MCAT Day-Of Test Review

thyroid hormones

increase basal metabolic rate (O2 consumption and heat production) - T3: more potent, shorter half life - T4: less potent, longer acting - T3 is converted to T4 in the tissues

regulation of hemoglobin cooperativity

increase in PO2 causes an increase in O2 affinity decrease in PCO2 causes an increase in O2 affinity

Arrhenius equation

increasing A increases the rate, increasing T increases the rate

Identities (self and social)

individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong self-identities: the individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong social-identities: relationship between sense of self and membership in a group

PCR

indredients: taq polymerase, primers, template DNA, nucleotides primer: high G-C content with either a C or a C at each end (G-C clamp) Steps: denaturation (high temp), annealing (low temp), extension (moderate temp) RT-PCR: reverse-transcriptase PCR; converts RNA to cDNA to measure quantity q-PCR: quantitative, use fluorescence to back-calculate initial DNA concentration

Half-Life

length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay

Jung's Psychoanalytic Theory

libido as psychic energy (not sexual a la Freud) self: point of intersection between the... - personal unconscious: similar to Freud's unconscious - ego: conscious mind - collective unconscious: a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors, images of common experiences archetypes: - Persona - the aspect of our personality we present to the world - Anima - a "man's inner woman" - Animus - a "woman's inner man" - Shadow - unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness 3 dichotomies of personality: - Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I) - Sensing (S) vs. Intuiting (N) - Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)

ligaments, tendons, cartilage, joints

ligaments: attach bones to other bones tendons: attach bones to muscle cartilage: firm and elastic, chondrin matrix joints: immovable or movable, synovial capsule filled with synovial fluid secreted by synovium (strengthened by ligaments)

dissacharides

sucrose: glucose-alpha-1,2 fructose lactose: galactose-beta-1,4-glucose maltose: glucose-alpha-1,4-glucose

molar solubility

molarity of a solute in a saturated solution

Roles of hindbrain structures (4)

reticular formation: alertness and motivation; circulation, respiration, digestion (involved in the reticular activation system) cerebellum: movement control, posture, balance, speech control (mouth movement), motor learning pons: regulates waking and relaxing medulla oblongata: regulates autonomic activity of heart and lungs

Norms, Mores, and Folkways

norms: determine the boundaries of acceptable behavior within a society mores: informal norms with major importance for society folkways: informal norms that are less significant but shape everyday behavior

Memory interference

retroactive: new memories make you forget old memories proactive: old memories interfere with learning new memories

Process of rods/cones firing

rods have rhodopsin, cones have photopsin

Visual pathway

rods/cones --> bipolar cells --> ganglion cells --> horizontal/amacrine cells (integrates signals and performs edge sharpening) --> optic nerves --> optic chiasm --> optic tracts --> lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) --> visual radiations --> visual cortex

exchange mobility

the exchange of positions on the socioeconomic scale such that talented people move up the economic hierarchy while the less talented move down classes retain a relatively static number of people

Blood flow in renal portal system

renal artery --> afferent arterioles --> glomeruli --> efferent arteriole --> vasa recta (surrounds nephron) --> renal vein

Field Lines

represent electric field vectors for a charge, show activity of a positive test charge stronger where lines are closer together

Research ethics

respect for persons, justice, beneficence equipoise = lack of knowledge about which arm of research study is better for the subject

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste or vision influences balance

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

Assimilation

the process by which an immigrant or minority takes up elements of mainstream culture a specific type of socialization requires a person to have had an original culture

Socialization

the process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one's society

Power

the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred measured in watts (N*m/s) W/t or E/t could also be F*v

Grahm's Law of Effusion

the rates of effusion/diffusion of gases at the same temperature and pressure are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molar masses

efficiency

the ratio of the machine's work output to the work input when nonconservative forces are taken into account ideally efficiency would be 1, but it is always less than 1

Base rate fallacy

using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information - a type of representativeness heuristic

Pressure and Flow in the Circulatory System

v = Q/A = cardiac output/cross-sectional area deltaP (mean arterial pressure) = Q x R = cardiac output x total peripheral resistance CO = HR x SV

steroids

4 rings (3 cyclohexane and 1 cyclopentane) derived from cholesterol or triterpenes

Avogadro's Number

6.02 x 10^23

Plank's Constant

6.626 x 10^-34

Ideal Gas Constant

8.314 J/(mol*K) or 0.0821 Latm/molK

Quinones

-phenols treated with oxidizing agents -Named by indicating the position of the carbonyls numerically & adding quinone to the name of parent phenol -Serve as electron acceptors in ETC - Vitamin K

Pressure conversions

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 10^5 Pa = 15 psi

Standard conditions vs STP

1 atm, 1M Standard: T= 298, STP (gas law calculations): T=273

Alcohol Reactions

1) Oxidation - Primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes by PCC or oxidized to carboxylic acids by stronger oxidizing agents - Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to ketones by any oxidizing agent 2) Mesylation (S03) or Tosylation (PhSO3) produces better leaving groups 3) React with aldehydes and ketones to produce (hemi)acetals and (hemi)ketals 4) React with anhydrides to produce esters

Carboxylic acid reactions

1) Oxidation: may be formed by the oxidation of 1' alcohols or aldehydes OR the oxidation of 1' or 2' alkyl groups (alkyl halide, alkly nitrile, or alkyl benzene) both with STRONG oxidizing agents 2) Reduction: may be reduced by STRONG reducing agents to produce 1' alcohols, aldehylde intermediates are formed by then reduced to alcohol 3) Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution - reacts with ammonia/amine to form amides (strongly acidic or basic conditions), alcohols to form esters, and carboxylic acids to form anhydrides 4) Decarboxylation: occurs with beta-dicarboxylic acids, releasing CO2 when heated 5) Saponification

Reactivity Principles (Chemistry)

1) Steric hinderance 2) Induction: uneven distribution of charge across a sigma bond due to differences in electronegativity 3) Conjugation - can stabilize transition states 4) Ring strain

Phase Solubility Rules

1) The solubility of solids in liquids tends to increase with increasing temperature. 2) The solubility of gases in liquids tends to decrease with increasing temperature. 3) The solubility of gases in liquids tends to increase with increasing pressure.

acetyl-CoA formation

1) fatty acid oxidation 2) ketones 3) ketogenic amino acids 4) alcohol 5) pyruvate (glucose)

Speed of sound in air

340 m/s increases as temperature increases

metabolic states

cardiac muscle: uses fatty acid oxidation

Saponification

catalyzed by base, form ionic fatty acids

complex ions

cation (lewis acid) bonded to at least one ligand (lewis base) held together with coordinate covalent bonds increases solubility

polysaccharides

cellulose: 1,4 linked beta, D-glucose starch: 1,4 linked alpha, D glucose - amylose = unbranced, amylopectin = branched glycogen: 1,4 linked alpha D glucose

Piaget Stages of Development

centration: common to preoperational stage, tendency to focus on one salient aspect of a situation and neglect other, possibly relevant aspects (e.g., with the conservation tasks); egocentrism may be causal to centration

Language Development Stages

cooing, babbling, one-word speech, telegraphic speech, whole sentences - naming explosion: 18-20 months, rapid increase in vocabulary - overextension: applying a term for one class of objects to other objects that bear only a superficial resemblance - bootstrapping: initial stages of grammatical development (e.g., using grammar knowledge to learn the meaning of words)

heterochromatin vs. euchromatin

HeteroChromatin = Highly Condensed (transcriptionally inactive) euchromatin = less condensed, transcriptionally active

Glial cells

astrocytes: blood brain barrier (tight junctions) ependymal cells: barrier between cerebral spinal fluid and interstitial fluid of CNS microglia: digest waste in CNS oligodendrocytes: CNS, make myelin Schwann Cells: PNS, make myelin

ketogenesis and ketolysis

Ketogenesis: favored by a prolonged fast and occurs in the liver, stimulated by increasing concentrations of acetyl-CoA Ketolysis: favored during prolonged fasting, but is stimulated by low-energy state in muscle and brain tissue and does not occur in the liver

Principal, Azimuthal, Magnetic, and Spin Quantum Numbers

Principal = e- energy level/shell number (n = 1, 2, 3, ...) Azimuthal = 3D shape of orbital = s, p, d, f, g (l = 0 to n-1) Magnetic = orbital sub-type (ml = -l to +1) Spin = electron spin (-1/2 to +1/2)

Identifying Redox Reactions (5 signs)

Production of H2 gas Combustion with oxygen Metal reacts with a non-metal Change in oxidation number Single-displacement reaction

Meiosis (important events at cell stages)

Prophase I: crossing over occurs Metaphase I: homologues line up at metaphase plate Anaphase I: homologues separate (nondisjunction could occur here) Telophase I: nuclear membrane may reform, cytokinesis may be uneven Prophase II: NO crossing over, centrosomes move to opposite poles Metaphase II: sister chromatids line up Anaphase II: chromatids separate and become chromosomes (nondisjunction could occur here) Telophase II: four 1n cells are formed

Self-Schemas

beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

4 tenets of medical ethics

beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for patient autonomy, justice

Periodic trends (Z_eff, IE, EA, EN, AS)

Z_eff = pull between nucleus and valance e-, increases moving to the right = # of protons - # shielding (non-valence) electrons Ionization energy = energy required to remove an electron, first IE always requires more than the second Electron affinity = energy released when an electron is added (negative delta H, but reported as a positive value), noble gases have no EA Electronegativity = force the atom exerts on an e- in a bond Atomic size = only trend moving down and to the left, cations are smaller than anions

Hydrazone formation

[H+], NH2NH2, -H2O

Coordinate covalent bonds

a covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons found in lewis acid-base chemistry and coordination complexes between metals (lewis acid) and ligands (lewis bases)

Diatomic Gases

a gas that is only found in pairs (H, N, O, F, CL, Br, I)

Entropy

a measure of the degree to which energy has been spread through out a system or between a system and its surroundings maximized at equilibrium

Enthalpy

a measure of the potential energy of a system found in intermolecular attractions and chemical bonds moving from solid to liquid to gas is endothermic (+H and +S) because gases have more heat energy than solids moving from gas to liquid to solid is exothermic (-H and -S) because these reactions release heat

demographic transition

a model used to represent drops in birth and death rates as a result of industrialization

