LOGIC UNIT 2 terms
Value Claim
is a claim that something is good, bad, right, wrong, better, worse, more important, or less important than some other thing. A value claim is a type of cognitive meaning.
Vague expression
is one that allows for borderline cases in which it is impossible to tell if the expression applies or does not apply. Often allow for a continuous range of interpretations. Hazy, obscure, imprecise. "Love, happiness, peace, excessive, fresh, rich, poor, normal, conservative" trouble arises only when the language is not sufficiently precise for what the situation demands. defective
decreasing intension
is the reverse of increasing intension decreasing intension: tiger, feline, mammal, animal
Demonstrative Definition
most primitive form of a definition. All one need know to understanding such a definition is the meaning of pointing. some may be partial or complete EX)"Chair" means this and this and this—as you point to several chairs, one after the other. "Washington Monument" means that—as you point to it. also most limited.
Rule 8: A lexical definition
should indicate the context to which the definiens pertains This rule applies to any definition in which the context of the definiens is important to the meaning of the definiendum. For example, the definition "'Deuce' means a tie in points toward a game or in games toward a set" is practically meaningless without any reference to tennis. Whenever the definiendum is a word that means different things in different contexts, a reference to the context is important. Examples: "Strike" means (in baseball) a pitch at which a batter swings and misses. "Strike" means (in bowling) the act of knocking down all the pins with the first ball of a frame. "Strike" means (in fishing) a pull on a line made by a fish in taking the bait. It is not always necessary to make explicit reference to the context, but at least the phraseology of the definiens should indicate the context.
Enumerative definitions
Assign meaning to a term by naming the members of the class the term denotes. Like demonstrative definitions, they also may either be partial or complete. EX) "Actress" means a person such as Reese Witherspoon, Blake Lively, or Emma Stone. "Baltic state" means Estonia, Latvia, or Lithuania.
Rule #4 of a Lexical Definition
Rule 4: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Circularity A definition is circular when the definiendum is defined in terms of itself, or virtually in terms of itself. Sometimes the problem of circularity appears in connection with pairs of definitions. The following pair is circular: "Science" means the activity engaged in by scientists. "Scientist" means anyone who engages in science. At other times a definition may be intrinsically circular. Of the following, the first is a synonymous definition, the second a definition by genus and difference: "Soporific" means soporiferous. "Jewelers' rouge" means rouge used by a jeweler. In the first example, the definiendum is virtually the same word as the definiens. As a result, anyone who does not already know the meaning of "soporofic" would probably not know the meaning of "soporiferous," either. In the second example, "jewelers' rouge" is clearly defined in terms of itself. The corrected definitions are as follows: "Soporific" means tending to cause sleep. "Jewelers' rouge" means a very fine polishing compound.
precising definition
reduces vagueness of a word. As we saw in the first section of this chapter, an expression is vague if there are borderline cases in which it is impossible to tell if the word applies or does not apply. Words such as "fresh, "rich", "poor", are vague. Once the vagueness of such words is reduced by a precising definition, one can reach a decision as to the applicability of the word to a specific situation. "moment of death" the courts have decided that it should be taken to men the moment the brain stops functioning, as measured by an electroencephalograph. A precising definition differs from a stipulative definition in that the latter involves a purely arbitrary assignment of meaning, whereas the assignment of meaning in a precising definition is not at all arbitrary. A great deal of care must be taken to ensure that the assignment of meaning in a precising definition is appropriate and legitimate for the context within which the term is to be employed
Definition
a group of words that assigns a meaning to some word or groups of words. 2 parts definiendum, and the definiens.
terms
any word or arrangement of words that may serve as the subject of a statement. Proper names, common names, and descriptive phrases. not terms: verbs, nonsubstantiive adjectives, adverbs, preopositions, conjunctions.
Important connection between extension and intension
intension determines extension the intensional meaning of a term serves as the criterion for deciding what the extension consists of. Because we know the attributes connoted by the term "unicorn," for example, we know that the term has empty extension. That is, we know that there are no four-legged mammals having a single straight horn projecting from their forehead. Similarly, the intension of the word "cat" serves as the criterion for determining what is and what is not a member of the class of cats.
connotation
intensional meaning of a term
Synonymous def
one in which the definiens is a single word that connotes the same attributes as the definiendum, In other words, the definiens is a synonym of the word being defined. Examples: "Physician" means doctor. "Intentional" means willful. "Voracious" means ravenous. "Observe" means see.
