MCAT PSYCH w/ khan and kaplan

What is encoding and why is it important for long term memory?

Encoding is transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory. If you want to remember more than 7 things, need to process that info so it stays in long-term memory.

Germ layer derivatives

Endoderm: GI tract tube (esophagus, small intestine, large intestine) + lungs + liver + pancreas Mesoderm "Means to get around" : forms inner layers of skin, muscles, bones, cardiac muscles, kidneys, and bladder, ovaries/testes Ectoderm: Outer layer of skin, sweat glands, hair, skin, nervous system

What is encoding specificity?

Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning.

Role playing

First few days in a role may feel a bit strange, but over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you our behavior of playing this rule influences our attitude overtime

What is the social interactionist approach to language development?

Believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children's desire to communicate with others - such as adults in their life, makes them motivated to learn language. Associated with Vygotsky.

Game stage significance

Believe this last stage led to development of the "I" and "me"

Carl Rogers' beliefs

Believed in a growth climate to reach self-actualization growth nurtured when person is genuine growth nurtured through acceptance - unconditional positive regard

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

Believed that children actively construct their understanding of the work as they grow. As their bodies grow, their minds do as well.

Phenologists

Believed that each brain area is devoted to a certain personality characteristic, thought, and emotion They studied those who had brain injuries and deduced the problems that came with it

Maslow as a humanist

Believed that self-actualized people had more peak experiences: profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual

How to improve self-control

Changing environment where there are less temptations Operant conditioning to reinforcing good behaviors with rewards Classical conditioning to refocus desires to something more in the line of long-term goals -deprivation leads temptation ex: strict diets

Major Depressive Disorder

Characterized by a major depressive episode: a period of two weeks with at least five symptoms

Retrieval of Emotional Memories

Emotional event -> enters sensory systems -> Explicit memory system in the medial temporal lobe/hippocampus recollects conscious memory about the event, implicit memory system in the amygdala exhibits and recollects expression of the emotional responses

Self-determination theory

Emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy: the need to be in control of one's actions and ideas competence: the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks relatedness: the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships Theorists believe it's important in order to develop relationships with oneself and others

Motor unit

Lower motor neurons: Efferent neurons of the PNS synapse on skeletal muscle abnormalities: weakness, lower motor neuron signs signs of abnormalities: atrophy, fasciculations (involuntary twitches) , hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle), hyporeflexia (decreased muscle reflex)

Incentive theory

Individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives and avoid punishments Focuses on positive reinforcement: given after a response to increase future response factors outside of individuals including community values and aspects of culture can motivate behavior

Attribute substitution

Individuals must make judgements that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic ex: the figures are of identical size, but the three-demensional cues affect perception of the image ex: light colored boxes of identical color, but shadow cues affect our interpretation

What is rational choice theory?

Main assumption is the idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational - a person is acting as if they were weighing costs and benefits of each action. Maximize personal gain and self-interest. Pattern of choices (not an individual choice). How do we calculate value of these actions? Social resources being exchanged - time, information, approval, prestige, etc. (determines value) Theory assumes you can explain social change/social institutions.

Source monitoring error

Memory error that involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory: One remembers details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained Some people can hear a story of something happening to someone else, and later recalling that story to had happened to themselves

Conscious, explicit memory of emotion

Memory of experiencing the actual emotion -The 'story': what happened, where it occured, who was involved, the fact that it was traumatic and so forth Ex: remembering that you were happy at your graduation

Four dopamine pathways

Mesolimbic: positive reward, mesocortical: negative symptoms, nigrostriatal: motor planning/movement, tuberoinfundibular: prolactin

Three characteristics that impact how we are persuaded

Message characteristics: clarity and logic Source characteristics: the environment around the message, source of info, and the speaker's background Target chracteristics: how we receive the message, mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence of the listener

Hormone concentration is regulated by

Metabolism and secretion, controlled by negative feedback loops

What is a metropolis defined as?

Metropolis have over 500 000 people

Mesencephalon

Midbrain Sensorimotor/Involuntary reflexes concerned triggered by visual or auditory stimuli-> colliculi Superior: Visual Inferior: auditory, sudden loud noises

What is a reference group?

Reference groups are groups that people refer to when evaluating their [own] qualities, circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviors. "any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior". These reference groups set some level of aspiration.

Lexical access

Refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which can be stored in long-term memory

Low-effort syndrome or low-effort coping

Refers to the coping responses of minority groups in an attempt to fit the dominant culture -> minority students at school may learn to only put in minimal effort as they believe they are being discriminated against by the dominant culture

Morphology

Refers to the structure of words Morphemes: smallest unit of word Ex: redesigned, re-, design, -ed

Circadian rhythms

Regular body rhythms over a twenty-four hour period. Controlled by melatonin, produced in the pineal gland, with daylight being the innate cue. Suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus important in function

What can we learn from the Milgram experiment?

Regular everyday people will comply with an authority figure even if it goes against their moral values. People justify their actions with the "just world phenomenon" Participants were comforted by passing responsibility of actions to others "I was just following orders"

Parathyroid

Regulates calcium level by secreting parathyroid hormone, which increases blood calcium level

Medulla oblongata

Regulates the autonomic activity of the heart and lungs

Vytgosky's theory of Language

Social Interactionist theory - socialization Interplay between biological and social processes. Language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate and behave in a social manner, as child interacts with others, certain brain circuits are reinforced, while others are de-emphasized

Moro reflex

Startle reaction. Fans arms out then back - often though to be a survival reflex for those that lived in trees and that falling could have been prevented by instinctive clutching continuation at one year is a strong suggestion of developmental difficulites

Spotlight Model of Multitasking

Takes info from the five senses, but doesn't pay attention to everything -unconscious level of awareness Whatever is in spotlight is attended, the more attended, the better it's processed, size, shape of spotlight can be controlled

What is paraphilia?

The DSM-5 describes paraphilia as any intense and persistent sexual interest other than genital stimulation or fondling in phenotypically normal, physically mature, and consenting human partners.

Divided attention

The ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time. Doing two things at once, so you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously - occurs when an individucal must perform two tasks that require attention simultaneously

Phonology

The actual sound of language Phonemes: smallest unit of sound Children must learn to produce and recognize the sounds of language, separating them form the environment

Expectancy-value theory

The amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching that goal and the degree to which they value reaching it Expectancy of success + value of success

What is the amygdala?

The amygdalae are golf ball shaped groups of nuclei located within the temporal lobes of the brain. They serve to assist in the processing of memory, decision-making, and emotional reactions, namely produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety.

Temporal lobe

The auditory cortex and Wernicke's area Auditory cortex: sound processing, speech, music Wernicke's area: language reception and comprehension Also memory processing, emotion, and language Hippocampus is located deep within the temporal lobe: deep stimulation evokes prior memories

Intoxication

The behavioral and psychological effects on the person Ex: "drunk" or "high

What is the purpose of the central executive?

The central executive tells the visuo-spacial sketchpad + phonological loop to coordinate. The Central Executive supervises the cognitive process of memory. E.g. processing a map with street names and landmarks (visual + verbal info)

Unconscious, implicit memory of emotion

The storage of the actual feelings of emotion associated with an event. When experiencing a similar even later on, these emotions may be retrieved -The sensations of unease and anxiety when put back into a similar environment

symbolic interactionism theories

The theory of self/looking glass self - "The I and Me" Interpretation of a situation within small-scale (micro-level) social interactions focus on how shared meaning is established amount individuals/small groups

Gardner's theory of intelligence

Theory of multiple intelligences: seven-nine independent intelligences that don't depend on each other -logical-mathematical -verbal-linguistic -spatial-visual -bodily-kinesthetic -interpersonal -intrapersonal -musical -Later added: naturalist and existential No way to test this theory and intelligence vs. latent abilities aren't defined

L.I. Thurnstone's theory of intelligence

Theory of primary mental abilities: Seven factors of intelligence -word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory Scores tend to vary together statistically, limited in what it considers intelligence

What is implosive therapy, and how is it different than systemic desensitization?

Therapists force patient into an overwhelming encounter with phobia, which produces a lot of anxiety the idea that if they face their fear and survive, they will overcome their fear

Universalism linguistics

There are characteristics that remain consistent across all languages of different cultures "Universal semantic Primes" -Human cognition shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions shape human language

Disconfirmation principle

When a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded. The evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution simply doesn't work confirmation bias prevents those from fulfilling the disconfirmation principle

Spreading activation

When one node of our semantic network is activated, say red for ex, the other linking concepts around it are also unconsciously activated

Relapse

When patient slips and goes back to the drug, and is more likely with the more addictive, potent drugs

Galant reflex

When skin is stroked, baby swings to the side it was stroked

What is the dependency ratio?

an age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the labor force, and compares that to # of people who are (15-64) Higher the ratio, more dependent people there are

What is negative priming?

an implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus. Caused by experiencing the stimulus, and then ignoring it. Negative priming lowers the speed to slower than un-primed levels

that's not all technique

an individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected

discrimination

an organism learns to distiniguish between two similar stimuli, opposite of generalization

Symptoms of Korsakoff's syndrome

anterograde and retrograde amnesia, severe memory loss, confabulation

unconditioned stimulus/response

any stimulus that brings about such a reflexive response, and the innane or reflexive response is called an unconditioned response

Deviance

any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society

What is exchange theory?

application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Exchange theory addresses decision making via cost-benefit analyses Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals.

Factors that regulate our intake of food, sex, and drugs

biological and socio-cultural (hormones and brain regulates each drive by controlling them automatically and consciously) (conscious choices to express needs)

social anomie

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and commmunity -alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak to resolve: social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevlop sets of shared norms

Social cognitive theory of personality

bridge between classic behaviorism and other theories like psychoanalytic reciprocal determinism, and focuses on how we interact with that environment Locus of control important concept

generalization

broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to conditioned stimulus could produce the conditioned response

How did Ludwig Gumplowicz expand on Marx's theory?

by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest, and cultural/ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others;

What is animal auto-communication?

can give information to themselves. Ex. bats and echolocation and this allows them to gain information about the environment;

PET

can't give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time, requires swallowing of radioactive tracer. (Active cells = use most glucose). More invasive.

three categories of traits

cardinal: traits which a person organizes their life - dominant trait that influences all of our behaviors central: major characteristics that are easy to infer - such as honesty, sociability, shyness secondary traits: personal characteristics that are more limited in occurence - occur only in close groups or specific social situations

dopamine

catecholamine imporatant role in movement and posture, high amounts in the basal ganglia to help smooth movements and maintain postural stability "Reward pathway" Undersupply: parkinson's, when the substantia nigria doesn't project dopamine to the basal ganglia Oversupply: Schizophrenia

compliance

change in behavior based on direct request...person making request may not actually have power or authority to command the individual, yet will ask to change behavior feeling that there is give and take, believability, likability, limited supply, and positive feedback from others

Last stage of elaboration likelihood model

changes in attitude central: lasting change peripheral: temporary attitude change

obedience

changing one's behavior in response to direct order from an authority figure people are more likely to obey than comply due to the real or perceived social power of the individual

internalization

changing one's behavior to fit with the group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group

social anxiety disorder

characterized by anxiety due to social situations persistent fear when exposed to social situations that may result in embarrassment or being judged

disorganized thought

characterized by loosening of associations: may be exhibited as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another in such a way that a listener cannot follow the train of thought word salad: incomprehensible throwing together of words neologisms: invent new words

Obsessive - compulsive disorder

characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses), which produce tension, and compulsions (repetitive tasks) that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life obsessions raise individual's stress level, and the compulsions relieve this stress

The generalized other

children can orient themselves to the norms and values of their community group individual's recognition that other members of their society hold specific values and expectations about that behavior

complex behavior

combination of both learned and innate behavior

Classical twin study

compare monozygotic + dizygotic twins each raised in the same household -Monozygotes are genetically identical, whereas dizygotes share only half of genes Concordance rates refer to likelihood that both twins will exhibit the same trait Ex: study showed that MZ twins raised in separate families were still more similar than DZ twins raised together -> strong genetic component

Semantic networks

concepts are organized in your mind as connected ideas. For closely related ideas they may be closer and longer for less closely related ideas

According to both Rogers and Maslow, What is the importance of congruency?

congruency between self-concept and our actions allows us to feel fulfilled.

Three categories of the mind - Freud

conscious: thoughts we access to preconscious: thoughts we aren't currently aware of unconscious: thoughts that have been repressed

Gray matter

consist of most of the neuron's somas (cell bodies)

three cues to external attribution

consistency (do they usually behave this way?) distinctiveness (do they behave differently in different situations?) consensus (do others behave similarly in this situation? If a person behaves distinctively, then we know that the behavior is due to the situation If consistently, then maybe not external/environment and more internal

Weber's Law

constant magnitude needed to produce a magnitude of jnd and the magnitude of the original stimulus ex: 1000 Hz and 1003 Hz, 3 Hz = .3 percent of the original 1000 Hz - linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity - Delta I/I = k

Internal capsule

contains many pathways including the corticospinal tract

White matter

contains myelinated axons

Statistical adjustment

controlling for variables hat could affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables

What are the two tracts UMNs can take?

corticospinal tract: UMN starts in cerebral cortex, axon travels down through brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN. corticobulbar tract: If it goes to brainstem only

covert vs. overt behavior

covert: not observable, overt: observable

Cheynes-Stroke breathing

crescendo then decresendo breathing followed by a stop in breathing

cultural capital vs. social capital

cultural capital: non-economic resources such as knowledge, skills, education used to make social distinctions social capital: economic resources that one gains from social network

Signal detection - strength of variable d', c is the strategy

d': hit > miss strong signal, miss < hit weak signal c: conservative strategy: you always say no unless you are absolutely sure the stimulus is present liberal strategy: always say yes, even if you get false alarms

projection

defense mechanism into which people attribute their undesired feelings to others "I hate my parents" -> means "They hate me" Rorschach inkblot test and thematic apperception tests

Asphasia

deficit of language production or comprehension

social potency

degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations

dependent stressor

depressed person would be expected to experience a greater number of stressful events that he/she influences -> reciprocal in terms of depression

Generalized Anxiety disorder

describes a person whose general state is tense and uneasy to a degree that it influences their life - persistent worry about many things continuous level of anxiety for at least six months

Personality

describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors characteristic of an individual across time and different locations

What is systemic desensitization?

developed by Joseph Wolpe process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. Slowly introduce phobia to patient. The goal is to get patient a to associate phobia with relaxation techniques ->reducing ramped up response.

mental disorders

disorders of the mind. Mental illlness, psychological/psychiatric illness. Abnormalities of the mind that cause distress or disability. Sometimes can shorten someone's lifespan

gender dysphoria

distress/disability caused by a person identifying as a different gender than society represents them as

Trauma/Stressor-Related disorders

distress/disability form occurs after stressful/traumatic events. Leads to mood, emotional, and behavior abnormalities

Anxiety disorders

distress/disability from abnormal worry/fear. Some specific to certain stimuli like phobias, while others not specific to certain stimuli

sexual dysfunctions

distress/disability from abnormalities in or performance of sexual activity

dissociative disorders

distress/disability from abnormalities of identity and memory

depressive disorders

distress/disability from abnormally negative mood. Mood refers to the long-term emotional state. Mood is a subjective experience person has of experience (becomes affect)

feeding and eating disorders

distress/disability from behavioral abnormalities related to food

disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders

distress/disability from behaviors that are unacceptably disruptive or impulsive for someone's culture. Inability to control inappropriate behaviors

paraphilic disorders

distress/disability from having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli for a person's culture, may cause harm to another person

Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

distress/disability from obsessions or compulsions

Somatic symptom and related disorders

distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to illness unrelated to mental disorder, but of psychological origin with or without having a general medical condition at the same time

Substance-related and addictive disorders

distress/disability from the abnormal use of substances that affect mental function, including alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics, stimulants, tobacco etc. Also includes gambling

elimination disorders

distress/disability from urination/defecation at inappropriate times or places

personality disorders

distress/disability related to personality. Involves long-term mental and behavioral features characteristic of a person, involves personalities that are outside those accepted of societal norms

Cons of SI?

doesn't ask same questions as large scale sociologists do. Sometimes considered as supplemental instead of full theory, because restricted to small interactions between individuals. But gives different perspective necessary for fully understanding society. Capable of explaining of how societies can change when created/recreated by social interactions;

Problems of conflict theory?

doesn't explain the stability a society can experience, how society is held together (unity), despite some members not liking the status quo

Describe Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation?

done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. This research focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregiver ones

place theory

each place in cochlea corresponds to the perception of a given frequency different sound waves trigger activity at different places along cochlear membrane

McDonaldinization of society

efficiency (customer cleaning) calculability, uniformity (chain offering same menu everywhere) technological control (self-scan machines at checkouts) calculability: quantitative aspects predictability: same thing, uniformity

Repression

ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to unconscious

Emotional memories

either positive or negative

What is the dimensional approach to contemporary study of emotion?

emotions are measured in terms of dimensions such as arousal (high/low) and valence (positive/negative)

What is social epidemiology?

epidemiology looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person's health. Social epidemiology focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations (the social determinants of a disease) A branch of epidemiology: the branch of medicine that deals with the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors relating to health;

normative influence

even if you know what is right, you do the negative actions to avoid social rejection

What are some non-binary gender types?

gender queer (don't identify as either male or female) Agender - rejecting gender categories Gender fluid - moving across genders Nonbinary - not identifying w/ any specific gender Third gender - cultures that recognize non-binary gender

What have been some purported causes of schizophrenia?

genes, physical stress during pregnancy (such as infection during pregnancy), and psychosocial factors (negative family interaction styles effect development of brain)

What are some factors that are related with risk of AD?

genetic mutations, many involved in processing of amyloid protein. ApoE4 involved in metabolism of fats is strongly related to AD. high blood pressure increases risk of disorder too.

sleep apnea

inability to breathe during sleep. Wakeup just long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without realizing Obstructive: physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow Central: "CNS" Issues with control center for ventilation. The brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe

disorganized behavior

inability to carry out activities of daily living catatonia: spontaneous movement and activity may be greatly reduced or patient may maintain a rigid posture echolalia: repeating another's world echopraxia: imitating another's actions

How does anhedonia cause depression?

inability to experience pleasure, so perceive more stressors, which leads to depression Biological backing: The anterior cingulate (anterior part of the frontal cortex) stops responding to serotonin. Learned helplessness - you learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control, so lose ability to identify coping mechanisms, which becomes a cycle

Source amnesia

inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge

false memories

inaccurate memories but expressed with extreme confidence

What is the discrete system approach to contemporary study of emotion?

includes theories regarding universal emotions

Biological basis of bipolar disorders

increased norepinephrine and serotonin (monoamine theory) higher risk if parent has disorder higher risk for those with multiple sclerosis

identity

individual components of our self-concept related to groups in which we belong, we have multiple identities that define who we are and how we should behave within any given context

Bystander effect

individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present -> people are less likely to notice danger, taking cues from others viewing the situation less as a threat, amount of danger

depersonalization/derealization disorder

individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonalization), or from their surroundings (derealization) Out of body experiences, giving the world a dreamlike quality

Dispositional attributions

internal relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality

Drives

internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals -> helps humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state that ensures motivation to eliminate this state or to relieve internal tension created by unmet needs

What is motivational interviewing?

interviewing involves working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change. Very focus, goal directed therapy. Few sessions and can be doorway for patient to engage in another treatment (like CBT or group meetings).

What is the best explanation for intrusion errors?

intrusion errors in left ear -> verbal input to left ear goes to the auditory cortex in the right hemisphere -> processed by the left hemisphere for language processing

Symptoms of PTSD

intrusion symptoms (re-experience): recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress avoidance symptoms: deliberate attempts to avoid the memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with the trauma negative cognitive symptoms: inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others, and a persistent negative view of the world arousal symptoms: increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior, and sleep disturbances

Neurodevelopmental disorders

involves distress/disability due to abnormality in development of the nervous system includes Autism spectrum disorder, developmental coordination disorder, ADHD, intellectual disability

schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

involves distress/disability from psychosis. Psychosis includes delusions and hallucinations - causing disorganized thinking

phobias

irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid it. specific phobias: anxiety produced by a specific object or situation

Excessive sleepiness is a consequence of?

is a consequence of the accumulation of adenosine. Cells responsible for arousal are inhibited by adenosine monophosphate (AMP). b. can be caused by a large sleep debt

Gonads

ovaries and testes that produce sex hormones that increase libido and contribute to mating behavior and sexual function FSH/LH stimulation releases sex hormones (progesterone/estrogen for females, testosterone for males)

intersectionality

overlap of ideas, how identity categories intersect/align in systems of social stratification culture values may not align with social norms, but race/ethnicity might

straightforward way to describe personality

patterns of behavior description of traits

What is the Social Influence Theory of hypnosis?

people do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles

What is Continuity Theory?

people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime. As they age people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging. Older generations continue to age and adapt and society has to adapt with them

How is the dopamine-4 receptor gene one of the genes associated with personality?

people with longer dopamine-4 receptor gene are more likely to be thrill seekers

emotional intelligence

perceive, understand, manage,and use emotions in interactions with others

hallucinations

perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality - mostly auditory such as voices in one's head

Prodromal phase

period of time before schizophrenia symptoms are actually present marked by clear deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences followed by active phase of symptomatic behavior

How could there be reappearance of a stimuli in dim light?

periphery has a high density of rods for nighttime vision, fovea of cones for daytime, when stimuli moves from fovea to periphery, it becomes easier to detect it in dim light

Body dysmorphic disorder

person has an unrealistic evaluation of his/her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed towards a certain body part

scapegoats

person or group that bears the blame of others

projection identification

person targeted with projection can start believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them

gender identity

person's appraisal of him/herself on scales of masculinity and femininity, usually well established by age three

Jungian archetypes

persona: the mask we wear in public, the part of the personality we present to the world, adaptive to social interactions anima: man's "inner woman" animus: woman's "inner man" shadow: unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness

Types of innate behaviors

reflexes: nerve loop response w/o thinking Orientation behaviors: regulating specifically in our environments Fixed action pattern: sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption

What is a token economy?

reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes).

trait

relatively stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways

Daydreaming

relaxed, not as focused, self-induced light meditation

What is the difference between temperament and personality?

temperament refers to a set of innate or inborn traits that organize a child's approach to the world, while personality is what arises within the individual. Personality, which stays constant all through a person's life, consists of certain characteristic patterns like thoughts, feelings and behavior. Since it is naturally occurring, temperament cannot be taught or learned but, despite this fact, it can be nurtured as one grows.

