Major Themes of the Renaissance Period
Humanism
The impetus for the classical revival was the belief that one could realize his or her full humanity only through classical education, which meant studying the culture of Western antiquity. This rebirth re-asserted the superiority of ancient Greco-Roman creative and intellectual contributions, which were extolled as the highest of human cultural achievements. Christian humanists blended aspects of both Christianity and classical thinking. They believed the individual human was of the utmost importance because humans were created in the image of God. Humans must develop their capacities for intellectual reason and devotion to God simultaneously. Important thinkers like Giovanni Pico della Mirandola wrote about the dignity and free will of humans in early texts dealing with Christian humanism. Renaissance philosophers found what they considered universal divine wisdom within the teachings of classical philosophers, such as Aristotle. Because classical antiquity was considered "pagan" by Renaissance thinkers, this new appreciation of classicism eventually led to a revival of humanism. Artists, philosophers, and writers admired the ancient authors and works of art and saw them as sites of authority that would bring back the emphasis on human accomplishment. An interest in ancient classical ideas grew during the Renaissance (the study of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy), and studies of standard classical authors became more widespread. Indeed, as this evolving interest in humanism became institutionalized in society, it became very important for students, teachers, or scholars to learn about and apply the qualities that make men and women human. Humanism is an optimistic attitude that praises human abilities to be successful in their endeavors, whether in science, religion, art, politics, or behavior. It is not coincidental that humanism is reborn in Italy, which was the center of the Catholic Church in the Renaissance and the center of the Roman Empire in the ancient world. For the ancient writers, the political state rather than religion was a central concern. The Renaissance humanists likewise addressed the question of how to create good citizens, as well as good Christians. The models of democratic Athens and the Roman Republic would eventually lead to a demand for more political equality in European states. This world was no longer seen as just a preparation for the next, as in the Middle Ages.
Individualism and Self-Fashioning
As the interest in humanism increased during the Renaissance, so too did the notion of individualism. The potential and talents of the individual became a significant focus. Leon Battista Alberti, a 15th-century Italian architect, wrote: "Men can do all things if they will." At the same time, it was now acceptable to seek public recognition and build an artistic reputation. Renaissance artists signed their work, seeking secular glory and renown for their achievements. Medieval artists, on the other hand, had focused on glorifying God and remained largely anonymous. As the ideals of the Middle Ages gave way to more scientific thinking, it was slowly becoming more important to move away from pure deference to God by expressing one's unique identity—at least in the upper class. To this end, nobles would construct their public identities based on their individual interests, a process that included how they dressed, how they behaved in social settings, and what areas of cultural interest they pursued. One scholar, Stephen Greenblatt, coined the phrase "self-fashioning" to describe the process of fashioning one's individual sense of self and public persona according to a set of socially acceptable standards, something that is quite prominent today. The Book of the Courtier (1528) by Baldasarre Castiglione was one of the first popular texts to mandate socially accepted etiquette.
Rebirth of Classicism
In order to understand the significance of the Renaissance, it is important to recall that the period that preceded it—the Middle Ages—saw the decline of influences from ancient Greece and Rome. At their high points, Greek and Roman cultures had highly refined values pertaining to art, science, and philosophy. As you learned in Module 2, these classical values embraced the following concepts: humanism (the importance and perfectibility of human beings) reason, rationalism, and scientific expansion balance (the coming together of beauty, goodness, and truth)
Reformation
One of the most consequential events during the Renaissance occurred on October 31, 1517. On that day, an obscure German monk, Catholic priest, and theologian set into motion events that would change history. The monk's name was Martin Luther. He stated his objection to the Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences, which allowed sinners to "buy" forgiveness by paying money to the Church; that money, then, went to fund the building of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. In his letter of objection to his bishop, Luther included a piece he had written entitled "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," which history now calls the Ninety-Five Theses. This document was translated from the original Latin, which was the formal and official language of scholarship, and published in German the following year, eventually making its way across Europe in various translations. This famous document became the cornerstone of the Reformation, and following his official excommunication from the Catholic Church, Luther became an important force behind the reformation of Christianity, now commonly referred to as Protestantism. By the 16th century, reformed churches had been established across Germany, Scandinavia, Hungary, Scotland, Switzerland, and France by other reformers, such as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Knox. When the Church of England declared independence in 1534, it too adopted some of the tenets of the Reformation movement.
Rationalism/Scientific Expansion
One of the most important ideals defining humanism is the power of the human brain to study, learn, and understand the world. Hence, there became a strong interest in rationalism and scientific inquiry during the period. Many interesting and noteworthy people lived during the Renaissance who embodied such interests. For them, the explanations provided by religious dogma and classical philosophy did not offer a deep enough understanding of the world. Instead, they applied reason and scientific thinking to various endeavors, leading to technological developments in such areas as medicine, transportation, and warfare.