Position of different elements on the periodic table

alkali metals alkali earth metals metalloids (semimetals) halogens nobel gases

Self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Amphoteric vs amphiprotic vs amphipathic

amphoteric = behave as an acid or a base amphiprotic = can behave as a bronsted-lowry acid or base amphipathic = having hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts

Michael Addition

an enolate attacks an alpha,beta-unsaturated carbonyl, creaing a bond

Humoral Immune System

antibody production by B-cells, labeled for destruction via opsonization or cause agglutination - produced and mature in bone marrow, activated in spleen or lymph node - hypermutation produces different isotypes of antibodies - memory B-cells produce secondary response - plasma B-cells produce antibodies

Reducing Sugar

any monosaccharide with a hemiacetal ring can be oxidized to give a positive Tollen's or Benedict's test sucrose is a non-reducing sugar

Three types of conflict

approach-approach: trying to decide between two desirable options avoidance-avoidance: deciding between two equally undesirable choices approach-avoidance: deciding to pursue or avoid something with advantages and disadvantages

FINER Method

assesses the value of a research question on the basis of whether or not it is feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant

taxonomic rank

"King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain" Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Calculating the number of possible stereoisomers

# = 2^n But may have to account for impossibility of some structures if there are multiple rings in the structure

Concentration Measurements (% by mass, mole fraction, molarity, molality, normality, dilutions)

% by mass = (mass solute/mass solution) x 100% mole fraction = moles solute/total moles molarity = moles solute/L solution molality = moles solute/kg solvent normality = equivalents/L solution M1V1 = M2V2

Transverse vs. Longitudinal Waves

*transverse* wave particles move in a direction perpendicular to the direction that the wave propagates (EM radiation) *longitudinal* wave particles move in the same direction that the wave propagates (sound)

Neurotransmitter Roles: - Acetylcholine - Dopamine - Endorphins & Enkephalins - Epinephrine & Norepinephrine - GABA - Glutamate - Glycine - Serotonin

- Acetylcholine: muscle contraction in the somatic nervous system, PSNS, SNS (prior to final junction, which is Nor); arousal, attention, memory, and motivation in the brain - Dopamine: smooth movements and steady posture; involved in reward, pleasure, and compulsion/addiction - Endorphins & Enkephalins: pain killers, euphoria - Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: wakefulness, sympathetic response - GABA and glycine: inhibitory, brain "stablizer" - Glutamate: excitatory, involved in memory (NMDA receptor) - Serotonin: modulates mood, aggression, sleep/eating, eating

Ubiquinone

- Biologically active quinone, coenzyme Q (electron acceptor in photosynthesis and aerobic respiration) - Reduced to ubiquinol upon the acceptance of electrons. - Long alkyl chain = lipid soluble = act as an electron carrier within the phospholipid bilayer. - Involved with complexes I, II, and III of ETC

Famous Psychological Researchers: - Franz Gall - Pierre Flourens - William James - John Dewey - Paul Broca - Hermann von Helmholtz - Sir Charles Sherrington

- Franz Gall: phrenology - Pierre Flourens: used extirpation to study parts of the brain and their function - William James: Father of American psychology, functionalism (how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment) - John Dewey: functionalism - Paul Broca: studied people with lesions in specific brain regions - Hermann von Helmholtz: speed of impulse, psychology as a science - Sir Charles Sherrington: inferred existence of synapses

peptide bond formation

- a dehydration reaction (releases water) where the nucleophilic amino group of one amino acid attacks the electrophilic carbonyl group of another amino acid - amide bonds have limited rotation due to resonance producing a partial double bond character

sociological theories: - functionalism - conflict theory - symbolic interactionism - microsociology - macrosociology - ethnographic methods - social epidemiology - social constructionism - rational choice theory - expectancy theory

- macrosociology: large scale trends, widespread social processes -- functionalism: function of each part of society, manifest (deliberate) and latent (unexpected) functions, social solidarity -- conflict theory: Marx, power differentials contribute to maintaining social order/inequality/control, bourgeoisie and proletariat -- ethnographic methods: systematic observation of a complete social environment -- social epidemiology: focuses on social determinants of health/disease -- social constructionism: how individuals and groups make decisions about a social reality, "value" placed on social constructs - microsociology: small, individual components of a society (e.g., face-to-face interviews) -- symbolic interactionism: how individuals interact through understanding the "meaning" of symbols, social practices, and rituals (how they influence action, how they are formed, how they change); related to social influences on an individual's development of self/identity (Mead and Blumer) - rational choice theory: individuals make decisions that maximize benefit and minimize harm - expectancy theory: rational choices applied to group rewards and punishments

Cell-mediated (Cytotoxic) Immune System

- produced in bone marrow, mature in thymus - directly kill infected cells -- (helper) CD4+ T-cells respond to MHC-II antigens, secrete lymphokines (Th1 = IFG, Th2 = activate B-cells, parasite) -- (cytotoxic) CD8+ T=cells respond to MHC-I and kill virally infected cells -- suppressor T-cells down regulate immune response, promote self-tolerance -- memory T-cells - positive selection = mature only T-cells that can respond to the presence of antigen on MHC - negative selection = kill T-cells that are self-reactive

Ultraviolet Spectroscopy

- used to study conjugated systems - measures the absorbance of UV light, which causes movements of electrons between molecular orbitals - increased conjugation decreases the energy difference between the HOMO and the LUMO, allowing for absorption at lower energies into the UV or even visible light range

Theories of intelligence

-General intelligence (Spearman): verbal, spatial, numerical, mechanical abilities compose general g factor -Primary mental abilities (Thurnstone): spatial ability, perceptual ability, numerical ability, verbal comprehension, word fluency, memory, reasoning -Multiple intelligences (Gardner): linguistic, logical/mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential -Triarchic (Sternberg): analytical, creative, and practical intelligence - emotional intelligence: ability to perceive, express, understand, and manage one's emotions

amino acid titration

-amino acids pass through at least two buffering stages, one at each pKa -when titrated with base, carboxyl groups lose protons first, then amino groups -two moles of base must be added in order to deprotonate one mole of most amino acids (one for carboxyl group, one for amino group) -the buffering capacity of the amino acid is greatest at or near the two dissociation constants; at isoelectric point, its buffering capacity is minimal

Meso compounds

-has chiral centers -overall molecule is achiral -have internal plane of symmetry -not optically active --> don't rotate plane polarized light -each chiral center rotates light in opposite directions so overall the rotations cancel out

Hydroxyquinones

-have 2 carbonyls and a variable number of hydroxyl groups -named by indicating the position of the OH group with a number & indicating the total number of OH groups by a prefix (di- or tri-) with the substituent name hydroxyl- (ex: 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone) - To convert phenols to hydroxyquinones, they must be converted to quinones to an oxidation step first and then another oxidation is required to further oxidize the quinones (total of 2 oxidation steps)

Acid naming

-ic have more oxygen -ous have fewer oxygen

Infrared Spectroscopy

-measures absorption of infrared light, which causes molecular vibration (stretching, bending, twisting, and folding) -% transmittance vs. wavenumber (1/wavelength) -to appear on an IR spectrum, vibration of a bond must change the bond dipole moment (i.e., not symmetrical) -useful for determining functional groups on a molecule

terpenes

-metabolic precursors to steroids and other lipid signaling molecules -odiferous chemicals -grouped according to the # of isoprene units present -a single terpene consists of 2 isoprene units

Urea cycle

-occurs in the liver -primary way of removing excess nitrogen from the body

contraction of muscle cell (from neural signaling)

1. Action potential arrives at axon terminal of motor neuron 2. V-gated Ca2+ channels open; Ca2+ enters axon terminal and causes release of ACh to synapse 3. ACh binds to ligand-gated Na+ channels on the sarcolemma (motor end plate) 4. Na+ moves into the cell and K+ moves out (more Na+ moves in than K+ out, depolarizing the cell) 5. AP travels along sarcolemma and through T-tubules 6. SR releases Ca2+ through voltage-gated channels 7. Ca2+ binds to troponin, causing a shift in tropomyosin to expose the myosin-binding site of the actin filament 8. Contraction begins 9. Process is reversed when acetylcholinesterase degrades ACh

Process of Early Development

1. Fertilization 2. Morula 3. Blastula (implants in endometrium, hollow, ICM = organism, trophoblast = chorion/placenta) 4. Gastrulation (invagination forms endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm) 5. Nerulation (mesoderm = notocord, ectoderm = neural folds --> neural crest cells - PNS and neural tube - CNS)

Seven Universal Emotions

1. Happiness 2. Sadness 3. Contempt 4. Surprise 5. Fear 6. Disgust 7. Anger

Lens equations

1/i + 1/o = 1/f = 2/r = P m = -i/o

Average molecular weight of an amino acid

110 Da

Volume of 1 mol gas

22.4 L at STP

Speed of Light

3.00 x 10^8 m/s

Conductivity

A material's ability to allow heat or electric charges to flow. conductivity = 1/resistivity

Strecker synthesis

A method of synthesizing amino acids that uses condensation between an aldehyde and hydrogen cyanide, followed by hydrolysis.

Allosteric affector

A molecule or other agent that alters enzyme function by changing its shape. May display cooperativity - positive affectors: increase activity - negative affectors: decrease activity - homotropic effector: allosteric regulator that is also the substrate (e.g., O2) - heterotropic effector: an allosteric regulator that is different from the substrate

Life course perspective

A multidisciplinary approach to understanding an individual's mental, physical and social health. Done by analyzing people's lives through social, structural, and cultural contexts with a focus on life stages.

heme

A porphyrin ring with Fe in the center

types of enzyme inhibition

A: competitive - inhibitor binds to the active site - Km increases and Vmax is the same B: uncompetitive - inhibitor binds only to ES complex - Km decreases and Vmax decreases C: mixed - inhibitor binds unequally to ES and E - prefers E: Km increases and Vmax decreases - prefers ES: Km decreases and Vmax decreases D: noncompetitive - inhibitor binds equally to ES and E - Km remains the same and Vmax decreases irreversible inhibition: alters the enzyme in such a way that the active site is unavailable for a prolonged duration or permanently suicide inhibitor: a substrate analogue that binds irreversibly to the active site via a covalent bond

Feeding behavior hormones

ADH and aldosterone - sensation of thirst CCK and leptin - feeling full glucagon, ghrelin, and orexin - feeling hungry

Reactions going against the trends for nucleophilic acyl substitution

Acid halide synthesis from a carboxylic acid (SOCl2 or PBr3) Anhydride synthesis from a carboxylic acid (heat)

Affinal, Consanguineal, Collateral Kin

Affinal: related by choice (e.g., through marriage) Consanguineal: related by blood Collateral: siblings, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews

Oxime formation

Aldehyde + hydroxylamine/Acid

Gibb's Free Energy

Also, delta G = delta H - T*delta S - = exergonic (spontaneous) + = endergonic (non-spontaneous) NOTE: can use partial pressures to calculate Keq and Q for ideal gases

Retrovirus

An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses. e.g., HIV

Memory-based diseases/disorders

Alzheimers: dementia and memory loss related to decreased acetylcholine, tau and B-amyloid aggregates, and neural atrophy Korsakoff's syndrome: memory loss/confabulation caused by thiamine deficiency Agnosia: inability to process sensory information

Gabriel Synthesis

An amino acid is generated from phthalimide (nucleophile) and diethyl bromomalonate, using two SN2 reactions, hydrolysis, and decarboxylation.