Extensional (denotative) definition
one that assigns a meaning to a term by indicating th members of the class that the definindum denotes. 3 ways of indicating the members of a class: 1) pointing to them, 2) naming them individually, and naming them in groups. 3 definitions that result: demonstrative or ostensive definitions, enumerative definitions, and definitions by subclass.
Intensional definition
one that assigns meaning to a word by indicating the qualities or attributes that the word connotes. 4 kinds: synonymous, etymological, operational, definition by genus and difference.
essential meaning
primary, distinguishing meaning of the word. essential attributes- the attributes that are unique to the objets denoted by the word being defined.
Rule 7: A lexical definition
should avoid affective terminology Affective terminology is any kind of word usage that plays on the emotions of the reader or the listener. It includes sarcastic and facetious language and any other kind of language that could influence attitudes. "Communism" means that "brilliant" invention of Karl Marx and other foolish political visionaries in which the national wealth is supposed to be held in common by the people. "Theism" means belief in that great Santa Claus in the sky. The second example also violates Rule 6 because it contains a metaphor.
decreasing extension
the order of decreasing class size decreasing extension: animal, mammal, feline, tiger
increasing extension
the order of increasing class size increasing extension: tiger, feline, mammal, animal
Empty extension
they are said to denote the empty class, the class that has no members. "unicorn, leprechaun, gnome, elf, griffin"
Covert Assumptions
things that the author implicitly takes for granted but does not state explicitly
lexical definition
used to report the meaning that a word already has in a language. Dictionary definitions are all instances of lexical definitions. In contrast with a stipulative definition, which assigns a meaning to a word for the first time, a lexical definition may be true or false depending on whether it does or does not report the way a word is actually used. eliminates ambiguity
increasing intension
when each term in the series (except the first) connotes more attributes than the one preceding it. In other words, each term in the series after the first is more specific than the one preceding it. ( a term is specific to the degree that it connotes more attributes.) increasing intension: animal, mammal, feline, tiger
definiens
words or group of words that does the defining
Which are techniques that are both intensional and extensional?
There are none
Rule #3 of a lexical definition
should neither be too broad nor too narrow. If a definition is too broad, the definiens includes too much, if it is too narrow, the definiens includes too little. If, for example, "bird" were defined as any warm-blooded animal having wings, the definition would be too broad because it would include bats, and bats are not birds. If, on the other hand, "bird" were defined as any warm-blooded, feathered animal that can fly, the definition would be too narrow because it would exclude ostriches and penguins, which cannot fly. The only types of lexical definitions that tend to be susceptible to either of these deficiencies are synonymous definitions and definitions by genus and difference. With synonymous definitions, one must be careful that the definiens really is a synonym of the definiendum. For example, the definition "'king' means ruler" is too broad because many rulers are not kings. "Ruler" is not genuinely synonymous with "king." As for definitions by genus and difference, one must ensure that the specific difference narrows the genus in exactly the right way. Both of the given definitions of "bird" are definitions by genus and difference in which the specific difference fails to restrict the genus in exactly the right manner.
Negative definition
states that a word does not have certain denotations or connotations. A lexical definition should be expressed affirmatively rather than negatively, whenever possible.
Cognitive Meaning
terminology that conveys information
Emotive meaning
terminology that expresses or evokes feelings Emotive terminology can give a statement psychological appeal, which can hide the fact that evidence is needed to support the statement. By rephrasing an argument in emotively neutral terms, and by adding any covert assumptions that were obscured by the emotive language, you can more easily evaluate the inferential relationships in the argument.
denotations
the extensional meaning of a term
definiendum
the words or group of words that is supposed to be defined.
