meckna 5x5

Cold War

Tension, but no actual fighting between Western, NATO democratic countries, and Eastern, Warsaw communist countries, for nearly 50 years after WWII. The Iron Curtain is the divide between both sides, and the Berlin Wall was the symbol of the Cold War and communist oppression. Initial plans of the US (Truman) were to "contain" communism and support nations resisting communism. Later policies included Nixon's detente- easing of tensions like limiting nuclear arms and expanding trade. The tension nearly led to violence multiple time, like the Cuban Missile Crisis. Prominent leaders of the Soviet Union like Stalin, Khrushchev, Brezhnev, and Gorbachev

Iron Curtain

Term for the split in Europe between the communist East bloc and Western Europe. Defined by Churchill in his speech: "an iron curtain has descended across the continent." Berlin Wall - ultimate symbol of the Iron Curtain and Cold War (although W. Berlin was not communist, occupied by America)

Loyola/Jesuits

Loyola founded the Jesuit movement which was based off the idea of spreading Catholicism by highly educated men throughout the world. The Jesuits played a major role in the Catholic Counter Reformation. These men usually spoke many languages so they could communicate with the people they were trying to convert. They educated people, established schools, did missions and effectively converted people. The Jesuits established themselves as a teaching order. The Ursuline movement was also an outgrowth of this type of movement. There were nuns who were highly educated and very Catholic. The Jesuits went abroad and evangelized there, and also revitalized Catholicism in some places in Europe, like Southern Germany and Eastern Europe.

Good luck

1600-1715

This is getting boring

1715-1815

Oh joy

1815-1914

Almost done :)

1914-Present

Henry IV

(originally Henry of Navarre) was the king of France who rose to power after the war of the three Henrys and the French Religious Wars. He created a France where Catholics and Protestants could live. He was originally a Protestant, but became a Catholic to rule France. However, to look out for his former religion, Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, which gave toleration to Protestants, a big step for France in religious toleration. As a politique, Henry did not stick to his morals as much as other rulers, but looked to do things that would work in his favor. He did not care about religion or morals as much, but cared about how things played out, how they would benefit him and his country. He worked with Sully to recover French agriculture. Leffemes spurred manufacturing and made France a large exporter of luxury goods. He separated his own religion from politics, and his own views from politics, and put the well-being of his country first.

My friend sent me her 5X5 notes from last year so I just put them into a quizlet. Have fun studying.

1450-1600

Good Luck!

:)

Montesquieu/Voltaire/Rousseau

A group of French Enlightenment thinkers, called philosophes, who inspired a new age of reason in the Enlightenment. Montesquieu wrote the "Spirit of Laws" and "Persian Letters", which established the enlightenment thinkers way of challenging and criticizing established beliefs. He also came up with the idea of checks and balances in government, and the separation of powers. He was the inspiration for the US constitution and government system. Voltaire challenged established religion by advocating for religious toleration, and separation of church and state. He also wrote about the importance of popular sovereignty. Rousseau said that the government should support the general will and opinions of its people. He wrote "The Social Contract". He planted seeds of romanticism. The writings and thoughts of these philosophes introduced these new political ideas to European society and helped inspire political and social change throughout society.

Catholic/Counter Reformation

A response to the Protestant Reformation and attempt to win back those who turned away from the catholic church. (Papal Inquisition in Rome, Index of Prohibited Books, Council of Trent and Jesuits) This included the Council of Trent which aimed to fix the problems such as pluralism, simony, absenteeism, and the sale of indulgences. It reaffirmed all the beliefs of the Catholic Church such as papal authority, all 7 sacraments. Led to the creation of Jesuits and Ursulines. The Council of Trent did effectively clean up some up the Church's corruption. However, the Counter reformation was ultimately unsuccessful at reconverting those lost to Protestantism- although the Jesuits were very effective. The Roman Inquisition, also known as the Papal Inquisition, was created during the Counter Reformation to question possible infidels. It was not effective because it only questioned people from Rome and the papal states. Protestant didn't even live in this area and lived further north.

Children

After the Industrial Revolution, attitudes toward children became more loving and nurturing. Attitudes towards children changed because they could no longer be used for work or wages and they were surviving more than they had before. The Industrial Revolution led to the change in attitudes toward raising children. Improvements in agriculture and health meant more children lived and parents could be more emotionally attached. Parents started to actually love their children and stop things such as swaddling and wet nursing to become closer to their children. Childhood started to become a happy time, as seen in the creation of the toy industry. Children were beaten less than before because it was thought as a time to learn. Since children could did not usually work anymore, they went to school and had a at least a basic education. The old familial patterns of work were broken by growth of industry, a positive effect for the well-being of children.

Joseph II

Austrian, also known as the "revolutionary emperor," was an Enlightened Absolutist, whose ineffective reforms revealed the limitations of Enlightenment thinking. He was the most Enlightened of the enlightened despots, and set out to have his policies reflect that. He was religiously tolerant of all faiths, including Jews. He encouraged education, and abolished serfdom and made labor become cash payments with rent. He also abolished torture and got rid of the death penalty. He made laws the same for everyone, no matter what social class you were. He go rid of monasteries if they weren't doing anything, with the edict of idle restitution. (He hated the nobility and the church). He tried to change to much in such a small period of time that his reforms didn't last. Because of all the reforms he made, he was the least liked and least successful of the Enlightened Despots. He didn't have support from the Junker nobility which was necessary for reform. He tried really hard to make his country Enlightened, but he went too far, too fast for his country. His reforms were not effective, and later reversed by his successor.

Population Growth

Because of the agricultural revolution, more people had access to nutrition, which resulted in longer lives and major population growth. The population growth did not happen because of higher birth rates, but because of lower mortality rates. This population growth would reshape the world economy in a new way. Women were able to have more babies because of new opportunities for employment in the cottage industry. Lower mortality rates came from new preventive medicine such as the smallpox vaccine and from improvements of water supply and sewage which promoted better health standards. The growth of population created more opportunity for employment in the new cottage industry that would introduce a greater market for manufactured goods. Moreover, this became a factor in the new shift towards wage earning, or proletarianization. Another effect of the population growth is the increase of consumerism in the world market. Surpluses in both food and manufactured goods in this time period created a market for consumers to buy from with the wages they earned.

1989 Revolutions

Eastern and Central European countries breaking from communism, marking an end to communism in Europe. -began in Poland- Poland elects non-communist leaders. Gorbachev declares he won't use Soviet troops to impose communism on Eastern Europe. - Berlin Wall opened in 1989- people able to move from East to West Berlin - revolutions also in Czechoslovakia (velvet revolution) and Romania

Imperialism

European countries increasing their territories and conquering the inhabitants of those territories, in order to demonstrate their power. The white Man's Burden came into play here by having white Europeans dominate those "lesser" to them. Africa was the target during imperialism. The biggest European powers of expansion in order were Britain, France, and Germany. Imperialism spread European culture and religion with guns blazing. Europeans twisted the theory of survival of the fittest to apply to their "superiority" over others. Their motives included building up empires, their belief that it was their right to dominate people (social darwinism), their desire to bring Christianity to uncivilized people, and national pride. European countries began to take brutally take colonies in the Americas and Africa. Competition for land in Africa was so fierce that Bismarck had to hold the Berlin Conference to lay down basic rules. These countries were conquered violently, then brutally exploited for resources to fund the European country's other conquests. They were forced to face the technological and industrial dominance of European countries. With imperialism, many non-European countries were forced to join the global economy and politics.

Fascism/Mussolini

Fascism was a totalitarian government focused on a strong military and highly disciplined society. Italy became a fascist country, and Mussolini was the leader. Italy needed a strong leader to revive the economy and rebuild the military. Mussolini became a public figure after he defeated numerous, yet tiny communist revolts among Italy. His "Black Shirts" targeted liberal ideas in Italy. Italians had feared communism and Mussolini gained support. Mussolini created the fascist government in Italy to prepare Italy for war at any given time. He tried to present the idea to the world that Italy was a complete totalitarian society. However, in reality, Italy's day-to-day society was not largely affected by fascism. Mussolini effectively used nationalism and control of the media to create discipline and repress individual liberties. He believed that his citizens needed to be ruled harshly to prepare for the possibility of ar so they would not be conquered or subjugated but conquer and subjugate others. He gained support from the Catholic church by recognizing the Vatican state as an independent state. Mussolini's campaign in Ethiopia got Hitler's attention and led to their alliance in WWII.

