MCAT Day-Of Test Review
thyroid hormones
increase basal metabolic rate (O2 consumption and heat production) - T3: more potent, shorter half life - T4: less potent, longer acting - T3 is converted to T4 in the tissues
regulation of hemoglobin cooperativity
increase in PO2 causes an increase in O2 affinity decrease in PCO2 causes an increase in O2 affinity
Arrhenius equation
increasing A increases the rate, increasing T increases the rate
Identities (self and social)
individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong self-identities: the individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong social-identities: relationship between sense of self and membership in a group
PCR
indredients: taq polymerase, primers, template DNA, nucleotides primer: high G-C content with either a C or a C at each end (G-C clamp) Steps: denaturation (high temp), annealing (low temp), extension (moderate temp) RT-PCR: reverse-transcriptase PCR; converts RNA to cDNA to measure quantity q-PCR: quantitative, use fluorescence to back-calculate initial DNA concentration
Half-Life
length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay
Jung's Psychoanalytic Theory
libido as psychic energy (not sexual a la Freud) self: point of intersection between the... - personal unconscious: similar to Freud's unconscious - ego: conscious mind - collective unconscious: a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors, images of common experiences archetypes: - Persona - the aspect of our personality we present to the world - Anima - a "man's inner woman" - Animus - a "woman's inner man" - Shadow - unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness 3 dichotomies of personality: - Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I) - Sensing (S) vs. Intuiting (N) - Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)
ligaments, tendons, cartilage, joints
ligaments: attach bones to other bones tendons: attach bones to muscle cartilage: firm and elastic, chondrin matrix joints: immovable or movable, synovial capsule filled with synovial fluid secreted by synovium (strengthened by ligaments)
dissacharides
sucrose: glucose-alpha-1,2 fructose lactose: galactose-beta-1,4-glucose maltose: glucose-alpha-1,4-glucose
molar solubility
molarity of a solute in a saturated solution
Roles of hindbrain structures (4)
reticular formation: alertness and motivation; circulation, respiration, digestion (involved in the reticular activation system) cerebellum: movement control, posture, balance, speech control (mouth movement), motor learning pons: regulates waking and relaxing medulla oblongata: regulates autonomic activity of heart and lungs
Norms, Mores, and Folkways
norms: determine the boundaries of acceptable behavior within a society mores: informal norms with major importance for society folkways: informal norms that are less significant but shape everyday behavior
Memory interference
retroactive: new memories make you forget old memories proactive: old memories interfere with learning new memories
Process of rods/cones firing
rods have rhodopsin, cones have photopsin
Visual pathway
rods/cones --> bipolar cells --> ganglion cells --> horizontal/amacrine cells (integrates signals and performs edge sharpening) --> optic nerves --> optic chiasm --> optic tracts --> lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) --> visual radiations --> visual cortex
exchange mobility
the exchange of positions on the socioeconomic scale such that talented people move up the economic hierarchy while the less talented move down classes retain a relatively static number of people
Blood flow in renal portal system
renal artery --> afferent arterioles --> glomeruli --> efferent arteriole --> vasa recta (surrounds nephron) --> renal vein
Field Lines
represent electric field vectors for a charge, show activity of a positive test charge stronger where lines are closer together
Research ethics
respect for persons, justice, beneficence equipoise = lack of knowledge about which arm of research study is better for the subject
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste or vision influences balance
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
Assimilation
the process by which an immigrant or minority takes up elements of mainstream culture a specific type of socialization requires a person to have had an original culture
Socialization
the process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one's society
Power
the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred measured in watts (N*m/s) W/t or E/t could also be F*v
Grahm's Law of Effusion
the rates of effusion/diffusion of gases at the same temperature and pressure are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molar masses
efficiency
the ratio of the machine's work output to the work input when nonconservative forces are taken into account ideally efficiency would be 1, but it is always less than 1
Base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information - a type of representativeness heuristic
Pressure and Flow in the Circulatory System
v = Q/A = cardiac output/cross-sectional area deltaP (mean arterial pressure) = Q x R = cardiac output x total peripheral resistance CO = HR x SV
steroids
4 rings (3 cyclohexane and 1 cyclopentane) derived from cholesterol or triterpenes
Avogadro's Number
6.02 x 10^23
Plank's Constant
6.626 x 10^-34
Ideal Gas Constant
8.314 J/(mol*K) or 0.0821 Latm/molK
Quinones
-phenols treated with oxidizing agents -Named by indicating the position of the carbonyls numerically & adding quinone to the name of parent phenol -Serve as electron acceptors in ETC - Vitamin K
Pressure conversions
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 10^5 Pa = 15 psi
Standard conditions vs STP
1 atm, 1M Standard: T= 298, STP (gas law calculations): T=273
Alcohol Reactions
1) Oxidation - Primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes by PCC or oxidized to carboxylic acids by stronger oxidizing agents - Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to ketones by any oxidizing agent 2) Mesylation (S03) or Tosylation (PhSO3) produces better leaving groups 3) React with aldehydes and ketones to produce (hemi)acetals and (hemi)ketals 4) React with anhydrides to produce esters
Carboxylic acid reactions
1) Oxidation: may be formed by the oxidation of 1' alcohols or aldehydes OR the oxidation of 1' or 2' alkyl groups (alkyl halide, alkly nitrile, or alkyl benzene) both with STRONG oxidizing agents 2) Reduction: may be reduced by STRONG reducing agents to produce 1' alcohols, aldehylde intermediates are formed by then reduced to alcohol 3) Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution - reacts with ammonia/amine to form amides (strongly acidic or basic conditions), alcohols to form esters, and carboxylic acids to form anhydrides 4) Decarboxylation: occurs with beta-dicarboxylic acids, releasing CO2 when heated 5) Saponification
Reactivity Principles (Chemistry)
1) Steric hinderance 2) Induction: uneven distribution of charge across a sigma bond due to differences in electronegativity 3) Conjugation - can stabilize transition states 4) Ring strain
Phase Solubility Rules
1) The solubility of solids in liquids tends to increase with increasing temperature. 2) The solubility of gases in liquids tends to decrease with increasing temperature. 3) The solubility of gases in liquids tends to increase with increasing pressure.
acetyl-CoA formation
1) fatty acid oxidation 2) ketones 3) ketogenic amino acids 4) alcohol 5) pyruvate (glucose)
Speed of sound in air
340 m/s increases as temperature increases
metabolic states
cardiac muscle: uses fatty acid oxidation
Saponification
catalyzed by base, form ionic fatty acids
complex ions
cation (lewis acid) bonded to at least one ligand (lewis base) held together with coordinate covalent bonds increases solubility
polysaccharides
cellulose: 1,4 linked beta, D-glucose starch: 1,4 linked alpha, D glucose - amylose = unbranced, amylopectin = branched glycogen: 1,4 linked alpha D glucose
Piaget Stages of Development
centration: common to preoperational stage, tendency to focus on one salient aspect of a situation and neglect other, possibly relevant aspects (e.g., with the conservation tasks); egocentrism may be causal to centration
Language Development Stages
cooing, babbling, one-word speech, telegraphic speech, whole sentences - naming explosion: 18-20 months, rapid increase in vocabulary - overextension: applying a term for one class of objects to other objects that bear only a superficial resemblance - bootstrapping: initial stages of grammatical development (e.g., using grammar knowledge to learn the meaning of words)
heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
HeteroChromatin = Highly Condensed (transcriptionally inactive) euchromatin = less condensed, transcriptionally active
Glial cells
astrocytes: blood brain barrier (tight junctions) ependymal cells: barrier between cerebral spinal fluid and interstitial fluid of CNS microglia: digest waste in CNS oligodendrocytes: CNS, make myelin Schwann Cells: PNS, make myelin
ketogenesis and ketolysis
Ketogenesis: favored by a prolonged fast and occurs in the liver, stimulated by increasing concentrations of acetyl-CoA Ketolysis: favored during prolonged fasting, but is stimulated by low-energy state in muscle and brain tissue and does not occur in the liver
Principal, Azimuthal, Magnetic, and Spin Quantum Numbers
Principal = e- energy level/shell number (n = 1, 2, 3, ...) Azimuthal = 3D shape of orbital = s, p, d, f, g (l = 0 to n-1) Magnetic = orbital sub-type (ml = -l to +1) Spin = electron spin (-1/2 to +1/2)
Identifying Redox Reactions (5 signs)
Production of H2 gas Combustion with oxygen Metal reacts with a non-metal Change in oxidation number Single-displacement reaction
Meiosis (important events at cell stages)
Prophase I: crossing over occurs Metaphase I: homologues line up at metaphase plate Anaphase I: homologues separate (nondisjunction could occur here) Telophase I: nuclear membrane may reform, cytokinesis may be uneven Prophase II: NO crossing over, centrosomes move to opposite poles Metaphase II: sister chromatids line up Anaphase II: chromatids separate and become chromosomes (nondisjunction could occur here) Telophase II: four 1n cells are formed
Self-Schemas
beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information
4 tenets of medical ethics
beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for patient autonomy, justice
Periodic trends (Z_eff, IE, EA, EN, AS)
Z_eff = pull between nucleus and valance e-, increases moving to the right = # of protons - # shielding (non-valence) electrons Ionization energy = energy required to remove an electron, first IE always requires more than the second Electron affinity = energy released when an electron is added (negative delta H, but reported as a positive value), noble gases have no EA Electronegativity = force the atom exerts on an e- in a bond Atomic size = only trend moving down and to the left, cations are smaller than anions
Hydrazone formation
[H+], NH2NH2, -H2O
Coordinate covalent bonds
a covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons found in lewis acid-base chemistry and coordination complexes between metals (lewis acid) and ligands (lewis bases)
Diatomic Gases
a gas that is only found in pairs (H, N, O, F, CL, Br, I)
Entropy
a measure of the degree to which energy has been spread through out a system or between a system and its surroundings maximized at equilibrium
Enthalpy
a measure of the potential energy of a system found in intermolecular attractions and chemical bonds moving from solid to liquid to gas is endothermic (+H and +S) because gases have more heat energy than solids moving from gas to liquid to solid is exothermic (-H and -S) because these reactions release heat
demographic transition
a model used to represent drops in birth and death rates as a result of industrialization
Position of different elements on the periodic table
alkali metals alkali earth metals metalloids (semimetals) halogens nobel gases
Self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
Amphoteric vs amphiprotic vs amphipathic
amphoteric = behave as an acid or a base amphiprotic = can behave as a bronsted-lowry acid or base amphipathic = having hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts
Michael Addition
an enolate attacks an alpha,beta-unsaturated carbonyl, creaing a bond
Humoral Immune System