Rule #1 of a lexical definition
A lexical definition should conform to the standards of proper grammar. Examples of definitions that are grammatically incorrect are as follows: Vacation is when you don't have to go to work or school. Furious means if you're angry at someone. Cardiac is like something to do with the heart. The corrected versions are these: "Vacation" means a period during which activity is suspended from work or school. "Furious" means a condition of being very angry. "Cardiac" means pertaining to, situated near, or acting on the heart
Rule #2 of a Lexical Definition
A lexical definition should convey the essential meaning of the word being defined Ex) Human means the animal that has the capacity to reason and to speak. not human is a featherless biped.
which definitional technique is able to produce stipulative definitions, but only in a limited way?
Definition by genus and difference.
Persuasive definition
Engenders a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward what is denoted by the definiendum. This is accomplished by assigning an emotionally charged, or value-laden meaning to a word while making it appear that the word really has (or ought to have) that meaning in the language in which is used. EX) "Abortion" means the ruthless murdering of innocent children. "Abortion" means a safe and established surgical procedure whereby a woman is relieved of an unwanted burden. "Liberal" means a drippy-eyed do-gooder obsessed with giving away other people's money. "Liberal" means a genuine humanitarian committed to the goals of adequate housing and health care and of equal opportunity for all of our citizens. "Capitalism" means the economic system in which individuals are afforded the God-given freedom to own property and conduct business as they choose. "Capitalism" means the economic system in which humanity is sacrificed to the wanton quest for money, and mutual understanding and respect are replaced by alienation, greed, and selfishness. "Taxation" means the procedure by means of which our commonwealth is preserved and sustained. "Taxation" means the procedure used by bureaucrats to rip off the people who elected them. object- influence the attitudes of the reader or listener.
Rule #6 of a Lexical Definition
Should avoid figurative, obscure, vague or ambiguous language. A definition is figurative if it involves metaphors or tends to paint a picture instead of exposing the essential meaning of a term. Examples: ' Architecture" means frozen music "Camel" means a ship of the desert A definition is obscure if its meaning is hidden as a result of a defective or inappropriate language. One source of obscurity is overly technical language. EX) "Bunny" means a mammalian of the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha whose young are born furless and blind. "Bunny" means a rabbit. -needlessly technical language. A definition is vague if it lacks precision or if its meaning is blurred that is, if there is no way of telling exactly what class of things the definiens refers to. EX) Democracy means a kind of government where the people are in control. Fails to identify the people who are in control, how they exercise their control, and what they are in control of. A definition is ambiguous if it lends itself to more than one distinct interpretation. Ex) Triangle means a figure composed of three straight lines in which all the angles are equal to two right angles. Does this mean that each angle separately is equal to two right angles or that the angles taken together are equal to two right angles? Either interpretation is possible given the ambiguous meaning of "all the angles are equal to two right angles".
Rule #5: of a lexical definition
Should not be negative when it can be affirmative Of the following two definitions, the first is affirmative, the second negative: "Concord" means harmony. "Concord" means the absence of discord. Some words, however, have meanings that are are intrinsically negative. For them, a negative definition is quite appropriate. Examples: "Bald" means lacking hair. "Darkness" means the absence of light.
Which of the following definitional techniques assigns meaning by indicating the qualities or attributes that a word connotes?
Synonymous definition, etymological def, operational, definition by gnus and difference.
which definitional technique is able to produce only lexical definitions?
Synonymous-
Use of word verses Mention of word
Without this distinction any word can be imagined to serve as the subject of a statement and, therefore, to count as a term. The word "wherever," for example, is not a term, but "wherever" (in quotes) can serve as the subject of a statement, such as "'Wherever' is an eight-letter word." But in this statement, it is not the word itself that is the subject but rather the quoted word. The word is said to be mentioned—not used. On the other hand, "wherever" is used in this statement: "I will follow you wherever you go." In distinguishing terms from nonterms one must be sure that the word or group of words can be used as the subject of a statement.
definition by genus and difference-
assigns a meaning to a term by identifying a genus term and one or more difference words that, when combined, convey the meaning of the term being defined. Definition by genus is generally applicable and achieves more adequate results than any other kinds of intensional definition. how it works genus- a relatively larger class species- means a relatively smaller subclass of the genus specific difference- is the attribute or attributes that distinguish the various species within a genus. EX) SPECIES . DIFF . GENUS . daughter . female offspring husband married . man doe . female . deer skyscraper . very tall . building Tent means a collapsible shelter made of canvas or other material that is stretched and sustained by poles tent is the species, shelter is the genus, and collapsible and made of canvas is the difference. Definition by genus and difference is the most effective of the intensional definitions for producing the five kinds of definition discussed in Section 2.3. Stipulative, lexical, precising, theoretical, and persuasive definitions can all be constructed according to the method of genus and difference.