Tautomer

An isomer that differs from another by the placement of a proton and a double bond

Type theories (4)

Ancient Greek humors: black bile, yellow bile, blood phlegm Sheldon's somatotypes: ectomorph, mesomorph, endomorph Type A/B Myers-Briggs

Acid and Base Definitions

Arrhenius acid = produces H+ Arrhenius base = produces OH- Bronsted-Lowry Acid = produces H+ Bronsted-Lowry Base = accepts H+ Lewis Acid = accepts e- Lewis Base = donates e- all Arrhenius acids/bases are Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases are Lewis acids/bases

arteries vs veins vs capillaries

Arteries: Thick-walled, muscular, elastic, recoil propels blood forward Veins: thin walled, inelastic, stretch, and are not under pressure; contain valves to prevent back flow Capillaries: overall resistance is low so blood flows very slowly, allowing time for oxygen and nutrients to leave blood vessels and enter body tissues; endothelium is one cell thick

Heuristics (3)

Availability heuristic: decision made based on how easily similar instances can be imagined Confirmation bias: focus on information that fits your belief while rejecting information that goes against those beliefs Representativeness heuristic: making judgements based on the similarity of an object or person to an established persona

Sleep waves

B = awake, alert, concentrating A = drowsy T = Stage 1, light sleep T + sleep spindles + K complexes = Stage 2, deeper sleep, decreased HR, BR, T D = slow wave sleep, GH released mostly B = REM, mind appears awake on EEG, memory condensation 90 min cycle, 1-2-3-2-REM

B vitamins

B1: thiamine (involved in binding 2-C product of pyruvate dehydrogenase) B2: riboflavin (involved in flavoproteins of ETC) B3: niacin B5: pantothenic acid (cofactor for fatty acid synthase) B6: pyridoxal phosphate B7: biotin (cofactor in fatty acid oxidation - propinoyl CoA carboxylation, pyruvate carboxylase, and acetyl-CoA carboxylase) B9: folic acid B12: cyanocobalamin (cofactor in fatty acid oxidation - methylmalonyl mutase used to produce succinyl-CoA from propinoyl CoA)

Roles of Forebrain structures (6 main, 4 lobes)

Basal ganglia: smooth movement, posture, reward Thalamus: relay station for sensory information Hypothalamus: homeostasis, hunger, hormones (SNS, sex, stress) Amygdala: fear, anxiety, and aggression Hippocampus: converts STM to LTM, memory storage Cerebral Cortex: - Primary cortex: basic motor and sensory functions - Associative cortex: associates different types of information for more complex processing/function - Frontal lobe: reasoning, planning, speech production (Broca's), movement, problem solving, impulse control - Parietal lobe: orientation, proprioception, perception of stimuli (somatosensory cortex - touch, pressure, temp, pain) - Temporal lobe: auditory stimuli, memory, language comprehension (Wernicke's), emotion - Occipital lobe: visual processing

Snell's Law

Bends towards normal when moving to a higher n

Bonding vs Antibonding Orbitals

Bonding orbitals: created by overlap of atomic orbitals of the same sign (less energy, more stable) Antibonding orbitals: created by overlap of atomic orbitals of opposite signs (increased energy, less stable)

Excretory pathway

Bowman's space → proximal convoluted tubule → descending limb of the loop of Henle → ascending loop of the loop of Henle → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct → renal pelvis → ureter → bladder → urethra

Vesicle transport and cisternal maturation hypotheses

COPII: moves forward COPI: moves back

Acetal/Ketal Formation

Can be reversed (deprotected) by reacting with catalytic acid

Imide, Anhydride, Imine, Enamine, Amide, Carbamate

Carbamate: C=O attached to N (amide) and O (ester)

Nucleophile Properties

Carry lone pairs or pi bonds High electronegativity Negative charge

citric acid cycle regulation

Citrate synthase: - inhibitors: ATP, NADH, Citrate, Succinyl-CoA - activator: ADP Isocitrate dehydrogenase: RATE LIMITING - inhibitors: ATP, NADH - activators: ADP and NAD+ α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex - inhibitors: succinyl-CoA, NADH, ATP - activator: ADP and Ca++

Cohesive vs adhesive forces

Cohesion: molecules will more likely bind to each other Adhesion: molecules will repel each other (adhere to their container)

Equipotential Lines

Concentric circles emanating from a source charge that cross its electric field lines perpendicularly. No work is required for a test charge to travel along the circumference of an equipotential line because the potential at every point along that line is the same

Charge distribution conductor/insulator

Conductors contain both atom-bound electrons and free electrons. Free electrons arrange themselves on the surface of conductors, and their collective electric field produced inside the conductor cancels any external electric field. The resulting electric field inside the conductor is zero.

Conservative vs. Nonconservative Forces

Conservative forces are path independent and do not dissipate the mechanical energy of a system (e.g., gravity and electrostatic forces) Nonconservative forces are path dependent and cause dissipation of ME from a system (e.g., friction, air resistance, viscous drag)

Units of charge, current, voltage, ohm, electrical power

Coulomb: C = A*s or A*hr Ampere: C/s Volts: W/A or J/C = (kg m^2)/(s^3 A) Watt: J/s Ohm: V/A

Fat soluble vitamins and roles

D: cholecalciferol, bone formation E: tocopherols, antioxidants A: carotene, vision (formed from terpenes) K: phylloquinone & menaquinones, forms prothrombin (clotting factor)

Kidney nephron

DCT = responsive to aldosterone Collecting duct = responsive to ADH and aldosterone

Deductive vs. inductive reasoning

Deductive (top down)- Starting with general rules and drawing specific conclusions from them - always true Inductive (bottom up)- Generalizing from specific instances - may be true

Consciousness-Altering Drugs

Depressants: alcohol, barbituates, benzodiazepines (increase GABA) Stimulants: amphetamines, cocaine, ecstacy (increase dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin) Opiates and Opioids: heroin, morphine, oxycodone, opium, hydrocodone (cause death by respiratory depression, endorphin agonist) Hallucinogens: LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine (serotonin) Marijuana: depressant and stimulant and hallucinogen Ecstacy: stimulant and hallucinogen

Biological Basis for Depression, Schizophrenia, Bipolar disorder, Parkinsons, and Alzheimer's

Depression: increased glucocorticoids, decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine Schizophrenia: increased dopamine, genetics, hypoxia in birth, marijuana use Bipolar disorders: increased norepinephrine and serotonin, genetics Alzheimers: genetics, brain atrophy, decreased acetyl choline, senile plaques Parkinson's: decreased dopamine in basal ganglia

Vygotsky theory of cognitive development

Development of cognition is strongly influenced by social interaction, culture shapes development and hence there is no universal process (unlike Piaget) Includes Zone of Proximal development: the skills a child has not yet mastered and require a more knowledgeable other to accomplish Scaffolding: adult provides a strategy/structure to help child succeed

Diamagnetic vs. Paramagnetic vs. Ferromagnetic

Diamagnetic = all electrons are paired, repelled by an external magnetic field Paramagnetic = one or more unpaired electrons, pulled into an external magnetic field Ferromagnetic = possess some unpaired electrons and become strongly magnetic in an external magnetic field

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative amnesia Dissociative fugue Dissociative identity disorder Depersonalization/Derealization disorder: feeling detached from the mind and body or environment

criterion of abnormality

Distress: does the behavior demonstrate unusual or prolonged levels of stress Maladaptiveness (Dysfunction): does the behavior negatively impact the person's life or pose a threat to others Statistical deviancy (Deviance): is the behavior statistically rare Violation of social norms (Deviance): does the behavior violate social norms Danger: does the behavior put self or others at risk

preventing mutations in DNA

During synthesis: proofreading - part of the DNA polymerase molecule is designed to detect the unstable hydrogen bonds of a mismatched base pair and replace the base with the correct one Directly after synthesis (G2): mismatch repair - enzymes detect and remove mismatched bases or polymerase slips/deletions Other times: - nucleotide excision repair: specific to mutations that distort the DNA double helix (buldges in strand - thiamine dimers, mismatched base pairs) - base excision repair: the affected base is removed by a glycosylase enzyme (specific for certain mismatches, such as deaminated cytosine) - double-stranded break repair

Sleep disorders

Dyssomnias: difficulty to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep (narcolepsy, insomnia, sleep apnea) Parasomnias: abnormal movement or behaviors (night terrors, sleep walking)

Rhydberg Equations

E = -Rh/n^2 E = -Rh(1/ni^2 - 1/nf^2) Rh = 2.18 x 10^-18 J/e-

Electronics Equations (Force, Field, Energy, Potential)

E = F/q U = F x r V = U/q = E x r

Capacitor Equations (7)

E = V/d (electric field in a capacitor) C = Q/V U = 1/2 C V^2 (potential energy of a capacitor) C = e0 x A/d where e0 = 8.85 x 10^-12 C2/Nm^2 C' = kC In series: 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + ... In parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2 + ...