Key Concepts:
Rebirth of Classicism: During the Renaissance, there was a rebirth of classical ideals, mainly humanism, rationalism, and balance, based on the belief that classical literary, scientific, and philosophical works provided additional resources for learning and living. Humanism: Humanism is an optimistic attitude that praises human abilities to be successful in their endeavors, whether in science, religion, art, politics, or behavior. The focus on humanity, human culture, and the human form was the impetus for the classical revival. Rationalism/Scientific Expansion: Many people in the Renaissance embodied a strong interest in rationalism and scientific inquiry, leading to deeper understanding of the world and technological developments in such areas as medicine, transportation, and warfare. Expansion of the University System: The Renaissance approach to education produced the ideal of the well-rounded individual who was not bound to any one discipline. As the university system spread across Europe, it represented a significant change in epistemology. Individualism/Self-Fashioning: The notion of individualism became important during the Renaissance as artists sought public recognition and reputation. Artists and nobles represented their identity with choices in dress and behavior, a process known as self-fashioning. Reformation: Reformation took place in the form of Protestantism, sparked by Martin Luther's outspoken disagreement with many Church practices he believed were corrupt. Overall, reformation of the Roman Catholic Church was a very significant movement in the Renaissance that separated it from the Middle Ages.
Cultural Exchange and Diversity in the Renaissance Period
The Renaissance Period was an exciting time of exploration that changed Europe and fueled its artistic production. Artists, writers, musicians, and philosophers gained exposure in new areas of the world and were influenced by outside cultures as a result of two simple factors: improvements in trade and in communication. Trade that began along the Silk Road during the Classical Period was blocked by the rise of the Ottoman Empire, so Europeans took advantage of improved ship design, navigational charts, and instruments and took to the sea. The Age of Exploration also gave Europeans the opportunity to encounter civilizations on different continents, including Africa. Furthermore, the technologies invented during the Middle Ages, such as the astrolabe and the magnetic compass, helped to improve maps and guides, while the invention of the printing press revolutionized mass communication in Europe by enabling the dissemination of text, graphics, and written music. The musical world also saw the evolution of the viola da gamba, which had its origins in the Moorish culture of 15th century Spain. Because of the emerging connections among different parts of the world, the ideal Renaissance Man was one who knew multiple languages and was at home in many parts of the world.
Expansion of the University System
The Renaissance focus on individualism brought about a new emphasis on education. Individuals were encouraged to develop to the fullest their scholarly, artistic, and physical interests. The Renaissance approach to education produced the ideal of the well-rounded individual who was not bound to any one discipline. This ideal contrasted sharply with that during the Middle Ages, when narrow specialization in education was emphasized. Thus, the Renaissance is an extremely important period in the evolution of Western culture, because it represented a change in epistemology across Europe, a way of thinking based on reason and rational thought. To that end, the expansion of the university system during this period became very important. Most of the innovative research in science, medicine, philosophy, and law came from the universities, and during the Renaissance the number of European universities more than doubled from 29 in the year 1400 to 63 by 1601. Not only did more people seek knowledge for personal fulfillment, but society also needed trained professionals in the areas of law, medicine, civil government, and religion.
Major Themes of the Renaissance
The Renaissance—a word that means "rebirth"—was marked by the resurgence of many values of the Classical Era, including humanism and rationalism. Humanism—a theme drawn from the Classical Period—came into play with the artistic and scientific endeavors of the Renaissance. Like the ancient Greeks and Romans, Europeans during this time were focused on exploring the human form and representing human qualities in all facets of life. Humanism particularly informed scientific advances. The renewed emphasis on reason and rationalism undermined the intense religious devotion of the Middle Ages and paved the way for many scientific discoveries and innovations. Many scholars and thinkers embraced Christian humanism, believing that humans were created in the image of God and because of this, possess immense dignity, potential, beauty, and worth as individuals. These Christian humanists also embraced classical and secular knowledge, particularly in regards to the natural world. The honed minds of the Renaissance contributed several groundbreaking developments in such areas as transportation, medicine, and warfare. Galileo Galilei displaying his telescope by H.J. Detouche, 1754 (Public Domain). Intellectualism and education were also prized during this time, and Renaissance Europe, therefore, saw the development of more and more universities. Universities were centers of education in a variety of subjects, from law to medicine to philosophy. Unlike in the Middle Ages, some schools were secular and did not need to be associated with religious faith. Students at these universities were encouraged to pursue subjects through rational thought rather than spiritual devotion. The concept of individualism thrived as universities and education became more widespread. Individuals sought to be defined by their knowledge and skills rather than by the depth of their faith, and they fostered public personas to represent their uniqueness. Social etiquette and fashion followed this trend, a process that was later referred to as "self-fashioning," as public behavior and clothing became tools for self-expression. All these themes—grounded in humanity, intelligence, and individuality—went hand-in-hand with the religious reformation. The Christian faith was still important to people of the Renaissance, but some took issue with the European authority in Rome. The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther's protest against the Church's financial corruption, spread throughout Europe and formed sects and branches that veered away from the centralized power in the Catholic Church. To learn more about these themes, click on the tabs below. Each of these themes will be explored in more detail throughout this module.