Method of loci

supports the dual coding hypothesis : Associating each item in the list with a location along a route that's already been memorized Ex: grocery shopping and memorizing a grocery list -> and picturing the eggs sitting on a doorstep, a person spilling milk in their hallway etc.

social loafing

tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually-> may contexts

The relative strength of the node link determines/reflects...

the amount of activation emitted to a network or a specific node (exposure)

surface vs. source traits

surface traits: evident from a person's behavior source traits: factors underlying human personality (fewer and more abstract)

What is evolutionary game theory and what are its 2 central factors?

tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations. Reproduction and environment are central to evolutionary game theory. Reproduction important to game theory because it can't happen in isolation and it needs to involve others Environment - how organism fits in with social and physical environment. Work with other organisms to find food, raise young, deal with predators. [Fitness also depends on behavior of group] Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players

What is obstructive sleep apnea?

when airways are obstructed. Soft tissues around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time. Gets worse as people get older.

identity shift effect

when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group individual may experience internal conflict because the behavior is outside the normal character of the individual

convergence

when things are far away, eyes are relaxed, and when things are close to us our eyes contract

How long is a sleep cycle in adults

90 minutes, but children have more Slow wave sleep

Parasomnias

Abnormal movements and behaviors during sleep, including night terrors and sleep walking. Most sleep disorders occur during NREM

Marijuana

Active chemical: Tetrahydrocannabinol or THC, exerts its effects by acting at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors Actually inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity to cause pleasure Disrupts memory formation and short-term recall Heightened sensitivity to sounds, tastes, and smells, reduces inhibition, impairs motor and coordination skills Treatment for relieving pain and nausea

Visual processing

All right visual field goes to left side of the brain, all left visual field goes to the right side of the brain At optic chiasm fibers from the nasal half of each retina crosses paths, and these fibers carry the temporal visual field from each eye -> optic tracts when they leave the optic chiasm Optic chiasm -> LGN of thalamus -> radiations in parietal and temporal lobes to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe Superior colliculus controls reflexive movements of the eye aligning it to a certain sudden stimulus

Drug dependence as an amphetamine or cocaine user

As an amphetamine user, the body quickly tries to lower the HR and get back to normal As a cocaine addict, your brain starts to recognize external cues like room, needles etc. Brain tells body to get a head start and lowers HR before you take the drugs, which is why they need a higher dose over time

Beta waves

Associated with being awake and actively focusing on a mental task/concentration. Increased stress, anxiety, restlessness, constant alertness

Adaptation

Change over time of a receptor to a constant stimulus - downregulation

LSD

Complex interaction with serotonin VISUAL hallucinations Distortions of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection. Increased heart rate, blood pressure, dilated pupils, increased body temperature

Delta waves

Deep sleep or coma

Barbituates

Depresses CNS, were used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety

Stage 1 sleep

Dominated by theta waves, irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages- also may have hypnagogic hallucinations, hearing or seeing things that aren't there, hypnic jerks, and the tetris effect

Dreaming

Eyes are moving rapidly with brainwaves similar to those during wakefulness 75% in REM sleep, NREM dreams can occur in stage two, but REM dreams are longer and more vivid Activity in PFC is decreased, partly why our dreams sometimes don't seem logical

Initiation of hearing

Hair cells - first hit outer park of the ear known as the pinna, entering the auditory meatus/canal, then hit the tympanic membrane/eardrum

Ectasy/MDMA

Hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine Increases both dopamine and serotonin levels Increased heart rate, blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia as well as feelings of euphoria, heightened sensations, and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness

Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations

Hypnagogic: hallucinations when GOing to bed. Hypnapompic hallucinations: when POPping out of bed

Hair cells and apex

Indicates pitch of sound Hair cells high frequency sounds, apex low frequency sounds

Stimulants

Lead to an increase in arousal in the nervous system, increasing frequency of action potentials

Manifest and latent content

Manifest content: What one actually sees and hears Latent content: The underlying significance of these dream elements

Somatosensation

Modalities: Pressure, vibration, pain, and temporature Types of sensation: intensity, timing, and location Thermoception: temperature Mechanoception: pressure Nocicpetion: pain Proprioception/kinesthetic sense: ability to tell where one's body is in space, sense of balance and position

Heroin

Once injected, the body rapidly metabolizes heroin for morphine Prescription opioids such as oxycodone and hydrocodone Treatment includes the use of methadone, a long-acting opioid with a lower risk of overdose

Feature detection and parallel processing

Parallel processing: ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding shape, color, and motion. Feature detection: Parvocellular cells: detect shape, has high color spatial resolution, and good for seeing fine detail, low temporal resolution only useful for seeing slow-moving objects Magnocellular cells: high temporal resolution, but low spatial resolution, provide blurry, but moving images of objects

Subliminal perception

Perception of a stimulus below a given threshold, often known as the threshold of conscious perception Reaches the CNS but doesn't reach higher order brain regions that control attention and consciousness

Constancy

Perception of the object doesn't generally change even if it differs on the retina - shape, size, and color constancy

Insomnia

Persistent trouble staying and falling asleep - medications that are taken too long can lead to dependence and tolerance Exercising or relaxing before bed could help

Kinaesthesia

Refers to the movement of the body. In contrast to proprioception which is cognitive awareness of body in space

Binocular cues

Retinal disparity and convergence, slight differences in images projected on the two retinas and the angle required between the two eyes to bring an object into focus

Pheromones

Secreted by specialized olfactory cells Chemical signals released by a member of a species and sensed by another species to tirgger an innate response. In animals -> secreted by accessory olfactory epithelium

Neurocognitive models of dreaming

Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

Sleep paralysis

Sensation of being unable to move despite being awake

Somatosensory homunculus

Sensory cortex contains the homunculus. Info from your body all ends up in this somatosensory cortex. Creates a topological map of body in cortex

Slow wave sleep

Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep EEG shows low voltage, low high voltage waves called delta waves where sleep walking/talking happens SWS important for cognitive recovery and memory consolidation as well as growth hormone release

Caffeine

Stimulant by decreasing adenosine receptors Withdrawal symptoms and physiologically addicting

Meditation

Training to self-regulate attention and awareness. Can be guided and focused on something particular like breathing, or unfocused where the mind wanders freely. In western cultures: produces a sense of relaxation and relief from anxiety and worrying -EEG stage one sleep with theta and slow alpha waves, increased PFC and hippocampal activity

PTSD treatment

Use of hallucinogens for people to access painful memories in the past that's detached from strong emotions, so that they could come to terms with it

Opiates

Used to trait pain and anxiety. NOT a depressant Binds to opioid receptors in the peripheral and central nervous system, causing a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria. Act at body's receptor sites for endorphins

Auditory Processing

Vestibulocochlear nerve -> ascends to the medial geniculate nucleus -> projects to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus -> projects to the auditory cortex of temporal lobe Some signals sent to the superior olive, which aids in sound localization, and the inferior colliculus, which is involved in the startle reflex and helps the eyes fixed on a point while the head is turned

vestibular system

balance and spatial orientation, rotational and liner acceleration

absolute thresholds are influenced by these factors

expectations, familiarity and experience, motivation, alertness

Signal Detection theory

how we make decisions under uncertain conditions explores response bias - catch trials have stimulus noise trials don't - Respond yes to stimulus presented -> hit, respond no to a stimulus present -> miss, respond yes to a stimulus absent -> false alarm, respond no to a stimulus absent -> correct rejection

Two point threshold

minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli

Absolute threshold of sensation

minimum intensity of a stimullus needed to detect a stimulus fifty percent of the time

vestibule

portion that contains the utricle and saccule, the structures that are sensitive to linear acceleration and are used as a balancing apparatus to determine one's orientation in three dimensional space

Monocular cues

relative size, interposition aka overlap, relative height aka things seem higher further away, shading and contour, motion parallax aka things farther away move slower

Cones

three types, red, green, blue or long, medium, short S- blue M -green L - red

just noticeable difference

threshold at which you're able to notice a change in any sensation

Genes

Individual units of heredity

Justification of effort is also known as?

sunk-cost fallacy

adaptive coping

support seeking, nutrition, sleep etc.

Attitude

Expression of positive or negative feelings towards a person, place, thing, or scenario

Where is the neurotransmitter dopamine produced?

Ventral tegmental area (VTG) of the midbrain

Symptoms of mania

"DIG FAST" Distractibility Insomnia Grandiosity Flight of Ideas Agitation Speech Thoughtlessness

Efferent neurons

"Do the effort" Motor neurons

Controlled processing

"Effortful processing", with most new or complex tasks requiring undivided attention Ex: First time driver having a lot of things going on in her head while driving

Pituitary gland

"FLAT-PEG" FH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, Endorphins, GH

Limbic system

"HAT Hippo" Hypothalamus, amygdala, Thalamus, Hippocampus

Ex of ABC model of attitude

"I love yoga because I get to meditate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week." - 'I love yoga' is emotional,' I believe it helps me relax' is cognitive, and behavioral is 'I will go to class each week'

Inductive reasoning

"IN" Bottom up: Seeks to create a theory via generalizations, starts with specific instances, and then draw conclusions from them

What is some elements of cultural imperialism?

"In" group - the one we are connected with. "US". Stronger interactions with those in the in-group than those in the out-group. Interactions are more common and more influential as well within In-group. "Out" group - "THEM" . Group we're not associated with. ,"group of people who we do not feel connected too" In-Group favouritism - we favour/friendly to people in our own group, but those in outgroup we are neutral - we don't give them favours we do to our in-group. Out-group derogation - we are super friendly to our in group, but not friendly to out group - we discriminate. Happens if we feel that the out group is threatening to or undermine in group's success. Group polarization - Group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want. This can turbo charge the group's viewpoints

Type of mechanoreceptors in skin

"MCM RP - man crush Monday role play" Superficial -> deep MCM= Papillary dermis R= Reticular dermis P= Subcutaneous layer

Cerebral cortex

"Newest" brain structure Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres and involved in complex processes gyri and sulci increase surface area -> divided into two hemispheres and four lobes

Internal locus of control

Views selves controlling the fate of their own destiny

Symptoms of a major depressive episode

"SIG. E. CAPS" -Sleep disurbances -Interests decreased (anhedonia) -Guilt and feelings of worthlessness -Energy decreased (lethargy and fatigue) -Concentration difficulties -Appetite disturbances -Psychomotor symptoms (feeling "slowed down") -Suicidal thoughts These symptoms must cause signifiant distress and impairment in function

Bipolar II disorder

"less manic, more depressive" Has hypomania with at least one major depressive episode

Bipolar I Disorder

"more manic" manic disorders with or without major depressive episodes

Conformity

"peer pressure", matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms powerful in social situations, which determine what's acceptable, when to question authorities, and get feedback on behavior majority influence

Secondary appraisal

"what am I going to do to cope with this situation" Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge, potential benefits from the event

Just world Hypothesis

"you got what you deserve"

What was done during the Mary Ainsworth experiment?

#1. Mother and child in room with a stranger (stranger was part of experiment). Child allowed to exaccoplore. Neither stranger nor mother interact with child. Purpose: would they explore the space? #2. Then mom leaves the room (without calling too much attention to herself) and quietly leaves. Baby left alone with stranger. Purpose: what is child's response when mother leaves (does child keep playing or does child start crying) #3. Then mother returns. Mother + stranger + baby in the room. Purpose: What is the child's response when mother returns (are they happy, sad about her return, or ignore her)

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

Deficiency of thiamine and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills

Confirmation bias

Actively seek out only confirming facts, focusing only on information that fits an individual's beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them

Broca's aphasia

Expressive aphasia due to frontal lobe damamge - broken, halted speech, apraxia: disorder or motor planning, "tip of the tongue"

What does evo. Game theory predict?

-Predicts the availability of resources -social behavior (important for who they mate with -Evolutionary game theory helps us predict traits we would expect to see in a population. -evolutionarily stable strategies (behaviors that persist in population once present).;

Acute vs postacute withdrawal

Acute: few weeks, physical withdrawal symptoms, different for each drug/person Postacute: fewer physical symptoms, more emotional/psychologic symptoms, same symptoms for everyone -. a rollercoaster of symptoms, may make relapse more likely

Glycine

Amino Acid NT- Secreted in the spinal cord, inhibitory neurotransmitter by increasing chloride influx into the neuron

Glutamate

Amino acid NT Most common excitatory neurotransmitter -> increased cortical arousal -> reticular activating system uses it

According to Vygotsky, what 4 elementary functions do babies have?

Attention, sensation, perception, and memory (acronym: elementary mental babies have crAMPS

What reinforcement are most resistant and most susceptible to extinction, respectively?

Among the reinforcement schedules, variable-ratio is the most resistant to extinction, while fixed-interval is the easiest to extinguish.

Where is the implicit memory of emotion stored?

Amygdala

Learning theory of attitude

Attitudes are developed through different forms of learning. Direct contact with the object can influence attitudes

What is a stereotype threat?

(negative consequence of stereotyping) - self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

maladaptive coping

(negative) aggression, dependence, status-seeking, dissociation, sensitization, anxious avoidance, escape

Intuition

Defined as the ability to act on perceptions that may or may bot be supported by available evidence "feels good to be correct" often developed by experience

Jung three dichtomies of personality

Extraversion vs. introversion Intuiting vs. Sensing Feeling vs. Thinking

Emotional components of stress

Anger - Type A or Type B Anxiety - Amygdala Addiction - when searching for coping mechanisms there options to cope, typically addictive substances

Stages of Erickson's psychosocial development

-1 yrs., trust vs. mistrust. If an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust everyone. Virtue is hope, and failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust. -2 yrs., autonomy vs. shame/doubt. Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. Virtue achieved is will (independence). If child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self-esteem, and have shame. -3-5 yrs., initiative vs. guilt. Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. Virtue they reach is a sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make. If tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt - as if they're annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy. -6-12. industry vs. inferiority. Where teachers take an important role in a child's life, and child works towards competence. Child will gain greater significance and self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. Will feel industrious, but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior. Some is good though, so child has modesty. -12-18, adolescence. identity vs. role confusion Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important crisis. Want to start feeling they belong in society. In this stage, the child has to learn rules, so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays big role. Virtue is fidelity, seeing oneself as unique. Can cause rebellion/unhappiness. -intimacy vs. isolation. Try to find love and relationships. Completion leads to comfortable relationships, avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness. -40-65, Generativity vs. stagnation so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of bigger picture.. Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities, so develop sense of care for others. Negative outcome is they feel stagnate and unproductive. -65+, integrity vs. despair slowing in productivity. Contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilt about past or unaccomplished, dissatisfied. Virtue is wisdom, but if we feel unprodu ctive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon death.

Fluid intelligence

-Ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logic problems -Ability to think on one's feet, be adaptable, and solve using deductive and inductive reasoning

Example of a hierarchal semantic network

Animal -> bird -> ostrich

Hans Selye General Adaptation Syndrom

-Alarm: Initial response to stressor, activation of the sympathetic nervous system to release ACTH, and the hypothalamus activates the adrenal medulla -Resistance: Continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight the stressor -Exhaustion: If resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted, tissues become damaged, and dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness -> negative impact of long term stress

Class/status/power?

-Class: A person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement. Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber notes how corporate executives control firms they typically do not own; Marx would have placed these people in the proletariat despite their high incomes by virtue of the fact they sell their labor instead of owning capital. -Status / Prestige: A person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society. Weber notes that political power is not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's individual status. For example: Poets or saints can have extensive influence on society despite few material resources. -Power: A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others, particularly in their ability to engage social change. For example, individuals in government jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United States Congress, may hold little property or status but still wield considerable social power;

What are Max Weber's 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of the organization's goal- first half?

-Division of labor - people are trained to do specific tasks. Pro - people are better at tasks, and increased efficiency. Con - increase alienation in workers, separating them from others (conflict theory), and they don't see work from beginning to end. Can lead to less satisfaction which leads to less productivity. Also can lead to trained incapacity, where workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with overall picture. -Hierarchy of organization - each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. Pro - clarify who's in command Con - deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders"). Also allows individuals to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members).;

Biological basis of Alzheimer's disease

-Genetic: mutations in the presenilin gene, apolipoprotein E, b-amyloid precursor protein -atrophy of brain on CT or MRI -flattened sulci in cerebral cortex -enlarged cerebral ventricles -deficient flow in parietal lobes -reduction in levels of ACh -reduction in choline acetyltransferase, enzyme that produces ACh -reduced metabolism in parietal and temporal lobes -plaques of b-amyloid -neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic: external forces such as rewards, avoiding punishment, or competition Intrinsic: Driven by interest or pure-enjoyment

What are the four concentric circles of stigma?

-Media: outer circle. Major source of stigma, because can depict conditions as being dangerous, violent, moral-failings ( Social media is also huge component in creating stigma. We need to have guidelines for journalists to reduce the stigma in society. -Society: interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job (earning an income), in healthcare (to get appropriate level of healthcare, follow-up care, getting a screening), etc. A great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use of legislation and anti-discrimination laws. -Family: family can be shunned by society (if they have a family member with stigmatizing condition), or family might shun individual themselves. Ex. isolate the individual who is stigmatized against in the family and keep isolate/as secret within family. May be detrimental to personal/intimate relationships, and interventions like education/therapy are important. -Self: core circle, media, society, family interactions can be internalized by an individual and can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society. Useful interventions include educating, access to support groups/resources.

What are the two general pathway that somatosensory information travels?

-Position sense, vibration sense, and fine touch -Pain, temperature, gross touch

Social Behaviorism theory

-Preparatory stage -interaction through imitation, As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words). Can't take perspective of others. -Play stage - more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others like firefighters, doctors, etc. Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view. Focused on role-taking: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that perceived viewpoint. Way beyond imitation. They create social-interactions (not just mimicking) Children consider attitudes, belief, and behaviors of individuals closest to them.

Describe the 3 steps of societal evolution?

-The thesis (existing generally accepted state) was that bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labor. Thesis causes the formation of the reaction - antithesis (opposed the accepted state). -Antithesis - Desire of working class to change was the thesis. The anti-thesis is the reaction to the thesis, the push-back from those unhappy with the status quo. Thesis + antithesis can't coexist peacefully. Thesis is happy while antithesis is looking for change always -Struggle would lead to a compromise - a synthesis of the two by creating a new state. Would eventually become new thesis. Could lead to members of the working class becoming managers. Creating a new middle class that might have more power than the factory owner. This creates a new thesis/antithesis. Thesis is always for the more powerful party. Antithesis always wants to oppose the thesis and there is a constant struggle of tension/unrest between the two opposing sides

Four pillars of information processing model

-Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli -Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain to be useful in decision making -decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (situational modification) -problem solving is dependent not only on person's cognitive level, but also on context and complexity of the problem

Photoreceptors

Eyes (rods and cones in retina)

What are Max Weber's 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of the organization's goal- second half?

-Written rules and regulations Pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go) Con - stiffens creativity, and too much structure discourages employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization) -Impersonality - how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner Pro - equal treatment Con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group -Employment based on technical qualifications -hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favoritism/personal rivalries Pro - decrease discrimination Con - decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more). Leads to Peter Principle, where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further).;

What did Carl Rogers, of humanistic theory, believe about self-concept?

-believed self-concept had 3 different components. 1. Self-image: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves. 2. Self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves 3. Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be 4. When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self-concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is incongruity 5. Explain actions through self-concept and incongruence.

Elaborative rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal is the association of the information to knowledge already stored in the LTM -> tied to self-reference effect LTM moved over time to cerebral cortex

Biological basis of depressive disorders

-decreased activity in frontal lobe and limbic structures, show a role in regulation of emotions and response to stress -increased level of cortisol, a glucocorticoid controlled by the hypothalamus -abnormally high glucose metabolism in the amygdala -hippocampal atrophy after a long duration of illness -decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine -predisposition can be inherited, but likely a combo of biological and psychological factors

Biological basis of schizophrenia

-decreased cerebral cortex -thinning of frontal and temporal lobe areas -excess of dopamine in the brain (abnormal activity in the mesocorticolimbic pathway, increased levels in the ventral tegmental area)

Biological basis of Parkinson's disease

-decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigria (layer of cells that function to produce dopamine to permit proper functioning of the basal ganglia, which is critical for initiating and terminating movements, as well as sustaining repetitive motor tasks and smoothening motions) -treatment with L-DOPA -Lewy bodies: deposit around cerebral cortex

What is the multiple approach-avoidance theory?

-describes the internal mental debate (sometimes called a conflict) that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements. -Approach-approach conflicts: two options are both appealing. -Avoidant-avoidant conflicts: both options are unappealing -An approach-avoidance conflict: when one option has both positive and negative aspects. -Double approach-avoidant conflicts consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics, which seemed to represent a jury's dilemma.

eight factors indicative of groupthink

-illusion of invulnerability -collective rationalization -illusion of morality -excessive stereotyping -pressure for conformity -self-censorship -illusion of unanimity -mindguards

What are different types of somatosensory communication in animals?

-mating dances. -Movement can also convey food location (bees) -pair/group bonding (ex. birds cuddle/prune mates) -body language (facial expression/body language) can express emotion (dog showing teeth when threatened) -Also seismic communication (ex. movement of bug in spider's web signals to spider to find it) -electro-communication (fish) While weakly electric fish are the only group that have been identified to carry out both generation and reception of electric fields, other species either generate signals or receive them, but not both. -Signals can be detected by predators as a way to find food;

Context effects

Another retrieval cue along with priming, memory is aided by the physical location where the encoding took place Ex: Person will score better when they take the exam in the same room they learned information

What is the non-dominant hemisphere's function (usually right side)?

Emotion, creativity, big picture concepts

Parkinson's Disease

-resting tremor -brady-kenesia (slowness in movement) -pill-rolling tremor (flexing and extending fingers), -masklike facies (facial expression consisting of static and expressionless facial features, staring eyes, and partially open mouth) - cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipulate a limb) -shuffling gait (stooped posture)

What are the two parts of self-concept?

1. Existential self is most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from 2. Categorical self - becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others. And each of these objects/entities has properties

What 4 factors determine if a person has a strong/weak sense of self-efficacy?

1. Mastery of experience - strengthens self-efficacy 2. Social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy 3. Social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt. 4. Psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve self-efficacy

How many total pairs of nerves make up the PNS?

12 cranial + 31 spinal = 43 total pairs includes nerves and ganglia, afferent and efferent neurons

Why is it difficult to decrease prejudice in certain personality types?

-the authoritarian personality - very prejudiced: They're obedient to superiors, but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves - they are oppressive. And rigid thinkers, inflexible with their viewpoints. These people probably had a harsh bringing/lots of discipline growing up They use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focused on others.

Major motor milestones

2-4 months: heads up/chests up 2- 5months: roll over 5-8 months: sit up 5-10 months: stand with support (furniture/people) 6-11 months: pull up to standing position 7-12 months: children are able to crawl 7-13 months: walk while holding onto furniture 10-14 months: Stand on their own 11-15 months: walk alone

ex of twin study

Answer question: what causes schizophrenia? Monozygotic vs. dizygotic can hold environment constant If it was genetic, we would see a higher rate in identical twins If environmental, we would see similar rates of disorder in both sets of twins

Steps of Charles Cooley's theory of the looking glass self

1) How do I appear to others? 2) What must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, or awkward) 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations)

What are the 2 main foraging strategies?