antibody production by B-cells, labeled for destruction via opsonization or cause agglutination - produced and mature in bone marrow, activated in spleen or lymph node - hypermutation produces different isotypes of antibodies - memory B-cells produce secondary response - plasma B-cells produce antibodies
Reducing Sugar
any monosaccharide with a hemiacetal ring can be oxidized to give a positive Tollen's or Benedict's test sucrose is a non-reducing sugar
Three types of conflict
approach-approach: trying to decide between two desirable options avoidance-avoidance: deciding between two equally undesirable choices approach-avoidance: deciding to pursue or avoid something with advantages and disadvantages
FINER Method
assesses the value of a research question on the basis of whether or not it is feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant
taxonomic rank
"King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain" Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
Calculating the number of possible stereoisomers
# = 2^n But may have to account for impossibility of some structures if there are multiple rings in the structure
Concentration Measurements (% by mass, mole fraction, molarity, molality, normality, dilutions)
% by mass = (mass solute/mass solution) x 100% mole fraction = moles solute/total moles molarity = moles solute/L solution molality = moles solute/kg solvent normality = equivalents/L solution M1V1 = M2V2
Transverse vs. Longitudinal Waves
*transverse* wave particles move in a direction perpendicular to the direction that the wave propagates (EM radiation) *longitudinal* wave particles move in the same direction that the wave propagates (sound)
Neurotransmitter Roles: - Acetylcholine - Dopamine - Endorphins & Enkephalins - Epinephrine & Norepinephrine - GABA - Glutamate - Glycine - Serotonin
- Acetylcholine: muscle contraction in the somatic nervous system, PSNS, SNS (prior to final junction, which is Nor); arousal, attention, memory, and motivation in the brain - Dopamine: smooth movements and steady posture; involved in reward, pleasure, and compulsion/addiction - Endorphins & Enkephalins: pain killers, euphoria - Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: wakefulness, sympathetic response - GABA and glycine: inhibitory, brain "stablizer" - Glutamate: excitatory, involved in memory (NMDA receptor) - Serotonin: modulates mood, aggression, sleep/eating, eating
Ubiquinone
- Biologically active quinone, coenzyme Q (electron acceptor in photosynthesis and aerobic respiration) - Reduced to ubiquinol upon the acceptance of electrons. - Long alkyl chain = lipid soluble = act as an electron carrier within the phospholipid bilayer. - Involved with complexes I, II, and III of ETC
Famous Psychological Researchers: - Franz Gall - Pierre Flourens - William James - John Dewey - Paul Broca - Hermann von Helmholtz - Sir Charles Sherrington
- Franz Gall: phrenology - Pierre Flourens: used extirpation to study parts of the brain and their function - William James: Father of American psychology, functionalism (how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment) - John Dewey: functionalism - Paul Broca: studied people with lesions in specific brain regions - Hermann von Helmholtz: speed of impulse, psychology as a science - Sir Charles Sherrington: inferred existence of synapses
peptide bond formation
- a dehydration reaction (releases water) where the nucleophilic amino group of one amino acid attacks the electrophilic carbonyl group of another amino acid - amide bonds have limited rotation due to resonance producing a partial double bond character
sociological theories: - functionalism - conflict theory - symbolic interactionism - microsociology - macrosociology - ethnographic methods - social epidemiology - social constructionism - rational choice theory - expectancy theory
- macrosociology: large scale trends, widespread social processes -- functionalism: function of each part of society, manifest (deliberate) and latent (unexpected) functions, social solidarity -- conflict theory: Marx, power differentials contribute to maintaining social order/inequality/control, bourgeoisie and proletariat -- ethnographic methods: systematic observation of a complete social environment -- social epidemiology: focuses on social determinants of health/disease -- social constructionism: how individuals and groups make decisions about a social reality, "value" placed on social constructs - microsociology: small, individual components of a society (e.g., face-to-face interviews) -- symbolic interactionism: how individuals interact through understanding the "meaning" of symbols, social practices, and rituals (how they influence action, how they are formed, how they change); related to social influences on an individual's development of self/identity (Mead and Blumer) - rational choice theory: individuals make decisions that maximize benefit and minimize harm - expectancy theory: rational choices applied to group rewards and punishments
Cell-mediated (Cytotoxic) Immune System
- produced in bone marrow, mature in thymus - directly kill infected cells -- (helper) CD4+ T-cells respond to MHC-II antigens, secrete lymphokines (Th1 = IFG, Th2 = activate B-cells, parasite) -- (cytotoxic) CD8+ T=cells respond to MHC-I and kill virally infected cells -- suppressor T-cells down regulate immune response, promote self-tolerance -- memory T-cells - positive selection = mature only T-cells that can respond to the presence of antigen on MHC - negative selection = kill T-cells that are self-reactive
Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
- used to study conjugated systems - measures the absorbance of UV light, which causes movements of electrons between molecular orbitals - increased conjugation decreases the energy difference between the HOMO and the LUMO, allowing for absorption at lower energies into the UV or even visible light range
Theories of intelligence
-General intelligence (Spearman): verbal, spatial, numerical, mechanical abilities compose general g factor -Primary mental abilities (Thurnstone): spatial ability, perceptual ability, numerical ability, verbal comprehension, word fluency, memory, reasoning -Multiple intelligences (Gardner): linguistic, logical/mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential -Triarchic (Sternberg): analytical, creative, and practical intelligence - emotional intelligence: ability to perceive, express, understand, and manage one's emotions
amino acid titration
-amino acids pass through at least two buffering stages, one at each pKa -when titrated with base, carboxyl groups lose protons first, then amino groups -two moles of base must be added in order to deprotonate one mole of most amino acids (one for carboxyl group, one for amino group) -the buffering capacity of the amino acid is greatest at or near the two dissociation constants; at isoelectric point, its buffering capacity is minimal
Meso compounds
-has chiral centers -overall molecule is achiral -have internal plane of symmetry -not optically active --> don't rotate plane polarized light -each chiral center rotates light in opposite directions so overall the rotations cancel out
Hydroxyquinones
-have 2 carbonyls and a variable number of hydroxyl groups -named by indicating the position of the OH group with a number & indicating the total number of OH groups by a prefix (di- or tri-) with the substituent name hydroxyl- (ex: 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone) - To convert phenols to hydroxyquinones, they must be converted to quinones to an oxidation step first and then another oxidation is required to further oxidize the quinones (total of 2 oxidation steps)
Acid naming
-ic have more oxygen -ous have fewer oxygen
Infrared Spectroscopy
-measures absorption of infrared light, which causes molecular vibration (stretching, bending, twisting, and folding) -% transmittance vs. wavenumber (1/wavelength) -to appear on an IR spectrum, vibration of a bond must change the bond dipole moment (i.e., not symmetrical) -useful for determining functional groups on a molecule
terpenes
-metabolic precursors to steroids and other lipid signaling molecules -odiferous chemicals -grouped according to the # of isoprene units present -a single terpene consists of 2 isoprene units
Urea cycle
-occurs in the liver -primary way of removing excess nitrogen from the body
contraction of muscle cell (from neural signaling)
1. Action potential arrives at axon terminal of motor neuron 2. V-gated Ca2+ channels open; Ca2+ enters axon terminal and causes release of ACh to synapse 3. ACh binds to ligand-gated Na+ channels on the sarcolemma (motor end plate) 4. Na+ moves into the cell and K+ moves out (more Na+ moves in than K+ out, depolarizing the cell) 5. AP travels along sarcolemma and through T-tubules 6. SR releases Ca2+ through voltage-gated channels 7. Ca2+ binds to troponin, causing a shift in tropomyosin to expose the myosin-binding site of the actin filament 8. Contraction begins 9. Process is reversed when acetylcholinesterase degrades ACh
Process of Early Development
1. Fertilization 2. Morula 3. Blastula (implants in endometrium, hollow, ICM = organism, trophoblast = chorion/placenta) 4. Gastrulation (invagination forms endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm) 5. Nerulation (mesoderm = notocord, ectoderm = neural folds --> neural crest cells - PNS and neural tube - CNS)
Seven Universal Emotions
1. Happiness 2. Sadness 3. Contempt 4. Surprise 5. Fear 6. Disgust 7. Anger
Lens equations
1/i + 1/o = 1/f = 2/r = P m = -i/o
Average molecular weight of an amino acid
110 Da
Volume of 1 mol gas
22.4 L at STP
Speed of Light
3.00 x 10^8 m/s
Conductivity
A material's ability to allow heat or electric charges to flow. conductivity = 1/resistivity
Strecker synthesis
A method of synthesizing amino acids that uses condensation between an aldehyde and hydrogen cyanide, followed by hydrolysis.
Allosteric affector
A molecule or other agent that alters enzyme function by changing its shape. May display cooperativity - positive affectors: increase activity - negative affectors: decrease activity - homotropic effector: allosteric regulator that is also the substrate (e.g., O2) - heterotropic effector: an allosteric regulator that is different from the substrate
Life course perspective
A multidisciplinary approach to understanding an individual's mental, physical and social health. Done by analyzing people's lives through social, structural, and cultural contexts with a focus on life stages.
heme
A porphyrin ring with Fe in the center
types of enzyme inhibition
A: competitive - inhibitor binds to the active site - Km increases and Vmax is the same B: uncompetitive - inhibitor binds only to ES complex - Km decreases and Vmax decreases C: mixed - inhibitor binds unequally to ES and E - prefers E: Km increases and Vmax decreases - prefers ES: Km decreases and Vmax decreases D: noncompetitive - inhibitor binds equally to ES and E - Km remains the same and Vmax decreases irreversible inhibition: alters the enzyme in such a way that the active site is unavailable for a prolonged duration or permanently suicide inhibitor: a substrate analogue that binds irreversibly to the active site via a covalent bond
Feeding behavior hormones
ADH and aldosterone - sensation of thirst CCK and leptin - feeling full glucagon, ghrelin, and orexin - feeling hungry
Reactions going against the trends for nucleophilic acyl substitution
Acid halide synthesis from a carboxylic acid (SOCl2 or PBr3) Anhydride synthesis from a carboxylic acid (heat)
Affinal, Consanguineal, Collateral Kin
Affinal: related by choice (e.g., through marriage) Consanguineal: related by blood Collateral: siblings, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews
Oxime formation
Aldehyde + hydroxylamine/Acid
Gibb's Free Energy
Also, delta G = delta H - T*delta S - = exergonic (spontaneous) + = endergonic (non-spontaneous) NOTE: can use partial pressures to calculate Keq and Q for ideal gases
Retrovirus
An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses. e.g., HIV
Memory-based diseases/disorders
Alzheimers: dementia and memory loss related to decreased acetylcholine, tau and B-amyloid aggregates, and neural atrophy Korsakoff's syndrome: memory loss/confabulation caused by thiamine deficiency Agnosia: inability to process sensory information
Gabriel Synthesis
An amino acid is generated from phthalimide (nucleophile) and diethyl bromomalonate, using two SN2 reactions, hydrolysis, and decarboxylation.