Light energy equations (Plank)

E = hf E = (hc)/lambda

Electric Dipole (E, t, V equations)

E = kp/r^3 t = pEsin(theta) in an external electric field, an electric dipole will experience a net torque until it is aligned with the electric field vector an electric field will not induce any translational motion in the dipole regardless of its orientation with respect to the electric field vector

Methods of Brain Imaging/Studying

EEG: show brain activity by measuring brain waves with electrodes PET: use radioactive glucose to show where neural firing is occurring CT: uses X-rays for quick viewing of brain injuries MRI: uses magnetic fields to align hydrogen protons, creating images of brain structure; fMRI is a special form of MRI that measures changes in neural activity TMS: uses an electromagnet to disrupt neural processing, creating a temporary "lesion"

endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm

Ectoderm: lining of skin, hair/nails, mouth/anus, nervous system, adrenal medulla Endoderm: lining of digestive track, respiratory system, bladder Mesoderm: Notochord, skeletal system, muscular system, reproductive system, circulatory system, lining of body cavity, adrenal cortex, kidneys

VESPR Theory

Electronic geometry = bonded and lone pairs treated the same Molecular shape = lone pairs take up less space than a bond to another atom Key bond angles = linear (180), trigonal planar (120), tetrahedral (109.5), trigonal bipyramidal (90 & 120), octahedral (90)

Nucleophilic Addition Reactions

Elimination will not occur without a good leaving group Hydration reaction: water adds to a carbonyl to form a geminal diol (catalyzed by acid or base) Aldehyde + Alcohol: forms (hemi)acetals or (hemi)ketals based on the number of equivalents of alcohol Nitrogen + Carbonyl: forms imines, oximes, hydrazones, and semicarbozones HCN + Carbonyl: forms cyanohydrins

Power in Electronics

Energy by a voltage source: E = IV Power dissapated by resistors: P = I^2R = V^2/R

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. +Q = heat added, -Q = heat lost +W = work done by system = expansion -W = work done on system = compression

Skin layers

Epidermis: - stratum corneum: multiple thin layers of flat keratinocytes - stratum lucidum: only thick, hairless skin - stratum granulosum: keratinocytes die - stratum spinosum: langerhans cells (resident macrophages) - stratum basale: stem cells produce keratinocytes, melanocytes Dermis: - papillary layer: loose connective tissue, dermal papillae extend into epidermis - reticular layer: dense connective tissue, hair roots, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, blood vessels Hypodermis: fat and connective tissue, connects skin to body

Equivalent mass, gram equivalent weight, normality

Equivalent mass = mass of an acid that yields 1 mol of H+ or OH- GEW = molar mass/mols H+ or e- Normality = molarity x n

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.

Sprin/elastic potential energy

F = -kx E or W = 1/2kx^2

Common electronegativities and use in determining bond character

F = 4 O = 3.5 N = 3 C = 2.5 H = 2 0 - 0.5 is non-polar covalent 0 - 1.7 is polar covalent 1.7+ is ionic Electronegativity order = F, O, N, Cl, Br, I, S, C, H

Female reproductive hormones

FSH: stimulates development of ovarian follicles and release of estrogen LH: induces ovulation estrogen: develops reproductive tract, thickens uterine wall progesterone: maintains endometrium hCG: maintains corpus luteum after fertilization for production of progesterone and estrogen until placenta is formed

Tips for remembering polyatomic anions

First row on the periodic table, moving across: B (-3), C (-2), N (-1) Second row and below: Si (-2), P (-3), S (-2), Cl (-1) Exceptions: Cr (-2) and Mn (per = -1, no per = -2) P, S, As, and Se plus Cr and Mn have -ate indicating O4 All else have -ate indicating three

Formation of Esters

Fischer esterification (methanol and dry acid) OR reaction of a carboxylate with an alkyl halide (SN2 reaction) Transesterification: exchange of one esterifying group for another

Fusion vs Fission

Fission = small nuclei combine into larger nuclei Fusion = larger nuclei splits into smaller nuclie Energy released in both processes

Fatty acid synthesis

Five steps: activation, bond formation, reduction, dehydration, reduction

Acyl group names

Formyl = 1C Acetyl = 2C (acetylation means attaching RC=O group) Propyl = 3C Butyl = 4C Valer = 5C Benzyl = ring with 1C substituent (=O attached to substituent for carbonyl groups)

Gravitational Force

G = 6.7 x 10^-11

Cell Cycle

G0: entered by cell if it does not need to divide G1 checkpoint: cell decides if it should divide, p53 regulated G2 checkpoint: cell checks size and organelles and DNA replication

Glut 2 vs. Glut 4

GLUT 2: found in liver and pancreas, high Km GLUT 4: found in adipose tissue and muscle, increased when insulin is present, low Km

Gram stain

Gram + = purple = thick peptidoglycan/lipteichoic acid cell wall Gram - = pink/red = thinnk peptidoglycan cell wall and an outer membrane

Gravity vs. Vacuum filtration

Gravity = filtrate is of interest Vacuum = solid is the desired product

Experiments to support DNA as genetic material

Griffith: demonstrated transformation of non-virulent strain to virulent Avery-MacLeod-McCarty: degradation of DNA led to cessation of bacterial transformation, degradation of proteins did not Hershey-Chase: radiolabeled DNA (P) vs protein (S)

Hess's Law

H reaction = heat of formation of products - reactants For bond dissociation energies, take H reactants - H products (only case where reactants come first)

Fetal circulation

HbF has a higher affinity for O2 than HbA Umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood away from fetal heart Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood to the fetal heart Foramen ovule: RA --> LA (skip lungs) Ductus arteriosus: pulmonary artery --> aorta (skip lungs) Ductus venosus: umbilical vein --> inferior vena cava (skip liver)

Heat and Temperature definitions

Heat = the transfer of energy that results from differences of temperature (hot -> cold) Temperature = scaled measure of average kinetic energy of a substance

Relative solubility/boiling point of functional groups

Highest solubility and boiling point carboxylic acid alcohol ketone aldehyde ester ether alkane Lowest solubility and boiling point NOTE: more branched molecules are more soluble and have a lower boiling point

Hund's Rule, Pauli Exclusion Principle, Aufbau Principle

Hund's Rule = e- only double up in orbitals if all orbitals first have one e- Pauil = no two electrons can have the same quantum number Aufbau = electrons fill lower energy atomic orbitals before filling higher-energy ones

Galvanic, Electrolytic, and Concentration Cells

In all cells: anode is the site of oxidation and cathode is the site of reduction, electrons flow from anode to cathode, current flows from cathode to anode Galvanic cells: spontaneous reactions, -G, +E, negative anode, positive cathode Electrolytic cells: nonspontaneous reactions driven by an external voltage source, +G, -E, positive anode, negative cathode Concentration cells: both electrodes are made of the same material, G = E = 0

enzyme kinetics key values

INTRINSIC: Km: [S] at which and enzyme runs at half of its Vmax - increasing Km means a lower affinity - (k-1 + k2)/k1 kcat = Vmax/[Et], the turnover number or the number of reactions one enzyme can catalyze per second under optimal conditions catalytic efficiency: kcat/Km NOT INTRINSIC: Vmax: maximum rate at which an enzyme can catalyze a reaction, when all enzyme active sites are saturated with substrate, increases with increasing enzyme concentration SIDE NOTE: while the optimum pH varies greatly from enzyme to enzyme, the optimum temp is normally ~37C

Freud's Theory of Personality

Id: basic urges of survival and reproduction Superego: idealist and perfectionist Ego: mediator between the two and the conscious mind, employs defense mechanisms

Momentum

In elastic and inelastic collisions, momentum is conserved

Resistor Equations

In parallel: 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ... In series: Req = R1 + R2 + ...

Motivational Theories (8)

Instinct Theory: people perform certain behaviors because of their evolutionary programmed instincts Arousal theory: optimal performance requires optimal arousal Drive-Reduction: motivation arises from the desire to eliminate drives (internal states of tension that may be primary/biological or secondary/learned) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: higher needs only produce drives once lower ones are met Self-Determination: three universal needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness Incentive Theory: motivation is the desire to pursue reward and avoid punishment Expectancy-Value Theory: motivation for a task is based on the expectation of success and the value of that success Opponent-Process Theory: as drug increases, the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms

Internal vs external validity

Internal: extent to which we can say that the change in outcome variable (dependent) is due to intervention External: extent to which findings can be generalized to real world

Isolated, Closed, and Open Systems

Isolated: The system cannot exchange energy or matter with the surroundings Closed: The system can exchange energy but not matter with the surroundings Open: the system can exchange both energy and mater with the surroundings

Isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric, and isovolumetric/isochoric processes

Isothermal = constant temperature (U = 0) Adiabatic = constant heat (Q = 0) Isobaric = constant pressure Isovolumetric = constant volume (W = 0)

Hill coefficient

It describes the fraction of the macromolecule saturated by ligand as a function of the ligand concentration; it is used in determining the degree of cooperativeness of the ligand binding to the enzyme or receptor. n>1 positive cooperative binding n<1 negative cooperative binding n=1 noncooperative binding

James-Lange, Cannon-bard, Schachter-Singer theories of emotion

JL = Stimulus -> Arousal -> Emotion CB = Stimulus -> Arousal and Emotion -> Behavior SS = Stimulus -> Arousal and Appraisal -> Emotion

Formation or Stability Constant

Kf = the equilibrium constant for complex formation, usually much greater than Ksp

Ion product constant of water

Kw = Ka * Kb (for conjugate acids and bases) pH + pOH = 14 pKa + pKb = 14

stereochemistry of amino acids

L for all chiral amino acids (all except glycine) All chiral amino acids except cysteine have S configuration

Types of bateries, best to worst

Lead-acid (low energy density) Ni-Cd (higher energy density) NiMH (highest energy density)

Roles of each hemisphere

Left: language/vocabulary, logic, analytical thought, positive emotions Right: creativity (plus art and music), emotion processing, visuospatial processing, holistic thought, negative emotions each processes the other side for all but auditory stimuli

Cahn-Ingold-Prelog Priority Rules

Look at atoms connected to the chiral carbon or the double-bonded carbons, whichever has the highest atomic number gets highest priority Double-bonds: Z (highest priority on SAME side); E (highest priority on OPPOSITE sides) Stereocenters: R (right hand); S (left hand)

Magnetic Force

Lorentz force is the sum of the electrostatic and magnetic forces acting on a body

Mass number, atomic weight, atomic number, atomic mass

Mass number = number of protons + neutrons Atomic weight = atomic mass = weighted atomic average Atomic number = number of protons

Oxides

Metal oxides are ionic, basic or amphoteric compounds Nonmetal oxides are covalent, acidic compounds

Moderating vs Mediating vs Confounding variable

Moderator: influences the strength of the relationship between the IV and DV Mediator: the means by which the IV affects the DV Confounding: extraneous variable that relates to both the dependent and independent variables

Cyclohexane conformation and stability

Most stable in chair form - Axial = sticking up/down from the molecule's plane (least stable, especially for bulky groups) - Equatorial = in the plane of the molecule (most stable, especially for bulky groups)