1) Solitary foraging - animal looks for food by itself. 2) group foraging - animals look for food in groups. Hunting based on both your behavior and those around you. Can lead to competition within a group if food is scarce. Benefit of this strategy is that animals can take down larger/more aggressive prey and everyone can benefit;

Manic episodes

Abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week - severe enough to cause impairment in functioning State of high optimism, high energy, high self-esteem, euphoria, poor judgement, poor-decision making, risky behaviors, delusion of gradeur, increased heart rate, followed by a crash

Findings of the Strange Situation experiment

60% were secure attachment #1: Child was secure with parent and explored room, might have stayed with mother and eventually explored room (aka. child might walk back to mother at times or look back at mother, but comfortable exploring) #2: When parent left, child became really distressed/upset #3: when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy 40% were classified as having Insecure attachment #1: children cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. #2: When mother left became upset/distress #3: distress did not go away when she came back. Others were avoidant - were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned

Piaget's idea of schemata

A framework for us to organize and interpret new information Organized patterns of behavior, schema can include a concept, behavior, or a sequence of events. as a child proceeds through the stages, new information has to be placed into different schemata

Intelligence

A mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt to new situations

Heuristics

A mental shortcut that allows us to find solutions quicker than others "rules of thumb" reduces the number of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminates trying unlikely possibilities

State dependent memory

A person's mental state can affect recall Ex: People who learn facts or skills while drunk will show better recall or proficiency when performing those same tasks while intoxicated than while sober

What is a personality trait, and how does it describe personality?

A personality trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior. Straightforward way to describe personality - puts it in patterns of behavior. Description of traits instead of explaining them

What is positive priming?

A positive prime speeds up processing. caused by simply experiencing the stimulus. Positive priming is thought to be caused by spreading activation. This means that the first stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. The representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it.

Interference

A retrieval error cause by the existence of other, usually similar information

Lexicon

A set of vocabulary items, entire set of morphemes in a language

Factor analysis

A statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits receive a final classification of personality after detection of structure between variables

James Lange Theory of Emotion

A stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which them leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled Theory predicts that those who can't mount sympathetic response, like those with spinal cord injuries, show decreased levels of emotion PR -> Interpretation of PR-.> Emotion

What is the difference between a study on epigenetics and a study on the gene-environment interaction?

A study that looks at the interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental events is looking at gene-environment interaction, not epigenetics.

Bipolar and Related disorders

Abnormal negative mood, characterized by both depression and mania

Crystallized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills Ability to retrieve and acquire knowledge -Based on fact, experience, prior learning, and accumulates as one ages

What are the two main neurotransmitters of the peripheral nervous system?

Acetylcholine and epinephrine

Positive reinforcement

ADDING a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior, ex: employees will continue working if paid

Posterior pituitary gland

ADH an oxytocin

Cocktail party affect

Ability to concentrate on one voice among a crowd..different interpretation of selective attention

How does social interactionism address meaning?

Addresses the subjective meanings people believe to be true - meaning is the central aspect of human behavior. Humans ascribe meanings to things, and act towards those things based on ascribed meaning. Language allows humans to generate meaning through interactions, and humans modify meanings to thought processes;

Adoption studies

Adopted child is compared to biological family and adopted family Biological parents have shared genes to adopted child but markedly different environments Environmental factor: more similar to adoptive parents Genetic factor: more similar to biological parents

Components of attitude

Affective: feelings towards something, emotional Behavioral: how one acts with respect to something Cognitive: way an individual thinks about something

Thyroid gland

Affects growth and metabolism, affects growth and development of the brain

Muscle stretch reflex

Afferent and efferent reflexes Protective response -Somatosensory (afferent) neurons in muscle spindles form an excitatory synapse in spinal cord with another neuron in spinal cord, which sends signal back to the muscle, exciting the skeletal muscle cells to contract Muscles on underside of leg are inhibited when top side is excited Ex: knee jerk reflex

What are the three parts of Posner's model of attention?

Alerting is the process involved in becoming and staying attentive toward the surroundings. It appears to exist in the frontal and parietal lobes of the right hemisphere, and is modulated by norepinephrine produced in the locus ceruleus. Orienting is the directing of attention to a specific stimulus. Executive attention is is involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention.

IQ score

Alfred Binet's test to establish a child's mental age and intellectual development to predict future success in school - how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years Mental age/chronological age x 100 Only measures analytical intelligence

Is race genetically based?

All humans 99.9% identical - There is no genetic basis for race. But it is important on a social level.

Broadbent's Early Selection Theory

All info in the environment goes into a sensory register that is then transferred into a selective filter, this selective filter filters OUT stuff in unattended ear and what you don't need to understand it (accents etc.), finally perceptual processes will say for instance, identify the friend's voice and assign meaning to the words. Then you can engage in other cognitive processes Sensory register -> selective filter -> perceptual process (assigning meaning) -> conscious

How does divergence of the nasal and temporal sides occur at the optic chiasm?

All light from the nasal side of both eyes cross to the other side so left nasal info goes to the right side and vice versa. b. On the other hand, all axons leading from the temporal side DO NOT CROSS the optic chiasm. c. What it effectively does, is the right visual field goes to the left brain and the left visual field goes to the right side of the brain

How does visual field processing occur in the opposing hemispheres of the brain?

All right visual field goes to left side of brain, all left visual field goes to right side of brain. b. Rays of light from the left visual field hits the NASAL side of the left eye and hits the TEMPORAL side of the right eye c. Rays of light from the right visual field hits the NASAL side of the right eye and hits the TEMPORAL side of the left eye

What is the actor-observer bias?

Almost same thing as fundamental attribution error. We are victims, but others are willful actors. Actors more likely to attribute situational, observers more likely to attribute dispositional/internal factors

Conduction aphasia

Also known as associative aphasia "Damage to the conduction" Broca's area and Wernicke's areas are connected by the arcuate fasciculus, when damaged the ability to conduct listening and speaking is disrupted, and it is difficult for people to repeat things even when they understand what is being said.

How does altruism increase group fitness?

Altruism - 2 groups of monkeys, one selfish and one not. Selfish group doesn't alarm others of predators. Non-selfish group alerts others and leads to overall success of group over time. Making a call at their own expense is sometimes good (the one who makes the call might not survive, but those similar to it can be helped...this is better strategy for the population).;

Retinal vision after passing bipolar cell

Amacrine and horizontal cells receive input from multiple retinal cells in same area before info is passed to ganglion cells, important for edge detection

Adaptive coping mechanisms/Positive Coping/Constructive coping

Anticipation: When one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one will cope with it. Social coping: seeking social support from others Meaning-focused coping: Person concentrates on deriving meaning from stressful experience Mantainance of good health

Cluster B Personality Disordres

Antisocial (not to be confused with schizoid or avoidant): three times more common in male - disregard for and violations of the rights of others. Evidenced by illegal acts, deceit, aggression, and lack of remorse for the actions Borderline: two times more common in females - pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image. Intense and unstable relationships, disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, fear of abandonment - use splitting view others as all good or all bad (angel vs. devil mentality) Histrionic personality disorder: constant attention seeking narcissistic: grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, a need for constant admiration and attention, characteristic disturbances in interpersonal relationships and feelings of entitlement "full of themselves" - however they have a very fragile self-esteem and are concerned with how others view them

Wernicke's area

Area of brain responsible for the comprehension of speech. Damage results in misunderstanding and not being able to respond to what people are saying to you

Broca's area

Area of brain responsible for the production of speech. If damaged, you can understand what the person says, but your speech is disjointed

When does stranger anxiety set in?

Around 8 months of age

Pleasure principle ex

As a child you want to immediately feel pleasure to avoid suffering. Not willing to compromise "I want candy now"

What is Kohlberg's theory?

As our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex/nuanced ways, and this directly affects the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive right vs. wrong

Long term potentiation

As stimulus is repeated, stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time, receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increases, increasing receptor density

Synaptic pruning

As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while the strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information

Basal forebrain on attention

Assists in orienting attention -> changing focus of attention from one stimulus to anoher Includes the nucleus accumens, nucleus basalis, and medial septal nuclei....important in production of acetylcholine -> main cholinergic output of the CNS

Peg- word system

Associates numbers with items that rhyme of resemble numbers Ex: Visualize eggs being friend by the sun, which the person associated with the number one

Semantics

Association of meaning with a word Child must learn that certain combinations of phonemes represnt certain physical objects of events, and the words may refer to entire categories

Social development of infants

At birth, parental figure is the center of a child's world stranger anxiety and separation anxiety develops in response to this At two years old: parallel play, children will play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior

As dopamine increases, serotonin (increases/decreases) and does what to the perception of satiety?

At same time dopamine goes up (increase sense of euphoria), serotonin goes down. Serotonin - partially responsible for feelings of satiation. So if serotonin goes down, you are less likely to be satiated or content.

Attentional capture

Attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus, salient and unattended stimulus draws attention leading to awareness of its presence

Functional attitudes theory

Attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense knowledge: knowing the attitudes of others help predict behavior ego-expression: allowing us to communicate and solidify our self-identity adaptive attitude: one will be socially accepted if socially accepted attitudes are expressed ego defense: if they protect our self-esteem or justify actions we know are wrong (ex: a kid bad at math develops negative attitude towards it)

What are intentions based on?

Attitudes towards certain behavior Subjective norms: what we think others think about our behavior perceived behavioral control: how easy/hard it is to control our behavior

Hormone effects

Autocrine: affects the cell that makes it Paracrine: Regional effect Endocrine: response that's far away

Fastest information to process?

Automatic stimuli: spatial and temporal info and frequency novel info requires conscious recall

Rooting reflex

Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek, allows for orientation to mother's nipple or bottle

Cluster C Personality disorders

Avoidant (not to be confused with schizoid): affected individual has extreme shyness and fear of rejection, avoid situations where they could be criticized feel they're socially inept and inadequate, despite wishes for social affection and acceptance dependent: continuous need for reassurance, submissive and clingy, dependent on another to take actions and make decisions obsessive-compulsive (don't confuse with OCD): perfectionistic, likes rules and order, inability to discard worn-out objects, lack of desire to change, excessive stubbornness, lack of a sense of humor, maintenance of careful routines

Alertness

Awake and able to think

Consciousness

Awareness of our self and environment Awareness can be induced by external factors such as drugs or internal mental efforts Range from alertness to sleep

Psychological factors in depression

Behavioral theory - "learned helplessness", uncontrollable exposure to an adverse stimulus Cognitive theory - cognitive distortions, getting trapped in negative thought pattern Cognitive theory - attribution, individuals with depression link negative experiences to internal causes, pessimistic/negative attributional style

social cognitive theory of attitude

Bandura - behaviors are influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context. Concern with interactions between individual and situation they're in and their social context Ex: Meg is interested in soccer (cognition), joins the soccer team (environment), and spends time with soccer players (behavior)

Bobo Doll experiment

Bandura and his social-cognitive theory Attention, memory, initiation, motivation Observational learning is learned through watching and imitating others, such as modeling actions of another Mirror neurons supports this -Kids watched guy to hit a bobo doll, screaming "kick it, hit it". Kids were given a puzzle, and used the bobo doll to channel all of their frustration by kicking it and yelling at it

Brain structure where implicit memory is Stored?

Basal gangliaaaaaa NOT forebrain where cholinergic neurons are

What is the Russell/Barrett conceptual act model of emotion?

Basic emotions aren't biological but emerge from two more fundamental entities: core affect and categorization Core affect (such as pleasure, tension, or energy) good or bad, pleasure or displeasure, energized vs. not, can exist in isolation or as a component of moods and emotions. Event → Label as Core effect → Emotion + Physiological response

Functions of the nervous system

Basic functions: motor, sensory, automatic (reflexes) Higher: cognition, emotions, and consciousness

What are the 2 most common types of mimicry?

Batesian mimicry, where a harmless mimic poses as harmful; Müllerian mimicry, where two or more harmful species mutually advertise themselves as harmful;

Why is the Lazarus Theory of emotion so different?

Because your experience of the emotion depends on how you labeled the particular situation, whether it's positive or negative, resulting in a physiological response + emotion based on the label

What is the Prototype Willingness Model?

Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our behavior. Our behavior is a function of.... Past behavior Attitudes - explained in Attitude to behavior processing model above. Attitude → behavior Subjective norms - what others think about our behavior Our intentions - our behavior intentions Our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior models/prototyping - a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modeling.

Prototype willingness model

Behavior is a function of six things, and these six things will influence our behavior -Past behavior -Attitudes -subjective norms -our intentions -our willingness to engage -modeling

Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation

Behavior, personal factors, and environment all influence each other Ex: work ethic of employees (behavior) is affected by how hard colleagues work, their previous attitudes towards work (personal), and the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment) Reciprocally, this behavior can create a change in employees attitude towards work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment)

positive symtoms

Behaviors, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behavior Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized or catatonic behavior

Yerkes Dodson law

Bell shaped function between arousal and performance Low arousal = low performance Optimal performance at optimal arousal = intermediate levels of both High arousal=low performance optimal level varies between types of tasks -> lower levels of arousal optimal for highly cognitive tasks, higher levels optimal for activities that require endurance and stamina, simple tasks require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks

What are the 5 considerations when examining persons gender and sexual orientation?

Biological - sex (male/female - the biological characteristics) person is born with. Are they male or female? (XY sex Chromosome, or XX sex chromosome). Identity -gender (masculine/feminine - behaviors, roles, activities in society ) they identify as Expression - gender they express Attraction - gender they're romantically attracted to Fornication - gender they're sexually attracted to

Drug factors

Biological: Genetic predisposition, biochemical imbalance in brain, drugs mimicking NT's like dopamine in brain socio-cultural: curiosity, novelty of the drug, rebellion, poor control of user, coping, low self-esteem, relief from fatigue, pleasure, higher in areas of poverty

Eating factors

Biological: Lateral Hypothalamus (starts hunger), Ventromedial Hypothalamus (ends hunger), set point, insulin, metabolism Sociocultural:different occasions, time, desire, appeal, and availability

Sexual factors

Biological: sexual response cycle (excitement phase, plateau, orgasm, resolution/refractory period), increased testosterone/estrogen, genetic predispositions to sexuality Sociocultural: Varied sexual response due to age, cultural background, stimulus, emotions, and desires to procreate or not

critical/sensitive period

Birth to before puberty LAD only works during this stage -point early in development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning in later life

Global aphasia

Both Wernicke's and Broca's areas are damaged - combination of impaired comprehension and production of speech

Avoidance-Avoidance conflict

Both of the options are negative

Effects of acute stress

Brain: increased alertness and perception of pain Thymus gland/Immune function: Immune system readied for possible injury Circulatory system:: Heart beats faster, blood vessels constrict to bring more oxygen to muscles Adrenal glands: Secrete hormones that mobilize energy supplies Reproductive organs: Temporarily suppressed

Information Processing model

Brains are similar to computers Input -> process -> output Human brain has the capacity for parallel processing

Old brain

Brainstem: Medulla and pons Reticular formation Thalamus cerebellum

Social Psychology

Branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence -> focus on interaction between the individual and the changing environmental (situational) circumstances over internal traits/internal motivations/stable personality traits

Permanent reflexes

Breathing reflex, eyeblink reflex, pupillary reflex, swallowing reflex

Temperament

Broader than personality. It is characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, shyness, and sociability Seems established before babies are exposed to environment Persistent as a person ages - hard wired into us at birth

Biological theory of personality

Buss: males + females have different mating strategies that influence costs associated with passing on genes Eysenck: Extroversion is based on reticular formation levels Gray: Personality is governed by behavioral inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (rewards) Cloninger: low dopamine linked to high imulsivity

How is homeostasis usually regulated?

By a negative feedback loop

How does operant conditioning define the motivational state?

By depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus for a period of time.

What do people do when they're experiencing cognitive dissonance

Change attitudes to match their behavior, rather than change their behavior

Modern ways to study the brain

CAT, MRI, EEG, MEG, fMRI, PET MRI good for telling location, EEG good for function fMRI and PET function and structure

Structure of the Nervous system

CNS and PNS CNS: Brain and spinal cord PNS: Cranial + spinal nerves, ganglia, afferent and efferent neurons

What are Gordon Allport's 3 basic trait categories?

Cardinal traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities - the dominant trait that influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits. Central trait - Less dominant than cardinal. ex. honesty, sociability, shyness. Secondary trait - preferences or attitude. Ex. love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat

Norepenephrine and Epinephrine

Catecholamines Primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system Norepi acts more at a local level as a NT Epi is acts systematically as a hormone when secreted by the adrenal medulla Low levels: depression High levels; anxiety and mania

Rogers + Maslow

Central to our personality: self-concept, which is achieved when we bring genuineness and acceptance together to achieve a growth-promoting climate Genuine + acceptance = self-concept congruency between self-concept and actions are important to feel fulfilled

Pre-processing stage of elaboration likelihood model

Central: Listener will choose if listener interest, motivation, importance high Peripheral: Listener interest, motivation, importance low, filtering information before they can process it

types of sleep apnea

Central: Problem in brain's control system for ventilation Obstructive: airways are obstructed

Processing stage of elaboration likelihood model

Central: focusing on deep processing of information Peripheral: shallow processing

What does the brain include

Cerebrum, cerebal hemispheres, brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla), and cerebellum Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain Forebrain becomes cerebrum, midbrain becomes midbrain, hindbrain becomes pons/medulla/cerebellum

Conversion disorder

Characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions -sometimes have a level of psychological stress or traumatic event resulting in manifestation of neurological symptoms Ex: paralysis or blindness without evidence of neurological damage may be unconcerned about the symptom "la belle difference"

Why are pros and cons of animals communicating through Chemical signals/Olfactory Signals?

Chemical signals tend to be a lot slower than sound, but a lot longer lasting. But because of this long lasting effect, chemical signals are considered "noisy" - a lot of chemical signals in a given area.;

What is symbolic interactionist perspective of cities?

Cities are places where people have different ways of looking at life. Strong cultural values, people have strong cultural values and people have different interactions and perspectives of urban life

What is the functionalist perspective of cities?

Cities have important functions and have a slice of culture and diverse populations but also host to crime and other disruptions to society

What is a city defined as?

Cities have over 50 000 people

What is respondent conditioning?

Classical conditioning

In the Harlow monkey experiment, why did the monkeys prefer the (blank) mother?

Cloth mother acts as a secure base - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there. If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother

conjuction fallacy

Co-occurence of two instances is more likely than a single one. Ex: the probability of Linda being a bank teller and feminist is greater than just being a bank teller.

Sociocultural factors of depression

Co-rumination/empathy: having friends/roommates/partners with depression can increase the likelihood of individuals around you getting depression. Due to talking about the negatives of problems instead of solutions Low SES: unemployment, social isolation, child abuse, internalization of prejudice (you grew up in a homophobic environment, but now you start to like people of the same sex), leads to depression

Affect of cocaine on the brain

Cocaine is a stimulant, most likely would have the same response as glucose metabolism, increasing it's metabolism within the brain

Vygotsky's theory on cognitive development

Cognition is the child's internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal skills, symbols, and language

What is gender schema theory?

Cognitions regarding what constitutes a sex identity is a gender schema. Theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. How sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. What constitutes men/female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in the society

Other treatments for addiction

Cognitive behavioral therapy: addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction -> recognizing problematic situations and develop more positive thought patterns and coping strategies, and monitor cravings Motivational interviewing: Working with patients to find intrinsic motivation to change. Group meetings: "Like AA"

Long tracts

Collection of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem Motor and somatosensory tracts

Long tracts

Collections of axons connectinf cerebrum and brainstem - UMNs and somatosensory tracts

Collective behavior is often driven by...

Collective behavior is often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividuation. Certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in normal circumstances, which also occur in a collective.

Cyclothymic disorder

Combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that aren't severe enough to qualify as major depressive episodes

What are the 3 factors of rational choice theory?

Completeness (every action can be ranked), ex. A is preferable to B which is preferable to C. (C is not then preferable to A). (A>B>C) Transitivity (since A is preferable to B is preferable to C, therefore, A is also preferable to C). (same as math A >B >C, Therefore A>C). Independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a fourth option X, won't change order of how I ranked first 3 options. Just add it in to existing order. (A>B>C, & B>X>C, Therefore: A>B>X>C).

Frontal lobe

Complex thinking center - perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, long-term planning Prefrontal lobes and motor cortex Association area: area that integrates input from diverse brain regions Projection areas: perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual and motor tasks ex: visual and motor cortex Damage to prefrontal region: people make vulgar remarks, are impulsive or be apathetic

What are the 3 components of prejudice?

Component 1: Cognition (Stereotype)- Fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief (cognition) Component 2: Affect - prejudice carries an emotional component Component 3: Discrimination (tendency for Prejudice to lead to behavior) -capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice

CAT

Computerized Axial Tomography: X-rays to create image of the brain (tumor/abnormal swelling/bleeding...but it can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active in a given time) , lower resolution than MRI, not as good for soft tissues

What is the purpose of the hippocampus?

Convert STM (Short term memory)→ LTM (long term memory)

Formation of Emotional Memories

Emotional event -> Enters sensory systems -> Explicit memory system in the medial temporal lobe/hippocampus stored memory about emotion, Implicit memory system in the amygdala stores emotional memory

STAGE THREE Piaget's stages

Concrete operational : (7-11 years old) understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others able to engage in logical thought not yet developed abstract thinking or hypothetical reasoning grasp onto the idea that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition understand accomodation

Narcolepsy

Condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep Genetic Cataplexy: loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger

What can affect our memories?

Confabulation can lead to the creation of false memories Misinformation effect: people will start to believe the ideas that were given that were designed to mislead the m and apply that to their memories Source monitering error

Eye structure

Conjunctiva: where eye first hits Cornea: transparent thick sheet of tissue Pupil: hole made by iris and determines eye color Lens: bends light to the back of the eye Ciliary body: produces aqueous humor Retina: Converts incoming photons of light into electrical signals Macula: special part of eye rich in cones Fovea: area most important for visual acuity, only cones Choroid: network of blood vessels Sclera: whites of the eye Posterior and vitreous chambers: areas where there's aqueous and vitreous humors, vitreous controls pressure

Meninges

Connective tissue that the brain is covered with -> protecting brain, keeping it anchored to the skull, resorbing cerebrospinal fluid formed by choroid plexus in brain ventricles dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

Ego

Conscious and unconscious mind Operates according to the reality principle reality principle: taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and id's pleasure principle secondary process: postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can be obtained seeks long-term gratification receives power from and can never be fully independent of the id

superego

Conscious and unconscious mind moral conscience personality's perfectionist, judging actions and responding with pride to success, guilt to failure conscience: collection of improper actions for which a child is punished ego-ideal: proper actions in which a child is rewarded

What is the difference between the conservative and progressive views of institutions?

Conservative View: institutions are natural byproducts of human nature. Progressive View: institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful;

Id

Consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to reproduce. It functions according to the pleasure principle pleasure principle: achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension primary process: obtain satisfaction now, not later wish fulfillment: fantasizing or daydreaming helps relieve some of the tension created by pleasure principle

Occipital lobe

Contains the visual cortex/striate cortex Visual processing

What is prosody and where in the brain is it located?