Tautomer
An isomer that differs from another by the placement of a proton and a double bond
Type theories (4)
Ancient Greek humors: black bile, yellow bile, blood phlegm Sheldon's somatotypes: ectomorph, mesomorph, endomorph Type A/B Myers-Briggs
Acid and Base Definitions
Arrhenius acid = produces H+ Arrhenius base = produces OH- Bronsted-Lowry Acid = produces H+ Bronsted-Lowry Base = accepts H+ Lewis Acid = accepts e- Lewis Base = donates e- all Arrhenius acids/bases are Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases are Lewis acids/bases
arteries vs veins vs capillaries
Arteries: Thick-walled, muscular, elastic, recoil propels blood forward Veins: thin walled, inelastic, stretch, and are not under pressure; contain valves to prevent back flow Capillaries: overall resistance is low so blood flows very slowly, allowing time for oxygen and nutrients to leave blood vessels and enter body tissues; endothelium is one cell thick
Heuristics (3)
Availability heuristic: decision made based on how easily similar instances can be imagined Confirmation bias: focus on information that fits your belief while rejecting information that goes against those beliefs Representativeness heuristic: making judgements based on the similarity of an object or person to an established persona
Sleep waves
B = awake, alert, concentrating A = drowsy T = Stage 1, light sleep T + sleep spindles + K complexes = Stage 2, deeper sleep, decreased HR, BR, T D = slow wave sleep, GH released mostly B = REM, mind appears awake on EEG, memory condensation 90 min cycle, 1-2-3-2-REM
B vitamins
B1: thiamine (involved in binding 2-C product of pyruvate dehydrogenase) B2: riboflavin (involved in flavoproteins of ETC) B3: niacin B5: pantothenic acid (cofactor for fatty acid synthase) B6: pyridoxal phosphate B7: biotin (cofactor in fatty acid oxidation - propinoyl CoA carboxylation, pyruvate carboxylase, and acetyl-CoA carboxylase) B9: folic acid B12: cyanocobalamin (cofactor in fatty acid oxidation - methylmalonyl mutase used to produce succinyl-CoA from propinoyl CoA)
Roles of Forebrain structures (6 main, 4 lobes)
Basal ganglia: smooth movement, posture, reward Thalamus: relay station for sensory information Hypothalamus: homeostasis, hunger, hormones (SNS, sex, stress) Amygdala: fear, anxiety, and aggression Hippocampus: converts STM to LTM, memory storage Cerebral Cortex: - Primary cortex: basic motor and sensory functions - Associative cortex: associates different types of information for more complex processing/function - Frontal lobe: reasoning, planning, speech production (Broca's), movement, problem solving, impulse control - Parietal lobe: orientation, proprioception, perception of stimuli (somatosensory cortex - touch, pressure, temp, pain) - Temporal lobe: auditory stimuli, memory, language comprehension (Wernicke's), emotion - Occipital lobe: visual processing
Snell's Law
Bends towards normal when moving to a higher n
Bonding vs Antibonding Orbitals
Bonding orbitals: created by overlap of atomic orbitals of the same sign (less energy, more stable) Antibonding orbitals: created by overlap of atomic orbitals of opposite signs (increased energy, less stable)
Excretory pathway
Bowman's space → proximal convoluted tubule → descending limb of the loop of Henle → ascending loop of the loop of Henle → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct → renal pelvis → ureter → bladder → urethra
Vesicle transport and cisternal maturation hypotheses
COPII: moves forward COPI: moves back
Acetal/Ketal Formation
Can be reversed (deprotected) by reacting with catalytic acid
Imide, Anhydride, Imine, Enamine, Amide, Carbamate
Carbamate: C=O attached to N (amide) and O (ester)
Nucleophile Properties
Carry lone pairs or pi bonds High electronegativity Negative charge
citric acid cycle regulation
Citrate synthase: - inhibitors: ATP, NADH, Citrate, Succinyl-CoA - activator: ADP Isocitrate dehydrogenase: RATE LIMITING - inhibitors: ATP, NADH - activators: ADP and NAD+ α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex - inhibitors: succinyl-CoA, NADH, ATP - activator: ADP and Ca++
Cohesive vs adhesive forces
Cohesion: molecules will more likely bind to each other Adhesion: molecules will repel each other (adhere to their container)
Equipotential Lines
Concentric circles emanating from a source charge that cross its electric field lines perpendicularly. No work is required for a test charge to travel along the circumference of an equipotential line because the potential at every point along that line is the same
Charge distribution conductor/insulator
Conductors contain both atom-bound electrons and free electrons. Free electrons arrange themselves on the surface of conductors, and their collective electric field produced inside the conductor cancels any external electric field. The resulting electric field inside the conductor is zero.
Conservative vs. Nonconservative Forces
Conservative forces are path independent and do not dissipate the mechanical energy of a system (e.g., gravity and electrostatic forces) Nonconservative forces are path dependent and cause dissipation of ME from a system (e.g., friction, air resistance, viscous drag)
Units of charge, current, voltage, ohm, electrical power
Coulomb: C = A*s or A*hr Ampere: C/s Volts: W/A or J/C = (kg m^2)/(s^3 A) Watt: J/s Ohm: V/A
Fat soluble vitamins and roles
D: cholecalciferol, bone formation E: tocopherols, antioxidants A: carotene, vision (formed from terpenes) K: phylloquinone & menaquinones, forms prothrombin (clotting factor)
Kidney nephron
DCT = responsive to aldosterone Collecting duct = responsive to ADH and aldosterone
Deductive vs. inductive reasoning
Deductive (top down)- Starting with general rules and drawing specific conclusions from them - always true Inductive (bottom up)- Generalizing from specific instances - may be true
Consciousness-Altering Drugs
Depressants: alcohol, barbituates, benzodiazepines (increase GABA) Stimulants: amphetamines, cocaine, ecstacy (increase dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin) Opiates and Opioids: heroin, morphine, oxycodone, opium, hydrocodone (cause death by respiratory depression, endorphin agonist) Hallucinogens: LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine (serotonin) Marijuana: depressant and stimulant and hallucinogen Ecstacy: stimulant and hallucinogen
Biological Basis for Depression, Schizophrenia, Bipolar disorder, Parkinsons, and Alzheimer's
Depression: increased glucocorticoids, decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine Schizophrenia: increased dopamine, genetics, hypoxia in birth, marijuana use Bipolar disorders: increased norepinephrine and serotonin, genetics Alzheimers: genetics, brain atrophy, decreased acetyl choline, senile plaques Parkinson's: decreased dopamine in basal ganglia
Vygotsky theory of cognitive development
Development of cognition is strongly influenced by social interaction, culture shapes development and hence there is no universal process (unlike Piaget) Includes Zone of Proximal development: the skills a child has not yet mastered and require a more knowledgeable other to accomplish Scaffolding: adult provides a strategy/structure to help child succeed
Diamagnetic vs. Paramagnetic vs. Ferromagnetic
Diamagnetic = all electrons are paired, repelled by an external magnetic field Paramagnetic = one or more unpaired electrons, pulled into an external magnetic field Ferromagnetic = possess some unpaired electrons and become strongly magnetic in an external magnetic field
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative amnesia Dissociative fugue Dissociative identity disorder Depersonalization/Derealization disorder: feeling detached from the mind and body or environment
criterion of abnormality
Distress: does the behavior demonstrate unusual or prolonged levels of stress Maladaptiveness (Dysfunction): does the behavior negatively impact the person's life or pose a threat to others Statistical deviancy (Deviance): is the behavior statistically rare Violation of social norms (Deviance): does the behavior violate social norms Danger: does the behavior put self or others at risk
preventing mutations in DNA
During synthesis: proofreading - part of the DNA polymerase molecule is designed to detect the unstable hydrogen bonds of a mismatched base pair and replace the base with the correct one Directly after synthesis (G2): mismatch repair - enzymes detect and remove mismatched bases or polymerase slips/deletions Other times: - nucleotide excision repair: specific to mutations that distort the DNA double helix (buldges in strand - thiamine dimers, mismatched base pairs) - base excision repair: the affected base is removed by a glycosylase enzyme (specific for certain mismatches, such as deaminated cytosine) - double-stranded break repair
Sleep disorders
Dyssomnias: difficulty to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep (narcolepsy, insomnia, sleep apnea) Parasomnias: abnormal movement or behaviors (night terrors, sleep walking)
Rhydberg Equations
E = -Rh/n^2 E = -Rh(1/ni^2 - 1/nf^2) Rh = 2.18 x 10^-18 J/e-
Electronics Equations (Force, Field, Energy, Potential)
E = F/q U = F x r V = U/q = E x r
Capacitor Equations (7)
E = V/d (electric field in a capacitor) C = Q/V U = 1/2 C V^2 (potential energy of a capacitor) C = e0 x A/d where e0 = 8.85 x 10^-12 C2/Nm^2 C' = kC In series: 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + ... In parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2 + ...
