they make, [5] algae are an important source of food for other organisms.

[2] supports [3], [1] supports [4], and [3] and [4] jointly support [5].

diagram: [1] Contributions to relief organizations are often wasted. [2] Food sent to war torn countries rarely reaches its destination, because [3] food distribution is controlled by the warring groups, and [4] these groups sell the food to buy weapons and ammunition.

[3] and [4] jointly support [2], and [2] supports [1].

diagram: [1] The defendant is guilty. After all, [2] he confessed to stealing the jewels, and [3] he was undoubtedly present at the scene of the crime, since [4] his fingerprints are on the safe.

[4] independently supports [3] and [3] and [2] support [1] (either independently or jointly).

diagram: (1) Numerous cancer patients on chemotherapy suffer from constant nausea, loss of appetite, and inability to sleep. (2) For many of these patients, inhaled marijuana is the only medicine that provides relief. Also, (3) it causes no harmful side effects. For these reasons, (4) medical marijuana should be legalized and made available to these patients. (5) This is not a law and order issue; it is a medical and human-rights issue.

[5] doesn't' seem relevant to the argument. Again - it just gives some context - focusing on the medical considerations. [1] and [2] and [3] jointly support [4].

paraphrase and diagram: Why decry the wealth gap? First, inequality is correlated with political instability. Second, inequality is correlated with violent crime. Third, economic inequality is correlated with reduced life expectancy. A fourth reason? Simple justice. There is no moral justification for chief executives being paid hundreds of times more than ordinary employees.

[P1] Economic inequality is correlated with political instability [P2] Economic inequality is correlated with violent crime [P3] Economic inequality is correlated with reduced life expectancy [P4] Economic inequality is unjust [C5] There is no moral justification for chief executives to be paid hundreds of times more than ordinary employees [C6] We should decry the wealth gap (this can be taken as the conclusion of the previous proposition) If you were to diagram this, (4) supports (5) independently, and (1), (2), (3), and (5) independently support (6).

paraphrase the following : People and governments want to talk, talk, talk about racism and other forms of intolerance; we are obsessed with racial and ethnic issues. But we come to these issues wearing earplugs and blinders, and in a state of denial that absolves us of complicity in any of these hateful matters. Thus, the other guy is always wrong.

[P1] People (and governments) want to talk about racism and other forms of intolerance [P2] People (and governments) are obsessed with racial and ethnic issues [P3] People are in a state of denial regarding their complicity in racism and other forms of intolerance [C] People always blame others for racism and other forms of intolerance

paraphrase the following : Racially diverse nations tend to have lower levels of social support than homogenous ones. People don't feel as bound together when they are divided on ethnic lines and are less likely to embrace mutual support programs. You can have diversity or a big welfare state. It's hard to have both.

[P1] People don't feel as bound together when they are divided on ethnic lines [P2] People are less likely to embrace mutual support programs (when they are divided on ethnic lines) [P3] You can have diversity or a big welfare state [P4] It is hard to have diversity and a big welfare state [Note: This premise is redundant, it is largely a repetition of P3] [C] Racially diverse nations tend to have lower levels of social support than homogenous ones

paraphrase the following : Hundreds of thousands of recent college graduates today cannot express themselves with the written word. Why? Because universities have shortchanged them, offering strange literary theories, Marxism, feminism, deconstruction, and other oddities in the guise of writing courses.

[P1] Universities have shortchanged college graduates. [P2] Universities offer strange literary theories in the guise of writing courses. [C] Hundreds of thousands of recent college graduates today cannot express themselves with the written word.

false cause fallacy

a statement asserting that if an event occurs before some outcome, the event therefore caused that outcome

Composition Fallacy

argues that the parts are the same as the whole

division fallacy

argument in which a speaker assumes that what is true of the whole is also true of the parts that make up the whole

Formal Fallacies

arguments with weaknesses or mistakes in form "form" or logical structure

Premise Indicators

because, since, for, for example, for the reason that, in that, given that, as indicated by, due to, owing to, this can be seen from, we know this by

Circumstantial Ad Hominem

involves an attempt to discredit an argument or view by calling attention to the circumstances or situation of those who advance it

Abusive Ad Hominem

involves an attempt to discredit an argument or view by launching a direct personal attack

Appeal to Pity

taps into people's compassion for others

Fallacies of Presumption

the premises presume what they purport to prove

Conclusion Indicators

thus, therefore, hence, consequently, as a result, so, accordingly, clearly, must be that, shows that, conclude that, follows that, for this reason.

Appeal to Inappropriate Authority

using a non-expert to support an argument

Affirming the Consequent

x->y to y->x If it's a fish, then it lives under water. If it lives under water, then it must be a fish.