Men & Women (roles)

Gender roles became far more defined after the industrial revolution, with inflated masculine and feminine traits. Whereas men and women had been equals doing farm work, the shift to factories made it harder for women to work and also take care of kids. Because of the industrial revolution, workers had to work on their employer's schedule versus their on time. Thus women increasingly stayed home to take care of children and became the homemakers. Men became the primary wage earners. Women were supposed to be supportive and make a happy home for the husband to come home to while the husband was supposed to be strong. Because the woman now had to rely on the support of the man, people began marrying for love rather than purely economic reason like before. The Industrial Revolution created separate spheres for men and women.

Labor Unions

Growth of ______________ allowed for the growth of moderate (not radical) socialism in Europe, and steady improvement for the working-class. Labor unions became more moderate. They were less likely to revolt violently because they had a much better standard of living. Instead they were willing to compromise. Unions in Great Britain got the right to strike without being held accountable for damage. Unions in Germany focused on wages, hours, and working conditions. The combinations act didn't allow unions to form or congregate in Great Britain. Working class people began to protest the harsh conditions they worked under. They fought for shorter work days (8 hours), paid vacations, sick days, and a minimum wage. They voted socialist or for the Labour party. Growth of the labor unions also led to revisionism, which was an effort to make the Marxist doctrines more moderate.

Hitler/Nazi

Hitler was the dictator of Nazi Germany before and during WWII who was driven by extreme nationalism and racism to "purify" Germany of all non-German races and religions. He rose to power before WWII and his expansionist policies led to WWII and the fall of Germany. Hitler's totalitarian regime in Nazi Germany was based on racial aggression and territorial expansion, something other European countries were initially reluctant on trying to prevent. Hitler built up the Nazi Party on the basis of National Socialism that was driven by extreme nationalism and racism. He used anticommunism and the Great Depression of 1929 to strengthen the Nazis' appeal to Germans. He easily became a dictator and the Nazi Party turned Germany into a totalitarian state. Hitler explained his ideas in "Mein Kampf", which he wrote in jail. He had a secret police force that made sure all people supported the government. He used coercion and terror to gain power, using SS, the police force. Hitler began his expansionist policies, invading Rhineland and taking territories in Austria and Czechoslovakia. The Western European countries appeased Hitler until he invaded Poland, which was the beginning of WWII. One of the strongest ideals of Hitler and the Nazis was the strong anti-Semitism and other "undesirables." The Nuremberg laws defined German Jews and other people of non-German blood. As Jews and other people were forced out of their homes, those of the "master race" stepped in to take their place (Aryanization). This overt racism didn't sit well with other European countries and it would later lead to the Holocaust during World War II.

Immigration to Europe

Immigration from the 1980s and on means people from non-Western countries immigrating to Europe, causing cultural conflicts and discrimination. Switch from people migrating out of Europe to Europe becoming a destination for immigrants. Population is declining in Europe so they kind of need more people coming on. Although immigrants are mostly from the Middle East and that has causes problems because they have such different cultures. Ex: hijabs in Francesa

Spanish Decline

Inflation, bankruptcy, a small middle class, and religious intolerance were among several factors that contributed to Spain's Decline as a European power. Its decline started with Philip II, king of Spain at the time. First, he carried on with the Inquisition, and went so far as to expel anyone who was not Catholic from Spain. This meant Jews and Muslims (moriscos), causing Spain to lose wealthy, good merchants and skilled workers. It also meant a very small middle class, and a declining population. Philip II believed that he was a Catholic crusader, so he spent a lot of money on crusades against the Ottoman Turks and in the Mediterranean, and fought to suppress protestants in the rest of Europe, which left Spain bankrupt, but also highly taxing the Spanish people. Spain also went through major inflation under Philip II, because of a gold and silver flooding into the system from the Americas. Philip II also fought many wars on the wrong side (French Religious Wars/War of the Three Henrys, Dutch Revolt, in which he lost the Spanish Armada), which cost too much money. On top of everything, Spanish nobility lived lifestyles they couldn't afford, and the country had bad farmland. Spain declined because their king fought the wrong battles, and because everything that seemed like a positive thing (gold and silver, lots of territory, only Spanish people in Spain), turned out to hurt the country.

Italian Unification

Nationalism and the leadership of Cavour led to the unification of Italy, which was originally a collection of city-states. Italian Unification was made a reality under the Sardinian statesmen Cavour and the king Victor Emmanuel. Cavour's dream was to unify northern Italy which included the provinces of Tuscany, Piedmont, and more. Italy had fought Austria for the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia with support from France under Napoleon III. However, Napoleon III backed out half-way through, forcing Italy to back down. Garibaldi was an Italian nationalist who started fighting for Italian unification. Cavour convinced Emmanuel to send an army to intercept Garibaldi's, which was known as the Red Shirts, because he feared that he was a radical who was unstable. Once Garibaldi was intercepted, he handed his army to the king's to fight for unification. By 1870, Italy was unified.

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization; an alliance of Western Nations made to defend one another against communism. Gave each country the peace of mind they needed support against the Communists. Marked the end of isolationism. Led directly to the creation of the Warsaw Pact- the opposing communist alliance

Catherine the Great

Russia's Enlightened absolutist and who furthered Russia's westernization. Her rise to power came from her planned assassination of her husband. From this, she set out to rule inspired by the Enlightenment. Her main goal was to continue Peter the Great's westernization. She imported Western intellectuals and artists, and sponsored Western works such as Diderot's Encyclopedia. She also wanted domestic reform. Slowly but surely, she restricted the practice of torture and allowed limited religious toleration. However, these were reversed after Pugachev's Rebellion, a serf uprising. Catherine decided that the serfs could not be freed. This, along with her want to expand Russia's territory (won against the Turks, and bargained with Austria to partition Poland), limited her being called an Enlightened Despot.

Serfdom in Eastern Europe

Serfdom was the status of many peasants under the feudal system, where serfs were not owned like slaves, but were still subjected to working on their landlord's land. In Eastern Europe, serfdom was especially brutal. Serfs worked unpaid labor for six days a week, and also had to pay their own bills and provide for themselves off of their own land. This was especially enforced in Russia, where serfs worked the robot (unpaid labor) for most of their free time. The serfs were a major part of the tsar's power. In order to keep the favor of nobles, leaders in Eastern Europe helped them subject peasants to serfdom. Although brutal and unjust, serfdom in Eastern Europe brought economic expansion, mainly in Poland and eastern Germany. With more workers and more working hours, nobles were able to push production enough to create surplus goods. Serfdom did cause a decline in population and the middle class (more and more people subjected to serfdom). Unlike Western Europe, serfdom in Eastern Europe was not abolished until the 19th century (compared to the 14th century in England). Serfdom in Eastern Europe went longer and was more brutal and violent than in Western Europe.

Solidarity-Poland

Solidarity was an independent Polish trade union that worked for workers rights and an end to communism in Poland. New Polish opposition to communism. Worker unrest led to Walesa creating the Solidarity movement, essentially a massive union (to protest the unfair communist policies that didn't help working class as they were intended). Pope Paul supported Solidarity. There was initial opposition to Solidarity by the communist gov, but eventually elections led to Walesa becoming president. This began to the dismantling of the communist system and Poland's transition to a free, democratic state. Poland then used shock therapy to transition the economy away from state planning towards a free market system.

Terrorism in Europe (since 1960's)

Terrorism since the 1970s has been mostly based on religion. -Based on religion. -"Jihad": religious duty of Muslims. -Munich massacre (1972 Olympics). -PLO: Palestinian Liberation Organization. -European countries made further preparations for attacks. People who wanted to use terror and order to show that their religion was supreme.

EC-EU

The European Community/Common Market that became the European Union is a supranational organization intended to standardize the economics of many nations in order to become more powerful together and help avoid future wars. Governing body superior to other European countries. Started as to compete with American and other large economies. Got rid of tariffs between european countries and allowed open travel btw nations. Set unified regulations for environment, wages, no death penalty, etc. Conditions to join the EU set by the Maastricht Treaty. Makes the Euro the official currency.

Atlantic Trade

The atlantic triangular trade system, trade between the Americas, Europe, and Africa, sparked by the age of exploration, grew to new heights with the new agricultural and manufacturing improvements. Europe exported manufactured goods to Africa and the Americas, Africa exported slaves, and the Americas exported fur, tobacco, sugar, and other colonial goods. The positive effects of Atlantic trade were larger economies and wider range of products in Europe. The negative effects include the spread of diseases and rapid growth of the slave trade. European colonies in the Americas heavily exploited slaves to produce sugar and tobacco. Increase in exploration led to an increase in the power of the Atlantic and a decrease in the influence of the Mediterranean.