Light energy equations (Plank)
E = hf E = (hc)/lambda
Electric Dipole (E, t, V equations)
E = kp/r^3 t = pEsin(theta) in an external electric field, an electric dipole will experience a net torque until it is aligned with the electric field vector an electric field will not induce any translational motion in the dipole regardless of its orientation with respect to the electric field vector
Methods of Brain Imaging/Studying
EEG: show brain activity by measuring brain waves with electrodes PET: use radioactive glucose to show where neural firing is occurring CT: uses X-rays for quick viewing of brain injuries MRI: uses magnetic fields to align hydrogen protons, creating images of brain structure; fMRI is a special form of MRI that measures changes in neural activity TMS: uses an electromagnet to disrupt neural processing, creating a temporary "lesion"
endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm
Ectoderm: lining of skin, hair/nails, mouth/anus, nervous system, adrenal medulla Endoderm: lining of digestive track, respiratory system, bladder Mesoderm: Notochord, skeletal system, muscular system, reproductive system, circulatory system, lining of body cavity, adrenal cortex, kidneys
VESPR Theory
Electronic geometry = bonded and lone pairs treated the same Molecular shape = lone pairs take up less space than a bond to another atom Key bond angles = linear (180), trigonal planar (120), tetrahedral (109.5), trigonal bipyramidal (90 & 120), octahedral (90)
Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
Elimination will not occur without a good leaving group Hydration reaction: water adds to a carbonyl to form a geminal diol (catalyzed by acid or base) Aldehyde + Alcohol: forms (hemi)acetals or (hemi)ketals based on the number of equivalents of alcohol Nitrogen + Carbonyl: forms imines, oximes, hydrazones, and semicarbozones HCN + Carbonyl: forms cyanohydrins
Power in Electronics
Energy by a voltage source: E = IV Power dissapated by resistors: P = I^2R = V^2/R
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. +Q = heat added, -Q = heat lost +W = work done by system = expansion -W = work done on system = compression
Skin layers
Epidermis: - stratum corneum: multiple thin layers of flat keratinocytes - stratum lucidum: only thick, hairless skin - stratum granulosum: keratinocytes die - stratum spinosum: langerhans cells (resident macrophages) - stratum basale: stem cells produce keratinocytes, melanocytes Dermis: - papillary layer: loose connective tissue, dermal papillae extend into epidermis - reticular layer: dense connective tissue, hair roots, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, blood vessels Hypodermis: fat and connective tissue, connects skin to body
Equivalent mass, gram equivalent weight, normality
Equivalent mass = mass of an acid that yields 1 mol of H+ or OH- GEW = molar mass/mols H+ or e- Normality = molarity x n
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
Sprin/elastic potential energy
F = -kx E or W = 1/2kx^2
Common electronegativities and use in determining bond character
F = 4 O = 3.5 N = 3 C = 2.5 H = 2 0 - 0.5 is non-polar covalent 0 - 1.7 is polar covalent 1.7+ is ionic Electronegativity order = F, O, N, Cl, Br, I, S, C, H
Female reproductive hormones
FSH: stimulates development of ovarian follicles and release of estrogen LH: induces ovulation estrogen: develops reproductive tract, thickens uterine wall progesterone: maintains endometrium hCG: maintains corpus luteum after fertilization for production of progesterone and estrogen until placenta is formed
Tips for remembering polyatomic anions
First row on the periodic table, moving across: B (-3), C (-2), N (-1) Second row and below: Si (-2), P (-3), S (-2), Cl (-1) Exceptions: Cr (-2) and Mn (per = -1, no per = -2) P, S, As, and Se plus Cr and Mn have -ate indicating O4 All else have -ate indicating three
Formation of Esters
Fischer esterification (methanol and dry acid) OR reaction of a carboxylate with an alkyl halide (SN2 reaction) Transesterification: exchange of one esterifying group for another
Fusion vs Fission
Fission = small nuclei combine into larger nuclei Fusion = larger nuclei splits into smaller nuclie Energy released in both processes
Fatty acid synthesis
Five steps: activation, bond formation, reduction, dehydration, reduction
Acyl group names
Formyl = 1C Acetyl = 2C (acetylation means attaching RC=O group) Propyl = 3C Butyl = 4C Valer = 5C Benzyl = ring with 1C substituent (=O attached to substituent for carbonyl groups)
Gravitational Force
G = 6.7 x 10^-11
Cell Cycle
G0: entered by cell if it does not need to divide G1 checkpoint: cell decides if it should divide, p53 regulated G2 checkpoint: cell checks size and organelles and DNA replication
Glut 2 vs. Glut 4
GLUT 2: found in liver and pancreas, high Km GLUT 4: found in adipose tissue and muscle, increased when insulin is present, low Km
Gram stain
Gram + = purple = thick peptidoglycan/lipteichoic acid cell wall Gram - = pink/red = thinnk peptidoglycan cell wall and an outer membrane
Gravity vs. Vacuum filtration
Gravity = filtrate is of interest Vacuum = solid is the desired product
Experiments to support DNA as genetic material
Griffith: demonstrated transformation of non-virulent strain to virulent Avery-MacLeod-McCarty: degradation of DNA led to cessation of bacterial transformation, degradation of proteins did not Hershey-Chase: radiolabeled DNA (P) vs protein (S)
Hess's Law
H reaction = heat of formation of products - reactants For bond dissociation energies, take H reactants - H products (only case where reactants come first)
Fetal circulation
HbF has a higher affinity for O2 than HbA Umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood away from fetal heart Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood to the fetal heart Foramen ovule: RA --> LA (skip lungs) Ductus arteriosus: pulmonary artery --> aorta (skip lungs) Ductus venosus: umbilical vein --> inferior vena cava (skip liver)
Heat and Temperature definitions
Heat = the transfer of energy that results from differences of temperature (hot -> cold) Temperature = scaled measure of average kinetic energy of a substance
Relative solubility/boiling point of functional groups
Highest solubility and boiling point carboxylic acid alcohol ketone aldehyde ester ether alkane Lowest solubility and boiling point NOTE: more branched molecules are more soluble and have a lower boiling point
Hund's Rule, Pauli Exclusion Principle, Aufbau Principle
Hund's Rule = e- only double up in orbitals if all orbitals first have one e- Pauil = no two electrons can have the same quantum number Aufbau = electrons fill lower energy atomic orbitals before filling higher-energy ones
Galvanic, Electrolytic, and Concentration Cells
In all cells: anode is the site of oxidation and cathode is the site of reduction, electrons flow from anode to cathode, current flows from cathode to anode Galvanic cells: spontaneous reactions, -G, +E, negative anode, positive cathode Electrolytic cells: nonspontaneous reactions driven by an external voltage source, +G, -E, positive anode, negative cathode Concentration cells: both electrodes are made of the same material, G = E = 0
enzyme kinetics key values
INTRINSIC: Km: [S] at which and enzyme runs at half of its Vmax - increasing Km means a lower affinity - (k-1 + k2)/k1 kcat = Vmax/[Et], the turnover number or the number of reactions one enzyme can catalyze per second under optimal conditions catalytic efficiency: kcat/Km NOT INTRINSIC: Vmax: maximum rate at which an enzyme can catalyze a reaction, when all enzyme active sites are saturated with substrate, increases with increasing enzyme concentration SIDE NOTE: while the optimum pH varies greatly from enzyme to enzyme, the optimum temp is normally ~37C
Freud's Theory of Personality
Id: basic urges of survival and reproduction Superego: idealist and perfectionist Ego: mediator between the two and the conscious mind, employs defense mechanisms
Momentum
In elastic and inelastic collisions, momentum is conserved
Resistor Equations
In parallel: 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ... In series: Req = R1 + R2 + ...
Motivational Theories (8)
Instinct Theory: people perform certain behaviors because of their evolutionary programmed instincts Arousal theory: optimal performance requires optimal arousal Drive-Reduction: motivation arises from the desire to eliminate drives (internal states of tension that may be primary/biological or secondary/learned) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: higher needs only produce drives once lower ones are met Self-Determination: three universal needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness Incentive Theory: motivation is the desire to pursue reward and avoid punishment Expectancy-Value Theory: motivation for a task is based on the expectation of success and the value of that success Opponent-Process Theory: as drug increases, the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms
Internal vs external validity
Internal: extent to which we can say that the change in outcome variable (dependent) is due to intervention External: extent to which findings can be generalized to real world
Isolated, Closed, and Open Systems
Isolated: The system cannot exchange energy or matter with the surroundings Closed: The system can exchange energy but not matter with the surroundings Open: the system can exchange both energy and mater with the surroundings
Isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric, and isovolumetric/isochoric processes
Isothermal = constant temperature (U = 0) Adiabatic = constant heat (Q = 0) Isobaric = constant pressure Isovolumetric = constant volume (W = 0)
Hill coefficient
It describes the fraction of the macromolecule saturated by ligand as a function of the ligand concentration; it is used in determining the degree of cooperativeness of the ligand binding to the enzyme or receptor. n>1 positive cooperative binding n<1 negative cooperative binding n=1 noncooperative binding
James-Lange, Cannon-bard, Schachter-Singer theories of emotion
JL = Stimulus -> Arousal -> Emotion CB = Stimulus -> Arousal and Emotion -> Behavior SS = Stimulus -> Arousal and Appraisal -> Emotion
Formation or Stability Constant
Kf = the equilibrium constant for complex formation, usually much greater than Ksp
Ion product constant of water
Kw = Ka * Kb (for conjugate acids and bases) pH + pOH = 14 pKa + pKb = 14
stereochemistry of amino acids
L for all chiral amino acids (all except glycine) All chiral amino acids except cysteine have S configuration
Types of bateries, best to worst
Lead-acid (low energy density) Ni-Cd (higher energy density) NiMH (highest energy density)
Roles of each hemisphere
Left: language/vocabulary, logic, analytical thought, positive emotions Right: creativity (plus art and music), emotion processing, visuospatial processing, holistic thought, negative emotions each processes the other side for all but auditory stimuli
Cahn-Ingold-Prelog Priority Rules
Look at atoms connected to the chiral carbon or the double-bonded carbons, whichever has the highest atomic number gets highest priority Double-bonds: Z (highest priority on SAME side); E (highest priority on OPPOSITE sides) Stereocenters: R (right hand); S (left hand)
Magnetic Force
Lorentz force is the sum of the electrostatic and magnetic forces acting on a body
Mass number, atomic weight, atomic number, atomic mass
Mass number = number of protons + neutrons Atomic weight = atomic mass = weighted atomic average Atomic number = number of protons
Oxides
Metal oxides are ionic, basic or amphoteric compounds Nonmetal oxides are covalent, acidic compounds
Moderating vs Mediating vs Confounding variable
Moderator: influences the strength of the relationship between the IV and DV Mediator: the means by which the IV affects the DV Confounding: extraneous variable that relates to both the dependent and independent variables
Cyclohexane conformation and stability
Most stable in chair form - Axial = sticking up/down from the molecule's plane (least stable, especially for bulky groups) - Equatorial = in the plane of the molecule (most stable, especially for bulky groups)
Digestive Pathway
Mouth-oval cavity-pharynx-esophagus-cardial sphincter-stomach-pyloric sphincter-duodenum-jejunum-ileum-cecum-ascending colon-transverse colon-descending colon-rectum-anus
Ion Solubility Rules
NAP (nitrate - NO3-, acetate, perchlorate - ClO4-) SAG (sulfate - SO4, ammonium, group 1 and 17) Exceptions for S and G17 = PMS (Pb - lead, Mercury - Hg, and Silver - Ag)
Theories of Language Development
Nativist: language acquisition is innate (Chomsky, LAD) Empericist/behaviorist: language acquisition is controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement Social interactionist: language acquisition is caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others, with both biological and behavioral components
Innate immune system (5 non-cellular, 4 cellular)
Non-cellular --- Skin (defensins) Mucus: traps pathogens Lysozymes: antimicrobial in tears and saliva Complement system: holes in cell ways of bacteria, opsonization Interferons: interfere with viral replication and dispersion Cellular --- MHC-I: all nucleated cells, display endogenous antigen to CD8+ T-cells (cytotoxic/killer) MHC-II: professional antigen-presenting cells (macrophages, dendritic cells, some B-cells, activated epithelial cells); exogenous antigen displayed to helper CD4+ T-cells; release cytokines Natural killer cells: attack cells low on MHC, including virally infected cells and cancer cells Granulocytes: - neutrophils: activated by bacteria, conduct phagocytosis - eosinophil: activated by parasites and allergens, release histamines - basophil: activated by allergens, inhibit blood clotting, release histamines
Aldol Condensation
Nucleophile: enolate Electrophile: aldehyde or ketone Catalyzed by base Pro-tip: Determine reactants of aldol addition by "cleaving" the bond between the -COH carbon and the alpha carbon of the ketone and converting the ketone to an enol and the alcohol to a ketone/aldehyde
Oxidation number rules
O is commonly -2 except when bonded to F or in a peroxide (-1)
Four types of bacteria
Obligate Aerobe: requires O2 Obligate Anaerobe: dies in O2 Faculative Anaerobe: toggles between aerobic and anaerobic Aerotolerant Anaerobe:does not use O2 but tolerates it
Ideal Gas Law and Derivations
PV = nRT Avogadro's Principle: n/v = n/v Boyle's Law: PV = PV Charles's Law: V/T = V/T Gay-Lussac's Law: P/T = P/T Combined Gas Law: PV/T = PV/T
Naming ions (old and new method for monoatomic ions, oxyanions)
Old method for charge on monoatomic ions: -ous is less -ic is more Monoatomic ions: drop the ending of the name and add -ide Oxyanions: hypo- -ite -ate hyper- Adding hydrogens: put "hydrogen" or "bi" in front for one H put "dihydrogen" for two H
caspase
One of a group of proteases that catalyze cleavage of target proteins and are active in apoptosis.