Contributes to linguistic functions such as intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm. Located on right hemisphere

Reflex arcs

Control reflexive behavior monosynaptic reflex and polysynaptic reflex arcs

Hypothalamus

Controls the pituitary gland Homeostatic function Receptors in hypothalamus regulate metabolism, temperature, and water balance (like in the case of water osmolarity and the release of ADH) Lateral: hunger center, triggers eating and drinking Ventromedial: "satiety center" provides signals to stop eating Anterior: controls sexual behavior. "When the Anterior H is destroyed, one is Asexual"

Convergent and divergent intelligence

Convergent: One specific answer Divergent: Use of creativity and solving with many different possible solutions Basically remember that the reason why you want to be a doctor is due to your divergent thinking

Describe the differences between Charles Cooley and George H. Mead's theories in how others could play a significant role in how we view ourselves?

Cooley thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity, Mead thought this was more restricted - only certain people can and only in certain periods of life. Mead also thought that the way others influence us changes across the lifespan.

Cerebellum

Coordinates movement and balance, refined motor movements Motor plan is sent to the cerebellum, also receives position sense and sends feedback to cerebellum, and motor areas of motor cortex

Neuralation

Core of mesoderm differentiates into a notochord, the notochord induces a change about above cells in the ectoderm called the neural plate Neural plate cells begin to dive into mesoderm. Ring structure/tube forms and becomes known as the neural tube...neural crest cells on the side

What is the Cost-benefit analysis associated with foraging?

Cost: going out to get food can take up time and energy. Benefit: survival. Goal is to get highest energy yield while expending least amount of energy.;

What can happen if the corpus callosum is severed but the hemispheres alone work fine?

Could visually process objects in left visual field, but may not be able to name it (anomia/anomic aphasia) because right hemisphere (which processes left visual field) can't communicate with left hemisphere (where language is usually processed)

What is the difference between covert and overt orienting?

Covert orienting is the act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement. Overt orienting, a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event.

Covert and overt orienting

Covert orienting: The act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement Overt orienting: a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event

Type theory

Creates a taxonomy of personality types

What critical thing did Cooley believe about the last revision step?

Critical aspect of this theory is Cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we IMAGINE the opinions of other people to be.

What cognitive abilities improve during aging?

Crystallized IQ (experience), emotional reasoning (wisdom), and semantic memories until 60 years

Approach-avoidance conflicts

Deal with only one choice, goal or event, but the outcome could either be negative or positive Ex: A job promotion may mean more money or status, but it also comes with increased responsibility, potential for longer working hours, and increased pressure

Neglect syndrome

Damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention - act as if their portions of their world does not exist Ex: hemispatial neglect: reduced awareness of stimuli on one side of the space

How does the ego respond to the anxiety caused by the id and the superego?

Defense mechanisms - deny, falsify, or distort reality operates unconsciously

Alzheimer's disease

Degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of ACh in neurons that link to the hippocampus loss of cognitive function, loss over control of bodily functions, memory loss, and atrophy to the brain neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques sundowning phenomenon: increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening

Lesion studies

Deliberately made brain lesions/destroyed tissues in order to observe changes on animal's behavior Functions no longer performed are those that were performed by that brain area

Pragmatics

Dependence on language on context and pre-existing knowledge The manner we speak may differ depending on the audience and our relationship to that audience. How we adjust our speech based on the environment we're in Affected by prosody the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

What are linguistic pragmatics?

Dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge.

How are action potentials created in the postsynaptic cell?

Depolarization in membrane potential exceeds threshold

Alcohol

Depressant, increases activity of the GABA receptor, a Cl- channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane, causing brain inhibition Brain areas that prevent inappropriate behavior are diminished, logical reasoning and motor skills are affected increase in dopamine levels, increasing the sense of mind euphoria Alcohol myopia: The inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world

Visual Cues

Depth, form, motion, and constancy

Trait theory

Describes individual personality as a sum of a person's characteristic behaviors - a cluster of behaviors

Means-end analysis

Determines best strategy for attaining the end, or ultimate goal Heuristic where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems. We then attack the problem that has the most difference between current and goal state. Solve Biggest -> smallest Current state -> goal state Ex: Planning trip to new country, biggest problem is getting to new country, so you book a plane ticket to new country

Cognitive development

Development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan -> childhood this is limited by the pace of brain maturation

DSM-5

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders About 25% of Americans will meet criteria for one mental disorder

Neonatal/primitive reflex

Disappear as baby ages, most of them survival reflexes

Dyssomnias

Disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep

Theories of hypnosis

Dissociation theory: hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness Social influence theory: People do and report what's expected of themselves, like actors caught up in their roles

Traits

Distinguishing qualities/characteristics that compose us and our attributes ex: temperament and eye color Inherited traits: qualities passed down from parents to children Acquired traits: learned traits that come from experience with a person's environment Simple traits: linked to specific genes and interact minimally with environment Complex traits: controlled by a group of genes (characteristics of our behavior)

Pathological defense mechanisms

Distortion of reality Denial: most important defense mechanism

Distress and Eustress

Distress: experiencing unpleasant stressors Eustress: result of positive conditions

Explicit memory

Divided into Sematic and Episodic memory Sematic memory: the facts we know, meaning Episodic memory: our experiences

How does symbolic interactionism relate to medicine?

Doctor-patient relationship, given meanings to lab coat/stethoscope can affect interaction. Important for doctor to realize the meaning the patient has given to tools of medicine Changes in society - recently, medicalization of society, where everything has a medical fix

What waves dominate the first stage of non-REM (N1) sleep and what phenomena are associated with this stage?

Dominated by theta waves. b. Hypnagonic hallucinations: hearing or seeing things that aren't there c. Tetris effect - if you play Tetris right before bed, you might see visual images of blocks during sleep. OR Ex. Been on a boat all day, you might still feel like you are on water even when on dry land d. Also a feeling of falling - hypnic jerks- muscle twitches you sometimes experience as you fall asleep

Role of PFC on emotion

Dorsal Prefrontal cortex: attention and cognition Ventral Prefrontal cortex: connects regions of the brain responsible to experiencing emotion Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex: Substantial role in decision making an controlling emotional responses from the amygdala

Activation synthesis theory

Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry. The cortex tries to stitch unrelated information together, resulting in either bizarre or familiar dreams

Problem solving theory

Dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness

Freud's dream theory

Dreams are our conscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted

What types of reinforcement are drive-reduction and incentive theories?

Drive-reduction - negative reinforcement Incentive - positive reinforcement

Demographic transition theory graph interpretation

Drop in death rate, leads to population growth, followed by a drop in birth rate, then population stabilization Preindustrial -> industrial

Theta waves

Drowsiness, right before you go to sleep

Hallucinogens

Drugs that cause altered perception

Depressants

Drugs that reduce nervous system activity resulting in a sense of relaxation and anxiety

What are the 2 factors of Emile Durkheim's functionalist theory?

Durkheim imagined a balance between institutions and social facts Institutions: structures that meet the needs of society like education systems, financial institutions, marriage, laws, etc. Social facts: ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead. Unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist. Ex. the law. Others are moral regulations, religious fates, and social currents like suicide/birth rate;

Relearning

Ebbinghaus couldn't reproduce everything, but it took less time to learn the second time around -> savings Basically the more integrated the initial memory, still follows the same pattern but takes longer time to forget Information is stored in LTM but it isn't exactly ready for recall Skills can be relearned faster as well

Principle of aggregation

Effects of an attitude become more apparent when we look at a person's aggregate of average behavior versus a single one

Stage 2 sleep

EEG shows theta waves as well as K complexes and sleep spindles Sleep spindles inhibit certain perceptions and maintain a state of tranquility, may be associated with the ability to sleep through loud noises K complexes supress cortical arousal and keep you asleep, may help with sleep-based memory consolidation

How vibrations are processed

Eardrum causes the malleus, incus, and stapes to vibrate -> Stapes pushes on cochlea and the hair cells of the organ of corti convert the physical stimulus into an electrical signal to be carried to CNS via auditory/vestibulocochlear nerve

Sleep cycle

Early in the night SWS predominates as the brain falls into deep sleep, and then into more wakeful states. Later in the night, REM predominates Sleep cycles go in an "up-down" fashion N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM

Dual coding hypothesis

Easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone

spacing

Ebbinghaus believed that spreading out the time of relearning and studying means greater retention of the information later

What are the 2 types of aversive control?

Escape conditioning occurs when the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus. It is a "get me out of here" or "shut this off" reaction, aimed at escape from pain or annoyance. The behavior that produces escape is negatively reinforced (reinforced by the elimination of the unpleasant stimulus). Avoidance behaviors are incredibly persistent. This is true even when there is no longer anything to avoid. The reason is that an animal that performs an avoidance reaction never experiences the aversive stimulus. But it receives negative reinforcement in the form of relief. Because of this, avoidance behavior is self-reinforcing. Negative reinforcement.

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Event -> Physiological Response + Emotion at the same time

Attitude to behavior process model

Event triggers attitude (something that'll influence perception of the object) Attitude + outside knowledge determines behavior Unhealthy attitude (triggered by an event) + knowledge leads to behavior

Modified Semantic network

Every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. Some links might be shorter/longer for different individuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories spreading activation

Opponent - process theory

Every processes that has an affective balance is followed by a secondary "opponent process", with repeated exposure the primary process is weaker, and the opponent process is strengthened Explains why withdrawal symptoms are exactly opposite the effects of alcohol - explains tolerance Why we see afterimages - red/green, blue/yellow, black/white

Why do we dream? Theories

Evolution: threat simulation, problem solving Other: brain flexibility, consolidating thoughts into LTM, preserve and develop neural pathways....infants spend a lot more time in REM sleep and develop a ton of neural pathways

Schools of thought for motivation

Evolutionary approach Drive-reduction theory Optimum arousal theory Cognitive theory Maslow's Hierarchy of needs Incentive theory Expectancy-value theory Opponent-process theory self-determination theory

Orientation Behaviors - regulated with regard to environment

Ex. Kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate in turning (klinokinesis). Can be in response to a stimulus (like tripping on a sidewalk - your body would change speed/kinesis). Ex. Positive taxis and Negative taxis: movement towards/away from stimulus, respectively. Ex. Insects and light. Insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis)

Describe the 3 cues of Kelley's covariation model of attribution?

Ex. Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels on us. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely related to them as a person as opposed to the world working against them in this situation. When consistency is high = attribution to internal factors Ex. Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to the environment. Distinctiveness = situational. Distinctiveness of a situation = attribution to external factors Third factor in covariation model - "group lateness" - if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause. Consensus of people = attribution of external factors

How psychoanalytic theory describes motivation

Ex: Angel being the superego, and the devil being the id It's up to you to decide being the ego, but if your ego is weak, you'll end up having one take over, leading to imbalance - hence why psychoanalytic therapy focuses on raising intrapsychic conflicts to a conscious level

What is the exception to the mere-exposure effect called?

Exceptions: you start hating orange juice, start to despise song you hear over and over on the radio. This is called "burn out" but most things do not violate the mere-exposure effect

What theory does incentive theory closely align to?

Exchange theory - cost-benefit analysis compare to incentive theory that focuses on rewards and incentives to motivate them

Managing stress

Exercise, meditation, religion, cognitive flexibility (perspective change is huge in our perception of what is stressing us out, hence why it's good to work with a counselor)

Exogenous and Endogenous cues

Exogenous: Ex being bright colors, loud noises, "pop out affect", cues that we don't actively have to look out for, low level control - bottom-up events Endogenous: Requires internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it, may follow instruction, high level control top-down events

Coping

Expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, seeing to master, minimize, or tolerate stress or conflict

Lazarus Theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised. Interpretation BEFORE arousal or emotion -if we label the emotion as good, it is positive -if we label the emotion as bad, it is negative Event could be the same but depending on the label it produces two very different emotions Ex: Man who is allergic to bees encounters bee -> simultaneously the man interprets that his allergy to bees makes this encounter threatening -> heart beat increases and he starts sweating, labels the emotion as fear Event -> Label the event -> Emotion + PR based on appraisal

What are 3 types of collective behaviors?

Fad - "fleeting behavior" is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. Not necessarily in line with normal behavior. Perceived as cool/interesting by large group of people. Mass hysteria refers to behavior that occurs when groups react emotionally or irrationally to real or perceived threats. It is characterized by panic and spread of information (or misinformation) by the media. Riots - characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes. Riots are very chaotic and cost cities millions in damages. -> mobs target specific individuals or categories of individuals

Change blindness

Fail to notice changes in the environment when selectively attending to something

Type II error

False negative, failing to reject the null hypothesis

Type I error

False positive, incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis

Humanistic theory of Personality

First was Maslow then Carl Rogers/ phenomenological theorists unconditional positive regard: people are inherently good focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach Gestalt therapy, client-centered, nondirective therapy Most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency to gain full potential People have free will

What is the difference between collective and group behavior?

First, collective behavior is time-limited, and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time. Collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive. Collectives have loose norms (which are murkily defined), while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms.

Language

Five components: Phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics primarily left hemisphere

Describe the overall response pattern of each schedule?

Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer. Variable Ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Fixed interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. Variable interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Schizophrenia is associated (enlarged/shrunken) fluid-filled regions of the brain?

Fluid filled regions have been enlarged because there is less tissue of the brain. Cerebral cortex (layer that is outermost part of cerebrum) seems to have decreased size, in frontal and temporal lobes. These areas have to do with cognitive and perceptual functions which are abnormal in schizophrenia.

Trends of crystallized and fluid intelligence

Fluid intelligence peaks in early adulthood, while crystallized intelligence peaks in middle adulthoood both decline with age

Peripheral route processing

Focus on the superficial details or persuasive information such as appearances, catchphrases, slogans, credibility

Executive attention

Focused on goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention

Social cognition

Focuses on ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior Attitudes, the way we perceive others, impact the ways we behave towards them

Selective attention

Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli. The filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems stimuli not attented to are lost whereas those attended to pass a filter to be analyzed further.

What drives foraging behavior?

Foraging behavior is driven strongly by genetics, but can also be gained through learning, ex. young primates copy adults and this is how they learn to forage. This teaches them how to hunt and what kinds of things they should be hunting;

Prosencephalon

Forebrain consists of telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system) and diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland) Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes, emotion and memory, intellectual and emotional capacity of humans

Dementia

Forgetting to a point that it interferes with normal life, results from excessive damage to brain tissue

STAGE FOUR Piaget's

Formal operational stage (12+ years old) reason abstract consequences, think logically, problem-solve, think logically about hypothetical situations at this stage children are reasoning more like adults and continue to develop that overtime

illness anxiety disorder

Formally hypochondriacs Characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition Quick to be alarmed about their health and excessively check themselves for signs or avoid medical appointments altogether

Interneurons

Found between other neurons, most numerous of the three types of neurons Predominately found in brain and spinal cord and often linked to reflexive behavior

Acetylcholine

Found in both CNS and PNS Peripheral: used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles Parasympathetic: innervating sweat glands CNS: attention and arousal Ex: loss of cholinergic neurons connecting with the hippocampus is associated with Alzheimer's disease

Heritability ex's

Four boys with completely controlled environments, yet IQ is still different between the -> attributed to heritability because environment was the same Four identical triplets are in completely different environments with different IQ's -> attributed to environment because genes are the same

DONT GET CONFUSED WITH THESE THEORIES

Freud psychosexual, Vytgosky's Sociocultural, Erikson's Psychosocial, and Kohlberg's moral......are not the same as Piaget's cognitive development stages or Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality

What is the psychological aspect of aggression?

Frustration-aggression principle, the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration. Reinforcement-modeling can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future. Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too (parents can model aggressive behavior - child can observe and pick up behavior of parents

Lewis Terman's theory of intelligence

Further modified Binet's intelligence test and also incorporated teens and adults - started out as one that measured intelligence with the issue of cultural disparity, but now is modified to be applicable to all cultures

Amino acid transmitters

GABA (CNS) Glycine (PNS)

What is the main important difference between evolutionary game theory and general game theory?

Game theory involves intention, where participants reason about behaviors of others. Evolutionary game theory different because decisions might not have a conscious intention on part of players;

What assumptions could be made about gender dynamic?

Gender dynamic is fluid, dynamic, and subject to process of meaning making and collective definition building social constructionism: realities are shaped by experiences and interactions with others

What is the difference between gender oppression and structural oppression?

Gender oppression - women are not only unequal to men, but they're oppressed, subordinated, and abused. Positive state of being a woman is not acknowledged in patriarchal society. Institution of family is especially beneficial to men. Family was split into 2 types of labor

What is the difference between gender roles and gender norms?

Gender role is a social role. It is "a set of expectations associated with the perception of masculinity and femininity." Gender norms can be identified as the prescriptions of Gender roles. It is a type of socio-cultural regulation (to encourage socially desirable behavior). This is a "pattern" of what individuals - as members of a group, or representing a particular social position should do, what is required of them under given circumstances

Problems with adoption studies

Incomplete info about biological families for adoptive children. Adoption isn't random, adoptive family sometimes matched to be similar to the biological family. Makes it more difficult to understand nature vs. nurture

External locus of control

Views that events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences - outside forces control fate

Gene-environment interaction

Gene + environment affect our behavior, and the role of genes + environments on behavior depend on each other studies look at the interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental events

What is the biological aspect of aggression?

Genes: evidence: identical twins, if one is more aggressive the other is as well. With fraternal twins - not the case, and we can breed animals for aggression Brain structure impact on aggressive behavior: No one brain spot controls for aggression but there are circuits in brain can inhibit/facilitate aggression. The amygdala (part of limbic system which is composed of structures from telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon) facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior. The frontal lobe is responsible for planning, decision making, and importantly impulse control, and correlation studies have shown criminals have decreased frontal lobe activation. (perhaps those who commit violent actions can't inhibit violent behaviors) Testosterone is hormone released by testes in men and ovaries in women. Higher in men = why men are more aggressive than women. Also why 70 y/o man is less aggressive than a 17 y/o adolescent man. Drugs that reduce testosterone levels tend to reduce aggressive tendencies

Innate behavior

Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience

Why is proximity so powerful for relationship formation?

Geographical proximity /nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships. People date, like, marry people of the same neighborhood or those that sit next to in class or work in the same office. Even with social media, and easy travel/connection with individuals far away - rule of proximity is still true (even if you take internet dating into account).

Gastrulation

Germ layers are formed, ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

Tolerance

Get used to a drug so you need more of it to exhibit the same effect Dangerous? Because long term stimulation can lead to brain shutting down the receptor, and the same amount of drugs will have decreased effect

Fixation (problem solving)

Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem insight may come after some time - incubate

Persistent depressive disorder

Given to individuals who suffer from dysthymia, a depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode, most of the time, for at least two years

Working backwards

Goal state -> current state Start with a goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state

Where is gray and white matter in spinal cord?

Gray is on the outside, and white is on the inside. Axons go down tracts of white matter

Adoption and twin studies

Great way to study nature vs. nurture Identical twins raised together = identical twins raise apart -> genes play a factor Not equal, strong environmental component

Early attempt at typing personality

Greeks based personality types based on humors or bodily fluids

Gross vs. Fine motor skills

Gross skills: Legs/arms, develops before, involves whole body motion ex: sitting up, crawling Fine motor skills: involves smaller muscles and allows for more specific and delicate movememt ex: coloring picture/cutting with scissor

Chunking

Group info into groups of elements with related meaning

What factors influence conformity/obedience?

Group size: likely to conform in groups of three-five unanimity group status: likely to go along with popular group group cohesion: more likely to go along with group you connect with observed behavior: whether we believe our behavior is observed public response: happy to conform if we will be met with shunning internal factors: prior commitments and feelings of insecurity

Amphetamines

Increased arousal by the increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake Long-term euphoria Increase in heart rate, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia Highly addictive, long term users suffer from withdrawal that may lead to depression, fatigue, and irritability -> maintenance of normal dopamine levels may decrease, brain has trouble adjusting to intense highs

According to Carl Rogers, what are the characteristics of the growth-promoting climate required to achieve Maslow's idea of self-actualization?

Growth is nurtured by when individual is genuine. One has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. Second is growth is nurtured through acceptance - unconditional positive regard from others. This allows us to live up to our ideal selves. Allows us to be open and learn without fear of others looking at us differently if we do something wrong.

Paul Ekman's theory of universal emotions

Happiness, Sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger contempt is one that the scientific community has trouble agreeing on

Left handed people differences

Have some differences in the lateralization of some aspects of audition and language understanding compared to right handed people The left hemisphere is still mostly the dominant hemisphere

acute stress disorder

Having PTSD symptoms for less than a month

Broca's study

He had a specific person's frontal lobe damaged and noticed that this person had trouble forming speech

What did Herbert Blumer add to Mead's work?

He proposed 3 tenants to explain symbolic interactionism: 1. We act based on meaning we've given something, ex. tree is place to rest. 2. Different people assign different meanings to things. We give meaning to things based on social interactions, ex. someone tells us tree is infested with ants. But we have different views of the tree and we act differently. 3. The meaning we give something isn't permanent, ex. something bites my back, so might not sit under next tree one finds. (Tree now is defined as shade on a hot day with a potential of getting bit);

Eros: Life drive

Health, safety, sex, comes with love, cooperation, collaboration. Working with others to promote your and others' wellbeing

Ipsilateral control

Hearing and smell - communicate with the same side of the body

Negative effects of chronic stress

Heart: Hypertension and vascular disease Metabolism: Too must cortisol and glucagon converts glycogen to glucose -> exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes Reproduction: FSH/LH and then estrogen/progesterone can be inhibited, lowered fertility, reduced testosterone in men, less blood flow to penis Brain: Impaired memory and increased risk of depression Immune Function: Autoimmunity can happen due to overuse of the immune system, stops activating immune system, higher susceptibility to illness, slower healing rate to wounds

Thermoreceptors

Heat, cold, certain food chemicals (capsaicin) Location: skin and hypothalamus

CT

High resolution picture of the brain - X-Ray Good for structural but not activity imaging

Flashbulb memories

Highly vivid memories that even if they seem as real as life, are still susceptible to reconstruction people can claim to remember every detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing event

Rhombencephalon

Hindbrain metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) and myelencephaolon (medulla oblongata) Balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and arousal processes -> SURVIVAL

Where is the explicit memory of emotion stored?

Hippocampus

Endocrine system in relation to behavior

Hormones affect how we respond to attitude/personality CBT ex: control what your body is doing physiologically with your mind, when you learn to control your fear, you become calmer and that hormone level is reduced

Babinski reflex

How baby will turn/unturn toes when bottom of the foot is brushed

What are social influences?

How imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence and how they affect individual thoughts, actions and feelings.