Digestive Pathway

Mouth-oval cavity-pharynx-esophagus-cardial sphincter-stomach-pyloric sphincter-duodenum-jejunum-ileum-cecum-ascending colon-transverse colon-descending colon-rectum-anus

Ion Solubility Rules

NAP (nitrate - NO3-, acetate, perchlorate - ClO4-) SAG (sulfate - SO4, ammonium, group 1 and 17) Exceptions for S and G17 = PMS (Pb - lead, Mercury - Hg, and Silver - Ag)

Theories of Language Development

Nativist: language acquisition is innate (Chomsky, LAD) Empericist/behaviorist: language acquisition is controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement Social interactionist: language acquisition is caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others, with both biological and behavioral components

Innate immune system (5 non-cellular, 4 cellular)

Non-cellular --- Skin (defensins) Mucus: traps pathogens Lysozymes: antimicrobial in tears and saliva Complement system: holes in cell ways of bacteria, opsonization Interferons: interfere with viral replication and dispersion Cellular --- MHC-I: all nucleated cells, display endogenous antigen to CD8+ T-cells (cytotoxic/killer) MHC-II: professional antigen-presenting cells (macrophages, dendritic cells, some B-cells, activated epithelial cells); exogenous antigen displayed to helper CD4+ T-cells; release cytokines Natural killer cells: attack cells low on MHC, including virally infected cells and cancer cells Granulocytes: - neutrophils: activated by bacteria, conduct phagocytosis - eosinophil: activated by parasites and allergens, release histamines - basophil: activated by allergens, inhibit blood clotting, release histamines

Aldol Condensation

Nucleophile: enolate Electrophile: aldehyde or ketone Catalyzed by base Pro-tip: Determine reactants of aldol addition by "cleaving" the bond between the -COH carbon and the alpha carbon of the ketone and converting the ketone to an enol and the alcohol to a ketone/aldehyde

Oxidation number rules

O is commonly -2 except when bonded to F or in a peroxide (-1)

Four types of bacteria

Obligate Aerobe: requires O2 Obligate Anaerobe: dies in O2 Faculative Anaerobe: toggles between aerobic and anaerobic Aerotolerant Anaerobe:does not use O2 but tolerates it

Ideal Gas Law and Derivations

PV = nRT Avogadro's Principle: n/v = n/v Boyle's Law: PV = PV Charles's Law: V/T = V/T Gay-Lussac's Law: P/T = P/T Combined Gas Law: PV/T = PV/T

Naming ions (old and new method for monoatomic ions, oxyanions)

Old method for charge on monoatomic ions: -ous is less -ic is more Monoatomic ions: drop the ending of the name and add -ide Oxyanions: hypo- -ite -ate hyper- Adding hydrogens: put "hydrogen" or "bi" in front for one H put "dihydrogen" for two H

caspase

One of a group of proteases that catalyze cleavage of target proteins and are active in apoptosis.

Random order, Ordered, Ping-Pong

Ordered: the substrates for an enzyme catalyzed reaction bind in a particular order (e.g., E -> EA -> EB) Random order: the substrates can bind in any order (e.g., A or B could bind first) Ping-pong or double-displacement: substrates bind and are converted to product one at a time (e.g., A -> P then B -> Q) -- common examples include chymotrypsin, pyruvate carboxylase, and glutamate-aspartate aminotransferase

Structure of Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear (auditory pathway)

Outer ear: pinna (auricle) --> external auditory cannal --> tympanic membrane Middle ear: malleus (hammer) --> incus (anvil) --> stapes (stirrup) --> oval window Inner ear: cochlea --> organ of corti (--> round window) Nervous system: vestibulocochlear nerve (CN 8) --> medial geniculate nucleus --> auditory cortex

Oxidation, Reduction, Oxidizing agent (oxidant) and Reducing agent (reductant)

Oxidation = losing electrons Reduction = gaining electrons Oxidizing Agent = oxidizes another compound, it gets reduced; have two or more electronegative atoms bonded together Reducing Agent = reduces another compound, it gets oxidized

Aldehyde/Ketone Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation: produced from 1' and 2' alcohols, only weaker oxidizing agents (e.g., PCC) produce aldehydes Reduction: conversion to alcohols with any reducing agent

Trait theories (3)

PEN: psychoticism (nonconformity), extraversion (sociable), neuroticism (arousal in stressful situations) Big Five: OCEAN - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism 3 basic traits: cardinal traits (traits around which one organizes their lives), central traits (major characteristics of personality), secondary traits (more personal characteristics and limited in occurrence)

glycolysis and gluconeogenesis regulation (inhibitors/activators)

PEP carboxykinase: activated by glucagon and cortisol Fructose 1-6 bisphosphatase: activated by ATP, glucagon; inhibited by AMP, insuline, and fructose 2,6 bisphosphate

Density of a Gas

PM/RT

Components of Language

Phonology: sounds of speech Morphemes: smallest meaningful unit of words Syntax: sentence structure, rules of grammar Semantics: meaning of sentences/words Pragmatics: changes in language delivery/use depending on context

Electrophiles

Positive charge or polarization

Voltage

Potential difference the change in electrical potential that accompanies the movement of a test charge from one position to another V = Vb - Va = Wab/q

Brain organization (parts and development)

Prosencephalon/Forebrain: limbic system - Telencephalon: basal ganglia, cerebral cortex - Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus Mesencephalon/Midbrain: inferior and superior colliculi Rhombencephalon/Hindbrain: reticular formation - Metencephalon: cerebellum, pons - Myencephalon: medulla oblongata Brainstem: midbrain, pons, and medulla (neglects cerebellum)

Personality Perspectives (6)

Psychoanalytic Perspective: personality results from unconscious urges and desires (Freud, Jung, Adler, and Horney) Humanistic Perspective: emphasizes the internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive for happiness and self-realization (Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Roger's unconditional positive regard) Type & Trait Theory: personality can be described by identifiable traits that carry characteristic behaviors Social Cognitive Perspective: reciprocal determinism shapes personality Behaviorist Perspective: operant conditioning Biological Perspective: genetic expression

Heat transfer and phase change

Q = m x C x deltaT Q = m x L where L is the heat of transformation

Resistance (fluid and electronics)

R = pL/A where p is resistivity, L is length or resistor, and A is cross sectional area resistance also increases with temperature

blood pathway

R atrium --> tricuspid valve --> R ventricle --> pulmonary valve --> pulmonary artery --> lungs --> pulmonary veins --> L atrium --> mitral valve --> L ventricle --> aortic valve --> aorta --> arteries --> arterioles --> capillaries --> venules --> veins --> vena cavae --> R atrium

Nernst Equation (electrochemistry)

RT/F = 0.0592

Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution

Reactivity occurs in this order: acid chloride, anhydride, ester, amide, carboxylate (O-)

Potentiometric and Redox titrations

Redox titration: similar to acid-base titrations but follows a transfer of charge Potentiometric titration: a form of redox titration where a voltmeter measures the electromotive force, the equivalence point is determined by a sharp change in voltage

Venturi Effect

Reduction in pressure of a fluid resulting from the speed increase as fluids are forced to flow faster through narrow spaces.

Relative vs. Absolute Configuration

Relative: gives the stereochemistry of a compound in comparison to another compound (e.g., D- and L-) Absolute: gives the sterochemistry of a compound without having to compare to other compounds (e.g., S- and R-)

retrograde vs anterograde amnesia

Retrograde —> loss of previously formed memories Anterograde —> inability to form new memories

Retro-Aldol Reactions

Reverse of aldol condensation, catalyzed by head and a base Double bond is cleaved and gains a carbonyl group

Biases in research (6)

Selection bias: the sample differs from the population Detection bias: educated professionals use their knowledge in an inconsistent way be searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations Hawthorne effect: behavior of subjects is altered by knowing they are being studied Observer bias: includes detection bias and the Hawthorne effect, bias on the part of the researchers (e.g., not blinded) that influences the study results Social desirability bias (response bias): survey respondents answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others

Mead's Theory of Identity

Self begins as privileged, central position in a person's world "I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of the self "Me" is the part of the self that is formed in interaction with others and the general social environment

Male Reproductive System and Pathway

Seminiferous tubules: site of spermatogenesis, nourished by Sertoli cells (process stimulated by FSH) Epididymis: stores sperm, sperm gain motility Vas deferens: raise/lower testes, sperm transport Ejaculatory duct Urethra Penis Other organs: -bulbourethral glands: make viscous fluid to clean and lubricate urethra - prostate gland: make alkaline fluid to help sperm survive acidic environment - seminal vesicles: produce fluid with nutrients like fructose - interstitial cells of Leydig: stimulated by LH to produce testosterone

General adaptation syndrome

Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion Involves the sympathetic nervous system and endocrine system All stress generates the same general physical stress response

Maximum e- in shell and subshell

Shell = 2n^2 Subshell = 4l + 2

Sound speed

Sound propagates through all forms of mater: 1) Fastest through solids with low density, followed by liquids, and slowed through very dense gases. 2) Within a medium, as the density increases, the speed of the sound decreases. B = bulk modulus p = density

Southern, Northern, and Western Blotting

Southern: Detects specific DNA sequence - may be used to detect a RFLP (if so, write compliment of WT sequence, find restriction enzyme cut site, then look for mutants where this sequence is altered) Northern: Detects specific RNA sequence Western: Detects specific protein Autoradiography: may be used to visualize radioactive blots or other radioactive assays

Stop and start codons

Start: AUG Stop: UAA, UAG, UGA

Photoelectric Effect

The emission of electrons from a material when light of certain frequencies shines on the surface of the material threshold frequency = the minimum light frequency necessary to eject an electron work function = the minimum energy necessary to eject an electron from a given metal = hf_T maximum kinetic energy = hf -hf_T KE increases as frequency increases, but current remains the same Current (number of e- emitted) increases with light intensity, but KE remains the same

Validity and Reliability

Validity (accuracy): the quality of approximating the true value Reliability (precision): being consistent in approximations

World Systems Theory

Theory originated by Immanuel Wallerstein and illuminated by his three-tier structure, proposing that social change in the developing world is inextricably linked to the economic activities of the developed world. Core nations = more economically developed with strong governments and institutions Periphery nations = less economically developed with weak governments and institutions Semi-periphery countries = industrializing, mostly capitalist countries which are positioned between the periphery and core countries (e.g., Mexico, Brazil, China, South Africa)