Random order, Ordered, Ping-Pong
Ordered: the substrates for an enzyme catalyzed reaction bind in a particular order (e.g., E -> EA -> EB) Random order: the substrates can bind in any order (e.g., A or B could bind first) Ping-pong or double-displacement: substrates bind and are converted to product one at a time (e.g., A -> P then B -> Q) -- common examples include chymotrypsin, pyruvate carboxylase, and glutamate-aspartate aminotransferase
Structure of Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear (auditory pathway)
Outer ear: pinna (auricle) --> external auditory cannal --> tympanic membrane Middle ear: malleus (hammer) --> incus (anvil) --> stapes (stirrup) --> oval window Inner ear: cochlea --> organ of corti (--> round window) Nervous system: vestibulocochlear nerve (CN 8) --> medial geniculate nucleus --> auditory cortex
Oxidation, Reduction, Oxidizing agent (oxidant) and Reducing agent (reductant)
Oxidation = losing electrons Reduction = gaining electrons Oxidizing Agent = oxidizes another compound, it gets reduced; have two or more electronegative atoms bonded together Reducing Agent = reduces another compound, it gets oxidized
Aldehyde/Ketone Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation: produced from 1' and 2' alcohols, only weaker oxidizing agents (e.g., PCC) produce aldehydes Reduction: conversion to alcohols with any reducing agent
Trait theories (3)
PEN: psychoticism (nonconformity), extraversion (sociable), neuroticism (arousal in stressful situations) Big Five: OCEAN - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism 3 basic traits: cardinal traits (traits around which one organizes their lives), central traits (major characteristics of personality), secondary traits (more personal characteristics and limited in occurrence)
glycolysis and gluconeogenesis regulation (inhibitors/activators)
PEP carboxykinase: activated by glucagon and cortisol Fructose 1-6 bisphosphatase: activated by ATP, glucagon; inhibited by AMP, insuline, and fructose 2,6 bisphosphate
Density of a Gas
PM/RT
Components of Language
Phonology: sounds of speech Morphemes: smallest meaningful unit of words Syntax: sentence structure, rules of grammar Semantics: meaning of sentences/words Pragmatics: changes in language delivery/use depending on context
Electrophiles
Positive charge or polarization
Voltage
Potential difference the change in electrical potential that accompanies the movement of a test charge from one position to another V = Vb - Va = Wab/q
Brain organization (parts and development)
Prosencephalon/Forebrain: limbic system - Telencephalon: basal ganglia, cerebral cortex - Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus Mesencephalon/Midbrain: inferior and superior colliculi Rhombencephalon/Hindbrain: reticular formation - Metencephalon: cerebellum, pons - Myencephalon: medulla oblongata Brainstem: midbrain, pons, and medulla (neglects cerebellum)
Personality Perspectives (6)
Psychoanalytic Perspective: personality results from unconscious urges and desires (Freud, Jung, Adler, and Horney) Humanistic Perspective: emphasizes the internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive for happiness and self-realization (Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Roger's unconditional positive regard) Type & Trait Theory: personality can be described by identifiable traits that carry characteristic behaviors Social Cognitive Perspective: reciprocal determinism shapes personality Behaviorist Perspective: operant conditioning Biological Perspective: genetic expression
Heat transfer and phase change
Q = m x C x deltaT Q = m x L where L is the heat of transformation
Resistance (fluid and electronics)
R = pL/A where p is resistivity, L is length or resistor, and A is cross sectional area resistance also increases with temperature
blood pathway
R atrium --> tricuspid valve --> R ventricle --> pulmonary valve --> pulmonary artery --> lungs --> pulmonary veins --> L atrium --> mitral valve --> L ventricle --> aortic valve --> aorta --> arteries --> arterioles --> capillaries --> venules --> veins --> vena cavae --> R atrium
Nernst Equation (electrochemistry)
RT/F = 0.0592
Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution
Reactivity occurs in this order: acid chloride, anhydride, ester, amide, carboxylate (O-)
Potentiometric and Redox titrations
Redox titration: similar to acid-base titrations but follows a transfer of charge Potentiometric titration: a form of redox titration where a voltmeter measures the electromotive force, the equivalence point is determined by a sharp change in voltage
Venturi Effect
Reduction in pressure of a fluid resulting from the speed increase as fluids are forced to flow faster through narrow spaces.
Relative vs. Absolute Configuration
Relative: gives the stereochemistry of a compound in comparison to another compound (e.g., D- and L-) Absolute: gives the sterochemistry of a compound without having to compare to other compounds (e.g., S- and R-)
retrograde vs anterograde amnesia
Retrograde —> loss of previously formed memories Anterograde —> inability to form new memories
Retro-Aldol Reactions
Reverse of aldol condensation, catalyzed by head and a base Double bond is cleaved and gains a carbonyl group
Biases in research (6)
Selection bias: the sample differs from the population Detection bias: educated professionals use their knowledge in an inconsistent way be searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations Hawthorne effect: behavior of subjects is altered by knowing they are being studied Observer bias: includes detection bias and the Hawthorne effect, bias on the part of the researchers (e.g., not blinded) that influences the study results Social desirability bias (response bias): survey respondents answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others
Mead's Theory of Identity
Self begins as privileged, central position in a person's world "I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of the self "Me" is the part of the self that is formed in interaction with others and the general social environment
Male Reproductive System and Pathway
Seminiferous tubules: site of spermatogenesis, nourished by Sertoli cells (process stimulated by FSH) Epididymis: stores sperm, sperm gain motility Vas deferens: raise/lower testes, sperm transport Ejaculatory duct Urethra Penis Other organs: -bulbourethral glands: make viscous fluid to clean and lubricate urethra - prostate gland: make alkaline fluid to help sperm survive acidic environment - seminal vesicles: produce fluid with nutrients like fructose - interstitial cells of Leydig: stimulated by LH to produce testosterone
General adaptation syndrome
Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion Involves the sympathetic nervous system and endocrine system All stress generates the same general physical stress response
Maximum e- in shell and subshell
Shell = 2n^2 Subshell = 4l + 2
Sound speed
Sound propagates through all forms of mater: 1) Fastest through solids with low density, followed by liquids, and slowed through very dense gases. 2) Within a medium, as the density increases, the speed of the sound decreases. B = bulk modulus p = density
Southern, Northern, and Western Blotting
Southern: Detects specific DNA sequence - may be used to detect a RFLP (if so, write compliment of WT sequence, find restriction enzyme cut site, then look for mutants where this sequence is altered) Northern: Detects specific RNA sequence Western: Detects specific protein Autoradiography: may be used to visualize radioactive blots or other radioactive assays
Stop and start codons
Start: AUG Stop: UAA, UAG, UGA
Photoelectric Effect
The emission of electrons from a material when light of certain frequencies shines on the surface of the material threshold frequency = the minimum light frequency necessary to eject an electron work function = the minimum energy necessary to eject an electron from a given metal = hf_T maximum kinetic energy = hf -hf_T KE increases as frequency increases, but current remains the same Current (number of e- emitted) increases with light intensity, but KE remains the same
Validity and Reliability
Validity (accuracy): the quality of approximating the true value Reliability (precision): being consistent in approximations
World Systems Theory
Theory originated by Immanuel Wallerstein and illuminated by his three-tier structure, proposing that social change in the developing world is inextricably linked to the economic activities of the developed world. Core nations = more economically developed with strong governments and institutions Periphery nations = less economically developed with weak governments and institutions Semi-periphery countries = industrializing, mostly capitalist countries which are positioned between the periphery and core countries (e.g., Mexico, Brazil, China, South Africa)
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
Theory that distinguishes between two groups; communities (Gemeinschaften), which share beliefs, ancestry, or geography; and society (Gesellschaften), which work together toward a common goal
Lipoprotein pathways