Cognition

How our brains process and react to the information overload presented to us by the world

Social Readjustment rating scale

How stress level can be measured in "life change units"

Syntax

How words are put together to form sentences Child must notice the effects of word order on meaning

Galton's theory of heriditary genius

Human ability is hereditary

How is heritability changed

Increases as environments become more controlled, differences in behavioral traits are tied to heritability, more genetic variation leads to greater heritability Dependent on the population studies and would likely be different in different environments

Upper motor signs

Hyperreflexia: Increase in muscle stretch reflexes, unclear cause, but without periodic stimulation of LMN's by UMN's, they become hypersenstitive Clonus: rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle Hypertonia: increased tone of skeletal muscles, increased muscle tension, reduced muscle stretch Extensor plantar response: Take a hard object and scrape along bottom of the food, normal response for flexor: toes will come down on the object, normal response for extensor: toes will extend up

Hypnotic induction

Hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject's level of concentration. Then the hypnotist can suggest perceptions or actions to the hypnotized person. -willingness and lack of skepticism from patient

hypophyseal portal system

Hypothalamus links the endocrine and nervous systems, and regulates the hormonal function of the pituitary glad. Hypopthalamus and pituitary gland are spatially close to each other, and control is maintained through the paracrine release of hormones through this system

"I" and "me"

I: MY response to society's opinion and attitudes of others, usually spontaneous, less socialized component of the self, "but I believe this while society tells me this" ex: studying for the exam instead of going out represents the socialized, conformed self Me: Interaction with others and with the environment, others' attitude once internalized in the self, constitute the me, organized set of attitudes of others in which the individual assumes ex: skipping work for concert, ignoring emotional needs of sig. other, dressing inappropriately for interview

What is the difference between the two types of bipolar disorder?

I: when it remains hypomania + one major depressive episode II:when hypomania becomes manic w/ or w/o major depressive disorder - An individual diagnosed with bipolar II has never had a manic episode.

Types of sensory memory (Register)

Iconic: what you see Echoic: what you hear Iconic lasts about a half second, echoic about three-four seconds

What are the three parts of the mind according to Freud and describe them?

Id at the bottom, it's the unconscious part. It develops after birth and demands immediate gratification. 2) Ego - part of conscious and unconscious. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgments, and seeks long-term gratification. Uses the reality principle: have to play by the rules of the real world and might have to compromise. 3) Superego - develops around age of 4, and it's our moral conscience. Also part of conscious and unconscious minds. Our libido impulses are what want to be gratified - when over-gratified or partially/not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage. Face conflict/anxiety. It's a conflict between these 3 mental structures - ego, id, and superego. They're all competing for demand, so in conflict.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory

Id, ego, superego

Problems with twin studies

Identical twins are treated more similarly than fraternal twins, which means that monozygotic twins share even "more" of the same environments than fraternal twins

What happens when the amygdala is damaged?

If destroyed, mellowing effect Kluver-Bucy syndrome - bilateral destruction (destruction of both) of amygdala can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behaviour. These are all drunken behaviours, so it is treated like such.

What happens when the hippocampus is damaged?

If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can't make new ones (anterograde amnesia).

extinction

If the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism can become habituated to the conditioned stimulus In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, extinction can occur if the trained behavior is no longer reinforced or if the type of reinforcement used is no longer rewarding.

What role does cortisol play in the sleep-wake cycle

Increasing light causes the release of corticotropin releasing factor from the hypothalamus, which increases adrenocorticotropic hormone from the anterior pituitary to stimulate cortisol release, contributing to wakefulness

Belief perseverance

Ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts, inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence on the contrary

Mneumonics

Imagery, the crazier the better, pegword system, method of loci

Cognitive abilities stable with age

Implicit memory and recognition

What cognitive abilities stay stable during aging?

Implicit memory and recognition memory

Types of LTM

Implicit/nondeclarative/procedural memory Explicit/declarative memory

Rods

Important for night vision, when rod is off, it turns on a bipolar cell, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic nerve to enter the brain

Endocrine response to stress

In addition to the sympathetic nervous system response -Catecholamines released by adrenal medulla -Glucocorticoids,such as cortisol, are released by the adrenal cortex, and redistributes glucose in body, suppresses immune system

Septal nuclei

In additon to the amygdala and hippocampus, the septal nuclei is a structure in the limbic system, and contains one of the pleasure centers in the brain -> association with addictive behavior

Alpha waves

In daydreaming or relaxation: slower and more synchronized than beta waves

Basal ganglia

In forebrain, coordinates muscle movement and relays information to the extrapyramidal motor system -> makes our bodily movements smooth and posture steady Parkinson's disease characterized by jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors -> along with disentegration of the substantia nigria to control dopamine levels

Describe Andrew Meltzoff's 1977 study on imitation and what we learned from it?

In his experiment he suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others. A baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Baby imitating experimenter. Suggests we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others. Built in social mechanism which is critical for our species to learn through others. Evidence suggests we have mirror neurons, when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person. (Found in areas of brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premotor cortex (frontal lobe), and somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe). Can be helpful in understanding Imitation further.

Describe how culture affects attribution?

In individualistic cultures (Western - Europe/America), success is over-attributed to internal and failure is over-attributed to external/situational factors. the fundamental attribution error occurs more in individualistic societies who place an emphasis on individual achievement In collectivist cultures (Eastern - Africa/Asia), success is attributed to external and failure to internal factors

How do race definitions differ in different countries?

In the US race is defined by skin color but hair color is irrelevant. Latin America race category in the US can be broken down to 5-6 races in SA. Shows that race is a social construct

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to code new memories

Functional fixedness

Inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

Anomia

Inability to name objects or retrieve words for things. Think N for Name

Dissociative amnesia

Inability to recall past experiences, often linked to trauma dissociative fugue: sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from home or location of usual daily activities, often confused about their identity and can even assume a new one that they may believe to be theirs

Agraphia

Inability to write. Think G for Gel pen

What is inclusive fitness

Inclusive fitness - concerns the # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. Inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves. (explain kin selection);

Fictional finalism

Individual is motivated more by their expectations of the future rather than past experiences "Life would be perfect if only"

Possible causes of tyranny of choice

Information overload: which leads to decision paralysis and increased regret over the choice made

Characteristics of innate behaviors

Inherited: encoded by DNA Intrinsic: Present even if raised in isolation Stereotypic: performed the same way each time Inflexible: Not modifiable by experience Consummate: fully developed right away at first performance, not influenced by experience ex: nausea during pregnancy helps them avoid toxic foods

Primary appraisal

Initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat -Irrelevant: "I see stress, but it's not that important" -Benign/positive: "desirable, a dinosaur takes out the dog, and the dog is the rabbit's enemy" -Stressful: "Threatening"

How did Schacter-Singer study their theory?

Injected epinephrine tor placebo to groups of subjects that were either informed, ignorant, or misinformed, also manipulated external cues in the study by having the actors act happy, sad, or angry -> while epi caused increased physiological arousal, the environment and cognitive processing affected the emotion experienced by the subjects

Neural networking theory of language

Innate language mechanisms that can be activated by experiences

Treisman's Attenuation Theory

Instead of a selective filter, we have an ATTENUATOR, that weakens but doesn't ELIMINATE input from unattended ear. Some gets to perceptual processes and assigning meaning occurs to stuff in unattended ear, it's just not high priority. Brain switches to something important Sensory registor -> attenuator -> perceptual process -> conscious

What is Treisman's Attentuation Theory?

Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator - weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important. Sensory register → attenuator → perceptual process →→ Conscious

Neurotic defense mechanisms

Intellectualization: separating emotion from ideas, detaching emotional aspects from intellectual aspects rationalization, regression, repression, displacement, reaction formation

Fixed mindset

Intelligence is biologically set and unchanging

Growth mindset

Intelligence is changeable if you learn more- praises effort, perseverance, improvement, and strategies These people accomplish more in careers

What are the two types of functions?

Intended consequences of institutions are manifest functions, ex. businesses provide a service. School - educate people so they can get jobs. Laws - maintain social order. Unintended consequences, ex. schools expose students to social connections/new activities, and businesses connect people across society - latent functions, indirect effects of institutions. (unrecognized consequences);

negative symptoms

Involves the absence of normal or desired behavior, such as disturbance of affect and avolition disturbance of affect: severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression (blunting), no signs of emotional expression (flat affect), and which affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individuals speech (inappropriate affect) avolition: decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions

ii.

Is this behavior altruistic if it gives us an evolutionary advantage (ulterior motive), to pass on our genes (the genes of those closest to us)? Is it really altruism if we are helping select for genes of our kin?;

Psychoanalytic theory of personality

It is shaped through childhood experiences - unconscious thoughts/desires, and feelings motivate overt actions of individuals and motivates personality

Why are adaptive associations (those who have a biological advantage) learned faster than learning with no biological value?

It used to be evolutionary advantageous to have the adaptive value to avoid food that made you sick, spiders, snakes, heights in the past - so they are passed on.

What is factor analysis?

Reduces variable and detects structure between variables. We get a final classification of personality after the factor analysis.

How did Johnson and Heinz's experiment connect difficulty of task to attenuator?

Johnson and Heinz proposed that the location of the information attenuator (sometimes described as a bottleneck) was able to be varied by the listener depending on the demand necessitated by a particular attention task.

What is joint attention?

Joint attention is the focusing of attention on an object by two separate individuals.

Myers Briggs Personality Test

Jung laid the groundwork Each of the three dichotomies and a fourth: judging vs. perceiving

Rationalization

Justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society

Adaptive value of behavior

Keeps homeostasis - behavior is coordinated internal and external response of an organism/groups of organisms in their environment

Marshmallow test

Kids given the option to either eat the marshmallow, or wait and receive two marshmallows Those who wait had higher SAT scores, lower drug use, better social skills, smoke less etc. Supports how self-control improves management in all areas of life

Can Korsakoff's get better, unlike AD?

Korsakoff isn't progressive and can get better. Treatment typically includes thiamine injections, staying on a healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins, and relearn things.

Relationship between Upper and Lower Motor Neurons

LMN: control limbs and trunk UMNs control the LMS, they are found in the cerebral cortex where they synapse on LMNs in the brainstem or spinal cord -> corticospinal tract if they meet in spinal cord, coricobulbar tract if it meets in the brain stem

Amotivation

Lack of motivation

What is the third requirement needed for Development to Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions)?

Language - the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves - happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development. Language is an accelerator to thinking and understanding -> more competent with more private speech

Learning/Behaviorist theory of Language

Language acquisition is through operant conditioning - Language acquisition through reinforcement. Parents and caregivers reinforce sounds that sound most like the language Doesn't support how kids can produce words they've never heard before or unique sentences

Linguistic Determinism

Language has an influence on thought

Learning - performance distinction

Learning a behavior and performing it are two different things Not performing something doesn't mean you didn't learn it

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without a reward, but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced Ex: Some rats that completed the maze then were incentivized with a food reward performed just as well than rats that have been trained to run the maze and rewarded along the way

Rote rehearsal

Least effective - you say the same thing over again

Contralateral control

Left brain controls right side of body, right brain controls left side of the body

Where do positive and negative emotions go?

Left hemisphere/Left PFC: positive emotions Right hemisphere: negative emotions "Right handed people are positive"

How is information split between the optic tract?

Left visual field of both eyes are projected to the right side of the brain, left visual field of both eyes are projected to the left side of the brain

Lewy Body disease

Less motor abnormalities from basal ganglia dysfunction and more cognitive dysfunction from loss of function from cerebral cortex

Short term memory

Limited in capacity of seven items: 7 +/- 2 rule Can be increased by clustering and maintenance rehearsal Housed in hippocampus

Pacnian Corpuscles

Located in hypodermis - responds to vibration and deep pushes/pokes

Meissner corpuscles

Located in papillary dermis, responds to light touch

Merkel Disk/Receptor

Located in papillary dermis, responds to light touch and fine details

Ruffini Endings/Corpuscle/Cylinder

Located in reticular dermis, responds to stretch

Primary motor cortex

Located on the precentral gyrus and initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down spinal cord towards muscles motor homunculus

Left hemisphere

Logical Sequential Rational Analytical Objective Looks at parts Language and math

Informative influence

Look to a group for guidance on a topic you don't know, and you assume that group is correct

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of the "retro" memories, inability to recall info previously encoded

Maladaptive coping mechanisms/Negative Coping/Non-Coping technique

Maintaining and strengthening the disorder Dissociation, Sensitization, Escape, safety behaviors, anxious avoidance Overcompensation, surrender, avoidance, denial, self-blame

groupthink

Maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing the problem at hand consensus decisions reached without alternative ideas being assessed

Seasonal affective disorder

Major depressive disorder with a seasonal onset may be related to abnormal melatonin metabolism, often treated with bright light therapy

Social effects of timing of puberty

Males may have both positive and negative consequences (Stronger, taller, popular, independent vs. delinquent/alcohol use) Women has only negatives to early puberty (teasing, sexual harassment, out of sync with friends in interests)

Prefrontal cortex

Manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions, supervising processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning Broca's area Ex: the PFC's role is to remind the individual tjy have something to remember at all, communicates with reticular formation to wake up or relax

Secondary circular reactions

Manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys these behaviors are repeated because the child may receive a response from the environment like the parent picking up the dropped toy

Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

Maslow believed that certain needs will yield a greater influence on our motivation Fulfilled in a bottom to top order physiological -> safety -> love/belonging -> esteem -> self-actualization

Overconfidence

May lead to an overestimation of ability to produce answers when you need to, even in argumentative cases

What is the "I" and "me"

Me = what we learn through interactions with others. How individual believes the generalized other perceives us, the social self, and learned through interactions with others. Socialized and conforming aspect of self I = the response of the individual to the "me". "I" is the personal response to society's views, which is often nonconforming. The spontaneous, less socialized component of the Self. Our actual self is the balance between the I and the me. Me = society's view (that's me!), the part of self-formed in interaction with others and social environment, and I = individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks. The "I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self.

Mechanoreceptors

Mechanical stress, pressure changes (baroreceptors), sound waves, gravity Location: skin, blood vessels, ear

Treatment for alcoholics

Medications block receptors in award system, reducing symptoms of withdrawal, important to prevent relapse during this early stage by minimizing negative symptoms

Treatment for tobacco addiction

Medications replace nicotine by delivering low levels of nicotine through patch, or delivering chemicals that act on nicotine receptors in brain. This would prevents release or reuptake of dopamine to reduce cravings

What are the 3 current approaches to religion?

Modernization: more info available to public, less emphasis on religion. Secularization is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines. Fundamentalism - reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme;

Things people do when conquering cognitive dissonance

Modify cognitions Trivialize Add more cognitions Denial

Histamine

Monoamine From the hypothalamus and sent to cerebral cortex Inflammatory response

Serotonin

Monoamine Plays a role in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming Oversupply: manic states Undersupply: depression

Medications that target what class of NTs often improve symptoms?

Monoamines include adrenaline (epinephrine), norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and melatonin (involved in onset of darkness). Catecholamine (Subclass) includes dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (2 OH groups on phenyl) Ex. monoamine oxidase inhibitors (increase amount of monoamines in synapse)

Examples of state-dependent cues

Mood can be a cue for state dependent memory. Like if you are sad/angry it can lead to remembering other times you were sad/angry. This can lead to thinks like depression because those feeling down are more likely to think of other reasons to be down. Converse is true as well, when you are happier you are more likely to think of other times you were happy (or are likely to interpret other events in a positive light).

What is the difference between mood and affect?

Mood is not emotion, mood is more long term and not necessarily related to events

Benzediazepines

Most commonly prescribed suppressant. -Sleep aids or anti-anxiety. Enhancing brain's response to GABA, opening up GABA-activated chloride channels in neurons, making neurons more negatively charged Short acting: for sleep Long acting: for anxiety

Where do most higher mental functions (learning and thinking) come from according to Vygotsky?

Most develop from skillful "tutor" - a model, ex. parent/teacher/someone older. Tutor = model, and child tries to understand instructions/actions provided by tutor and they internalize it.

Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development's background

Most famous story was the Heinz Dilemma, his wife was dying from cancer and drug was discovered made my local chemist that could save her. Chemist charged 10x the price it took to make the drug, and more than Heinz could afford. Only had half the family, so explained to chemist his wife was dying, but chemist refused. He broke into chemist's office at night and stole the drug.

Jung vs. Freud

Nature and purpose of libido -Jung: a source of psychic energy motivating a range of behaviors -Freud: psychic energy specific to sexual gratification Nature of the unconscious -Jung: storehouse of repressed memories specific to our own individual and ancestral past -Freud: Storehouse of unacceptable repressed desires specific to the individual Cause of behavior -Jung: past experiences + future aspirations -Freud: Past experiences especially in childhood

Nature vs. nurture

Nature: heredity, or influence of inherited characteristics on behavior Nurture: influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior

Need vs. drive

Need: lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state Drive: the aroused state, fulfilling the drive will reduce the need Need-drive balance maintains homeostasis

Avoidance learning

Negative reinforcer Meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen Avoid a possible unpleasant response

Escape learning

Negative reinforcer Want to reduce/escape the unpleasantness of something that already exists

Negative and positive priming

Negative: Implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus Positive: A positive prime speeds up processing , spreading activation

Embryogenesis and neurons

Neural tube: CNS Alar plate and basal plate: motor neurons

Proactive inferference

Old learning interferes with new learning "Pro like a new is being affected"

Reticular Formation

Neuron somas scattered throughout the brainstem

Reticular Formation

Neuron somas scattered throughout the brainstem - arousal, motivation and alertness "If you tickled someone your reTICular formation would wake you up"

accommodation

New information causes you to modify existing schemas, changing schemas in order to accommodate the new information

Retroactive interference

New learning interferes with old learning "Retro like old is being affected"

How do mood, personality, culture, and socioeconomic status affect conformity/obedience?

No one type of personality makes someone more susceptible to authority. But people's moods can have an effect - those with rough day less likely to conform. Status and culture can play a role, those of low socioeconomic status (those with low power) are more likely to conform. Also cultures like US/Europe (individualized cultures) that emphasize individual achievement less likely to conform than collective cultures (Asia, cultures that emphasize family/group).

Nativist/Biological Theory of Language

Noam Chomsky Existence of an innate capacity for language Existence of a language acquistition device that allow for people to learn language - all languages share universal grammar, so the LAD enables child to pick up on those types of words and their organization within a sentence for any language -critical period for language -studied transformational grammar: changes in word order to retain the same meaning

What are the two broad types of learning?

Non-associative learning - when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus ex. habituation and sensitization. In habituation, person tunes out the stimulus. Dishabituation occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed. Sensitization is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus -> progressive amplification of a response. Associative learning - when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.

Characteristics of learned traits

Non-inherited: acquired only through experience extrinsic: absent when raise in isolation Permutable: changeable adaptable: capable of being modified in response to changing conditions Progressive: subject to improvement over time

Preparedness

Not all behaviors can be taught using operant conditioning techniques, some animals are predisposed to learn/not learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts

Inattention

Not attending, impacts memory formation negatively, being bored would do this

Learned behavior

Not based on heredity but instead environment and experience

Secondary drives

Not related to biological processes: stems from learning, includes certain emotions such as the desire for love, achievement, and aggression

Pancreas

Not tied to pituitary glad, but regulates blood sugar

What is the devil effect/ reverse halo effect?

Now imagine someone who we think is overall very poor. Even if baseline skills are same, we perceive them to all be lower, allowing undesirable traits to attribute the overall person.Can carry over into how we see other attributes about the person. Happens if overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative.

Big Five Personality Model

OCEAN Openness: independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical Conscientiousness: careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized Extraversion: talkative vs. quiet, fun loving or sober Agreeableness: kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly Neuroticism: stable vs. tense, calm vs. anxious, secure vs. insecure

object permanence

Objects exist even if they can't see them

Categorical perception

Observer's ability to make perceptual discriminations - constancy

Piaget's theory of Language

Once children were able to think a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts -> influences build upon those thoughts sensorimotor: word is understood through sensation and action Preoperational: word understood mainly through use of language and mental imagery Concrete operational: Use categories, logic, and concrete reasoning to understand Formal operational: understand through scientific reasoning, hypothetical situations, and abstract relationships

What structure is associated with serotonin release, which one is associated with norepinephrine, and which one is associated with dopamine (raphe nuclei, locus coeruleus, VTA)?

One structure starts in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem responsible for serotonin release. Another pathway starts in the locus coeruleus, which sends long axons to cerebrum and releases norepinephrine. Also the VTA sends long axons to different areas of cerebrum, supplies dopamine.

Spearman's theory of intelligence

Only one general intelligence Studies show evidence in the fact that people who score well on one test also tend to score well on others G factor is the factor underlying these consistent abilities Research generally suggests that there's only one general intelligence, but limited in what it considers to be intelligence

Routes of Drug entry

Oral: one of the slowest because it goes through the GI tract, about a half hour Inhalation: Breathing or smoking, but once you inhale, it goes straight to the brain, about ten seconds Injection: Most direct, intravenous goes right through the vein, taking effect in seconds Transdermal: drug is absorbed through skin, ex being a nicotine patch, released into bloodstream over several hours Intramuscular: Stuck into muscle, can deliver drugs into your system slowly or quickly. Quick example: epipen, Slow: vaccines Fast route of entry = more addictive potential

what are factors of obedience?

Our closeness to authority giving orders- more likely to accept orders from someone we respect Physical proximity - more likely to comply with someone we are close to. In Milgram when authority standing close by/behind the experimenter (the teacher) they are more likely to obey. Legitimacy of authority - if wearing labcoat/carry a clipboard we are more likely to obey. Shown in Milgram study. Also institutional authority - well-respected university. Expectation that these places won't give you a harmful command. Can also be physical or symbolic (ex. police/government). Victim distance - in original Milgram study, teacher couldn't see learner (victim). If could see participant, reduced likelihood participant (teacher) would obey experimenter. But still didn't stop everyone (30% of participants gave all shocks) Depersonalization - when leaner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them Role models for defiance - more likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same.

Gratification of id, ego, and superego

Our libido impulses want to be gratified. When overgratified or not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage - faces conflict/anxiety

types of bias

Overconfidence, belief perserverance, confirmation bias

Brainstem

P.R.F.M. "Pavlov's Really Freaking Mad" Pons, Reticular Formation, Medulla oblongata

Eysenck's three major dimensions to personality

PEN model - Express all in varying degrees Psychotism: Measure of nonconformity or social deviance Extraversion: measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation Neuroticism: measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations

Brain changes in adolescence

PFC: higher order thinking, thinking of future, planning, decision making, ability to inhibit innapropriate behavior, focus on LTgoals -WHY teens have such poor judgment Amygdala: Why teenagers are moody and have emotional outbursts Hypothalamus: regulates sex hormones Corpus callosum: hemispheric changes involved in language/language learning Increased myelination, increased brain volume Synaptic pruning "What's not important begone"

Cluster A Personality Disorders

PSS: "Psych and Sociology section" Paranoid: pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives Schizotypal: odd or eccentric thinking. Ideas of reference (not as strong as delusions of reference) and magical thinking, belief in clairvoyance Schizoid: detachment from social relationships and restricted range of emotional expression, little desire for social interactions, have few close friends, poor social skills

Why Mechanoreceptors are so fast

Pain and temperature receptors tend to end in uncovered terminals and don't have large diameter axons Mechanoreceptors tend to have large diameter and thick myelin sheaths, therefor they have fast conduction

What causes secure/insecure attachment?

Parenting style - mothers who are sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments. Insensitive parenting does not mean child abuse/neglect. Means that parent doesn't focus on child's needs

Pons

Part of brainstem that regulates waking and relaxing "ponds are relaxing to look at, your pons is activated when you look at ponds"

Parasympathetic Nervous system

Part of the Autonomic Nervous system "rest and digest" -pupil constriction -increased salivation -decreased respiratory/heart rate -increased glucose storage -decreased catecholamine release -increased digestion

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system "result due to fear" "fight or flight" -pupils dilate -> want to be able to see better and bring in more light -decrease in salivation -increase in respiration, heart rate -increase in glucose release, -increase in catecholamine release -decrease in digestion -> takes up a lot of energy so want to divert energy to other areas

Describe George H. Mead's view of SI?