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

Theory that distinguishes between two groups; communities (Gemeinschaften), which share beliefs, ancestry, or geography; and society (Gesellschaften), which work together toward a common goal

Lipoprotein pathways

VLDL: liver --> tissues IDL: transition particle (VLDL --> IDL --> VLDL) - CETP catalyzes transition of IDL to LDL by transfering cholesteryl esters from HDL LDL: cholesterol --> tissues HDL: cholesterol --> liver (exits body) - LCAT: catalyzes the formation of cholesteryl esters for transport with HDL

Mesolimbic pathway

VTA -> nucleus accumbens, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus involved in addiction/reward

Phase Change Diagram

Triple point = all three phases are in equilibrium Critical point = supercritical fluid = density of a gas is same as liquid

Different types of skeletal muscle (name, contraction speed, pathway of ATP production, diameter of muscle fiber, fatigue rate, number of mitochondria, amount of myoglobin, color, major storage fuel)

Type I (slow oxidative): low speed, aerobic, small diameter fiber (low force), low fatigue (hours), many mitochondria, high myoglobin, many capillaries, red, triglyceride storage - long distance events, marathon, posture Type IIA (fast oxidative): high speed, aerobic, medium diameter (medium force), medium fatigue (minutes), many mitochondria, high myoglobin, red-pink, glycocen and creatine phosphate (make fast oxidative) - medium distance, 400m Type IIB (fast glycolytic): fast contraction speed, anaerobic, large diameter (high force), fatigue quickly (seconds), few mitochondria and myoglobin (white), few capillaries, glycogen, creatine phosphate - sprinting, weight lifting Note: Force of fiber is proportional to its diameter

electron volt (eV)

Unit of energy equal to 1.6 x 10^-19 joules, used to quantify energy transfers on the atomic scale

Mass Spectroscopy

Used to determine the molecular weight and aid in determining molecular structure Base peak: tallest peak Molecular ion peak: highest peak, represents molecule M+1 peak: C13 M+2 peak: Br (1:1) or Cl (3:1)

Potential Energy/Work in Electronics

W = 1/2 x Q x V W = 1/2 x C x V^2

Work

W = Fdcos(theta) Wnet = Kf-Ki Work = P x delta V

Wernike's and Broca's area

Wernike's: language comprehension, temporal lobe, word salad Broca's: language production, frontal lobe, "broken" Arcuate fasciculus: connects the two, conduction aphasia (can't repeat words)

Signal Detection Theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

Circular motion

acceleration directed inward

Regulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation

activated: high ADP, low ATP inhibited: low O2, low ADP, high ATP

Three components of attitutdes

affective - emotional experience evoked by attitude object behavioral - responses when in the presence of the object cognitive - beliefs about the object

Neurons (afferent vs efferent)

afferent = sensory, receptors --> spinal cord, dorsal (back) efferent = motor, CNS --> muscles and glands, ventral (front)

House Money Effect

after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk

Learning theory of attitudes

attitudes are developed through forms of learning: direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning

Social cognitive theory of attitudes

attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, personal factors, and environment people change their behaviors or attitudes based on observation

Functional Attitudes Theory

attitudes exist to serve some function - knowledge, ego expression, adaptability, and ego defense

prostaglandins

autocrine and paracrine signaling molecules that regulate cAMP levels affect smooth muscle contraction, body temperature, sleep-wake cycle, fever, and pain

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

avoidance learning: negative reinforcement causing a behavior BEFORE the onset of a negative stimulus escape learning: negative reinforcement causing a behavior AFTER the onset of a negative stimulus

types of attachment

avoidant - caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child ambivalent - caregiver has inconsistent response disorganized - caregiver is erratic or abusive

basic and self construction models of expressing emotions

basic: universal emotions and expressions can be understood across cultures self construction: emotions soley based on situational context of social interactions

Inner ear structure

bony labyrinth (filled with perilymph) membranous labrynth (filled with endolymph): cochela, utricle and saccule (linear acceleration), semicircular canals (rotational acceleration and balance)

malate-aspartate shuttle

brings NADH into the mitochondria from the cytoplasm

Buffers and Buffering capacity

buffer = weak acid/base plus conjugate salt maximum buffering capacity is within 1 pH of the pKa

Cell adhesion molecules

cadherins: calcium-dependent glycoproteins that hold similar cells together integrins: two membrane spanning chains and permit cells to adhere to proteins in the extracellular matrix (WBC migration) selectins: allow cells to adhere to carbohydrates on the surfaces of other cells and are most commonly used in the immune system

electron transport chain

chemiosmosis: gradient created by ETC is used to power conformational/chemiosmotic changes that promote ATP synthesis

IUPAC Naming Conventions

cis-/trans- designate two identical groups as being on the same or opposite sides Z-/C- designates two groups with highest priority as being on the same or opposite side

Different types of isomers (and tree for designating)

cis/trans are geometric isomers

types of chromatography

column chromatography: uses beads of a polar compound (stationary phase) with a nonpolar solvent (mobile phase) - HPLC: uses high pressure to pass solvent phase through a more finely ground stationary phase, high resolving power gas chromatography: vaporizes liquid before separation, molecules separated based on polarity and boiling point (lower BP comes off first) ion-exchange chromatography: uses a charged column and a variably saline elutent size-exclusion or gel filtration chromatography: relies on porous beads, larger molecules elute first affinity chromatography: uses a bound receptor or ligand and an elutent with free ligand or a receptor for the protein of interest

Types of reactions

combustion = a fuel/hydrocarbon and O2 forming CO2 and H2O) plus hydrolysis = using H20 to break bonds in a molecule (vs. hydration = adding water to a compound, like across a chemical bond)

Bone components (compact, spongy, bone marrow, axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton)

compact bone: strength and density spongy bone: trabeculae lattices filled with bone marrow yellow bone marrow: fat red bone marrow: hematopoietic stem cells axial skeleton: skull, vertebral column, ribcage, hyoid bone appendicular skeleton: limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvis

conformity, compliance, and obedience

conformity: changing beliefs or behaviors to fit into a group/society compliance: changing behavior based on request of others obedience: changing behaviors after command from authority

display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors/emotions are appropriate to display

Density relative to weight in a fluid

density object/density fluid = specific gravity = weight object in air/(weight object in air - weight object in fluid)

Specific Gravity

density of water = 1 g/cm^3 = 1000 kg/m^3

State functions

describe the physical properties of an equilibrium state, are pathway independent NOT work or heat

Kluver-Busy Syndrome

destruction of amygdala causes mellow mood, less fear, hypersexuality, disinhibition, unusual eating behaviors

differential association theory

deviance can be learned through our interactions with others

Standard electromotive force

difference in standard reduction potentials between two half cells

Fundamental Unit of Charge

e = 1.60 x 10-19

e- donating and e- withdrawing groups (plus acidity trends)

e- donating groups: tend to be less acidic or more basic, decrease acidity by destabilizing the conjugate base e- withdrawing groups: tend to be more acidic, increase acidity by stabilizing the conjugate base

Imine/Enamine Tautomers

enamines are the less common tautomer

bone development in fetus

endochondral ossification: bones form from cartilage intramembranous ossification: bones form from mesenchyme

Keto/Enol Tautomers

enols are the less common tautomer enolate = -OH of enol is deprotonated

ELISA

enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

Cytochrome P450

enzymes that function to metabolize potentially toxic compounds, including drugs and products of endogenous metabolism such as bilirubin, principally in the liver monooxygenases that add an oxygen to the substrate (drug), thereby oxidizing its substrates

Hormones and enzymes of duodenum

enzymes: disaccharidases (brush-border enzymes), aminopeptidase and dipeptidase (brush-border enzymes), enteropeptidase (activates trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases) hormones: secretin (stimulates release of pancreatic juices, decreases motility), cholecystokinin (CCK, stimulates bile release from galbladder, release of pancreatic juices, and satiety)

long bones, periosteum

epiphyses are site of growth periosteum: connective tissue surrounding bone

types of tissue

epithelial -- lining of ovaries, intestines, blood vessels, skin connective -- fat (adipose), areolar, compact bone, blood, loose connective tissues (tendons, etc), cartilage, fibrous muscle -- striated, smooth, skeletal nervous -- CNS, PNS (neurons, nerves, etc.)

Reaction quotient and equilibrium constant

equilibrium constant - omit pure solids and liquids

Blood cells

erythrocytes: bone marrow, no nucleus, no mitochondria, nucleus (no DNA!) or other organelles, contain hemoglobin leukocytes: bone marrow, immune function, granulocytes and agranulocytes (monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) thrombocytes/platelets: cell fragments from megakaryocytes in bone marrow

ethnocentrism vs cultural relativism

ethnocentrism: making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture cultural relativism: recognition that social groups and cultures should be studied from their own terms

Two types of stress

eustress = positive stress arising when motivation and inspiration are needed (e.g., wedding, competition) distress = negative stress, may be acute or chronic

Prisoner's Dilema

example of a game analyzed in game theory that shows why two individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so

flashbulb memory prospective memory reconstructive memory reproductive memory eidetic memory

flashbulb memory: subjectively vivid, compelling memories of details associated with emotionally arousing events prospective memory: remembering to perform a planned action/intention at some future point in time reconstructive memory: memory is subject to distortion by other intervening cognitive functions (mostly episodic) reproductive memory: accurate recall of information (mostly semantic) eidetic memory: ability to see an object soon after you look away

Flow Rate

flow rate = volume/time

Strings, Open pipes, and closed pipes

for a string, the number of antinodes tells what harmonic it is for an open pipe, it is the number of nodes

digesting sugars other than glucose

galactose: trapped in cell by galactokinase, converted to glucose-1-phosphate by galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase fructose: trapped in cell by fructokinase, cleaved by aldolase B to form glyceraldehyde and DHAP

Assumptions of an ideal gas and when NOT ideal

gas made of particles with negligible volume compared to the container, have no intermolecular attractions or repulsion, are in continuous random motion, collisions are elastic (conserve energy), the average KE is proportional to temperature and is the same for all gasses at a given temperature regardless of identity or mass. Not ideal at decreased temperature and volume, with increased pressure