VLDL: liver --> tissues IDL: transition particle (VLDL --> IDL --> VLDL) - CETP catalyzes transition of IDL to LDL by transfering cholesteryl esters from HDL LDL: cholesterol --> tissues HDL: cholesterol --> liver (exits body) - LCAT: catalyzes the formation of cholesteryl esters for transport with HDL
Mesolimbic pathway
VTA -> nucleus accumbens, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus involved in addiction/reward
Phase Change Diagram
Triple point = all three phases are in equilibrium Critical point = supercritical fluid = density of a gas is same as liquid
Different types of skeletal muscle (name, contraction speed, pathway of ATP production, diameter of muscle fiber, fatigue rate, number of mitochondria, amount of myoglobin, color, major storage fuel)
Type I (slow oxidative): low speed, aerobic, small diameter fiber (low force), low fatigue (hours), many mitochondria, high myoglobin, many capillaries, red, triglyceride storage - long distance events, marathon, posture Type IIA (fast oxidative): high speed, aerobic, medium diameter (medium force), medium fatigue (minutes), many mitochondria, high myoglobin, red-pink, glycocen and creatine phosphate (make fast oxidative) - medium distance, 400m Type IIB (fast glycolytic): fast contraction speed, anaerobic, large diameter (high force), fatigue quickly (seconds), few mitochondria and myoglobin (white), few capillaries, glycogen, creatine phosphate - sprinting, weight lifting Note: Force of fiber is proportional to its diameter
electron volt (eV)
Unit of energy equal to 1.6 x 10^-19 joules, used to quantify energy transfers on the atomic scale
Mass Spectroscopy
Used to determine the molecular weight and aid in determining molecular structure Base peak: tallest peak Molecular ion peak: highest peak, represents molecule M+1 peak: C13 M+2 peak: Br (1:1) or Cl (3:1)
Potential Energy/Work in Electronics
W = 1/2 x Q x V W = 1/2 x C x V^2
Work
W = Fdcos(theta) Wnet = Kf-Ki Work = P x delta V
Wernike's and Broca's area
Wernike's: language comprehension, temporal lobe, word salad Broca's: language production, frontal lobe, "broken" Arcuate fasciculus: connects the two, conduction aphasia (can't repeat words)
Signal Detection Theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
Circular motion
acceleration directed inward
Regulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation
activated: high ADP, low ATP inhibited: low O2, low ADP, high ATP
Three components of attitutdes
affective - emotional experience evoked by attitude object behavioral - responses when in the presence of the object cognitive - beliefs about the object
Neurons (afferent vs efferent)
afferent = sensory, receptors --> spinal cord, dorsal (back) efferent = motor, CNS --> muscles and glands, ventral (front)
House Money Effect
after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk
Learning theory of attitudes
attitudes are developed through forms of learning: direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning
Social cognitive theory of attitudes
attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, personal factors, and environment people change their behaviors or attitudes based on observation
Functional Attitudes Theory
attitudes exist to serve some function - knowledge, ego expression, adaptability, and ego defense
prostaglandins
autocrine and paracrine signaling molecules that regulate cAMP levels affect smooth muscle contraction, body temperature, sleep-wake cycle, fever, and pain
Types of Reinforcement and Punishment
avoidance learning: negative reinforcement causing a behavior BEFORE the onset of a negative stimulus escape learning: negative reinforcement causing a behavior AFTER the onset of a negative stimulus
types of attachment
avoidant - caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child ambivalent - caregiver has inconsistent response disorganized - caregiver is erratic or abusive
basic and self construction models of expressing emotions
basic: universal emotions and expressions can be understood across cultures self construction: emotions soley based on situational context of social interactions
Inner ear structure
bony labyrinth (filled with perilymph) membranous labrynth (filled with endolymph): cochela, utricle and saccule (linear acceleration), semicircular canals (rotational acceleration and balance)
malate-aspartate shuttle
brings NADH into the mitochondria from the cytoplasm
Buffers and Buffering capacity
buffer = weak acid/base plus conjugate salt maximum buffering capacity is within 1 pH of the pKa
Cell adhesion molecules
cadherins: calcium-dependent glycoproteins that hold similar cells together integrins: two membrane spanning chains and permit cells to adhere to proteins in the extracellular matrix (WBC migration) selectins: allow cells to adhere to carbohydrates on the surfaces of other cells and are most commonly used in the immune system
electron transport chain
chemiosmosis: gradient created by ETC is used to power conformational/chemiosmotic changes that promote ATP synthesis
IUPAC Naming Conventions
cis-/trans- designate two identical groups as being on the same or opposite sides Z-/C- designates two groups with highest priority as being on the same or opposite side
Different types of isomers (and tree for designating)
cis/trans are geometric isomers
types of chromatography
column chromatography: uses beads of a polar compound (stationary phase) with a nonpolar solvent (mobile phase) - HPLC: uses high pressure to pass solvent phase through a more finely ground stationary phase, high resolving power gas chromatography: vaporizes liquid before separation, molecules separated based on polarity and boiling point (lower BP comes off first) ion-exchange chromatography: uses a charged column and a variably saline elutent size-exclusion or gel filtration chromatography: relies on porous beads, larger molecules elute first affinity chromatography: uses a bound receptor or ligand and an elutent with free ligand or a receptor for the protein of interest
Types of reactions
combustion = a fuel/hydrocarbon and O2 forming CO2 and H2O) plus hydrolysis = using H20 to break bonds in a molecule (vs. hydration = adding water to a compound, like across a chemical bond)
Bone components (compact, spongy, bone marrow, axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton)
compact bone: strength and density spongy bone: trabeculae lattices filled with bone marrow yellow bone marrow: fat red bone marrow: hematopoietic stem cells axial skeleton: skull, vertebral column, ribcage, hyoid bone appendicular skeleton: limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvis
conformity, compliance, and obedience
conformity: changing beliefs or behaviors to fit into a group/society compliance: changing behavior based on request of others obedience: changing behaviors after command from authority
display rules
culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors/emotions are appropriate to display
Density relative to weight in a fluid
density object/density fluid = specific gravity = weight object in air/(weight object in air - weight object in fluid)
Specific Gravity
density of water = 1 g/cm^3 = 1000 kg/m^3
State functions
describe the physical properties of an equilibrium state, are pathway independent NOT work or heat
Kluver-Busy Syndrome
destruction of amygdala causes mellow mood, less fear, hypersexuality, disinhibition, unusual eating behaviors
differential association theory
deviance can be learned through our interactions with others
Standard electromotive force
difference in standard reduction potentials between two half cells
Fundamental Unit of Charge
e = 1.60 x 10-19
e- donating and e- withdrawing groups (plus acidity trends)
e- donating groups: tend to be less acidic or more basic, decrease acidity by destabilizing the conjugate base e- withdrawing groups: tend to be more acidic, increase acidity by stabilizing the conjugate base
Imine/Enamine Tautomers
enamines are the less common tautomer
bone development in fetus
endochondral ossification: bones form from cartilage intramembranous ossification: bones form from mesenchyme
Keto/Enol Tautomers
enols are the less common tautomer enolate = -OH of enol is deprotonated
ELISA
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
Cytochrome P450
enzymes that function to metabolize potentially toxic compounds, including drugs and products of endogenous metabolism such as bilirubin, principally in the liver monooxygenases that add an oxygen to the substrate (drug), thereby oxidizing its substrates
Hormones and enzymes of duodenum
enzymes: disaccharidases (brush-border enzymes), aminopeptidase and dipeptidase (brush-border enzymes), enteropeptidase (activates trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases) hormones: secretin (stimulates release of pancreatic juices, decreases motility), cholecystokinin (CCK, stimulates bile release from galbladder, release of pancreatic juices, and satiety)
long bones, periosteum
epiphyses are site of growth periosteum: connective tissue surrounding bone
types of tissue
epithelial -- lining of ovaries, intestines, blood vessels, skin connective -- fat (adipose), areolar, compact bone, blood, loose connective tissues (tendons, etc), cartilage, fibrous muscle -- striated, smooth, skeletal nervous -- CNS, PNS (neurons, nerves, etc.)