1991 end of USSR

The end of the USSR in 1991 happened when Russia pulled out of the union, then was followed by the rest of the members. In February 1990 the Communist party lost local elections all over the U.S.S.R. Gorbachev declares he won't use Soviet troops to impose communism on Eastern Europe. Anti-communist sentiments all over USSR led to all nations declaring independence, even Russia. Communist leaders got rid of Gorbachev -> Yeltsin (a far more democratic leader in Russia) USSR ceases to exist when all nations have broken away (sorry Gorbachev).

Science & Realism

The rise of urbanization was accompanied with two intellectual developments in science and realism both of which would significantly change views of the world and religion. New developments in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electricity were characterized by extremely rapid scientific progress, which later helped the emergence of the Second Industrial Revolution. The rise of science and technology would lead to three consequences: increased interest in science in the general public, philosophical implications of science became more widespread, and the methods of science acquired massive prestige and popularity. The most influential intellectual development of this era was Charles Darwin's theory of evolution that described the gradual change and continuous adjustment that nature goes through. It also led to Herbert Spencer's idea of Social Darwinism that applied the "survival of the fittest" doctrine to society. The ideas of Darwinism reflected another new movement called realism. In contrast to romanticism, realism stressed the depiction of life as it actually was. This emerged after the failed Revolutions of 1848 where people turned away from romanticism. Realists saw that people should halt from focusing on the future, and focus on the present realities. This movement caused people to turn towards a more realistic view of the world. These movements dramatically changed people's worldview and further undermined religion with the new scientific and realistic views of the world. Realism was also an artistic movement that differed from romantic and dramatic art. More of people doing everyday things. Notable artwork included Courbet who painted "The Stonebreakers" which depicted ordinary women working an ordinary task in a field. It didn't romanticize or dramatize anything.

Baroque

This era is categorized by its ornately detailed and over-the-top art, music, and architecture. Baroque art was similar to Renaissance art, but it was incredibly over exaggerated. It was used by the catholic church during the counter reformation to glorify God. It also was used by absolutist rulers to glorify their power and majesty. It spread throughout Europe as a weapon of the Counter Reformation to show the miracles that Catholicism proved. Painters typically portrayed a strong sense of movement, using swirling spirals and upward diagonals, and strong sumptuous colour schemes, in order to dazzle and surprise. Examples of Baroque architecture are Versaille and its hall of mirrors and the king's headquarters, which glorified the absolute monarchy, and St. Peter's, which showed the power of the church. Examples of Baroque Music include Bach, Handel, and Vivaldi. Examples of Baroque Art include Bernini's "Ecstasy of St. Teresa," Caravaggio's "Conversations of St. Paul" and the shadows in that piece, and Ruben's "Elevation of the Cross."

West European Economic Recovery

West Europe's return to a stable economy after WWII, made possible by continued investment from the United States. 1) the US Marshall Plan (gave $ to Europe), 2) willingness to cooperate and help others post conflict (Scandinavian Countries + Great Britain - become more socialist- healthcare, education, childcare, paid vacation) willingness to give personal wealth so everyone can be taken care of. 3) switch from efficient factories producing war materials to consumer goods (cars and planes become affordable) Post war people also support moderate politicians- ex: Christian Democrats Also, Creation of EC/EU to integrate economies and prevent war

Phillip II

a deeply religious (Catholic) king of Spain who sought to increase Spanish power after inheriting the vast Spanish empire from his father, Charles V. His seriousness about religion and the duties of being a king are perfectly represented in the Escorial, his palace of sorts. Under his rule, Spain would peak and face its downfall. Most of Philip's attempts at strengthening Spain turned out to weaken the country. Because he was a Catholic crusader, Philip reinvigorated the Inquisition, and sought to get rid of Jews and Muslims from Spain, called Moriscos. This got rid of a lot of skilled workers and began to make Spain less competitive. Philip also tried to impose taxation and Catholicism on the Netherlands. This caused the Dutch Revolt and a clash with England, which led to the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Philip II's reign began the decline of Spain as a global power.

Charles I of England

a divine right king of England who's anti-Parliament rule led to the English Civil War. His morals conflicted heavily with Parliament. Charles I believed himself to have a divine right to the throne, and believed that he should hold all the power, which is why he refused to call Parliament for eleven years. He was also a high church Anglican, who believed in adding more fancy rituals to the church, and believed in imposing fancy rituals on Scotland. Scotland revolted, and Charles was unable to put the rebellion down without Parliament. Charles called Parliament, and Parliament had the opportunity to lay down limits for the king's power. They refused him an army and passed the Triennial Acts, which meant Parliament had to be called at least every three years. This led to a civil war between the king (divine right monarchy and fancy rituals) and Parliament (Cromwell, representative kingdom, less fancy rituals). Charles I fled to Northern England and formed his own army, but was ultimately defeated by Cromwell and Parliament's New Model Army. Charles I was not successful because of his conflicting ideals with the rest of England.

Machiavelli

a famous Renaissance philosopher and author, most well-known for The Prince. He popularized civic humanism and applied it to politics. The Prince is an essay that served as a guide to success for rulers, explaining the most effective way to achieve and maintain power. His theories are characterized by a cynical view of human nature. He advised that in order to be a good ruler, one must seize opportunities, be ruthless, and live by the philosophy that the ends justify the means. He stated it's better to be better feared than loved. His observations based off negative human behavior concluded that one must do whatever is necessary to gain power. Machiavelli and his famous essay exhibited the qualities of virtu, the ability to shape the world to your will. The Prince was originally intended for the Medicis, the reigning family of Florence, Italy, the capital of the Renaissance.

Northern or Christian Humanism

a movement that paralleled the Italian Renaissance, however Northern humanists applied a strong, specific religious focus on their studies. They, like their Italian counterparts, studied the classic texts from Greece and Rome, however they studied traditional religious texts as well. Northern Humanists wanted to integrate Christian values into everyday society to create moral reform. The two most notable figures of Northern Humanism were Erasmus and Thomas More. Erasmus was committed to reform within the Catholic Church, as he didn't have the harsh, cynical view as Renaissance men did. However, he was an outcast on both sides as Protestants considered him weak for not converting and Catholics saw him as a traitor for exposing the problems of the Church. Thomas More's most famous work was Utopia in which he described the perfect society that existed in the land of nowhere.

Dutch Republic

a federation of 7 states, the United Provinces, that turned away from absolutist monarchy, and became a republic that was successful in trade, diversity, and religious toleration. The Estates (assemblies), made up of wealthy businessmen, handled domestic affairs, while the States General handled foreign affairs. The stadholder was the executive officer in each of the United Provinces, a role which was often held by the House of Orange.Holland was the biggest and most important state in the Dutch Republic. It was a massive center of trade, primarily because of the Dutch East India Trading Company. The Dutch Republic was also very successful because there weren't really religious conflicts. It was a Republic of religious toleration that attracted a lot of successful and diverse people. In the early 17th century, Spain tried to regain control, and the French also tried to conquer in the later part of that century. William of Orange preserved Dutch independence in the forty years of war against France. The Dutch Republic had the highest standards of living in Europe at the time. Political and economic prosperity allowed for peaceful living.

WWI

a global war involving nearly every global power, that was mainly fought between the Axis Powers and the Central Powers. The Allied Powers included Britain, France, Russia, Italy, and eventually the United States. The Central Powers included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. A mix of industrialization, nationalism, and imperialism helped shape the several different factors that triggered the start of World War I: the volatile Balkans region, aggressive German foreign relations, old rivalries and alliances, the Mood of 1914 (militaristic and nationalistic), and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. German aggression (wanting their "place in the sun" as a world power) led to the outbreak of war. New tech led to terrible trench warfare and weapons like machine guns and mustard gas. People were initially enthusiastic about war (a lot of war mobilization at home- women working), and it became a total war, where the government controls everything from society to industry. However, the war lasted longer than expected and by 1916, and after two years, most countries wanted peace. Russia was the first to pull out. US comes in towards the end of the war and helps bring victory. Eventually Germany surrenders in 1914 and the Treaty of Versailles is created. Among the effects were the collapse of several grand states, the rise of Communism, shaky diplomatic relations, total war society, and the deaths of millions of soldiers.