Secretory cells of stomach

gastrin --> increases HCl secretion by parietal cells and increases gastric motility

protein catabolism

gluconeogenic amino acids: can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis (enter directly into citric acid cycle); all but leucine and lysine ketogenic amino acids: can be converted into acetyl-CoA and ketone bodies (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, phenylalanine)

glycogenolysis (enzymes and regulators)

glycogen phosphorylase: produces single glucose 1-phosphate molecules by breaking alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds; inhibited by ATP - liver: activated by glucagon - skeletal muscle: activated by epinephrine and AMP debranching enzyme: move a block of oligoglucose from the branch and connects it to the chain with an alpha-1,4 bond, also removes the alpha-1,6 glucose separately KNOW ENZYMES

D- and L- sugars

groups on the left in a Fischer projection tend to point down in the ring

Titrations (half-equivalence point, equivalence point, pH at equivalence point, indicators, endpoint)

half-equivalence point: the midpoint of the buffering region in which half the titrant has been protonated or deprotonated (pH = pKa, pOH = pKb) equivalence point: the point at which equivalent amounts of acid and base have reacted (N1V1 = N2V2) pH at equivalence point: - strong acid + strong base = 7 - weak acid + strong base > 7 - strong acid + weak base < 7 - weak acid + weak base - depends which is stronger indicators = weak acids or bases that display different colors in the protonated and deprotonated forms, pKa should be close to the pH of the equivalence point endpoint: when indicator reaches full color

Relative stabilities of molecules

heat of combustion: more heat = less stable, less heat = more stable enthalpy of formation: more negative = more stable

glucokinase vs hexokinase

hexokinase is inhibited by its product, G6P

Blood volume regulation

high BP --> release ANP low BP --> activates ADH and aldosterone

strain theory

how anomic conditions can lead to deviance and reinforce social stratification strain --> anger --> criminal behavior

social perception

how we generate impressions about people involves a perceiver, target, and situation

Types of groups - in-group, out-group, reference group, primary group, secondary group, peer group

in-group: group you are in out-group: group you are not in, may compete with/oppose reference group: group you compare yourself to primary group: strong emotional bonds, close - peer group: self-selected group, shared interests secondary group: temporary, weaker bonds

incidence vs. prevalence of disease

incidence: number of new cases of a disease per population at risk prevalence: number of cases (new and pre-existing) of a disease per population

vaccine development

immunogenicity: ability to induce a humoral/cell-mediated immune response toxicity: avoid including toxic/active elements of the target invader

Roles of midbrain structures

inferior colliculi: auditory center, vestibulo-ocular reflex (keeps eyes fixed while head moves) - superior olive: localizes sound superior colliculi: visual center startle reflexes

Translation

initiator: Shine-Delgarno sequence in prokaryotes, 5'-cap in eukaryotes termination: release factor promotes the addition of a water molecule to release the protein

PTSD symptoms

intrusions, avoidance, negative changes in cognition or emotion, changes in arousal/reactivity

Parts of the eye

iris: controls size of pupil, colored part of eye, dilator and constrictor pupillae muscles aqueous humore: produced by cilliary body to nourish the eye and provide shape, drains through the canal of Schlemm fovea/macula: contain cones optic disc: location where nerve cells exit the eye to become the optic nerve

Coulomb's Law

k = 9x10^9 Nm^2/C^2

Average Kinetic Energy of a Gas

kB = 1.38 * 10^-23

phosphatase vs. phosphorylase vs. kinase

kinase: add a phosphate group using ATP, a type of transferase phosphatase: remove a phosphate group, a type of transferase phosphorylase: add an inorganic phosphate group into an organic molecule (e.g., glucose)

anomie

lack of social norms, which leads to a breakdown in the connection between an individual and their community

types of enzymes

ligase: join two large biomolecules, often of the same type, catalyzed by ATP isomerase: interconversion of constitutional isomers or stereoisomers lyase: catalyze cleavage without the addition of H20 or the transfer of e-; reverse reaction is important biologically, often involves forming double bonds or rings hydrolase: catalyzes cleavage with the addition of H20 oxidoreductase: redox reaction transferase: move a functional group from one molecule to another

regulation of ventilation and pH

low pH (high H+): increases respiration, excrete some H+ in kidney (slow) high pH (low H+): decrease respiration, retain HCO3- in kidney (slow)

Material vs Symbolic culture Cultural lag

material = technology, clothing, architecture, etc symbolic = language, beliefs, etc cultural lag = material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture

NMR Spectroscopy

measures alignment of nuclear spin with an applied magnetic field frequency (ppm) vs absorption TMS is used for calibration deshielding from EWG's moves a hydrogen downfield (left) by removing electrons from the nucleus coupling: n+1

Sensory receptors in dermis

merkel cells: deep pressure and texture free nerve endings: pain meissner's corpuscles: light touch (papillary layer) ruffini endings: stretch pacinian corpuscules: deep pressure and vibration

epigenetic modifications

methylation (tends to decrease accessibility of genes, occurs via transferase enzyme) acetylation (lys in histones, increases accessibility)

cytoskeleton structure

microfilaments: actin - muscle contraction, cell motion, cytokinesis microtubules: tubulin - transport, chromosome movements, motility of cilia and flagella intermediate filaments: keratin and desmin - structural support, scaffolding

membrane fluidity

more saturated = less fluid longer = less fluid cholesterol: makes more fluid at lower temperatures and less fluid at higher temperatures

SDS-PAGE

native PAGE: maintains the protein's shape, but results are difficult to compare because the mass/charge ratio differs for each protein (separates based on electrophoretic mobility = length, conformation, and charge) SDS-PAGE: denatures proteins and makes the native charge so that comparison of size is more accurate, but functional protein cannot be recaptured from the gel - does NOT separate based on charge

Limbic System

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives parts: fornix, olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, septal nuclei (pleasure and addiction), cingulate gyrus

Light Intensity

number of photons hitting an area/time

glycogenesis (enzymes and regulation)

occurs in liver and muscle cells glycogen synthase: produces alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds; activated by glucose 6 phosphate and insulin, inhibited by phosphorylation (signal cascade with epinephrine and glucagon) branching enzyme: creates branches with alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds KNOW ENZYMES!

Fatty acid oxidation

occurs in mitochondria following transport by carnitine shuttle hormone sensitive lipase: releases fatty acids from adipose tissue (activated by decreasing insulin, increasing epinephrine and cortisol) 5 steps: oxidation, hydration, oxidation, thyolysis, cleavage generates: acetyl CoA, FADH2, and NADH - propinoyl CoA is produced from odd number fatty acids

attribution substitution

occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic

Processing smell

olfactory chemoreceptors in olfactory epithelium --> through cribiform plate --> mitral cells (synapse via glomerulus to combine like signals) --> olfactory bulb --> hypothalamus, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, hippocampus

Accessory organs to digestive system

originate from endoderm - pancreas: pancreatic juices - bicarbonate, pancreatic amylase, peptidases, and lipase - liver: bile, albumin, and clotting factors; processes nutrients; detoxes with urea cycle; receives blood from abdominal portion of digestive tract via hepatic portal vein - gallbladder: releases bile in response to CCK

bone matrix

osteons are the chief structural unit of compact bone - lamellae: concentric bone layers - Haversian (vertical) and Volkmann (horizontal) channels: surrounded by lamellae - lacunae: gaps between rings where osteocytes reside - canaliculi: connect lacunae bone made from calcium, phosphate, and OH-

Definition of pKa, pKb, pH, pOH, Ka, Kb pH approximation

pH = -log[H+] pOH = -log[OH-] pKa = -log[Ka] pKb = -log[Kb] Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA] Kb = [OH-][B+]/[BOH] -log (A x 10^-B) = -(-B + 0.A) = B - 0.A

Right Hand Rule for Magnetic Force

palm = positive charge, back of hand = negative

Three forms of visual processing

parallel processing: color, form, and motion at the same time magnocellular cells: motion, high temporal resolution parvocellular cells: shape, high color resolution

Dramaturgical approach to impression management

people create images of themselves in the same way actors perform - front stage: seen by audience, presented self - back stage: secret self

relative deprivation theory

people seek to acquire something that others possess and which they believe they should have too all relative to those around them

Horney's personality theory

personality is molded by current fears and impulses basic anxiety: vulnerability and helplessness (inadequate parenting) basic hostility: anger caused by neglect and rejection (bad parents) neurotic needs: 10 normal desires (e.g., affection and approval) that may be problematic if 1) Disproportionate in intensity, 2) Indiscriminate in application, 3) Partially disregard reality, 4) Provoke intense anxiety may resolve by moving towards, against, or away from others

Torque

positive = counterclockwise negative = clockwise

essential amino acids

phenylalanine, valine, tryptophan, threonine, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, arginine, leucine, lysine

Rate-limiting enzymes for glycolysis, fermentation, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the pentose phosphate pathway (respectively)

phosphofructokinase-1, lactose dehydrogenase, glycogen synthase, glycogen phosphorylase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

phospholipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, sphingomyelins, glycosphingolipids, gangliosides, waxes

phospholipids: hydrophilic head attached by a phosphodiester linkage to a hydrophobic tail - glycerophospholipids contain a glycerol backbone sphingolipids: contain a sphingosine backbone, may also be phospholipids with a phosphodiester bond -sphingomyelins: contain a phosphatidyl choline or phosphatidylethanolamine head group, form myelin sheath - glycosphingolipids: attached to sugar moieties instead of a phosphate group (cerebrosides have one sugar, globosides have 2+, gangliosides have oligosaccharides with at least 1 terminal NANA) waxes: esterified long-chain fatty acids, protect against evaporation and parasites

components of interpersonal attraction

physical attractiveness, similarity of thoughts and physical traits (e.g., same cultural capital), self-disclosure, reciprocity, proximity, familiarity

Three components of Emotion

physiological - changes in ANS behavioral - facial expressions and body language cognitive - subjective

Positive and Negative controls

positive controls: ensure that a change in the dependent variable occurs when expected negative controls: ensure that no change in the dependent variable occurs when none is expected

Sanctions

positive: reward negative: punishment formal: official informal: not enforced or punished by an authority but occurs in everyday interactions with others

Mood Disorders (6)

plus Seasonal Affective Disorder (depression occuring in winter)

Types of Mutations

point: one nucleotide swapped silent: no effect on protein aa sequence (Wobble) missense: change one aa nonsense: stop codon frameshift: move reading frame insertion/deletion: may change reading frame, causing frameshift

Diffraction, polarization, refraction, reflection, dispersion

polarization: passing light through a polarizer that preferentially selects a certain oscillation direction of the electric field dispersion: light of different wavelengths travels at different speeds, blue light will diffract the most, red light the least, causing a dispersion pattern (like a crystal)