Particularly interested in symbols use that people use to contribute values/beliefs to others. believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things. People change based on interactions with objects, events, ideas, others, and assign meaning to things to decide how to act;

Heredity

Passing traits from parents/ancestors to offspring through genes

Examples of episodic memory

Past personal events, residential history, decay is likely to affect retrieval

Difference between factitious/Munchausen's and malingering?

Patients want to be sick. The patient will falsify or disease their signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis/treatment. Ex. They might injure themselves, falsify tests. This is often called Munchausen's syndrome. People do this to be in sick roll (not for money) Munchausen's by proxy -when one person makes another person look ill so medical attention/treatment provided further for another individual. Malingering is done for $$$

Factitious disorder

Patients who want to be sick, will falsify signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis or treatment...injure themselves or falsify tests Munchausen's syndrome by proxy: when one person makes another person look ill so medical attention/treatment provided further for another individual

Proximal stimuli

Patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reaches your senses, eyes, ears, etc. It is the light actually falling on your retina...neural activity

What are the socio-cultural aspects of aggression?

People act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots) - deindividuation - you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people. If people around individual act poorly, individual might act poorly too. This also explains why there is poor behavior on the internet (they are anonymous here, and those around them model poor behavior). Social scripts - when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on how to act. Ex. violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act. Ex. Lash out at someone when something goes wrong

Instinct theory

People are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts

How can social pressures influence behavior and thus our attitude?

People are more likely to be honest when social influences are reduced (ex. secret ballot) Strong social pressures can weaken attitudes to behavior connection and can cause our attitudes to follow our behavior.

Behaviorist theory of personality

People begin as blank slates and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities Focus on observable and measurable behavior rather than mental and emotional Pavlov and B.F. Skinner

Thomas theorem

People go through life deciding the meaning of situations, and those meanings determine how they behave in the situation, regardless of whether or not it's accurate

How do behaviorists explain personality development?

People have consistent behavior patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan.

Representativeness heuristic

People look for the most representative answer, look to match prototype, a given concept to what is typical/representative to a certain category Ex: linda is outspoken, bright, fought discrimination. She is either a bank teller or a feminist bank teller-> people will decide she's a feminist because she fits the protoype

Arousal theory

People perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above

How does rational choice-exchange theory relate to medicine?

People run every aspect of medical system and those people will make decisions that benefit themselves more than random sick stranger, may affect why people go to doctor or not. Some people avoid doctors if they don't think it will benefit them. Can cause something that could have been easily treated to become a larger problem. Self-interested behavior of people in charge will trickle down and affect well-being of patients

Monoamines/biogenic amines

amino group and aromatic group connected by two-carbon chain Serotonin, histamine, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine

Cognitive dissonance theory

People strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions, and words Dissonance: the discomfort experienced when holding two or more conflicting cognitions These conflicts lead to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate These are alleviated by alterations in our beliefs and behaviors -alterations in cognition Reduce discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/inconsistencies/contradictions

Effort justification

People's tendency to attribute a greater value to an outcome they had put effort into acquiring or achieving "I worked hard on this paper therefore it's the best one"

Types of hormones

Peptide, Steroid, Tyrosine derivatives (Thyroid hormones and catecholamines)

Stress management

Perceived control: Lack of control associated with higher stress Optimism: humor and optimisms linked to decreased stress Social support: Helps in our perceived control and optimism

Learned helplessness

Perceived lack of control that leads to general helpless behavior "no hope" Ex: dogs who continuously are shocked stopped trying to escape

Correspondent inference theory

Perceiver compares actions with alternatives to evaluate the choices available Focusing on the intentionality of individuals - focus on interior motives and ACTIONS ex: you see someone violently hitting someone, you infer that they are violent instead of play fighting ex: you read about someone getting in to an accident, you infer it's because they are a bad driver, not because they are unlucky

Automatic processing

Permits the brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention...allows people to performs secondary tasks while also doing another. Ex: turning the radio while driving

What are the 2 parts of social identity?

Personal Identity: things unique to each person like personality traits Social Identity: includes the groups you belong to in our community.

Three elements of emotion

Physiological response: stimulated by autonomic nervous system Behavioral Response: includes facial expressions and body language Cognitive response: subjective interpretation of the feeling being expressed, mential assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectations about the situation

Description of Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

Physiological: food, water, breathing, sleep, essential to survive - basic needs Safety: safety of employment, stability, security, protection, health, resources, morality - basic needs Self-esteem: confidence, achievement, respect by and for others, competence - respect Self actualization: one reaching their max potential, achieving the most one can be, morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts - maximum potential

What is Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory?

Places Broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. This means that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness. Sensory register → perceptual process → selective filter → Conscious

Core affect

Pleasure, tension, or energy, can exist in isolation or as a component of moods and emotions Ex: Shame can be defined as 'feeling bad', the core affect, about oneself, the cognitive component, as a result of some episode or occurrence

sensitive period

Point in early development that has significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning later in life

Jungian self

Point of intersection between the collective unconscious, personal unconscious, and the conscious mind The self strives for unity mandala is a symbol of the unity: reconciler of opposites and promoter of harmony

Peripheral Somatosensation

Position sense, vibration, touch, pain, temperature Position + vibration +touch = mechanoreceptors pain: nociceptors temperature: thermoreceptors Nocireceptors and thermoreceptors are slow Mechanoreceptors are fast

How does one know if an action is automatic, according to Posner and Snyder?

Posner and Snyder described an action as automatic if the action did not affect other mental activities.

Ex of fixed action patterns

Praying mantis. Any prey-sized movement praying mantis experiences elicits a strike response, once strike initiated - can't be changed/altered at all.

Stages of Kohlberg's theory

Pre-Conventional (pre-adolescent) 1. Obedience vs. Punishment - reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment. 2. Individualism and Exchange/self-interest/gaining rewards - recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints -> instrumental relativist stage, based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing. Conventional 3. Good Boy and Good Girl/conformity - Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity. 4. Law and Order - maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws. Post-Conventional (moral) 5. Social Contract - Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people. Ex. for Heinz, is protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes. 6. Universal Ethical Principle - people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences. Very few people who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi.

self-discrepancy theory

we have three selves, the actual self, ideal self, and the ought self, the closer these selves are to each other, the higher our self-esteem will be

Describe the stages of William Cross's Nigrescence Model?

Pre-encounter: describes the identity before the encounter, and thus refers to the initial being or frame of reference that will alter upon facing the encounter. In this stage, one is unaware of his/her race and the social implications that come with it. Encounter: individuals undergo an experience that suddenly and sharply calls race into perspective, and is generally an awakening to racial consciousness. This encounter makes the individual vulnerable to a new racialized worldview. Oftentimes, this occurrence is easily recalled as the first time a child was treated differently because of the color of his/her skin. Immersion/Emersion: individual acts as though he/she has "just discovered Blackness." This individual often becomes adamant in "proving that one is black," while taking an apparent pride in their blackness and simultaneously disparaging White culture. Internalization: marked by an individual's comfort with rejoining society with a strong enough sense of his own racial/ethnic identity to be able to forge relationships with members from other racial/ethnic groups. In this stage, the individual is able to begin resolving conflicts between their worldview prior to the encounter and after the encounter. Internalization-Commitment: involves reaching a balance of comfort in one's own racial/ethnic identity as well as the racial/ethnic identities of others. This stage makes the distinction between individuals who have internalized their new identity but discontinue their involvement in the movement for social change, and those that have internalizes their identity and continue to be agents of social change. For a "successful" transition into this stage, the individual must become their new identity, while engaging in meaningful activities to promote social equality and political justice for their group members

Wernicke's encephalopathy

Precursor to KS. If diagnosed in time can prevent further damage, if untreated, progress to Korsakoff's

where is acetylcholine secreted

Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system Preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system

STAGE TWO Piaget's stages

Preoperational stage (2-6/7 years old) symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration Egocentrism: inability to imagine what another person may think or feel, don't understand that other people have a different point of view than they do Centration: tendency to focus only one one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation

What is dominant response with regards to social facilitation?

Presence of others increases your arousal - your general physiological or psychological excitement and is known as nervous energy. Increased energy/arousal increases likelihood of dominant response occurring. Dominant response refers to response most likely to occur Whether dominant response is correct or accurate depends on how easy the task is, and how well you've learned it/rehearsed it. Presence of others improves performance (helps) on simple tasks, and hinders it on difficult tasks/unpracticed tasks. (This is known as Yerkes-Dodson Law). -Increased arousal occurs only when person's efforts are evaluated.

Why bias is bad

Prevents us from making correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made

What are the two types of deviance according to Labeling Theory?

Primary deviance - no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong Secondary deviance - more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior.

primary and secondary reinforcers

Primary: biological secondary: conditioned or associated secondary reinforcers require pairing/association w/primary reinforcer for it to have value

Vigilance attention and signal detection

Primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest Vigilance is a type of attention

Retrieval cues

Priming, spreading activation, context effects, state-dependent memory, serial position effect

Confabulation

Process of creating vivid but fabricated memories, typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in gaps of missing memories

Dopamine pathway

Produced in arcuate nucleus Also dopaminergic neurons in the hypothalamus that sends dopamine to the pituitary -> tuberofundibular pathway, inhibits the realease of prolactin VTA -> nucleus accumbens -> amygdala-> hippocampus: mesoLIMBIC pathway of POSTITIVE REWARD VTA -> PRC: mesoCORTICAL pathway of NEGATIVE symptoms Substantia nigira -> caudate nucleus and putamen of the neostriatum via nigrostriatal pathway: motor planning and movement

Kohlberg's findings

Progression in which each stage is adopted and then abandoned for the next as the individual progresses -> we all begin in stage one and progress to varying degrees as our thinking matures most people don't reach the postconventional stage, conventional is normal adult moral reasoning, but preconventional is expected in children. Postconventional is expected in a smaller subset of adults with more advanced reasoning skills

Hormones in sex

Prolactin: Sexual gratification and relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm Endorphins: feelings of euphoria and pleasure released after orgasm oxytocin: released after orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners

Carl Jung and personality

Psychoanalytic theorist libido is psychic energy in general, not just psychic energy rooted in sexuality personal unconscious: similar to Freud collective unconscious: shared by all humans, residue of experiences of early ancestors - building blocks are common experiences images have an emotional element -> arcehtypes

Object-relations theory

Psychodynamic theory of personality Object: representation of parents or caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy Objects then persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others, bonds we create, and predictions of others' behavior motivation by the needs of interaction

What are the 4 major temperaments?

Psychologists conclude that people can be categorized into four basic types of temperament: sanguine, choleric, melancholy and phlegmatic. Two of the basic temperament types are more introverted or inward-directed and the other two are extroverted or outgoing.

Other factors going into how behavior affects attitude

Public declarations - more likely to follow through if you've told everyone justification of effort - people do something they don't want to justify effort they put into it, such as going to med school after hard work

What are the two ways one can conform?

Publically or privately publically: outward changing but maintaining core beliefs privately: change behaviors and opinions to align with group

Zimbardo/Stanford Prison experiment

Purpose: how conformity/obedience can result in acts different from the usual actions, how social norms/conventions can influence behaviors of participants playing the roles of prisoners/guards

How do we best recall information?

Putting it into context of our own lives -> self-reference effect

Negative reinforcement

REMOVING something unpleasant to increase frequency of behavior, ex: taking an aspirin reduces headache, so next time you have a headache, you're more likely to take one

Right Hemisphere

Random Intuitive Holistic Synthesizing Subjective Looks at wholes Emotional tone, big picture concepts

What are the three types of animal mating strategies?

Random mating- all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. Mating not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. {Bridge: Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium assumes this} Assortative Mating - Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals. Con: Can result in inbreeding. Disassortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating) - opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals mate with individuals with different or diverse traits with higher frequency than with random mating.;

Rational techniques/irrational techniques for dealing with just-world hypothesis violations

Rational Techniques: 1. Accept reality 2. Prevent or correct injustice - with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system Irrational techniques can also be used 1. Denial of the situation - refuse to accept the situation 2. Reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim

What cognitive abilities decline during aging?

Recall, episodic memory formation (old memories are stable), processing speed, divided attention (multitasking), and prospective memory (remembering things to do in future)

Cognitive declines with age

Recall, episodic memory, processing speed, divided attention

Wernicke's aphasia

Receptive aphasia due to temporal lobe damage - "word salad", words make no sense, can't understand what people say

What are Cialidini's 6 Key Principles of Influence?

Reciprocity - People tend to return a favor, thus the pervasiveness of free samples in marketing. Commitment and Consistency - If people commit, orally or in writing, to an idea or goal, they are more likely to honor that commitment because of establishing that idea or goal as being congruent with their self-image. Social Proof - People will do things that they see other people are doing. Authority - People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform objectionable acts. Liking - People are easily persuaded by other people that they like.. Scarcity - Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying offers are available for a "limited time only" encourages sales. While conveying scarcity, in general, can influence others, in the case of an opinion, the more people that agree, the more likely others are to follow, so scarcity is not desirable.

Reappraisal

Reinterpreting the meaning of a stimulus

Drug addiction in the brain

Related to the Mesolimbic reward pathway, one of the for dopaminergic pathways in the brain Nucleus accumbens, Ventral Tegmental Area, Medial Forebrain bundle connects them Activatation accounts for positive reinforcement of substance use

Weak linguistic determinism

Relativism: There are differences in languages between cultures. It is more common/easier for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured Linguistic structure influences but doesn't determine the context of everyday encounters

Recognition Primed Decision model

Relies on intuition to sort through the mind's wide variety of information to match a pattern -> often quick decision

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a PROSPECTIVE event or task that will occur at some point in the future

Shadowing

Repeating something immediately after hearing it -> uses selective attention

Maintenance rehearsal

Repetition of a piece of information to keep it either within working memory or to store it in STM and eventually LTM

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Requires a person to create a set or anchor, and the answer is adjusted based on comparing new information to the anchor

What is the first requirement needed for Development to Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions)?

Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other) - a person with a better understanding than the learner. The interaction with the learner + MKO → Learning + Higher mental function (Independence)

Why do we need sleep

Results in irritability, mood distrubances, decreased performance, and slowed reaction time, greater risk of depression and obesity, poor memory Catching up on sleep?: REM rebound: an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep than normal

What is a rural area defined as?

Rural is anywhere with <1000 people per square mile (ex. Farm country or Alaska). Has to have less than 25,000 total residents

Acronym for intelligence

S.T.A.G.E.S Spearman, Thurnstone, Gardner, Sternberg From more General to more complex

i.

Same when people share last names, especially true if people have rare last names.

Strong Linguistic Determinism

Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis Language determines thought. Our perception of reality is determined by the content of language, and it in turn shapes how we experience the world Ex:Inuits are better at discriminating subtleties between different types of snow than English speakers because they have different words for different types of snow Ex: Native tribe without grammatical tense in language can think about time in the same way as language with grammatical tense

What is spreading activation?

Says all ideas in your brain are connected together. Pulling up one memory pulls up others as well.

Which mating strategy is best?

Scientists think assortative mating, because despite dangers of inbreeding, help to increase inclusive fitness of an organism;

How to study heritability

Scientists use gene mapping to look at populations with shared traits and compare their genetic profiles. Now we look at genes that may contribute to a trait and compare and contrast Epigenetics: Changes to gene expression resulting from changes other than gene/DNA sequence, (like addition of methyl groups that activate inhibition of expression)

Central route processing

Scrutinizing and analyzing the content of persuasive information

How do societies stay together?

Small societies are held together by similarities, but only works for small ones...evolves into large society. (population growth in a small space...and people become specialized) In large societies individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles. Forced mutual independence;

Deutsch and Deutsch's Late Selection Theory

Selective filter decides what you'll pass to cognitive awareness AFTER perceptual processes. You do register and assign everything meaning but the selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness However, given limited resources and attention, it just seems wasteful to spend so much time assigning meaning to things you may not need "The dutch pay attention/perceptualize everything"

Thantos: Death drive

Self destructive/harmful to others. Comes with fear, anger, hate

What is the difference between self-esteem and self-efficacy?

Self-esteem is the respect and regard one has for oneself Self-efficacy - belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation / to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation. Developed by Bandura due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem. A person with low self-esteem can have high self-efficacy, and vice versa. Ex. a perfectionist can have low self-esteem (critical about themselves) but high self-efficacy (still see themselves as capable of doing tasks). Competent at tasks with clear guidelines and lose confidence where there are no clear rules.

What is self-stigma?

Self-stigma is when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may begin to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society.

Cognitive improvements with age

Semantic memory - improves until sixty years Crystallized intelligence Emotional reasoning

What are the steps to Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

Sensorimoteor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational Believed that passage through each stage was a continuous and sequential process in which completion of each stage prepares the individual for the following stage

STAGE ONE Piaget's stages

Sensorimotor stage (0-two) manipulate environments to meet physical needs main task/awareness developed is object permanence: objects exist even if they can't see them stranger anxiety primary and secondary circular reactions

Afferent neurons

Sensory neurons

Describe Broadbent's early selection theory?

Sensory register → selective filter → perceptual process → Conscious.

Elaboration likelihood model

Separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information - cognitive model extreme: those who elaborate extensively, think deeply about information, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decisions based on this thought other extreme: don't elaborate, focusing on superficial details, the appearance of the person delivering argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility

What doesn't create dissonance

Shock or scare tactics Passive or educational strategies selective exposure

Main categories of stressors

Significant life challenges, catastrophic events, daily hassles, and ambient stressors - ambient stressors are those that are hard to control, they can negatively impact us without us being aware of them, these are the stuff we just put up with in our lives

What does the Stanford Prison experiment tell us?

Situational attribution can affect behavior It's easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization cognitive dissonance: guards knowing their behavior was innapropriate, but justified it by blaming the prisoners internalization: prisoners incorporated their roles into beliefs may have had selection bias (who would sign up to be in a prison? Is it really random?)

What are some of the major traits that researchers found were shared by monozygotic twins raised in different environments (which shows that these similar traits have strong genetic components)?

Social potency trait - the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately. Traditionalism - tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins.

Social support vs. social capital

Social support: more on the psychological side from social network Social capital: more on the economic side from the social network

Describe Charles Cooley's theory?

Socialization also shapes our self-image and self-concept, and Charles Cooley used the term "looking glass self" to describe this process idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others.

Parietal lobe

Somatosensory cortex located on the postcentral gyrus -> projection area that is the destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain somatosensory homunculus

Role of culture on cognitive development

Some cultures place higher value on social learning, including culture traditions and roles, while other cultures will value knowledge. Children are treated differently from culture to culture

Tend and befriend response

Sometimes it's better to have support systems to have a better response to stress -Oxytocin is important for this, peer bonding moderates stress response -Oxytocin is strongly linked to estrogen, which is why this response is greater in women

What are pros and cons of animals communicating through sound?

Sound as communication is useful because it's fast, can reach many members at once, but not very private and exposes the animal's location;

What is the conflict theory perspective of cities?

Source of inequality that are entertainment centers for the wealthy. Political and economic elite run the city to increase personal resources while taking from the poor. Diversity of culture and social backgrounds increases conflict on beliefs/values

Chemoreceptors

Specific chemicals, total solute concentrations (osmoreceptors), blood pH, prostoglandins (nocireceptors) Location: tongue, blood, nose, tissue

Somatosensory Tracts

Spinal cord carries info to brain in one of those tracts, crosses other side immediately, then goes to the cerebrum injury causes damage to the other side

Aging and Cognitive abilities

Stable: Implicit memory, recognition Improve: Sematic memory, older adults have better verbal skills and crystallized IQ, emotional reasoning Decline: recall, episodic memories, forming new memories more difficult, processing speed, and divided attention, prospective memory

What is the mental process involved in how we categorize ourselves/use social-identity theory?

Step 1: All humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it, part of human nature. Categorize in order to understand objects/identify them ex. Categorize to groups (which we belong to and those different) like race (black, white)/job (student/accountant)/etc. If we assign categories to others, we can make pre-judgments about them. Step 2: Next is identification. When we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize us as belonging - behaving and acting like the category we belong to, ex. a student. Emotional significance to identification - our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging. Step 3: social comparison - how we comparing ourselves with other groups (or two different groups). We do this to maintain our self-esteem. Critical to understanding of prejudice, because once two groups develop as rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem.

What does the signal detection theory depend on?

Strength and state

Lazarus' theory on stress

Stress arises less on the physical events, but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events -> appraisal

What is strong social constructionism?

Strong social constructionism states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts;

Cocaine

Strong stimulant that releases so much dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, that it depletes your brain's supply Intense crashes and depression when it all wears off Anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties that could lead to heart attacks, respiratory arrest, cardiac failure and strokes if used recreationally instead of medically

Heritability of IQ

Strongest correlation of IQ scores in identical twins raised in same homes..nature and nurture contribute to intelligence

Split role created educational and economic gap between men and women.

Structural oppression - women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. Direct parallel to conflict theory. Women like working class are exploited because of capital model, but not all women express oppression in same way. Linked to race, class, sexual orientation, age, and disability.

Social psychology

Studies how individuals think, feel, and behave in social interactions

Shadowing task

Study for selective attention. Left ear hears one thing, the right ear hears another. Subject told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. We can study how selective attention works by studying what they filter out in the other ear

What is ethnography?

Study of particular people and places. It is a more of an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures. Good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and peoples studied.

Milgram Experiment of Obedience

Study willingness of participants, average Americans to obey authority figures that conflict with personality and morals Sixty-five percent of participants shocked all the way, even protested, but still obeyed the commander, even with the actor having a "heart condition"

How can innate behaviors be changed in a population?

Subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection, etc. (just like all other physical traits)

Emotion

Subjective experiences accompanied by physiological, behavioral, and cognitive changes All interrelated, every emotion produces different physiological changes -> brain activation, neurotransmitter production, autonomic nervous system activity

Operational Span Testing

Subjects perform a single mathematical verification: (e.g., 4/2 +1 = 3) , read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. Max number of words recalled is the "operation span"

What is an analgesic?

Substance that reduces pain perception

Describe the resource model of attention?

Supported by research study: ex. Dichotic listening/shadowing task, you aren't able to focus on both the "attended channel" and the "unattended channel". You are able to recall info from the attended channel, but not the unattended channel. -Resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things @ once.

What is the focus of symbolic interactionism?

Symbolic interactionism examines small scale (or micro level) social interactions, focusing attention on how shared meaning is established among individuals or small groups;

Withdrawal

Symptoms exhibited after one goes through a period without having the drug

Trial and error

Take random guesses until something finally works, less sophisticated way to problem solve, only effective with problem with only few possible outcomes

What decreases multitasking

Task similarity: It's hard to multitask with similar tasks ex: listening to the radio while writing a paper Task difficulty: Harder tasks require more focus Practice: Activities well practiced become automatic, or things that occur without a need for attention, whether the task is automatic or controlled A controlled task is harder and one would struggle to complete if attention is divided

Gustation

Tastes are detected by chemoreceptors Sweet, unami, and bitter cells GPCR receptors Sour and salty ion channels Ascend to the taste center in the thalamus

How do we distinguish between facial expressions?