French Religious Wars

a group of wars fought between Protestants and Catholics. It acted as a civil war in France because the monarchy was weak and almost half of the nobles were calvinists. Calvinism appealed to the nobility because it acted as a way for them to express opposition to the crown. This led to feudal disorder with an example being the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Catholics attacked Calvinists at the wedding of Margaret of Valois and Henry of Navarre, who were marrying to unify the Catholics and the Huguenots. The Catholic lords fought the calvinist nobles, and it eventually turned into the War of the 3 Henry's. Henry III and Henry of Guise were Catholic, and Henry of Navarre was Protestant. Henry of Navarre, the Protestant, ended up victorious and he became Henry IV of (Catholic) France. Henry IV was a politique who was protestant, but turned Catholic to appease the country. He did pass the Edict of Nantes, a toleration act for Protestants. He separated his own religion from politics, and his own views from politics, and put the well-being of his country first.

New monarchy

a kind of government that gave monarchs much more power than their feudal predecessors. New Monarchs had the money, power, and organization that the feudal system monarchies did not have. These kings and queens had the ability to tax, maintain a standing army, and create organization in their land. Such examples of new monarchs include Louis XI and Charles VII of France (land and salt tax, royal expansion, pragmatic sanction of bourges), Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain (finish the inquisition, quinto), and Henry VII (Livery and Maintenance, star chambers). Also, because of the printing press, they were better organized to enforce and pass laws.

Printing Press

a machine developed by Johann Gutenberg that allowed material to be printed and produced much more quickly than by hand. This invention revolutionized the way information spread to reach larger audiences than ever before. It is credited with helping to spread the works of humanists such as Erasmus and reformers such as Martin Luther. The printing press also increased literacy rates as it created a market for everyday people to purchase books, magazines, stories, and newspapers. It also led to more expression and made it more difficult for governments to control what was published. The printing press was essential to the Protestant Reformation because it allowed people to own their own copy of the bible which they could interpret for themselves.

Congress of Vienna

a meeting with the major European powers who wanted to arrange a final peace agreement after the defeat of Napoleon and prevent any similar conflict by redrawing the border lines in Europe. It helped pioneer future peace settlements and inadvertently rooted a new wave of conservatism in European politics. It consisted of the Quadruple alliance, France, and other small European countries. Metternich of Austria had three goals: 1) return to conservative europe- old ways of monarchies and established churches, 2) keep peace and the balance of power and 3) punish and reward nations post Napoleon fiasco. Created countries outside of all the borders of France so they could not grow again. It restored old monarchies like the Borbon family, and the family of Orange, foreshadowing the coming Concert of Europe to restore conservative politics.

Italian Renaissance Humanism

a movement characterized by its celebration of the individual and its love for classic texts from Ancient Greece and Rome. Humanists of the movement believed that by studying the classics, like Plato and Cicero, they would gain a better understanding of human nature. Renaissance men strove to excel at all aspects of life to demonstrate virtu. These men completely rejected medieval scholasticism and instead advocated a liberal arts education. A prominent Italian Renaissance scholar was Petrarch. He expressed the scorn humanists had for the medieval years by declaring them the "Dark Ages." Other famous scholars of the Renaissance include Castiglione, Machiavelli, and Dante, all of whom were authors that expressed humanist views in their works; Castiglione with The Courtier, Dante with Canterbury Tales and Divine Comedy, and Machiavelli with The Prince.

Bourgeoisie/Proletariat

a new class structure created by the industrial revolution, a new form of nobles and peasants. The bourgeoisie and proletariat acted as employees and employers. Bourgeoisie were the middle class, which worked as skilled laborers and employers. They had more free time and were able to gain political power. Proletariats were wage earners who worked for the bourgeoisie. They had a terrible standard of living because they worked in factories for long hours for small amount of money and lived in beaten down homes. B had property (like a factory or land) and made money off it. B was very liberal (classical liberalism) and wanted free markets. P had no property and worked in factories, rented their homes. P were more likely to be socialists and to want gov help (socialist programs) bc they were economically unstable. The growing number of workers in urban and industrial society created this greater class divisions. This division would define society and inspire Marxism in later decades. The increased number of workers and differences between classes created a new class-consciousness where people were aware of their belonging to a class.

Industrial Revolution

a period of time where agrarian European societies began to industrialize and urbanize, a change to factories and cities from cottage manufacturing and rural villages. It created a new social class system of the bourgeoisie (middle class) and proletariat (working class). The Industrial Revolution moved Europe slowly to more efficient production, a growth of industry and markets, and the beginning of globalization. The change to factories began in Britain, with the invention of steam power. James Watt improved the steam engine, which allowed products to be made much faster for less money. It revolutionized the textile industry, with the Spinning Jenny and factories, and Cotton and cloth became the biggest products made by machines. New cities and factories sprung up, and people moved to cities to work, changing family life, and leading to rapid urbanization that created cramped housing and poor living conditions. New debates and laws regarding child labor, public health, and working conditions started. The Industrial Revolution also created new transport networks, like canals and railroads. Industrial revolution was the beginning of the -isms, including nationalism, socialism, communism, for these ideas had never been discussed before the creation of the working class.

Enlightenment

a philosophical movement of the 18th century that challenged traditional ideas by stressing reason over faith, natural laws, and progress. It created concepts of human rights, equality, progress, and tolerance which guided Western societies into a new era of thinking. It encouraged scientific thinking, and applied it to human affairs, believing that reason and science could solve social problems and society. It undermined religious thinking, creating skepticism in society. A very influential Enlightenment thinker was Locke, who believed in and wrote about natural rights: life, liberty and property. The Enlightenment also brought up religious toleration, and contributed to the beginning of the decline of religion, and power and influence of religion in Europe. For example, Voltaire and his theory of deism, thought of God as distant. More notable enlightenment thinkers were Montesquieu and Rousseau. Enlightenment thinkers believed that major progress could come from creating better societies and people. The Enlightenment continued to be very influential, and the works and thoughts that came from it inspired many revolutions.

Habsburgs

a powerful Catholic family who famously used marriages to gain power and influence. The Habsburg homeland was Austria, and at this time the Habsburgs ruled over Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and other areas as well. The Habsburgs nearly created a unified European world. Enormous territorial holdings, strategic marriage alliances, and victorious campaigns, however, could not overcome the difficulties of holding an empire together. Warfare from within and without, particularly with the Ottoman Empire, lead to instability and the eventual breakup of Habsburg territory.

French Revolution to 1791

a revolution that would lead to a new constitutional monarchy the more revolution, was a result of peasant's resentment of heavy taxes on the poor and none on the rich (nobility). It began after a period of heavy debt and a weak economy. To begin economic reform, Louis XVI had to call the Estates General, which was made up 3 levels: the clergy, nobility, and everyone else. With this disproportionality, the third estate felt unhappy with their lack of representation. This lead to the Oath of the Tennis Court, where they vowed to write a constitution, and changed their name to the National Assembly. In 1789, the storming of Bastille occurred, as did the Great Fear. This led to a constitution, and the creation of a constitutional monarchy. The National Assembly also wrote The Declaration of Rights of Man, giving sovereignty to the French people. However, the constitutional monarchy proved to be ineffective, leading to more revolution for this country.

Nationalism

a sense of pride and belonging in one's national identity. It created an "us versus them" mentality which led to tensions and conflicts between various nationalities and countries. People acted like they actually belonged somewhere which le to national language and cultural unity. A strong feeling of connection to a group of people. The concept that people who belonged to different race deserved their own country. This was a powerful movement that was an offshoot of the romantic movement. especially in the 19th and 20th century. Led to Italian and Germany unification and independence movements in Greece and Belgium.

Agricultural Revolution

caused by new techniques in farming, and led to a population explosion, then trade and manufacturing later on. Moreover, the rise of agricultural markets helped build England's role in international markets even before the rise of cottage industry. Before the new developments, the problems peasants faced included: soil exhaustion, low production, low nourishment of peasants, and ineffective domestication. Fallowing and crop rotation was used to alleviate soil exhaustion, but the use of clover to return nutrients to soil greatly sped up the process of renourishment. The use of enclosures also reorganized farming patterns in a more productive way. Potatoes from South America helped feed peasants who lacked proper nourishment. Selective breeding was used as a more effective way to domesticate animals.

Witch Craze

a time where people, especially women, were accused of witchcraft, brought on by paranoia stemming from a deeply pious society. It grew out of the Reformation era but before a new era of scientific thinking, where society still placed their beliefs in many aspects of life. The newly heightened sense of religion in the Reformation also heightened the belief that the Devil played a role in society's problems and witches (who apparently worked with the Devil) were accused of causing illnesses, storms, and other types of harm to villages and towns. Mostly women were accused of witchcraft because of the belief that women are linked with deception and evil in religion. Inquisitorial procedure allowed for the rise in witch trials because it was easier for accusations to be made concerning witchcraft. Single women old women were targeted more often because they did not match society's standards for women. These witch hunts declined with the rise of the Scientific Revolution that would lead to the decline of religion in Europe.