Reaction quotient and equilibrium constant
equilibrium constant - omit pure solids and liquids
Blood cells
erythrocytes: bone marrow, no nucleus, no mitochondria, nucleus (no DNA!) or other organelles, contain hemoglobin leukocytes: bone marrow, immune function, granulocytes and agranulocytes (monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) thrombocytes/platelets: cell fragments from megakaryocytes in bone marrow
ethnocentrism vs cultural relativism
ethnocentrism: making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture cultural relativism: recognition that social groups and cultures should be studied from their own terms
Two types of stress
eustress = positive stress arising when motivation and inspiration are needed (e.g., wedding, competition) distress = negative stress, may be acute or chronic
Prisoner's Dilema
example of a game analyzed in game theory that shows why two individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so
flashbulb memory prospective memory reconstructive memory reproductive memory eidetic memory
flashbulb memory: subjectively vivid, compelling memories of details associated with emotionally arousing events prospective memory: remembering to perform a planned action/intention at some future point in time reconstructive memory: memory is subject to distortion by other intervening cognitive functions (mostly episodic) reproductive memory: accurate recall of information (mostly semantic) eidetic memory: ability to see an object soon after you look away
Flow Rate
flow rate = volume/time
Strings, Open pipes, and closed pipes
for a string, the number of antinodes tells what harmonic it is for an open pipe, it is the number of nodes
digesting sugars other than glucose
galactose: trapped in cell by galactokinase, converted to glucose-1-phosphate by galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase fructose: trapped in cell by fructokinase, cleaved by aldolase B to form glyceraldehyde and DHAP
Assumptions of an ideal gas and when NOT ideal
gas made of particles with negligible volume compared to the container, have no intermolecular attractions or repulsion, are in continuous random motion, collisions are elastic (conserve energy), the average KE is proportional to temperature and is the same for all gasses at a given temperature regardless of identity or mass. Not ideal at decreased temperature and volume, with increased pressure
Secretory cells of stomach
gastrin --> increases HCl secretion by parietal cells and increases gastric motility
protein catabolism
gluconeogenic amino acids: can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis (enter directly into citric acid cycle); all but leucine and lysine ketogenic amino acids: can be converted into acetyl-CoA and ketone bodies (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, phenylalanine)
glycogenolysis (enzymes and regulators)
glycogen phosphorylase: produces single glucose 1-phosphate molecules by breaking alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds; inhibited by ATP - liver: activated by glucagon - skeletal muscle: activated by epinephrine and AMP debranching enzyme: move a block of oligoglucose from the branch and connects it to the chain with an alpha-1,4 bond, also removes the alpha-1,6 glucose separately KNOW ENZYMES
D- and L- sugars
groups on the left in a Fischer projection tend to point down in the ring
Titrations (half-equivalence point, equivalence point, pH at equivalence point, indicators, endpoint)
half-equivalence point: the midpoint of the buffering region in which half the titrant has been protonated or deprotonated (pH = pKa, pOH = pKb) equivalence point: the point at which equivalent amounts of acid and base have reacted (N1V1 = N2V2) pH at equivalence point: - strong acid + strong base = 7 - weak acid + strong base > 7 - strong acid + weak base < 7 - weak acid + weak base - depends which is stronger indicators = weak acids or bases that display different colors in the protonated and deprotonated forms, pKa should be close to the pH of the equivalence point endpoint: when indicator reaches full color
Relative stabilities of molecules
heat of combustion: more heat = less stable, less heat = more stable enthalpy of formation: more negative = more stable
glucokinase vs hexokinase
hexokinase is inhibited by its product, G6P
Blood volume regulation
high BP --> release ANP low BP --> activates ADH and aldosterone
strain theory
how anomic conditions can lead to deviance and reinforce social stratification strain --> anger --> criminal behavior
social perception
how we generate impressions about people involves a perceiver, target, and situation
Types of groups - in-group, out-group, reference group, primary group, secondary group, peer group
in-group: group you are in out-group: group you are not in, may compete with/oppose reference group: group you compare yourself to primary group: strong emotional bonds, close - peer group: self-selected group, shared interests secondary group: temporary, weaker bonds
incidence vs. prevalence of disease
incidence: number of new cases of a disease per population at risk prevalence: number of cases (new and pre-existing) of a disease per population
vaccine development
immunogenicity: ability to induce a humoral/cell-mediated immune response toxicity: avoid including toxic/active elements of the target invader
Roles of midbrain structures
inferior colliculi: auditory center, vestibulo-ocular reflex (keeps eyes fixed while head moves) - superior olive: localizes sound superior colliculi: visual center startle reflexes
Translation
initiator: Shine-Delgarno sequence in prokaryotes, 5'-cap in eukaryotes termination: release factor promotes the addition of a water molecule to release the protein
PTSD symptoms
intrusions, avoidance, negative changes in cognition or emotion, changes in arousal/reactivity
Parts of the eye
iris: controls size of pupil, colored part of eye, dilator and constrictor pupillae muscles aqueous humore: produced by cilliary body to nourish the eye and provide shape, drains through the canal of Schlemm fovea/macula: contain cones optic disc: location where nerve cells exit the eye to become the optic nerve
Coulomb's Law
k = 9x10^9 Nm^2/C^2
Average Kinetic Energy of a Gas
kB = 1.38 * 10^-23
phosphatase vs. phosphorylase vs. kinase
kinase: add a phosphate group using ATP, a type of transferase phosphatase: remove a phosphate group, a type of transferase phosphorylase: add an inorganic phosphate group into an organic molecule (e.g., glucose)
anomie
lack of social norms, which leads to a breakdown in the connection between an individual and their community
types of enzymes
ligase: join two large biomolecules, often of the same type, catalyzed by ATP isomerase: interconversion of constitutional isomers or stereoisomers lyase: catalyze cleavage without the addition of H20 or the transfer of e-; reverse reaction is important biologically, often involves forming double bonds or rings hydrolase: catalyzes cleavage with the addition of H20 oxidoreductase: redox reaction transferase: move a functional group from one molecule to another
regulation of ventilation and pH
low pH (high H+): increases respiration, excrete some H+ in kidney (slow) high pH (low H+): decrease respiration, retain HCO3- in kidney (slow)
Material vs Symbolic culture Cultural lag
material = technology, clothing, architecture, etc symbolic = language, beliefs, etc cultural lag = material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture
NMR Spectroscopy
measures alignment of nuclear spin with an applied magnetic field frequency (ppm) vs absorption TMS is used for calibration deshielding from EWG's moves a hydrogen downfield (left) by removing electrons from the nucleus coupling: n+1
Sensory receptors in dermis
merkel cells: deep pressure and texture free nerve endings: pain meissner's corpuscles: light touch (papillary layer) ruffini endings: stretch pacinian corpuscules: deep pressure and vibration
epigenetic modifications
methylation (tends to decrease accessibility of genes, occurs via transferase enzyme) acetylation (lys in histones, increases accessibility)
cytoskeleton structure
microfilaments: actin - muscle contraction, cell motion, cytokinesis microtubules: tubulin - transport, chromosome movements, motility of cilia and flagella intermediate filaments: keratin and desmin - structural support, scaffolding
membrane fluidity
more saturated = less fluid longer = less fluid cholesterol: makes more fluid at lower temperatures and less fluid at higher temperatures
SDS-PAGE
native PAGE: maintains the protein's shape, but results are difficult to compare because the mass/charge ratio differs for each protein (separates based on electrophoretic mobility = length, conformation, and charge) SDS-PAGE: denatures proteins and makes the native charge so that comparison of size is more accurate, but functional protein cannot be recaptured from the gel - does NOT separate based on charge
Limbic System
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives parts: fornix, olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, septal nuclei (pleasure and addiction), cingulate gyrus
Light Intensity
number of photons hitting an area/time
glycogenesis (enzymes and regulation)
occurs in liver and muscle cells glycogen synthase: produces alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds; activated by glucose 6 phosphate and insulin, inhibited by phosphorylation (signal cascade with epinephrine and glucagon) branching enzyme: creates branches with alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds KNOW ENZYMES!
Fatty acid oxidation
occurs in mitochondria following transport by carnitine shuttle hormone sensitive lipase: releases fatty acids from adipose tissue (activated by decreasing insulin, increasing epinephrine and cortisol) 5 steps: oxidation, hydration, oxidation, thyolysis, cleavage generates: acetyl CoA, FADH2, and NADH - propinoyl CoA is produced from odd number fatty acids
attribution substitution
occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic
Processing smell
olfactory chemoreceptors in olfactory epithelium --> through cribiform plate --> mitral cells (synapse via glomerulus to combine like signals) --> olfactory bulb --> hypothalamus, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, hippocampus
Accessory organs to digestive system
originate from endoderm - pancreas: pancreatic juices - bicarbonate, pancreatic amylase, peptidases, and lipase - liver: bile, albumin, and clotting factors; processes nutrients; detoxes with urea cycle; receives blood from abdominal portion of digestive tract via hepatic portal vein - gallbladder: releases bile in response to CCK
bone matrix
osteons are the chief structural unit of compact bone - lamellae: concentric bone layers - Haversian (vertical) and Volkmann (horizontal) channels: surrounded by lamellae - lacunae: gaps between rings where osteocytes reside - canaliculi: connect lacunae bone made from calcium, phosphate, and OH-
Definition of pKa, pKb, pH, pOH, Ka, Kb pH approximation
pH = -log[H+] pOH = -log[OH-] pKa = -log[Ka] pKb = -log[Kb] Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA] Kb = [OH-][B+]/[BOH] -log (A x 10^-B) = -(-B + 0.A) = B - 0.A
Right Hand Rule for Magnetic Force
palm = positive charge, back of hand = negative
Three forms of visual processing
parallel processing: color, form, and motion at the same time magnocellular cells: motion, high temporal resolution parvocellular cells: shape, high color resolution
Dramaturgical approach to impression management
people create images of themselves in the same way actors perform - front stage: seen by audience, presented self - back stage: secret self
relative deprivation theory
people seek to acquire something that others possess and which they believe they should have too all relative to those around them
Horney's personality theory
personality is molded by current fears and impulses basic anxiety: vulnerability and helplessness (inadequate parenting) basic hostility: anger caused by neglect and rejection (bad parents) neurotic needs: 10 normal desires (e.g., affection and approval) that may be problematic if 1) Disproportionate in intensity, 2) Indiscriminate in application, 3) Partially disregard reality, 4) Provoke intense anxiety may resolve by moving towards, against, or away from others
Torque
positive = counterclockwise negative = clockwise
essential amino acids
phenylalanine, valine, tryptophan, threonine, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, arginine, leucine, lysine
Rate-limiting enzymes for glycolysis, fermentation, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the pentose phosphate pathway (respectively)
phosphofructokinase-1, lactose dehydrogenase, glycogen synthase, glycogen phosphorylase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
phospholipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, sphingomyelins, glycosphingolipids, gangliosides, waxes
phospholipids: hydrophilic head attached by a phosphodiester linkage to a hydrophobic tail - glycerophospholipids contain a glycerol backbone sphingolipids: contain a sphingosine backbone, may also be phospholipids with a phosphodiester bond -sphingomyelins: contain a phosphatidyl choline or phosphatidylethanolamine head group, form myelin sheath - glycosphingolipids: attached to sugar moieties instead of a phosphate group (cerebrosides have one sugar, globosides have 2+, gangliosides have oligosaccharides with at least 1 terminal NANA) waxes: esterified long-chain fatty acids, protect against evaporation and parasites
components of interpersonal attraction
physical attractiveness, similarity of thoughts and physical traits (e.g., same cultural capital), self-disclosure, reciprocity, proximity, familiarity
Three components of Emotion
physiological - changes in ANS behavioral - facial expressions and body language cognitive - subjective
Positive and Negative controls
positive controls: ensure that a change in the dependent variable occurs when expected negative controls: ensure that no change in the dependent variable occurs when none is expected
Sanctions
positive: reward negative: punishment formal: official informal: not enforced or punished by an authority but occurs in everyday interactions with others
Mood Disorders (6)
plus Seasonal Affective Disorder (depression occuring in winter)
Types of Mutations