Temporal lobe with some occipital lobe input: The right hemisphere is more active when discerning facial expressions

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall first few items well, last few items well, but middle items not so great

What is the Hawthorne effect?

The Hawthorne effect occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behavior, specifically due the awareness of being observed.

What is the McGurk effect?

The McGurk effect is a perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. The illusion occurs when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception of a third sound.

Self-control

The ability to control our impulses and delay gratification temptations could conflict with values and long term goals, so self-control is focusing on long-term goals while putting off short-term temptations

What connects the observable (behavioral) to mental approach (psychoanalytic) approach?

The cognitive theory, a bridge between classic behaviorism and other theories like psychoanalytic. Because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behavior, and has a lot in common with behavior theory (Albert Bandura comb)

What is self-serving bias?

The common human tendency to attribute one's successes to personal characteristics, and one's failures to factors beyond one's control. The reason people tend to personalize success is because it helps their self-esteem levels.

What is a conjunction fallacy?

The conjunction fallacy is faulty reasoning inferring that a conjunction is more probable, or likely, than just one of its conjuncts. In fact, a situation with just one conjunct, or condition, is more probable than a situation with two conditions. To further illustrate, if A and B are two different events, then the probability of just A occurring is more likely than A AND B occurring. Can be caused by using a representative heuristic.

What is the diathesis stress model of abnormality?

The diathesis-stress model suggests that people have, to different degrees, vulnerabilities or predispositions for developing depression. In the language of this model, these vulnerabilities are referred to as diatheses. Some people may have more of these diatheses for developing depression than other people. However, this model suggests that having a propensity towards developing depression alone is not enough to trigger the illness. Instead, an individual's diathesis must interact with stressful life events (of a social, psychological or biological nature) in order to prompt the onset of the illness. According to the model, the greater a person's diatheses for depression, the less environmental stress will be required to cause him or her to become depressed. Until this critical amount of stress has been reached, people will generally function normally, and their diatheses are considered to be "latent" or hidden.

Instinctive drift

The difficulty that arises in overcoming instinctual behaviors The tendency for an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. Drift BACK to instinct behaviors

Adaptive value

The extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of a species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection

Kurt Lewin's force field theory

The field: current state of mind The field is simply a sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at the time. These forces could divide into those assisting the attainment of our goals, and those blocking the path to them

What are savings?

The foundation that is more easily and quickly recalled when relearning information is called savings

What is the halo effect?

The halo effect is tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Ex. the physical attractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive personality traits.

Ego depletion

The idea that self-control is a limited resource Using a lot of it could result in it being used up, with less of it being used in the future in another task that requires self-control ex: muscle can be strengthened with practice, but can also be fatigues/depleted with overuse ex: people who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner or later in an unrelated task that required self-control

Personal construct psychology

The individual constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do based on their knowledge, perception, and relationships with these other people psychotherapy will allow individuals to acquire new constructs that will allow them to successfully predict troublesome events -> will be able to acquire constructs into already existing ones

Alfred Adler's Psychoanalytic theory

The inferiority complex - an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially striving for SUPERIORITY drives personality, enhancing when it''s benefitting society, yielding disorder when it's selfish

Reciprocal determinism

The interaction between a person's behaviors, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another

What are the three theories of how receptors maintain specificity with regards to an olfactory stimulus?

The labeled-line theory of olfaction describes a scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain. b. The vibrational theory of olfaction asserts that the vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile. c. Steric theory of olfaction, or shape theory, asserts that odors fit into receptors similar to a lock-and-key

where is norepinephrine secreted

The locus coeruleus releases it into the cerebral cortex Postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system

Nodes in semantic network

The longer the distance between nodes or more nodes between = the longer it takes to verify the connection Increased exposure increases node link strength Strength of node determines amount of activation emitted to a network or specific node not true for all categories, for ex most people are likely to categorize a pig as an animal faster than it's a mammal

How does symbolic interactionism tie in to the Looking-Glass Self theory?

The looking glass self suggests that the self-concept is more than the product of self-reflection. Instead, the way in which people see themselves is based on how they believe others perceive them during social interactions

What is Neuropeptide Y?

The main effect of NPY is to promote increased food intake and decreased physical activity in response to a plummeting blood sugar level. In addition to increasing food intake, it increases the percentage of calories stored as fat and blocks pain receptor signals to the brain (cue emotional eating).

Primary drives

The need for food, water, water, and warmth, motivates us to sustain bodily processes for homeostasis

Approach-approach conflict

The need to choose between two options

Identification

The outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking them, accepting idea on the surface level without internalizing it. people act/dress a certain way to be like someone, and will do it as long as they maintain respect for that individual

significance of GH

The pituitary gland triggers the growth spurt that occurs during adolescence

What is the primary role of hypocritin/orexin?

The primary role of hypocritin (also called orexin) in the CNS is to control sleep and arousal.

Stress

The process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges. Encompasses both the stressor and the stress reaction Stressor: Biological element, external condition, or event that leads to a stress response Response: subsequent physical and emotional response

What is aversive conditioning?

The process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea.

Neuroplasticity

The rapid development of neural connections in response to stimuli

Heritability

Variability in traits that can be attributed to differences in genes - the percentage of variation of traits due to genes How MUCH of our variability in traits is due to genes?

What does physical attraction mean, and are there things attractive to all people?

There are cultural differences, but some things are universally attractive - attractive across cultural backgrounds. Things like youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. Facial attraction is more important than body attraction. Both men and women are attracted to high level sexual dimorphism - the degree of difference between male and female anatomical traits Also averageness is attractive - turns out unique traits are not most attractive. Attractiveness is related to averageness. Most respondents pick 32 face average "face morph (faces digitized and averaged)" as most attractive, and 2 face average less

How does social constructionism relate to medicine?

There are stereotyped assumptions on both sides - patient may feel some symptoms aren't important enough to mention, or doctor makes false assumption based on how patient appears

How do animals use pheromones?

They can so release scents for communication called pheromones (can be for mating, most often) or to guide other members to food (ants use this method).;

Why does Thiamine cause Korsakoff's syndrome

Thiamine converts carbohydrates into glucose for energy, especially important for neurons

Implicit memory

Things you may not articulate, skills and conditioned responses, habits -> basal ganglia

What is Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT)?

This method of therapy uses musical elements, including melody and rhythm, to improve expressive language by capitalizing on preserved singing abilities and possibly engaging language-capable regions in the undamaged right hemisphere. MIT works best with non-fluent forms of aphasia.

What neurotransmitter and what part of the brain are most involved in orienting attention?

This network is predominantly modulated by acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain. The basal forebrain is a collection of structures located to the front of and below the striatum. It includes the nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, and medial septal nuclei. These structures are important in the production of acetylcholine, which is then distributed widely throughout the brain. The basal forebrain is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system (CNS).

Misleading info example

Those people who got the question with the word "smash" instead of "hit" were likely to say there was glass on the ground in the video

Cognitive theory of motivation

Thought processes drive behavior - rational and decision making ability

Piaget's idea of information processing

Through adaptation, two complementary processes -> accommodation and assimilation accommodation: process in which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information - CHANGE schema assimilation: classifying new information into existing schemata, how we describe new info/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas - SAME schema information -> assimiliation -> equilibrium , when it can't be assimilated, information -> accommodation, equilibrium. Gain new schema

Ways to perform lesion studies

Tissue removal, radiofrequency lesions, neurochemical lesions (most precise method), exitotoxic lesions (exciting neurons to death), cortical cooling (cooling neurons until they stop firing) neurochemical lesions use kaianic acid, oxidopamine (destroys dopamine neurons)

Tyranny of choice

Too many choices can also negatively impact our cognition and behavior ex: America having a lot of choice but still having higher rates of depression ex: people who had more options versus those who don't report they are less happy with their choice

Adrenal glands

Top of kidney, ACTH acts on adrenal cortex to secrete mineralcorticoids (fluid volume) and glucocorticosteroids (like cortisol) and the adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines (epi and norepi) Important role in development of muscle and bones

Deductive reasoning

Top-down reasoning: start from a set of general rules and draw conclusions from the information given

Types of problem solving

Trial and error, algorithm, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, heuristics

Sternberg's theory of multiple intelligences

Triarchic theory of intelligence -Analytical: ability to solve well-defined problems -Creative: ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas and adapt Practical intelligence: solve ill-defined problems, such as how to get a bookcase up a curvy staircase Reliable, predicts real world success, but research suggests that scores of all intelligences can vary

What schedule yields the greatest response?

Variable ratio (e.g. gambling)

Cranial nerves

Twelve pairs that connect to the brainstem

Dissociative identity disorder

Two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behavior results when the components of one's identity fail to integrate

What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 errors in solving a problem?

Type 1: false positive (accepting a false hypothesis as correct) Type 2: false negative (accepting a true hypothesis as incorrect)

Type A and B personalities

Type A: Competitive and compulsive Type B: Laid back and relaxed Type A more prone to heart disease

Hypomania

Typically doesn't impair functioning, nor are there psychotic features, increased energy and optimism. Last at least four days, elevated mood and abnormally increased energy

How does conflict theory relate to medicine?

Unequal access to valuable resources in society (education, housing, jobs) leads to heath disparities and limited access to medical care. Power struggle between different interest groups can affect health of individual, ex. Factories (want lax regulations) vs. people living nearby (want strict). Asthma rates are higher with more pollution

Amplification

Upregulation of response to a stimulus

What is an urban area defined as?

Urban areas include cities/towns with >1000 people per square mile

Treatment for opiate addiction

Use methadone, which activates methadone receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and can't experience the high because receptors are already filled.

Availability heuristic

Used when we try to decide how likely something is. We make our decisions based on how easily similar situations can be imagined quick, easily accessible examples helpful, but our easily memorable experiences don't match real state of the world

What is ethnocentrism?

Using one's own cultural standards, such as norms and values, to make judgments about another culture

Base rate fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

Hypnotism

Usually involves getting a person to relax and focus on breathing and they enter a highly suggestible state - easily succumbing to the suggestions of others -alpha waves, can create false memories

What are the three types of organizations?

Utilitarian Organizations - members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time). Normative Organizations - members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose. Coercive Organization - members don't have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or some militaries (you need to be discharged to leave). Usually highly structured and have very strict rules;

Reward Pathway in the brain

VTA sends dopamine to -> amygdala, nucleus accumbens, PFC, hippocampus Amygdala: "wow that was enjoyable" Hippocampus: Remembers and says "Hey let's do that again" Nucleus accumbens: "Let's do the actual physical action again" PFC: Focuses attention Increase in dopamine, decrease in serotonin Genetic risk

Reinforcement rankings in terms of response

Variable ratio> fixed ratio> variable interval > fixed interval

What are some different types of visual cues?

Visual cues to find a mate (ex. peacock extends feathers to attract a peahen), Visual communication through color (ex. A beak color on a certain bird allows it to communicate to young and assist in feeding young...frogs use color to signal they are toxic to other animals) Mimicry Camouflage More types: bioluminescent communication (ex. fireflies glow to attract mate) gaze following and social cues (ex. look where someone else is looking...silent way to signal location of food or predator).;

Ranking of the means to encode information

Visual weakest, sematic strongest, auditory in between

What are the processing components of working memory?

Visuo-spatial sketchpad: Visual + spatial info are processed here Phonological loop: verbal info (any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed. Ex. Repeating a phone # to yourself. The phonological store capacity is approximately 2 seconds

What is the issue with anthropomorphism with regards to animals?

Watch out for anthropomorphism - attributing human characteristics to non-human animals. We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animals. ex. pet sleeping with you at night and you can assume that they love you but maybe they are just there because of your body heat.;

Situational approach to behavior

We are placed in new situations every day and these could affect our behavior

Inattentional blindness

We aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere within that field - inability to recognize an unexpected object, event, or stimulus in 'plain sight', due to a psychological lapse in attention

Theory of planned behavior

We consider the implications of our actions before we decide to behave Predictor of behavior is the strength of these intentions and implications

Foot in the door phenomenon and attitude

We have a tendency to agree to small actions first. Eventually over time comply with much larger actions Society behaviors strongly feed into your attitude Basic concept how people are brainwashed

Resource model of attention

We have limited resources in attention Attentional shift: Occurs when directing attention to a point to increase the efficiency of processing that point and includes inhibition to decrease attentional resources to unwanted or irrelevant inputs Ex: dichotic listening task, you aren't able to focus on both the "attended channel" and the "unattended channel", but you can recall from the attended channel

Is multitasking real?

We may not be multitasking when talking on the phone or texting while driving We may just be switching the spotlight back and forth

What does it mean to let a problem incubate?

We ponder the problem for some time waiting for an insight (epiphany)

Hierarchal Semantic network

We store information in a hierarchal way. We store information at the highest category possible. Broad categories/characteristics are stored at higher level nodes Cognitive Economy Principle: our brain is efficient

How is similarity important to attraction?

We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion, and economic status/educational level. We like people who are like ourselves in looks. Couples can also stay together due to perceived similarity - because over time interests/beliefs are more aligned. Perceived similarity can be just perceived - they think the other person is similar to them (but actually aren't similar to their partners at all).

What is weak social constructionism?

Weak social constructionism proposes that social constructs are dependent on: -Brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts. Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks (or what makes the quarks) in atoms, not the atoms themselves (something that is not defined by something else). -Institutional facts are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts. Ex. money depends on the paper we have given value

Well defined and ill defined problems

Well defined: Clear criteria that describe whether or not the goal has been achieved Ill defined: more ambiguous starting and/or end point. Lacks relevant information or an obvious stated goal to solve problem....can solve ill-defined problems but don't know the outcome

What kind of questions the reinforcer should ask during motivational stage of operant conditioning?

What drives someone to get something? What will be a driving force to increase their motivation to get what they want?

Working memory

What one is thinking about at the moment-> keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that information allows us to do simple math Verbal info: phonological loop Verbal + visual info: Central executive creates an integrated representation and stores it in episodic buffer to be stored in LTM Visual + spatial info: Visuo-spatial sketchpad

Tonic neck reflex

When a baby's head is turned, the arm on that side straightens while the arm on the opposite side bends

How do we deal with violations of the just world phenomenon?

When the "just world hypothesis" is threatened (which occurs on a daily basis, we say "the world is not fair"....we see evil deeds being rewarded and good deeds being punished), we need to mentally make sense of them to keep just world hypothesis in tact- we use rational techniques or irrational techniques

According to both Rogers and Maslow , what causes tension?

When there's discrepancy between conscious values and unconscious true values leads to tension, must be resolved (similar to dissonance)

Reality principle ex

When we become mature, you need to sacrifice short-term reward and replace it with long-term gratification. You have to play by the roles of the real world and compromise "Taking candy may make me get in trouble"

Decay

When we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can't recall it anymore, and connections become weaker over time. Initial rate of forgetting is sharp but levels off over time

Priming

Where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been paying attention to it. We are primed to respond to our name, which is why it's a strong prime for pulling our attention.

What is the sensory register?

Where you first interact with information in your environment. Temporary register of all information your senses you're taking in.

Somatotype theory

William Sheldon's theory based on body type short, stocky people, jolly tall people, high strung and aloof

Contralaterality in language

With corpus callosum damage -See an object and it gets sent to your left,it gets sent to your right hemisphere. You won't be able to name it because the right hemisphere information can't communicate with the left hemisphere parts. You can pick it up with left hand because the right hemisphere controls your left body movements. However if the object was in your right visual field, you can process it.

How does learning occur

With repeated stimulation, the same presynaptic neuron converts into a greater post-synaptic neuron, creating a stronger synapse, when it lasts longer this is called long term potentiation

What does the central executive connect to

Working memory model: Input -> sensory memory, that can be decayed -> attention selects for central executive that connects to -> Phonological loop: language Visuospatial sketchpad: visuospatial semantics Episodic buffer: Short term, episodic memory

What is Xenocentrism?

Xenocentrism: judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

Does this parenting style have any long-term effects after childhood?

Yes. Early attachment style forms basis of adult relationships later in life, especially with comfort with intimacy/relationships. Secure attachment with mothers leads to secure attachment with partner. Feel secure and trusting of partner. Attachment style with infants affects our attachment with our own children. Secure attachment people tend to have secure attachments, vice versa. How comfortable we feel with parents with first year of life affects us into adulthood

What did Cannon-Bard believe

You can experience physiological response w/o emotion Different emotions had the same physiological response Believed that physiological response and emotion occured simultaneously Study: Severed afferent nerves, and the severing shouldn't alter the emotion experienced, didn't explain the vagus nerve which conveys info from periphery to CNS

What are the two components of sensory memory (register)?

You have iconic (memory for what you see, lasts half a second) and echoic (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds) memory. Defined by time

What is recency bias?

Your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before - the recency bias. Ex: you're only as good as your last game, last match.

What is the second requirement needed for Development to Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions)?

Zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. Allows learner to use their skills they already have and expand learning to things they can't do.

Stages of embryogenesis

Zygote after fertilization -> Cleavage Splitting from 1 cell→ 2 cell→ 4 cell → 8 cell → 16 cells → until the morula which has 32 cells, outside is trophoblast, inside embryoblast. Blastulation occurs: Blastocyst -> inner cell mass and blastocoel

What is labeling theory?

a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labeled it as deviant. Depends on what's acceptable in that society.

What is life course theory?

a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life

Neustress

a neutral type of stress that occurs when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly affect you

Gate theory of pain

a special "gating" mechanism exists for decreasing pain, the spinal cord is able to preferentially forward the signals from other touch modalities to the brain, thus reducing the sensation of pain

What is a social cue?

a vocal or non-vocal suggestion, which can be positive or negative. These cues guide conversation and other social interactions. A few examples of social cues include: facial expression, tone of voice and body language

Olfaction

in conjunction with taste and smell Starts from olfactory nerves and travels through the olfactory bulb and the olfactory tract to reach higher order brain areas - G protein coupled

REM sleep

also known as paradoxical sleep, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed, with heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimicking wakefulness while individual is still asleep important for procedural memory consolidation and SWS with declarative memory consolidation Dreaming occurs

Ex of complex behavioral trait

ability of insects to fly, starts off as innate but through learning become more efficient in ability to fly.

fluid intelligence

ability to think on one's feet, be adaptable, solve problems, using deductive and inductive reasoning -> key to cognitive functioning

Perceptual organization

ability to use these two processes in tandem with all of the other sensory cues about an object, to create a complete picture or idea

Cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia

abnormalities of attention, organization, planning abilities

undifferentiated

achieve scores low on both feminine/masculine scales

weakest genetic traits

achievement and closeness

What is the episodic buffer?

acts as a connecter for processed information to be stored in long-term memory.

the three selves

actual self: the way we currently see ourselves, ideal selfs: person we would like to be, ought self: our representation of the way others think we should be

indirect therapy

aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of the affected individual

Problems with Asch experiment

all male, participant suspicions, ecological validity (not the same as real world), demand characteristics (participants match expectations of experimenter)

Why are twin studies important

allows us to tease apart nature and nuture

Extirpation

also known as ablation: various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioral consequences are observed

Cons of exchange/rational choice theory?

are we really rational? Some people's choices are limited by gender/ethnicity/class, and make choice not in best interest. And why some people follow social norms that act in best interest of others (taxes, volunteering). And is it really possible to explain every social structure by actions of individuals? Critiques dislike that all human interactions are a rational process of pros/cons and makes relationships linear - when they aren't

blindspot

area where there's a lack of photoreceptors where the optic nerve and blood vessels leave the eye

What is social constructionism?

argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement - it's something constructed, not inherent. A social construct is concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money.

What is the function of the nigrostriatial pathway?

associated with motor planning and purposeful movement Substantia Niagra also projects to area of basal ganglia called the striatum, and loss of Dopamine neurons protecting from substantia niagra to the striatum causes most of motor abnormalities of Parkinsons

Somatic symptom disorder

at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition, but is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it, or elevated anxiety levels

Biological effects of stress

atrophy in hippocampus and frontal cortex anhedonia: inability

Palmer Grasping reflex

baby closes their hands on anything that comes in their hands

swimming reflex

baby moves arms in a swimming motion, involuntarily holds breath, allows for a small infant to swim/float for a short period of time

sucking reflex

baby will suck on anything that comes in its mouth

top-down processing

background knowledge influences perception, driven by cognition, the brain applies what it knows and what it expects to perceive and fill in blanks

Why does injury in one side of brain often result in damage to the other side?

because Spinal cord carries info to the brain in one of the tracts, which then crosses to the other side immediately before going to cerebrum

Allport's theory of functional autonomy

behavior continues despite satisfaction of a drive that originally created the behavior ex: hunter originally hunted to because he was hungry, now he continues because he enjoys hunting

What are some of the main assumptions of exchange theory?

behavior resulting in a reward is likely to be repeated more often reward is available the less valuable it is interactions operate within social norms, people access have information they need to make rational choices human fulfillment comes from other people (interdependence in social exchange), and standards people use to evaluate interaction changes over time

Personality disorder

behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress , or impaired functioning in at least two of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control ego-syntonic: person views behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with their goals ego-dystonic: individual sees the illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome Three clusters: A, B, C A=weird B=wild C=worried

fad

behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community

covert behavior

behavior that's not observable

Why is behaviorist theory opposite of psychoanalytic theory?

behaviorist theory focuses on observable and measurable behavior, rather than mental/emotional like psychoanalytic theory

Taboos

behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by members of community. Considered very immoral behavior.

What is optimism bias?

belief bad things happen to others, but not to us. (e.g. I won't die by texting and driving)

What is the iron rule of oligarchy?

even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. Why? Conflict theory: . Once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up. (those with power have vested interest in keeping it) Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable;

What is the modified semantic network theory?

every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. Some links might be shorter/longer for different individuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories to exemplars.

Freudian slip

ex of a mental conflict "Please don't give me any bills" - meant pills

Duncker's candle problem

example of functional fixedness, people find the easy way out to solve a problem

exchange theory vs. rational choice theory

exchange theory: purpose is to maximize benefits while limiting costs rational choice: motivated to do things what's best for them

What is sick role?

expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. the individual who has fallen ill is not only physically sick, but now adheres to the specifically patterned social role of being sick. But if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society;

What is the elaboration likelihood model?

explains how attitudes are formed and likely they are to be change. Determines when people will be influenced by the content of a speech vs. more superficial features.

situational attributions

external those that relate to the features of the surroundings such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure

stigma

extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of the society, including differences in beliefs, abilities, behaviors, and appearance -> able to evolve

Retinal disparity

eyes are about two and half inches apart and the angle of viewing things is different for each eye

Delusions

false beliefs discordant with reality and not shared by others in an individual's culture that maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary delusions of reference: common elements are directed towards the individual delusions of persecution: person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened delusions of grandeur: belief that a person is remarkable in some significant way delusions of control: belief that one's thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside, alien forces

universal emotions

fear, disgust, anger, sadness, happiness, surprise NOT pain

Marx believed society will go through what stages?

feudalism -> capitalism -> socialism.;

What is primacy bias?

first impression is more important than later data. They're 1) long (lasts a long time) 2) strong (tough to overcome) and 3) easily built upon (people put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression, and not info that doesn't (confirmation bias)

continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule in which behavior is rewarded every time it's performed

What are problems of functionalism?

focuses entirely on institutions without regard for individual (only acknowledged). Also largely unable to explain social change and conflict, so focused on equilibrium (between social facts and institutions) little change and conflict is modeled and no conflict can occur. More to society than just stable state of its part, but functionalism is still useful in examining the functions of its integral parts;

Biomedical model

focuses on biological, physical, abnormalities

Social epidemiology

focuses on the contribution of social and cultural patterns to disease patterns within populations

Ethology

focuses on the observation of animal behaviors - overt behaviors

What is ethology?

focuses on the observation of overt animal behaviors (not necessarily obvious, just means observable) Innate behavior, learned behavior, and complex behaviors.