English Civil Wars

a war over whether Parliament or the king should have more power, whether the king had a divine right. It was also a battle of rituals in the church, between the ideals of fancy, many-ritual Anglican kings, and the presbyterian Parliament. It began the decline of monarchical power in England, and marked the rise of Parliament. The king was Charles I, who had refused to call Parliament for 11 years. He was also a high church Anglican, who believed in adding more fancy rituals to the church, and believed in imposing fancy rituals on Scotland. Scotland revolted, and Charles was unable to put the rebellion down without Parliament. Charles called Parliament, and Parliament had the opportunity to lay down limits for the king's power. They refused him an army and passed the Triennial Acts, which meant Parliament had to be called at least every three years. This led to a civil war between the king (divine right monarchy and fancy rituals) and Parliament (Cromwell, representative kingdom, less fancy rituals). Charles I fled to Northern England and formed his own army, but was ultimately defeated by Cromwell and Parliament's New Model Army. From the ashes rose Cromwell and the Protectorate government.

70's-80's recession

a worldwide recession that started from an oil crisis, but did not become a depression, because of welfare. Economic crisis as a result of oil price increases because of conflict in the Middle East. Too many people going to college in Europe, not enough good jobs. This leads to unemployment and high prices. However, the welfare state helped many people survive. (maybe too much and people living on welfare leads to resentment of socialism and conservative leaders coming to power like Thatcher in GB).

Putting-out System

also known as cottage manufacturing, was a system where peasants got raw materials from a merchant, then returned the finished product to the merchant. It slowly brought Europe into a stage of manufacturing. It opened up consumer markets and laid the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution. It brought a shift from self-sustaining work to wage-earning, and is often called the industrious revolution. This is also called the cottage system, it allowed peasants to make money besides farming. It reaffirmed the belief in a family as a working unit because in order to create the product a family had to work together. It was mainly cotton and wool spinning and weaving, and happened mainly in England before the industrial revolution. Early on in the system, people were self-regulated and worked at their own pace. But, as the putting-out system grew, the markets for these produced goods grew, and the merchants and work regulations became stricter.

Enlightened Despotism

an absolute monarch who embraced enlightenment ideals (religious tolerance, promoting education, creating fair laws for everyone, and embracing culture) to do the best for their people. These monarchs also brought Western ideas to their countries, promoting modernization and westernization. An enlightened ruler promoted reason, skepticism, and toleration. They promoted progress through education. They were fair minded and promoted of equal rights. Two examples of Enlightened Despots were Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Catherine the Great of Russia. Frederick was a deist and promoted education heavily. Catherine brought more westernization to Russia. Another thing they had in common was that they did not free the serfs (pugachev for Catherine). Joseph II of Austria went for it all, and made his country almost completely religiously tolerant, made equal laws for all classes, and freed the serfs. However, he was quickly removed, as he went too far too fast. These rulers are great examples of enlightened despots influenced greatly by the Enlightenment and the west, with some limitations.

Peter the Great (Russia)

an absolutist who's attempts at modernization and westernization of Russia brought the country a little closer to Western Europe. He wanted to westernize Russia by building a stronger and disciplined army, building a window to the west (St. Petersburg), and adopting Western tech & customs, etc. Although he wanted to be a Western ruler, he had far greater power than any western monarch ever did. Peter the Great showed his extensive power by moving the capital of Russia to his new city, St. Petersburg. He expanded territory of Russia in Sweden through the Great Northern War, which he fought with a new and improved army. Funding for this war, and for the construction of the capital city came from a heavy tax burden and expanded serfdom. Peter the Great made culture reforms as well, to be more like the West, including forcing citizens to speak French, shave their long beards, and adopt Western style.

Napoleon

an ambitious military leader and emperor of France turned conqueror of Europe. He overthrew the Directory, set up a new constitution with himself as First Consul. His rise to power supported the revolutionary idea that whoever was talented could become successful. At first, things were good under Napoleon in France, because he provided stability and better standards of living- although people enjoyed few freedoms as he made sure only those in government supported him using a secret police. The Napoleonic Code of 1804 provided the framework for a French legal system, included the equality of all people under the law, took away special privileges from the aristocracy, and expanded education. In 1804 declared himself emperor of France. His ambitious plan to expand France by conquering Europe was his downfall. Discontent from France and other countries with Napoleon led to a military alliance of powerful European countries to get rid of him. Napoleon was exiled to the isle of Elba. He returned but was finally defeated in the Battle of Waterloo. On May 30, 1814, Louis XVIII signed the Treaty of Paris, which constrained France to its 1792 boundaries. There was also the Congress of Vienna to try and make sure that this did not happen again (among other things).

Locke

an early enlightenment thinker and philosopher who argued that man is born with natural rights to "life, liberty and property". He wrote the Second Treatise of Government, and said that government is created by man to protect man's rights. If a government does not provide this the people have a right to rebel. The government is only based on the consent of the governed. He also believed humans are rational and act through experience- Men are born blank slates, (tabula rasa). His thoughts inspired political change and revolution in Europe, and were echoed in the United States' Declaration of Independence and Britain's Bill of Rights.

Utopian Socialism

an idea that all men and women would work together to create a world where everything would be shared, and there would be social equality. It came as a response to the competition of capitalism, which was not working for many people, in terms of having enough food, or being secure and comfortable. The opposite of competition is cooperation, so they aimed for that. It led to rising socialism among the proletariat specifically and welfare systems. It involved economic planning by the government, as well as state regulation of property. The Utopian Dream was that people would live in a world with no wealth or poverty where everything was shared. There were many different ideal societies. Saint-Simon's idea was to create a society of mainly intellectuals. Robert Owen's idea was to create an industrial and agricultural-based society. Fourier's idea was to create phalanxes that were intended to be mathematically precise and self-sufficient. Though these ideas failed in practice, they remained an inspiration for future socialists like Karl Marx. Louis Blanc was a famous Utopian Socialist, who wanted the workers to co-own a factory and run it together. He also urged workers to fight for universal rights, and led the workshop welfare systems in France.

Prussia 1700's

became a powerful country because of the political activity of the Hohenzollerns, who laid the groundwork for consolidation of power in the Age of Absolutism. The dynasty of sorts started with Frederick William, the Great Elector, who garnered control of the country. He got Junker support by allowing them to turn peasants to serfs. Frederick I built up a huge army, got new territory, and was crowned the first king of Prussia. His son, Frederick William I, the Soldier King, transformed Prussia into a military state. His policies of peasant bondage and Junker tyranny laid out an example for future absolutist and militaristic states. The rulers of Prussia held power because they had loyalty of the Junker class. They reformed education and built their army up to be one of the best in the world. Also: Frederick William (Great Elector) → Frederick I → Frederick William I → Frederick the Great

Art since 1870's

became abstract and went away from realism in order to become unique and relevant after the rise of the camera. The camera is the most realistic things, so art goes to the abstract. Reflects ideas and things, rather than physical reality. Art after WWI reflected the post-war disillusionment experienced by a lot of society across Europe. - Impressionism = change the way things look (monet) - Expressionism = painting emotions (Van Gogh) -Dadaism = made fun of traditional art - Cubism = jagged shapes and unconventional colors to show different point of views at the same time (Picasso) - Surrealism = art to express the artist's inner mind as shown through dreams and fantasies (Dali)

British/French Rivalry

beginning the British Navigation Acts (economic warfare), was Britain and France locked into colonial competition that lasted through several different wars, but ultimately led to British dominance. They fought over American territory, the Caribbean, and the West Indies, for control of trade in areas that produced tobacco, cotton, indigo, coffee, and sugar. They fought in multiple wars against each other, including the War of Spanish Succession, the War of Austrian Succession, and the 7 years war. The 7 Years War was the beginning of the end for France, because it was forced to give up some of its colonies. The final round of fighting was in the American Revolution, where France was on the winning team, but did not win in the long run, because it did not benefit the country at all. What is important about this rivalry is the amount of fighting that happened between the countries, and how it essentially ended, with Britain on the rise and France declining.