definition by subclass
assigns a meaning to a term by naming the subclasses of the class denoted by the term. can be partial or complete EX) "Tree" means an oak, pine, elm, spruce, maple, and the like. "Flower" means a rose, lily, daisy, geranium, zinnia, and the like. "Cetacean" means either a whale, a dolphin, or a porpoise. "Fictional work" means either a poem, a play, a novel, or a short story.
operational definition
assigns a meaning to a word by specifying certain experimental procedures that determine whether or not the word applies to a certain thing. EX) One substance is "harder than" another if and only if one scratches the other when the two are rubbed together. "Brain activity" means that an electroencephalograph shows oscillations when attached to a patient's head. A "potential difference" exists between two conductors if and only if a voltmeter shows a reading when connected to the two conductors. A solution is an "acid" if and only if litmus paper turns red when dipped into it. - created for the purpose of tying down relatively abstract scientific concepts to the solid ground of empirical reality.
Theoretical definition
assigns a meaning to a word by suggesting a theory that gives a certain characterization to the entities that the term denotes. The definition of the term "heat" found int texts dealing with the kinetic theory of heat provides a good example: "heat" means the energy associated with the random motion of the molecules of of a substance. This definition does more that assign meaning to a word; it provides a way of conceiving the physical phenomenon that is heat. In doing so, it suggests the deductive consequence that as the molecules of a substance speed up, the temperature of the substance increases. In addition, it suggests a number of experiments. EX) light as a form of electromagnetic radiation force, mass, and acceleration in Newtons second law of motion... Not all are associated with science- substance, form, cause, change, idea, good, mind, God... Neither true nor false function as proposals to see or interpret some phenomenon in a certain way.
etymological def
assigns meaning to a word by disclosing the words ancestry in both its own language and other languages. 1) often conveys the words root meaning or seminal meaning from which all other associated meanings are derived. 2) if one is familiar with the etymology of one English word, one often has access to the meaning of an entire constellation of related words.
stipulative definition
assigns meaning to a word for the first time. may involve either coining a new word, or giving a new meaning to an old word. The purpose of a stipulative definition is usually to replace a more complex expression with a simpler one. secret codes people are continually coming up with new creations, whether it be food concoctions, inventions, modes of behavior, or kinds of apparel, stipulative definitions re continually being introduced to name them. no such thing as true or false stipulative definition. does not provide any new information about the subject matter. misused in verbal disputes when one person covertly uses a word in a peculiar way and then proceeds to assume that everyone else uses that word in the same way.
ambiguous expression
can be interpreted as having more than one clearly distinct meaning in a given context. "light, proper, critical, stress, mad, inflate.." can be used ambiguously. The difference between ambiguity and vagueness is that vague terminology allows for a relatively continuous range of interpretations, whereas ambiguous terminology allows for multiple discrete interpretations.
extensional meaning
consists of the members of the class that the term denotes For example, the intensional meaning of the term "cat" consists of the attributes of being furry, of having four legs, of moving in a certain way, of emitting certain sounds, and so on, while the extensional meaning consists of cats themselves—all the cats in the universe. The term connotes the attributes and denotes the cats.
intensional meaning
consists of the qualities or attributes that the term connotes For example, the intensional meaning of the term "cat" consists of the attributes of being furry, of having four legs, of moving in a certain way, of emitting certain sounds, and so on, while the extensional meaning consists of cats themselves—all the cats in the universe. The term connotes the attributes and denotes the cats.
which technique is the only technique able to produce all of the following types of definitions:stipulative, lexical, precising, theoretical, or persuasive.
definition by genus and difference
conventional connotation
includes the attributes that the term commonly calls forth in the minds of competent speakers of the language. Under this interpretation, the connotation of a term remains more or less the same from person to person and from time to time.
Positive definition
indicated the meaning of a word explicitly by stating that a word does denote a set of things or objects, or that it does connote a set of properties or attributes.