Attribution theory

focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior

word association testing

for each word participants respond with the first word that comes to mind

Creative self

force by which each individual shapes their uniqueness and establishing personality

Free recall, cued recall, recognition

free recall: no cues in recalling cued recall: give you a "pl" for "planet" -> more retrieval cues the better the recall Recognition: Identification of information you've previously learned, far easier than recall

practice effects

gains in scores that occur when a person is retested on the same thing

GABA

gamma- aminobutyric acid secreted in the brain, produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and may play a role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain. Hyperpolarizes postsynaptic membrane

What is a gender script?

organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation. what we expect men and females to do

Karen Horney's Psychoanalytic theory

hated the idea of penis envy, neurotic needs: directed towards making life and interactions bearable ex: need for affection and approval, need to exploit others, need for self sufficiency etc. Ex: inadequate parenting causes basic anxiety, neglect and rejection causes anger, to overcome this child would use three neurotic needs

stepping reflex

hold an infant upright and their feet touch a flat surface -> they will start to step as if they are trying to walk

impression management

how individuals actively manifest their sense of self in social interactions -> how self-efficiency and confidence manifests itself in social interactions

hierarchy of salience

how our identities are organized, we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at a given moment-> ex: male and female college students in same-sex groups are less likely to list gender in their descriptions than students in mixed-gender groups -> the more salient the identiy, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities

What is past-in-present discrimination?

how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present. Negative attitude of the past coming forward to the present and causes minority to be discriminated against/feel discomfort;

Framing effects

how you present the decision can affect decisions Ex:o Ex. Disease that will kill 600 people, option A is 100% chance exactly 200 people saved, option B 30% chance all 600 saved and 2/3rd chance 0 will be saved. Which option do you pick? OR A. 100% chance 400 die B. 1/3 chance no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 die. - In first example, most people will pick A. In second, most pick B

Mature defense mechanisms

humor: expressing humor/jokes to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable sublimation suppression altruism: in service of others, we feel fulfilled and gain pleasure/satisfaction

brain structures most associated with reward system

hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens, amygdala

Describe the 5 stages of Freud's development theory?

i. Oral stage - age 0-1 yrs., libido is centered around baby's mouth and feeding. Because infant completely dependent on parents/caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort. If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking or biting fingers/nails, suck their thumb, people who overeat. ii. Anal stage - age 1-3, centered around anus, toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging child to feel positive outcomes and helps child feel capable and productive. Serve as basis for competent, productive, creative adults. 1. If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness. iii. Phallic stage - age 3-6, children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage. Oedipus complex also develops - boys view fathers as rivals for mother's affection. Describes feeling of wanting to possess the mother and replace the father. Electra complex (by Carl-Jung) is the equivalent for young girls to their fathers. Resoled through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent. If fixation occurs, cause homosexuality/exhibitionism iv. Latent period - no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills. Children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. Play is between same gender children. Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation. v. Genital stage - back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others. No adult fixation - person is mentally healthy. Goal: establish balance between various life areas (well balanced, warm, caring)

What is ego depletion?

idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control. This is true because self-control requires lots of energy and focus. Demonstrated by experiment that those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control than those who didn't resist. Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened with practice, but can also be fatigued/depleted with overuse

nationality

identity based on political borders

spontaneous recovery

if an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can be exhibited

What is spike time dependent plasticity (STDP)?

if an input spike to a neuron tends, on average, to occur immediately before that neuron's output spike, then that particular input is made somewhat stronger. If an input spike tends, on average, to occur immediately after an output spike, then that particular input is made somewhat weaker hence: "spike-timing-dependent plasticity". Thus, inputs that might be the cause of the post-synaptic neuron's excitation are made even more likely to contribute in the future, whereas inputs that are not the cause of the post-synaptic spike are made less likely to contribute in the future.

What is Strain Theory?

if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. The lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to deviant means to achieve goal ex: the American Dream, bringing strain, therefore deviant behavior such as theft may arise to achieve social goal

How does functionalism relate to medicine?

if we look at medicine from this point of view, we ask: What is the purpose of medicine. When people become ill medicine ensures they return to functional state so they can become functional to society

negative priming

implicit memory affect prior exposure to a stimulus negatively influences the response to the same stimulus in the future ex: one must ignore the other cups around and not allow them to capture control of the action -> processing of that ignored stimulus shortly afterwards is impaired ex: stritch color task

What is similarity bias?

implies we will not befriend people different from us

What is counterconditioning (stimulus substitution)?

is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus. One of the most widely used types of counter conditioning is systematic desensitization

What is instinctual drift?

is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response.

Cons of social construct theory?

it doesn't consider effects of natural phenomenon on society, and for strong social constructionism it has difficulties explaining those phenomena because they don't depend on human speech or action. Strong SC only explains reality through thoughts of humans, not using fundamental brute facts

Drowsiness

just before falling asleep/after waking up, can be self-induced deep meditation

What hemisphere is dominant for most people, and what are the functions of the dominant hemisphere?

language, math

door in the face technique

large request is made at first, and if refused, a second, smaller request is made, often this smaller request is the actual goal of the requester

hidden curriculum

lessons learned but not intended

Psychoanalytic drives

libido: natural energy source that fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc. death instinct: drives aggressive behaviors fueled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others

operant conditioning

links voluntary behavors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency between those behaviors-> B.F. Skinner, all behaviors are conditioned

PET

localization of brain activity -> radioactive tracers, lower resolution than fMRI

what concept relates to self-concept?

locus of control is another self-evaluation

What is Activity Theory?

looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being

What is racial formation theory?

looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities

Neurocognitive disorders

loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after the nervous system has developed delirium: reversible episode of cognitive/higher brain problems/confusion dementia: irreversible and progressive

style of life

manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority family environment is crucial for molding this

cultural transmission/cultural learning

manner in which a society socializes its members

operational span testing

mathematical verification, read a word, with a recall test following a number of verify/read pairs (e.g., 4/2 +1 = 3)

Selective attention tasks

measure of someone's susceptibility to change orientation of attention - inputs in which subjects directly atttend

fMRI

measures brain activity by detecting associated changes in blood flow active brain tissue requires more energy, oxygen, ATP, and blood flow Basis: active neurons demand need for oxygen and blood

How does feminist theory relate to med?

medicine is still a male-dominated field, heads of doctors and hospitals usually men, and disparity in jobs/salary between the two. Translates into a disparity in power

repressed memories

memories that have been unconsciously blocked but still affects people consciously some believe they could be "recovered" years after the event, triggered by particular stimuli or via suggestion

schema

mental blueprint containing common aspects of the world instead of reality, organized pattern of thought and behavior

Mesolimbic/mesocortical +/- effects of schizophrenia?

mesolimbic: positive, mesocortical: negative

Persuasion

method for attitude/behavior change

Psychophysical discrimination technique

method of limits - assess perception of stimuli in relation to their physical properties - one would either oversize or undersize items- nature of illusion

counterbalancing

method to control for any effect that order of presenting stimuli might have for the dependent variable

Algorithm

methodical approach. A logical step-by-step procedure or formula of trying solutions till you hit the right one. Not efficient, but guaranteed to find the correct solution eventually

what could create dissonance

minimal justification for action not enough cognition to support - cognition needs to be developed and internalized

Difference between source monitoring and source amnesia

monitoring: forgetting information's source, attributing wrong source amnesia: inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned info has been acquired, while retaining factual knowledge

suppression

more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting

Drive reduction theory

motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states Certain physiological conditions result in a negative internal environment, and this negative internal environment drives motivation and seeks homeostasis in order to reduce the uncomfortable internal state Negative reinforcement: removal of a stimuli to encourage a response

sensorimotor cortex

motor cortex + somatosensory cortex

distress

negative type of stress that builds over time and negatively affects your body. Occurs when you perceive a situation as threatening to you in some way, and your body becomes primed to respond to the threat

Schizophrenia

neurodevelopmental - prototypical psychotic disorder and suffers from one or more of the following conditions: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, and negative symptoms divided into positive and negative symptoms

feature detectors

neurons that code for perceptually significant stimuli

Timeline of language acquisition:

nine-twelve mths: babbling twelve-eighteen mths: one word per month eighteen-twenty mths: "explosion of language"/word combos two-three years: longer sentences of three words or more five years

Catecholamines

norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine

What are the 3 main monoamines associated with mood regulation?

norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine

conditioned stimulus/response

normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response called a conditioned response

How is collective behavior different from norms?

norms and deviance and how changes in norms can occur at the individual level. when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not inline with societal norms called collective behavior

Laws

norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. There is a punishment for the crime. There is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law.

folkways

norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social situations, common rules/manners we follow on a day to day basis -> opening doors, shaking hands, saying thank you etc. No actual punishment

What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?

not personality based, but more emotional. Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards another. Often towards minorities. Display aggression towards other people - scapegoating. Often seen in times of economic hardship.

interposition

object overlaps the other, when an object partly blocks view of another, you perceive the blocked part as being further away

Distal stimuli

objects and events out in the world around you. Aware of and respond to this - this is what is important...results in the proximal stimulus

cross-sectional study

observational study analyzing data collected from a population, or representative subset, at a specific point in time differ in variable of interest, but share other characteristics such as SES, education, background, ethnicity, etc.

Post-Traumatic stress disorder

occurs after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, and consists of intrusion symptoms, avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms, and arousal symptoms persists over four weeks after the event

primary socialization

occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity

What is neglect syndrome?

occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention.

What is medicalization?

occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment;

independent stressor

occurs without person's influence -> unidirectional in terms of depression

Token economies

often concerned with the behavioral perspective of personality: positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers

What is the nucleus basalis' function and how is it affected by Alzheimer's?

often lost early in course of Alzheimer's. Important for cognitive functions - send long axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum, and release acetylcholine. Contribute to cognitive functions of disease.

What is Disengagement Theory?

older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. Separation allows for self-reflection. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable

resocialization

one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change and can have positive/negative connotations

goal orientation theory

one engages in learning activities in order to pursue particular goals (mastery, performance approach for rewards/recognitions, performance avoidance for negative feedback)

ethnic identity

one's ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language

thought broadcasting vs. thought insertion

one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head

Peptide neurotransmitters

opiods/endorphins/enkephalins -> natural painkillers neuromodulators are relatively slow and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell

group polarization

phenomemon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of individual group members. Criticism to minority group confirmation bias: group members seek out information that supports the majority view

What is the difference between a phenome and a morpheme?

phenomes (smallest unit of sound) vs morphemes (smallest significant unit of meaning of a word)

Schacter-Singer two factor theory of Emotion

physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form the experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/identify reason for the situation -> cognitive appraisal Ex: Man who is allergic to bees encounters bee -> simultaneously the man interprets that his allergy to bees makes this encounter threatening, his heart rate increases, and he starts sweating -> labels the emotion as fear Event -> PR+identification of reason for the PR consciously -> emotion

What is George Ritzer's McDonaldization?

policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily: Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity and control Not necessarily a bad thing. Pervasive throughout society.;

eustress

positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating

Deindividualization

presence of a large group provides anonymity and causes a loss of individual identiy -> leads to antinormative behavior, with anonymity, individuals are more likely to act in a manner inconsistent with normal self

internal factors

prior commitments (if we say something earlier that goes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. If we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformity because we will say the same thing now. We are not likely to change what we say). feelings of insecurity - more likely to follow judgements of others (conformity)

anticipatory socialization

process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships

What is bureaucratization?

process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you.;

socialization

process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs

Reinforcement

process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior

Attribution

process of inferring causes of events and behaviors

secondary socialization

process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society

shaping

process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors

acquisition

process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus into a conditioned stimulus

What is the main purpose of vigilance attention and signal detection?

processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest. This allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest, i.e. a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken.

Immature defense mechanisms

projection: throw your personal attributions to someone else passive aggression: aggressively doing something for someone and failing to do it or doing it slowly passive way to express your anger

Asch Conformity Study

purpose was to determine if the real test participant would go along with the other group confederates' incorrect decision -no actual pressure to perform w/ no rewards or punishments Conformed: Went along with answers in fear of being ridiculed (normative), or they doubted their own response (informative), perceptual errors by truly viewing answers as correct non-conformed: confidence, or confident but stuck with answers

Motivation

purpose, or driving force for our actions motivation determines which behaviors are most important to pursue, how much effort will be taken, and for how long the effort will be maintained

What is racialization?

racialization or ethnicization is the processes of ascribing ethnic or racial identities to a relationship, social practice, or group that did not identify itself as such

Delirium

rapid fluctuations in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical, nonpsychological causes. Caused by a variety of tissues including electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, a drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain ex: delirium tremens with alcohol withdrawal can be deadly

example of latent learning

rats that were simply carried through the maze and then incentivized with a food reward for completion performed just as well as those who were rewarded along the way -> spontaneous generation of learning

Cross tolerance

reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target

Perceived behavior control

refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior Social cognitive theory: are we controlling or are we getting controlled by the environment around us

What is acetylcholine?

released by frontal lobe sent to LMNs and the autonomic nervous system (parasympathetic specifically) acetylcholine functions in the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system both as an activator and inhibitor. In the peripheral nervous system, it causes skeletal muscles to contract. In the central nervous system, it inhibits the activation of the cholinergic system. Acetylcholine plays an important role in the signal of muscle movement, sensation of pain, learning and memory formation, the regulation of the endocrine system and rapid eye movement (REM) sleeps cycles.

where is serotonin secreted

released by raphe nuclei in brainstem to cerebral cortex, raphe nuclei also sends serotonin to other parts of the nervous system

Depth perception

relies on both monocular and binocular cues

Family studies

rely on the assumption that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals

Mere-exposure effect

repeated exposure to novel people/objects increases our liking for them. More often we see something, more often we like it

Primary circular reactions

repetition of body movement that has originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb, child finds it soothing

What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

requires a person to create a set point or anchor. The answer is adjusted based on comparing new information to the anchor

Sleep-wake disorders

result in distress/disability from sleep-related issues. Includes insomnia and breathing-related sleep disorders and abnormal behaviors during sleep

What does successful retrieval of memory rely on?

retrieval depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval. Best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding.

regression

reversion to an earlier developmental state

sanctions

rewards/punishments for behaviors in accord with or against norms respectively -> fines, incarceration, corporal punishment, capital punishment etc., maintenance of social control

risky shift vs. choice shift

risky shift: groups make riskier decisions than individuals - individual level choice shift: groups shift towards caution - behavior change of a group as a whole

What did Max Weber modify to this theory?

said he did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable, but argued that several factors moderate people's reaction to inequality. Introduced three independent factors: Class/Status/Power;

self-schema

self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities, ex-> the athlete schema usually carries the qualities of youth, physical fitness, and dressing/acting in certain ways

semicircular canals

sensitive to rotational acceleration, endolymph in semicircular canal resists motion when head rotates, bending underlying hair cells and sending a signal to the brain - detect what direction our head is moving in, strength of rotation

mass hysteria

shared, intense concern about the threats to society features of groupthink lead to shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, and fear mongering

Gestalt principles

similarity: items similar to one another grouped together Pragnanz: be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible, reality is organized and reduced to the simplest form ex: olympic rings proximity: objects that are close are grouped together continuity: lines are seen as following the simplest path closure: objects grouped together are seen as whole law of good continuation: elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together

parallel processing of vision

simultaneous processing of incoming stimuli color, motion, shape, depth

What is aversive control, and what type of conditioning does it fall under?

situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant - examples of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning

foot-in-the-door technique

small request is made, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made

difference threshold

smallest difference that can be detected fifty percent of the time

What cells are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, the efferent neurons in the PNS?

smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscle, and gland cells

social action vs. social interaction

social action: takes into consideration the individual surrounded by others social interaction: explores ways in which two or more individuals can both shape each other's behavior

peer pressure

social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual

What is age stratification theory?

suggests age is way of regulating behavior of a generation

What are gender differences?

socially constructed via process of socialization. Society creates and passes down norms, customers, and expectations for gender from generation to generation. Creates a system that rewards/punishes the expectations created. Examines how women's position in social situations differ from men (usually worse, weaker)

norms

societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior, a means of social control

What is the executive control function of the prefrontal cortex?

solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations.

Bipolar disorder

someone who swings from extreme emotional highs to extreme emotional lows characterized by mania and depression

cultural diffusion

spread of norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture

What is the "hidden curriculum of socialization?"

standard behaviors that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers

Give overview of parasympathetic NS response?

starts at the brain stem or bottom of spinal cord → 1st neuron sends long axon → synapse with ganglion of second neuron → sends short axon to target cell

Give an overview of the sympathetic NS response?

starts middle of spinal cord → short axon synapses with short ganglia close to spine → second neuron goes to the target cell (smooth, cardiac, gland cells) with long axon synapses

androgyny

state of being simultaneously masculine and feminine

What is the Theory of Differential Association?

states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm. -> the degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. ideals that goes against them

Self-fullfilling prophecy

stereotypes lead to behaviors that affirm original stereotypes

subliminal stimuli

stimuli below absolute threshold

neutral stimuli

stimuli that doesn't produce a reflexive response

conditioned reinforcer/secondary reinforcer

stimuli, objects, events that become reinforcing through interaction with the primary reinforcer

bottom- up processing

stimulus influences our perception, processing sensory info as soon as it's coming in

MRI

structural imaging of different tissues/fluids Gives off different patterns of energy depending on the structure At the center of each atom -> proton, serving as a magnet sensitive to magnetic field magnet causes the body's water molecules to align in one direction, either north or south, changing from it being random. second magnetic field with quick pulses, causing each hydrogen atom to alter its alignment and then quickly switch back to its original relaxed state when off. The magnetic field is created by passing electricity through gradient coils, which also cause the coils to vibrate

Thalamus

structure within forebrain imporant in relaying sensory info for all senses except smell

subjective vs. objective

subjective: feelings, opinions, interpretations, objective: facts, measurable, observable

panic disorder

sudden burst of sheer panic and intense fear panic attacks: marked by fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, and a sense of unreality - in response to situations that typically don't warrant that level of stress sense of impending doom

Erik Erikson's Seven stages of development?

suggested there was plenty of room for growth throughout one's life not just childhood, assumed a crisis can occur at each stage of development, between needs of individual and society. Successful completion of stage results in acquisition of basic virtues and healthy personality -> doesn't require completion like Freud, failure just results in reduced ability to move on

Describe the elements of cultural imperialism?

the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture. People within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to politics/culture/spirituality.

What is social selection?

the idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility and, hence, their position in the social hierarchy Developed by Joan Roughgarden, an evo biologist

Describe Meads' theory of social behaviorism?

the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism). Infants + children were not influenced by others in any way, merely imitate others, and display egocentrism. As we grow up, our belief on how others perceive us is more important, this happens through 3 stages: preparatory, play stage, and game stage. These occur overtime as a child grows

What is William Cross's Nigrescence model?

the process of becoming Black and being comfortable with this acceptance

lowball technique

the requestor will get an initial comittment from an individual, and then raise the cost of the commitment -> ex: you agree to head the committee, but discover afterwards that the committment also includes written reports from each meeting and a quarterly presentation

What is bureaucracy with regards to organizations?

the rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations. (DOES NOT necessarily mean something negative, lines, or red tape);

What is etiology?

the study of causation, or origination, of an abnormal condition/disease

Mental set

the tendencyto appraoch similar problems in the same way

sublimation

the transformation of unacceptable behaviors into acceptable ones

Biopsychosocial approach

there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's disorder. Biological: something in the body such as a genetic syndrome Psychological: stem's from individual's thoughts, emotions, or behaviors Social: individual's surroundings such as perceived class in society and even discrimination or stigmatization

Components of social perception

tools to make judgements and impressions regarding other people perceiver: influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state target: person about which the perception is made situation: given social context can determine what information is available to the perceiver

displacement

transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another

Adolescence

transition from childhood to adulthood -> starts at sexural maturity, ends at adult status (being self-supported

What do agents of socialization do?

transmitting values and beliefs about acceptable behaviors

direct therapy

treatment acting directly on an individual

classical conditioning

type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli

reaction formation

unconsciously reverting urges into their exact opposites

rapport

understanding empathy -> involves a doctor's interpretation of meaning among social actors

Downregulation and upregulation of sight

up: dark adaptation, pupils dilate, down: light adaptation, pupils constrict with rods and cones becoming desensitized to light

What is the Hypothesis of relative deprivation?

upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to Relative depreciation is the discrepancy of what they feel they're entitled to and what they get Extent and how quickly this happens can lead to collective unrest - an upsurge in prejudice and discrimination. Linked to Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

Otolithic organs

utricle and saccule - linear accelerationand head positioning - contributes to dizziness and vertigo

Downward mobility

vertical mobility in the social ladder, contrast to horizontal, intergenerational, and intragenerational mobility

What was Guilford's theory of convergent intelligence?

was proposed by Guilford to describe IQ test related intelligence, such as puzzles, vocabulary words, and arithmetic

hypoventilation disorder

when we aren't able to ventilate our lungs fully and remove all carbon dioxide, results in a build-up of carbon dioxide, and a decrease in oxygen can occur due to medications that repress respiratory functions or if there is a problem with the lungs or chest wall high carbon dioxide: right sided heart failure low oxygen: affects all organs/tissues

What is false consensus bias?

when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not

What is projection bias?

when we assume other share the same beliefs we do

whole report and partial report

whole report ex: List ALL the letters you saw Partial report: list letters of a particular row immediately after presentation of a stimulus, tends to be easier

Mores

widely observed norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group's values of right and wrong). Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Don't have serious consequence

What happens when a a change to production/distribution/coordination occurs?

will force others to adapt to maintain stable state society. Social change threatens mutual dependence of people in that society. Institutions adapt only just enough to accommodate change to maintain mutual interdependence;

neuroleptics

work to improve positive symptoms (delusions and hallucinations) but they may also cause apathy, cause lack of emotional affect/lack of interest

exacerbation

worstening

How does Unrelated physiological arousal influence attraction?

you rate a woman while crossing a bridge higher because you are experiencing sympathetic arousal as when compared to rating the same woman while walking across the street When you are physically attracted to someone you experience this fast heartbeat (sympathetic arousal too). Our brain recognizes the sympathetic arousal from high height and being attracted together