Youth Culture

changed radically and started affecting mainstream culture as the Baby boomer generation became teenagers/young adults and were more rebellious than any previous generation. Make their own culture (rock and roll, drugs, communal living, rebellion against authority, sexual freedom). Opposed conformity and old ways of imperialism and war- protest Vietnam war). A lot of student rebellions at universities

French Revolution 1791-1794

characterized by the collapse of the constitutional monarchy and the rise of Robespierre and the Radical Republic. The new constitution collapsed after a year because of conflicts among French people and nobility. The Jacobin Club in the French Legislative Assembly helped inspire Frenchmen who were already fearful of a Prussian invasion to revolt during the September Massacres. This led to the establishment of the National Convention (made up of the Jacobins) and proclaimed the French Republic. However, they were bitterly divided into the moderate Girondists and the radical Mountain, led by Robespierre. It wasn't until the emergence of the radical sans-culottes that the division ended. In 1792 France was declared a republic where there was no king and ALL men could vote. The national convention created the committee of public safety (CPS), that dealt with internal and external threats to their power. Robespierre gained power and made it so there were only Jacobins and this lead to Reign of Terror. He tried and executed many men who weren't loyal to him. He also did some more radical things, like universal male suffrage and an entirely new calendar. Robespierre was eventually beheaded. After all this, the French people wanted to return to moderation and relative stability with the Directory.

Italian Renaissance Art

displayed the beauty of man, straying away from the focus of religion in art during the medieval years. Renaissance artists used new techniques such as perspective and chiaroscuro to create more realistic art that depicted humans. These artists aimed to follow the Greek and Roman model of art that reflected the potential and beauty of the unique human being. Renaissance art was a product of individual patrons that commissioned artwork. Patrons included the Catholic Church, guilds, and wealthy families like the Medicis. While these patrons appreciated the beauty of fine art, they also understood that artists could show the power they held. Therefore, Renaissance patrons used art as a way of displaying their wealth and promoting their fame. The most famous Renaissance artists and works were Leonardo da Vinci's "The last Supper" and "Mona Lisa", Michelangelo's "David", and Raphael's "School of Athens".

British Reform Bills 1,2,3

extended the right to vote to the male population, making Britain more democratic. By the mid-19th century, the Whigs have become the liberals and the Tories have become the conservatives. William Gladstone of the liberals and Benjamin Disraeli of the conservatives fought over the control of Parliament. Both tried to one-up each other in their policies, which led to the Reform Bill of 1832, the 2nd Reform Bill of 1867, and the 3rd Reform Bill of 1884. These bills extended the right to vote from ⅛ of males (wealthy middle-class and rich landowners), to ⅓ of males (now including all of the middle-class and wealthy workers), and to most males (now including rural farm workers, servants, etc.).

Gadget Revolution

the explosion of consumer technology that was made available and affordable to the average person. War production switched to consumer production in factories, now faster and easier than ever to make affordable things such as cars, refrigerators, toasters, vacuums, microwaves. Result of increase in consumer culture after the war and became a symbol of the middle class, also living standards at an all time high.

Glorious Revolution of 1688

in England replaced the Catholic king, James II, with William and Mary of Orange (Protestants), and established power of Parliament in England. It was a peaceful revolution. Charles II and his brother James II began to re-Catholicize England and they both had weak relations with Parliament. Charles II's successor, James II, was opposed by a coalition of powerful members of Parliament and the Church of England. They and other anti-Catholic supporters pleaded to Mary and Prince William of Orange to rule England. Parliament arranged for a peaceful takeover by William and Mary. It showed the power of Parliament and anti-Catholic sentiments. The new monarchs accepted the Bill of Rights, giving new power to Parliament, and putting England on the path to a democratic, representative government. A cabinet and prime minister were installed. It also established that amy future monarchs could not be Catholic.

Concert of Europe

led by Austria's foreign minister, Metternich, was a meeting of European countries to achieve the goal of keeping Europe conservative, to take it back to its "glory days". It was also made to prevent rulers like Napoleon who became too powerful. They wanted to maintain a balance of power and stop any revolutionary ideas from succeeding. The Concert of Europe was also meant to keep liberalism under control. Conservative leaders feared liberalism like leaders today fear terrorism. The other big powers in the Concert of Europe were Castlereagh of Britain and Alexander I of Russia. The Concert of Europe was successful in defeating small revolutions around Europe, specifically in Spain and Italy. Greece and Belgium were two examples of revolutions that succeeded in gaining independence, as well as revolutions in South America. The Holy Alliance, between Prussia, Russia, and Austria came from this, countries that vowed to reverse revolutionary events that occurred there. The Karlsbad Decrees were another set of preventatory laws, meant to root out any liberal or revolutionary ideas.

Industrial Revolution 2 (1840's-1914)

led to globalization, which was a world economy and market, that allowed all countries to compete. Many new improvements and materials were made and used, the most important being steel. Steel replaced iron as the best material because it was lighter and stronger. Electricity was another very influential discovery because it could be used for power. The telephone was developed during this time and the concept of running water was too. Transportation was revolutionized with the invention of cars and airplanes. Living conditions went up during the second industrial revolution, even though competition was more fierce. Some new developments were new transportation, like automobiles and airplanes, electricity, the telegraph and the telephone, and plumbing, running water, and medicine to improve living standards. After the Second Industrial Revolution, gender roles became more defined, and marks the rise of the housewife. There were also many working class movements for higher wages and lower hours. The middle class grew. Governments and people also began to realize the business cycle, of inflation and recession without cause.

Freud, Darwin, Nietzsche, Einstein, Planck

men who undermined the idea that humans and life are rational. Their ideas became more popular and relevant in the age of anxiety and disillusionment after WWI. Freud - people are driven by unconscious desire + animalistic needs. People are not rational. Darwin - concept of evolution based on natural selection, survival of the fittest. nature is brutal not beautiful Nietzsche - society is meaningless and life is too. Humans have been declining since Roman times. Humans alone are responsible for their actions- you create meaning in your own life Einstein - theory of relativity - nothing is certain, everything is subjective. There is no absolute or mathematical certainty. The world is chaotic, nothing organized. Planck - quantum theory = subatomic particles don't follow the rules of gravity - everything is chaos.

Women's Movement

the fight for women to be given the same opportunities and rights as men. It was the result of women expanding into work force (especially with the increase in service jobs post WWII) and birth control allowing women more freedom to choose their own future and have an education and a career. Women then resented their "double duty" of having a job and also working in the home. Women wanted equal pay for equal work, opportunities for education and jobs, day care, right to divorce and abortion. Notable figure: Friedan- her book The Feminine Mystique. She also founded NOW.

Newton

one of the most influential men of the Scientific Revolution, was the Scientist and mathematician who discovered gravity. He hypothesized the basis of physics, the law of universal gravitation. He found inspiration from the new scientific teachings of Kepler and Galileo. In his book, Principia, he combines both of their works into a cohesive idea, gravity. His law of universal gravitation connected both of their teachings in a law that states all objects are attracted to each other in a precise mathematical relationship. Newton found that the universe is governed by universal laws, gravity and inertia, expressed in math formulas. His connection of mathematics with astronomy and physics is still used and discussed today. Newton, although a revolutionary scientist during an age that undermined the logic and truth of religion, was a christian himself, and believed that the world was a machine created by God (deism). It is a great irony that a man who was so influential in this movement believed in the thing that it tore down.

Urbanization

people moving to cities for work, leading to lower standards of living, filth, disease, and overcrowding. Overcrowding was due to the fact that people had to move to cities to get a job and money, and public transportation did not exist yet. Urbanization led to the rise of the bourgeoisie and proletariat classes, and a greater sense of social class. People had to live by the factory or business they worked for. Therefore cities were tightly packed and poorly constructed. Filth was made even worse because of overcrowding. Sickness and disease were worse because of filth. There was usually no running water, and no sewage system. Crime increased because people no longer faced social shaming and instead lived in a world full of strangers. People also felt alienated and didn't feel connected to anything. These problems led to the Public Health Movement which greatly improved sanitation. City reorganization, or urban planning, restructured cities to alleviate the overcrowding problem. Another urban development was the use of electric streetcars which allowed for cities to become more spread out and less crowded.

Marx/Engels

philosophers who co-authored many famous books, including The Communist Manifesto, which outlined the necessary provisions to make communism a reality. This was their response to capitalism. Marx reflected realist sentiments. He used facts and evidence to support his philosophy in the Communist Manifesto. They saw that for there to be meaningful change, violence and action was necessary. He wanted social classes, religion, and government all gone, since people would no longer need protecting in a perfect communist society. Marx believed that evolution was a struggle between the classes and that there was always one group who controlled capital and ensured their dominance. He believed that the competition of business would decrease the bourgeoisie class and more would become proletariat. He believed the proletariat would rise up and take over as a dictatorship and the government would become communist. Marx hated when working class received benefits because they would be less likely to rise up and instead succumb to the government.