point: one nucleotide swapped silent: no effect on protein aa sequence (Wobble) missense: change one aa nonsense: stop codon frameshift: move reading frame insertion/deletion: may change reading frame, causing frameshift
Diffraction, polarization, refraction, reflection, dispersion
polarization: passing light through a polarizer that preferentially selects a certain oscillation direction of the electric field dispersion: light of different wavelengths travels at different speeds, blue light will diffract the most, red light the least, causing a dispersion pattern (like a crystal)
Positive vs. Negative RNA viruses
positive = + sense = may be immediately translated to proteins by infected cells (coding) - HIV and other retroviruses negative = - sense = complementary mRNA (template, anticoding), must be converted to positive-sense RNA before translation
Arachidonate
precursor to eicosanoid signaling molecules prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes, and leukotrines
cognitive biases in social perception (primacy, recency, reliance on central traits, halo effect, just-world hypothesis)
primacy effect: first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions recency effect: the most recent information we have about an individual is the most important reliance on central traits: individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver halo effect: an individual with one positive characteristic also possesses other (even unrelated) positive characteristics just-world hypothesis: good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people
Memory effects (primacy, recency, state-dependency, dual-coding, misinformation, source monitoring error, spreading activation)
primacy: remember earliest items in a list (in LTM) recency: remember most recent items in a list (in STM) state-dependency: memory is improved when you are in the same state during coding as you are during retrieval (e.g., emotions, drugs) dual-coding: remember things better if you engage multiple mental processes (e.g., visual and auditory) misinformation effect: recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information source monitoring error: forgetting where/how you obtained a memory spreading activation: remembering things that are similar/linked to what you are supposed to remember (related to schemas)
types of cellular transport
primary active transport: uses ATP or another energy molecule to directly power the transport of molecules across a membrane secondary active transport: "coupled transport," harnesses the energy released by one particle going down its electrochemical gradient to drive a different particle up its gradient
Stress Appraisal
primary appraisal: classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant (0), benign-positive (+), or stressful (-) secondary appraisal: evaluating if the organism can cope with stress
Prions, viroids, virions
prions: infectious proteins that trigger misfolding of other proteins (often converting from alpha helices to beta sheets) viroids: RNA plant pathogens virion: individual virus particles
pentose phosphate pathway (enzymes, regulation, products)
produces NADPH, sugars for biosynthesis, and glycolysis intermediates G6PD is activated by NADP+ and inhibited by NADPH
Colligative Properties
properties that depend on the concentration of solute particles but not on their identity Vapor Pressure = Raoult's Law (PA = XA x P'A) NOTE: XA is mole fraction of solvent Boiling Point Elevation = dT = i x Kb x m Freezing Point Depression = dT = i x Kf x m Osmotic Pressure = iMRT
clathrin
protein that coats the inward-facing surface of the plasma membrane and assists in the formation of specialized structures, like coated pits, for phagocytosis
isoform and isozyme
proteins that perform the same function but have different structure (e.g., different subunit compositions, different splicing methods)
glycolysis and gluconeogenesis (enzymes)
pyruvate carboxylase = mitochondria (malate shuttle)
Cholesterol metabolism
regulated by HMG-CoA reductase, activated by insulin, inhibited by cholesterol and glucagon
Roles - role performance, role partner, role set, role conflict, role strain
role: a set of beliefs, values, and norms that define the expectations of a certain status in a social situation role performance: carrying out behaviors of role role partner: individual who helps define a specific role within the relationship role set: a set of all roles associated with a status role conflict: difficult managing multiple roles role strain: difficulty managing just one role ("self" does not count as a role)
structure of muscle
sarcomere --> myofibril --> myocyte --> fasciculus --> muscle
Types of Distillation
simple: BP's under 150 and are >25 apart vacuum: BP's over 150 fractional: BP's <25 apart liquid with lowest BP vaporizes first boiling chips provide nucleation sites to prevent superheating and bumping
Thomas theorem
situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences
Different Types of muscle
skeletal muscle - movement, blood propulsion, thermoregulation smooth muscle - can display myogenic activity (regulation of contraction without neural input), reproductive, respiratory, cardiovascular, and digestive systems cardiac muscle - can display myogenic activity, intercalated discs with gap junctions
Group psychology (social facilitation, deindividuation, bystander effect, peer pressure, social loafing, polarization, groupthink, social support, group size)
social facilitation: people perform at a different level when others are around deindividuation: loss of self-awareness in large groups bystander effect: groups are less likely to respond to a person in need peer pressure: social influence placed on one by equals social loafing: individual does not pull weight in a group setting; people are more productive alone than in a group polarization: decisions made by a group are more extreme groupthink: groups make decisions based on ideas and solutions without considering outside ideas social support: social network ties/relationships that provide and individual with assistance group size: larger groups are more stable but less intimate, smaller groups are more intimate but less stable
social reproduction, social exclusion
social reproduction: passing on of social inequality, especially poverty, from one generation to the next social exclusion: a sense of powerlessness when individuals feel alienated from society
Characteristics of Hybrid orbitals
sp3 = 25% s, 75% p (tetrahedral, 109.5) sp2 = 33% s, 66% p (trigonal planar, 120) sp = 50% s, 50% p (linear, 180)
Properties of sound through different media
speed of sound does not change when in the same medium when changing media, the speed of sound and wavelength change proportionately, the frequency remains the same (unless there is a Doppler effect) amplitude changes when changing mediums
Impulse-Momentum Theorem
states that the impulse on an object is equal to the change in the object's momentum
Status and 3 Types
status: a position in society used to classify individuals ascribed status: involuntarily assigned based on race, gender, ethnicity, etc. achieved status: voluntarily earned master status: status by which an individual is primarily identified
stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination
stereotypes are cognitive, prejudices are affective, and discrimination is behavioral institutional discrimination: policies at the organizational or institutional level in health care, tend to have a disproportionate impact on certain groups
Adler's Individual Psychology
striving for superiority develops personality - inferiority complex: an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially - creative self: the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality - style of life: represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority - fictional finalism: an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences
Strong acids/bases, weak acids/bases, and their conjugates
strong acids/bases dissociate completely and produce very weak conjugates weak acids/bases dissociate partially and produce strong conjugates
Specific heat of water
the amount of energy necessary to raise one gram of a substance by 1C or 1K 1 cal/gK = 4.18 J/gK
Processing taste
taste buds in papillae contain receptors for sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umamai (glutamate) GPCR: umami (glutamate), sweet (glucose), bitter Channels: salty (Na+), sour (H+) fire to CN VII (front 2/3), or IX or X (back 1/3)
Transcription
template strand = strand being copied, coding strand = same sequence as RNA copy TATA box = binding site for RNA polymerase II transcription factors: contain a DNA binding domain, regulate transcription
Reduction potential
tendency for a species to gain e- and be reduced, more positive Ered means a greater tendency to be reduced
hindsight bias
tendency for people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted
actor-observer bias
tendency to attribute your own actions to external causes and others' actions to dispositional causes
labeling theory
the belief that individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them, and their reactions to those labels over time form the basis of their self-identity - people are placed into social categories, which could be stigmatized
Gambler's Fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently
fundamental attribution error
the bias toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions in regard to the actions of others
Self-Esteem
the closer our actual self is to our ideal self and our ought self (who others want us to be), the higher our self-esteem
Total Internal Reflection and Critical Angle
the complete reflection that takes place within a substance when the angle of incidence of light striking the surface boundary is greater than the critical angle
Self-Efficacy
the degree to which we see ourselves as being capable at a given skill or situation
Mass defect
the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons, and electrons nuclear binding energy is the amount of energy that is released when nucleons bind together
Mechanical Advantage
the factor by which a simple machine multiplies the input force to accomplish work the input force necessary to accomplish the work is reduced and the distance through which the force must be applied is increased (e.g., for a plane, MA = length of inclind/height of lincline)
Rogers's concept of incongruence
the gap between a person's actual self and ideal self can be minimized by providing options therapists help clients reconcile between the two
Worfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis
the lens by which we view and interpret the world is created by language
Current
the movement of charge that occurs between two points that have different electrical potentials movement of positive charge (though it is the e- that actually move)
dependency ratio
the number of people who are too young or too old to work compared to the number of people in their productive years
self-serving bias
the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors
Self-verification
the tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept, desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition three cues: consistency, consensus, distinctiveness
Wave period
the time interval between the passage of successive crests at a stationary point T = 1/f
Gestalt Principles
top-down processing good figure (Law of Pragnanz): objects grouped together tend to be perceived as in the simplest form possible (e.g., Olympic rings and dotted dog) proximity: objects grouped together if close together similarity: grouped together if similar continuation: at an intersection, people perceive each object as a single uninterrupted object closure: visual connection or continuity between elements that don't actually touch each other symmetry: perceived as symmetrical shapes that form around the center common fate: elements that move in the same speed/direction are part of the same stimulus
totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent
totipotent: can become any type of cell pluripotent: can be any cell except those found in placental structures multipotent: more specialized, can be multiple types of cells (e.g., ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm)
Operant and Classical conditioning
traditional behaviorist = only actual outcomes of a behavior determine if behavior will be repeated (cognitive appraisal of what might happen has no influence, mental processes are not real)
Transduction, transformation, conjugation, transposons
transduction: transfer of genetic material via bacteriophages transformation: uptake of genetic material from environment conjugation: transfer of genetic info via conjugation bridge transposons: genetic info can insert/remove itself
translational and rotational equilibrium
translational = occurs in the absence of any net forces acting on an object rotational = occurs in the absence of any net torques acting on an object, center of mass is a commonly used pivot point
Disproportionation reactions (dismutation)
type of redox reaction where species is simultaneously reduced and oxidized so as to form two different products TWO DIFFERENT Oxidation #s for same element in products RADICAL substitution
Anomeric carbon
undergoes mutarotation to form anomers beta is more stable, as it allows a configuration where both bulky groups can be axial
Kinetic and thermodynamic products
used to control production of kinetic and thermodynamic enolates
Respiratory Protection
vibrissae: hairs in nasal cavity and pharynx mucous membranes mucocilliary escalator lysozymes (attack gram + bacteria) mast cells
Sound Intensity (dB)
when not comparing, us B = 10 x log (I/Io) with Io = 10^-12
Implicit personality theory
when we look at somebody for the first time, we pick up on one of their characteristics from there, we assume other traits about the person
Voltage and emf
where Ecell is emf and V is terminal resistance
glass ceiling vs glass escalator
women only reach so high on economic ladder (glass ceiling), while men are promoted with greater ease (glass escalator)
Reactions and rate laws
x+y = reaction order
correspondent inference theory
you are more likely to make a dispositional inference when an action that impacts you was freely chosen, intended, and/or low in social desirability a dispositional inference is less likely if the behavior is forced