Positive vs. Negative RNA viruses

positive = + sense = may be immediately translated to proteins by infected cells (coding) - HIV and other retroviruses negative = - sense = complementary mRNA (template, anticoding), must be converted to positive-sense RNA before translation

Arachidonate

precursor to eicosanoid signaling molecules prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes, and leukotrines

cognitive biases in social perception (primacy, recency, reliance on central traits, halo effect, just-world hypothesis)

primacy effect: first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions recency effect: the most recent information we have about an individual is the most important reliance on central traits: individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver halo effect: an individual with one positive characteristic also possesses other (even unrelated) positive characteristics just-world hypothesis: good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people

Memory effects (primacy, recency, state-dependency, dual-coding, misinformation, source monitoring error, spreading activation)

primacy: remember earliest items in a list (in LTM) recency: remember most recent items in a list (in STM) state-dependency: memory is improved when you are in the same state during coding as you are during retrieval (e.g., emotions, drugs) dual-coding: remember things better if you engage multiple mental processes (e.g., visual and auditory) misinformation effect: recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information source monitoring error: forgetting where/how you obtained a memory spreading activation: remembering things that are similar/linked to what you are supposed to remember (related to schemas)

types of cellular transport

primary active transport: uses ATP or another energy molecule to directly power the transport of molecules across a membrane secondary active transport: "coupled transport," harnesses the energy released by one particle going down its electrochemical gradient to drive a different particle up its gradient

Stress Appraisal

primary appraisal: classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant (0), benign-positive (+), or stressful (-) secondary appraisal: evaluating if the organism can cope with stress

Prions, viroids, virions

prions: infectious proteins that trigger misfolding of other proteins (often converting from alpha helices to beta sheets) viroids: RNA plant pathogens virion: individual virus particles

pentose phosphate pathway (enzymes, regulation, products)

produces NADPH, sugars for biosynthesis, and glycolysis intermediates G6PD is activated by NADP+ and inhibited by NADPH

Colligative Properties

properties that depend on the concentration of solute particles but not on their identity Vapor Pressure = Raoult's Law (PA = XA x P'A) NOTE: XA is mole fraction of solvent Boiling Point Elevation = dT = i x Kb x m Freezing Point Depression = dT = i x Kf x m Osmotic Pressure = iMRT

clathrin

protein that coats the inward-facing surface of the plasma membrane and assists in the formation of specialized structures, like coated pits, for phagocytosis

isoform and isozyme

proteins that perform the same function but have different structure (e.g., different subunit compositions, different splicing methods)

glycolysis and gluconeogenesis (enzymes)

pyruvate carboxylase = mitochondria (malate shuttle)

Cholesterol metabolism

regulated by HMG-CoA reductase, activated by insulin, inhibited by cholesterol and glucagon

Roles - role performance, role partner, role set, role conflict, role strain

role: a set of beliefs, values, and norms that define the expectations of a certain status in a social situation role performance: carrying out behaviors of role role partner: individual who helps define a specific role within the relationship role set: a set of all roles associated with a status role conflict: difficult managing multiple roles role strain: difficulty managing just one role ("self" does not count as a role)

structure of muscle

sarcomere --> myofibril --> myocyte --> fasciculus --> muscle

Types of Distillation

simple: BP's under 150 and are >25 apart vacuum: BP's over 150 fractional: BP's <25 apart liquid with lowest BP vaporizes first boiling chips provide nucleation sites to prevent superheating and bumping

Thomas theorem

situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences

Different Types of muscle

skeletal muscle - movement, blood propulsion, thermoregulation smooth muscle - can display myogenic activity (regulation of contraction without neural input), reproductive, respiratory, cardiovascular, and digestive systems cardiac muscle - can display myogenic activity, intercalated discs with gap junctions

Group psychology (social facilitation, deindividuation, bystander effect, peer pressure, social loafing, polarization, groupthink, social support, group size)

social facilitation: people perform at a different level when others are around deindividuation: loss of self-awareness in large groups bystander effect: groups are less likely to respond to a person in need peer pressure: social influence placed on one by equals social loafing: individual does not pull weight in a group setting; people are more productive alone than in a group polarization: decisions made by a group are more extreme groupthink: groups make decisions based on ideas and solutions without considering outside ideas social support: social network ties/relationships that provide and individual with assistance group size: larger groups are more stable but less intimate, smaller groups are more intimate but less stable

social reproduction, social exclusion

social reproduction: passing on of social inequality, especially poverty, from one generation to the next social exclusion: a sense of powerlessness when individuals feel alienated from society

Characteristics of Hybrid orbitals

sp3 = 25% s, 75% p (tetrahedral, 109.5) sp2 = 33% s, 66% p (trigonal planar, 120) sp = 50% s, 50% p (linear, 180)

Properties of sound through different media

speed of sound does not change when in the same medium when changing media, the speed of sound and wavelength change proportionately, the frequency remains the same (unless there is a Doppler effect) amplitude changes when changing mediums

Impulse-Momentum Theorem

states that the impulse on an object is equal to the change in the object's momentum

Status and 3 Types

status: a position in society used to classify individuals ascribed status: involuntarily assigned based on race, gender, ethnicity, etc. achieved status: voluntarily earned master status: status by which an individual is primarily identified

stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

stereotypes are cognitive, prejudices are affective, and discrimination is behavioral institutional discrimination: policies at the organizational or institutional level in health care, tend to have a disproportionate impact on certain groups

Adler's Individual Psychology

striving for superiority develops personality - inferiority complex: an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially - creative self: the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality - style of life: represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority - fictional finalism: an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences

Strong acids/bases, weak acids/bases, and their conjugates

strong acids/bases dissociate completely and produce very weak conjugates weak acids/bases dissociate partially and produce strong conjugates

Specific heat of water

the amount of energy necessary to raise one gram of a substance by 1C or 1K 1 cal/gK = 4.18 J/gK

Processing taste

taste buds in papillae contain receptors for sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umamai (glutamate) GPCR: umami (glutamate), sweet (glucose), bitter Channels: salty (Na+), sour (H+) fire to CN VII (front 2/3), or IX or X (back 1/3)

Transcription

template strand = strand being copied, coding strand = same sequence as RNA copy TATA box = binding site for RNA polymerase II transcription factors: contain a DNA binding domain, regulate transcription

Reduction potential

tendency for a species to gain e- and be reduced, more positive Ered means a greater tendency to be reduced

hindsight bias

tendency for people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted

actor-observer bias

tendency to attribute your own actions to external causes and others' actions to dispositional causes

labeling theory

the belief that individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them, and their reactions to those labels over time form the basis of their self-identity - people are placed into social categories, which could be stigmatized

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

fundamental attribution error

the bias toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions in regard to the actions of others

Self-Esteem

the closer our actual self is to our ideal self and our ought self (who others want us to be), the higher our self-esteem

Total Internal Reflection and Critical Angle

the complete reflection that takes place within a substance when the angle of incidence of light striking the surface boundary is greater than the critical angle

Self-Efficacy

the degree to which we see ourselves as being capable at a given skill or situation

Mass defect

the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons, and electrons nuclear binding energy is the amount of energy that is released when nucleons bind together

Mechanical Advantage

the factor by which a simple machine multiplies the input force to accomplish work the input force necessary to accomplish the work is reduced and the distance through which the force must be applied is increased (e.g., for a plane, MA = length of inclind/height of lincline)

Rogers's concept of incongruence

the gap between a person's actual self and ideal self can be minimized by providing options therapists help clients reconcile between the two

Worfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis

the lens by which we view and interpret the world is created by language

Current

the movement of charge that occurs between two points that have different electrical potentials movement of positive charge (though it is the e- that actually move)

dependency ratio

the number of people who are too young or too old to work compared to the number of people in their productive years

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

Self-verification

the tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept, desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition three cues: consistency, consensus, distinctiveness

Wave period

the time interval between the passage of successive crests at a stationary point T = 1/f

Gestalt Principles

top-down processing good figure (Law of Pragnanz): objects grouped together tend to be perceived as in the simplest form possible (e.g., Olympic rings and dotted dog) proximity: objects grouped together if close together similarity: grouped together if similar continuation: at an intersection, people perceive each object as a single uninterrupted object closure: visual connection or continuity between elements that don't actually touch each other symmetry: perceived as symmetrical shapes that form around the center common fate: elements that move in the same speed/direction are part of the same stimulus

totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent

totipotent: can become any type of cell pluripotent: can be any cell except those found in placental structures multipotent: more specialized, can be multiple types of cells (e.g., ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm)

Operant and Classical conditioning

traditional behaviorist = only actual outcomes of a behavior determine if behavior will be repeated (cognitive appraisal of what might happen has no influence, mental processes are not real)

Transduction, transformation, conjugation, transposons

transduction: transfer of genetic material via bacteriophages transformation: uptake of genetic material from environment conjugation: transfer of genetic info via conjugation bridge transposons: genetic info can insert/remove itself

translational and rotational equilibrium

translational = occurs in the absence of any net forces acting on an object rotational = occurs in the absence of any net torques acting on an object, center of mass is a commonly used pivot point

Disproportionation reactions (dismutation)

type of redox reaction where species is simultaneously reduced and oxidized so as to form two different products TWO DIFFERENT Oxidation #s for same element in products RADICAL substitution

Anomeric carbon

undergoes mutarotation to form anomers beta is more stable, as it allows a configuration where both bulky groups can be axial

Kinetic and thermodynamic products

used to control production of kinetic and thermodynamic enolates

Respiratory Protection

vibrissae: hairs in nasal cavity and pharynx mucous membranes mucocilliary escalator lysozymes (attack gram + bacteria) mast cells

Sound Intensity (dB)

when not comparing, us B = 10 x log (I/Io) with Io = 10^-12

Implicit personality theory

when we look at somebody for the first time, we pick up on one of their characteristics from there, we assume other traits about the person

Voltage and emf

where Ecell is emf and V is terminal resistance

glass ceiling vs glass escalator

women only reach so high on economic ladder (glass ceiling), while men are promoted with greater ease (glass escalator)

Reactions and rate laws

x+y = reaction order

correspondent inference theory

you are more likely to make a dispositional inference when an action that impacts you was freely chosen, intended, and/or low in social desirability a dispositional inference is less likely if the behavior is forced