1848 Revolutions

started in France and spread through Europe, as the middle and working classes of many European countries fought to overthrow their leaders. They achieved very little or nothing at all. The Revolutions marked the decline of romanticism and the rise of nationalism. The first uprising occurred in France. In France, many French people became frustrated because of the King Louis Philippe and his government's selfish interests of the wealthy elite. The French people revolted and proclaimed the Second Republic. However, liberals and socialist clashed in how they should rule. Scared socialists revolted but were quickly crushed by the middle-class National Guard. This began the June Days, in which the middle-class defeated the working-class. Revolutions followed in Austria, where the inspired Hungarian minority demanded autonomy and full liberties. They forced Ferdinand I to grant liberties and end serfdom. It also sparked revolutions in Germany, but those ended when Frederick William of Prussia asserted his power. The revolutions do not succeed in many countries because the radicals were turning on each other instead of the government. France was the only country to have a successful revolution. All the other places had multiple nationalities fighting against each other, which led to ultimate decline and defeat by their governments. Nationalism brought out more fighting.

Overseas Expansion

started with Portugal and followed with Spain-- two countries motivated by wealth, greed, and a want to expand the Catholic church. This exploration was made possible by new technology. There was the invention of the caravel, a new kind of boat that was sturdier and easier to maneuver among the seas. Also, the triangular sail helped with exploration because explorers could sail against the wind. The astrolabe/compass made it possible for explorers to navigate the seas. Overseas expansion led to the age of colonization among European powers, typically in the Americas. Famous explorers were known as conquistadors and included Gama, Diaz, Columbus, Cortes, Pizarro, and more. Vasco de Gama was the first man to make it to India from western Europe. He returned with an 800% profit. This connection across the Atlantic and to other parts of the world ultimately led to the Columbian exchange and triangular trade.

Henry VIII

the Anglican church by breaking away from the Catholic Church in order to get a divorce. He had been married to Catherine of Aragon but wanted a divorce so he could marry Anne Boleyn. The Catholic Church, under Pope Clement VII, would not grant him a divorce so by the Law of Supremacy, he made himself the head of the Church of England. The Church of England, which also came to be known as the Anglican Church, mirrored the Catholic church during the time of Henry VIII. As time went on, the Anglican Church became more Protestant and less Catholic. Henry VIII increased the power of the Anglican Church by having Parliament legitimize his actions and by dissolving old Catholic monasteries and other properties of the Catholic Church. Henry VIII had considered himself the "defender of the faith," however his political needs became more important than his loyalty to the Catholic Church. Henry VIII had 6 wives in an attempt to procure a boy to become heir.

Bismarck

the Chancellor of Germany who was a realistic leader, focusing on practical, not ideological goals, which allowed Germany to develop and emerge as a world power post-unification. His policies allowed for Germany to grow with the assurance to other countries that it would maintain peace, albeit a temporary peace after he was dismissed from office. To achieve unification, he used German nationalism to his advantage to gain support from the masses for his military campaigns in surrounding territories. To gain the cooperation of Germany, he began to appeal to mass politics and worked with the Reichstag to pass laws that appealed to all groups. To gain support of the liberals, he began an aggressive path to split the state from church (Kulturkampf). After attacking Catholics, he sought to gain support from Catholics by enacting protectionist tariffs which were designed to weaken imports. He then sought to weaken socialists by passing the Anti-Socialist Laws that were meant to ban socialist activity but failed. He later gained the support of the socialists by establishing new welfare programs. After unification, Bismarck began to lean more towards peaceful foreign policy through his cooperation with other countries in international affairs. An example of this was the Berlin Conference which was meant to achieve some level of peace during the Age of Imperialism. Bismarck's efforts were cut short when William II fired Bismarck and began his "new course" of aggressive foreign policies, which helped set the stage for the first World War. He is remembered as a master of mass politics.

Richelieu

the Chief Minister of France during the reign of Louis XI. He was a political powerhouse who followed machiavellian principles. His main goal was to increase the power of the monarchy while decreasing the power of the nobility. He did this through outlawing castles and private armies of the nobles, and by creating generalities run by intendants. Generalities were areas of land, and the intendants were the authority power of the land. The intendants could not be from the district they rule over. This makes the intendants loyal to the crown rather than the land they are responsible for. Richelieu was anti-Habsburg, which got him and France involved in the 4th stage of the 30 years war on the side of the Protestants. Although Richelieu was a cardinal in the Catholic church, he put that behind him to limit the power of the Habsburgs and make France a stronger country. He was a politique, putting politics first and his own morals second.

Frederick II (The Great)

the King of Prussia who ruled as an Enlightened Despot (ruler with Enlightenment values), who brought reforms in Prussia while also setting an example for other Enlightened monarchs. Very in touch with the Enlightenment, as he was friends with Voltaire. He promoted religious and philosophical tolerance, and a better education system, with secondary school. He established many schools for the Prussian people. He abolished the use of torture and created a unified law system. Frederick II drew on the principles of cameralism. This was the view that monarchy was the best form of government if they and the state used its resources and authority to increase the public good. However, he didn't abolish serfdom because he needed the support from the Junker nobility, and because they were the backbone of the labor system. This, and his want to expand his territory, limited his being called an Enlightened Despot.

John Calvin

the founder of the calvinist religion, characterized by the idea of predestination, which was the belief that God has predetermined the saved and the damned. He believed in the power of God and the weakness of humans. He wrote his doctrines in The Institutes of Christian Religion. Calvin founded the city of Geneva in Switzerland, which acted as a protestant version of Rome. Calvin imposed strict regulations on society, prohibiting dancing, swearing, games, and gambling. Religion was strictly enforced and everyone was held to a high moral standard. Calvinism spread across Europe to France, where its followers were called Huguenots, Switzerland, where it was known as Presbyterianism, and England, where Calvinists founded the Puritan church.

Elizabeth I

the Virgin Queen (never married) and politique of England who put her duty and responsibility to the well-being of her country above all else, and solidified England as a Protestant country. Her reign led to a peaceful period called the "Elizabethan Age" where authors such as Shakespeare rose. She declared the Anglican Church the official Church of England, kept the country in line and balanced the budget. She compromised with a lot of things. One of them being religion. She made the country a protestant country, but retained many catholic traditions. She also compromised with Parliament, meeting with them enough to make them feel as if they had a say, but also making sure to keep her power. Keeping her power is a reason that she did not marry. Although she had many suitors, she is well known for never marrying, and maintained the image of being married to her country. For example, she postponed Philip II's marriage proposal for over a decade, making sure to not make her country mad by marrying a Catholic, and also making sure not to make him an enemy. She made her decision when she joined the Dutch Revolt and defeated the Spanish Armada. Elizabeth I was a queen who knew how to handle politics.

Napoleon III

the authoritarian leader of France's Second Republic, who was talented at mass politics, but very untalented in foreign policy. He successfully merged nationalism and authoritarian government, like his uncle Napoleon Bonaparte. He ruled with mass politics, appealing to socialists because he rebuilt Paris and provided work, to conservatives because of his uncle, and decreased men's right to vote, to democrats because he maintained an elected assembly. He helped the country financially and industrially, building roads and railroads, rebuilding Paris. The order he restored was good, but the limited liberties and his foreign policy failures led to his demise. He lost in the Franco-Prussian war, and the Second Republic died, making way for the third.

Protestant Reformation

the break from the Catholic Church, begun by Martin Luther. There was so much corruption within the Church that Luther and others decided to speak out against it. Luther wrote the 95 Theses, complaining about this corruption (the indulgences were the last straw), and from there on out it was a complete reform movement against Catholicism. They decided to break from the Catholic Church because they believed there was no chance that the church would reform from within. Protestants also held differing beliefs from the Catholic church. They believed in the Bible as the final word on religious practices, and therefore deemed many Catholic traditions not necessary. Protestants also believed in priesthood of the individual, meaning that everyone should be able to read and interpret the Bible for themselves. Because of this, Protestants emphasized the importance of literacy and strongly promoted education. Other Protestant beliefs included salvation by faith alone, meaning good works will not let one earn their way into heaven, the church as a community of believers, and the equal merit of all professions, meaning all are equal in the eyes of God. Branches of Protestantism: Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglican, Anabaptist. Today, there are dozens of denominations that stemmed from this break from Catholicism.

Metternich

the conservative foreign minister of Austria. He started the Concert of Europe to suppress liberal revolutions in Europe and keep it conservative. He attributed bloody revolutions like the American and the French to radical liberalism. Another root to his conservatism was that in the very diverse Austria, the country could collapse if people were influenced by nationalism. He believed that an authoritarian, conservative government was necessary to maintain peace and stability. He also played a large role in the congress of Vienna, a post-Napoleonic treaty which redrew country lines in Europe. Metternich fought against nationalism, liberalism, and the unification of Germany. Metternich created the Karlsbad Decrees, which were meant to limit the press on liberalism to keep Austria conservative. The Karlsbad Decrees would punish organizations, fire teachers, and expel students who advocated liberalism. He also made Austria a part of the Holy Alliance, with Russia and Prussia, vowing to suppress liberalist ideas.

Stalin

the cruel, all powerful leader of communist Russia who succeeded Lenin. Stalin greatly strengthened the Communist party after Lenin had started it. He made the Communist party power limited to only a small number of people. Stalin created the 5 year plans which aimed to reform and industrialize Russia. This included collectivization, which was when the government would take land from peasants to turn it into state-owned property. Peasants were then supposed to answer to the government. Those who opposed were killed. Stalin also began the Great Purges, killing old Communists to silence any opposition from the previous communist party. Only those loyal to him were allowed to live. Russia became a strong industrial power, with Stalin's Gosplan, but living standards went down. However, some benefits included mass education, but only in math and science (no humanities), health care, and food for all. Communists did not see women as the lesser class and made them participate just like men in the government. Stalin put down his opponents, which allowed him to consolidate more power.

Cormwell

the dictator/militaristic leader of the England's Protectorate government, who ended up driving England away from absolutist rule, towards more stability and eventually a representative government. Cromwell was the military leader and hero of the English Civil Wars, fighting for Parliament and rights and the riddance of an absolutist king, then became leader of the country and abolished the monarchy and essentially Parliament. He basically made himself a king. Cromwell believed that God had given him the power to succeed, and the power to be the king of a Godly nation. Cromwell strengthened the military and was an all powerful ruler because he was not limited by Parliament or a constitution. He collected taxes, enforced Puritan law, was intolerant to Catholics, and banned Catholicism in Ireland. Cromwell was a man with good intentions, but he was willing to do whatever it took to do what he believed God wanted, so he became a dangerous and absolutist ruler. The protectorate died when he died, because it was not sustainable without a man who was willing to do whatever necessary and headstrong with his morals, like Cromwell was.

Absolutism

the idea that a monarch or ruler has absolute and complete power over their country, not limited by anything like a constitution. The king controls all parts of the country, and is not limited by any laws. The kings also limit the power of nobles in the country. Divine right kings were absolutist kings who believed they received authority from God to be the gods of their country, and rule like one. The effects of absolutism varied from country to country. Louis XIV of France exemplified absolute qualities such as his glorified palace in Versailles. He also famously said "I am the state." However, he faced limits of absolutism in order to retain stability and security. Another flaw was Louis XIV's spending on wars which increased taxes. Absolutism failed in Spain because of the king's failed policies in hopes of reforming the country. In Austria, the Habsburgs focused on state building and unification. They were successful in establishing a centralized, absolute government. In Prussia, a series of leaders consolidated more central rule and also led to a more militarized country.

30 Years War

the last religious war in Europe, fought in 4 stages between Catholics and Protestants, mainly in the Holy Roman Empire. It was originally a small religious war, but multiple countries got involved, and it ended up being a war between France and Spain. In an uneasy truce, the Lutherans had formed the Protestant Union, and the Catholics formed the Catholic League, each determined to make sure the other didn't make any religious or territorial advance. Fighting sparked when the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand said he was going to close Protestant churches. The Defenestration of Prague happened, and ignited the 4 phases of the war. The First phase, Bohemian, was a Catholic victory by Ferdinand against the Calvinist Frederick of Palatinate (who the nobles of the HRE had tried to elect Holy Roman Emperor). The Danish Stage was also a Catholic victory under Wallenstein, and it forced England to the Edict of Restitution, which gave land back to the Catholic Church. The Swedish phase was the first Protestant victory, financed by France and fought by Gustavus Adolphus. The French phase turned the war into France vs. Spain, France and Richelieu fighting with the Protestants to weaken the Habsburgs. The Thirty Years War ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which basically kept everything the same as it was before the war, giving the German princes the right to choose their state's religion. Although nothing seemed to change, Westphalia marked an important shift in history. There would never be a big religious war in Europe, the Catholic church would not try to be the universal church, and countries were recognized as countries. The Holy Roman Empire emerges weak, Spain in decline, and France on the rise.

Martin Luther

the leader of the Protestant Reformation, remembered most for his 95 Theses in which he outlined the grievances against the Catholic Church. Luther was the founder of Lutheranism, a branch of Protestantism. His views clashed with the Catholic Church, in that he believed salvation was by faith alone, the absolute authority of the Bible, equal merit of all professions, and in the priesthood of all believers. He believed in practicing only 2 of the 7 sacraments: baptism and communion. He also wanted to abolish monasteries, and he believed priests should marry. Though he was a revolutionary figure, he was both socially and politically conservative. He believed in law and order and that the church was subordinate to the state. His ideas at first started mostly in the Holy Roman Empire and then spread throughout the rest of Europe.

Gorbachev

the leader who attempted to reform communism and the Soviet Union, but failed, and caused the unraveling of the Soviet Union. Leader who attempted to revitalize the Soviet union but only led to its demise. - Glasnost - "openness" - allowed greater free speech. - Perestroika - "restructuring"- econ reform with less government regulation and more of a free market. - free elections- resulted in people voting for non-communists (wake up call- communism actually sucks USSR) and Yeltsin became prez of Russia. Eventually USSR fell apart after he declared the USSR wouldn't force communism on Eastern nations.

Louis XIV

the longest standing divine-right ruler of France, famous for saying "I am the state." He ruled for 72 years. His goal was to unite the nation under one king, one religion, and one law. Louis built the palace of Versailles, and took away the power of the noblemen, who became obsessed with the many ceremonies the king had, keeping the only people who could theoretically take away his power very close. He did not trust the noblemen, and instead used advisors with much lower status. Louis XIV also did not meet with the Estates General. He wanted to expand the boundaries France, and had a powerful army to do so. His economic advisor, Colbert, advocated for mercantilist policies like a protective tariff, and used colonies as a source of raw materials. Louis XIV also revoked the Edict of Nantes, making France a Catholic country. His Secretary of War, Louvois, made it possible for Louis XIV to wage many wars and try to expand France's territory. However, these wars were expensive and sometimes devastating. Louis XIV's last war, the War of Spanish Succession, was about France's claim on Spain. A Grand Alliance of the English, Dutch, Austrians, and Prussians fought against Louis XIV. The war ended with the Peace of Utrecht which marked the end of Louis XIV's expansion and represented another limit to his power.

Anti-Semitism

the mindset that people of Jewish heritage were inferior to other races. grew increasingly in the late-19th century and into the 20th century as a force that caused increased migration of Jews from Europe. Anti-Semitism would also influence future leaders such as Karl Lueger and, more importantly, Adolf Hitler. Even after Jewish emancipation in Germany, Jews were still being discriminated. After a stock market crash in 1873, vicious anti-Semitism grew in central and eastern Europe. They tried to justify their views, saying that Jews were a biological threat to the dominant Christian peoples. Some Anti-Semites even forged "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion" that spoke of a Jewish plot for global dominance. Another major event involving anti-Semitism was the Dreyfus affair in which anti-Semites and the Catholic Church accused Captain Dreyfus of treason. Growing anti-Semitism led to Zionism which was dedicated to building a Jewish homeland. This idea encouraged Jews to migrate from eastern Europe.

Decolonization

the movement to quietly and peacefully let go of European colonies after WWII. Colonies wanted self determination, racial equality, etc. Most movements were peaceful, however some were not. The British let go of India (Gandhi), and the French let go of Algeria. These new independent nations set up democracies.

Conservatism

the movement to return Europe to a place that valued tradition, monarchies, the nobility, and organized religion. Conservatives would have liked to make Europe the way it had been before the Enlightenment. It was a response to liberal ideas emerging post-French rev. Conservatives regarded tradition as the basic source of human institutions and the proper state and society remained those before the French Revolution which rested in a monarchy and a strong established church. They did not embrace the ideas of the enlightenment and opposed revolutions. They associated liberalism with violent revolutions and instability. They believed that only an authoritarian government could maintain peace and stability by repressing liberalism and revolutionary ideas. "Only like change if it's changing it back to the way it was". Leader- Metternich of Austria

Appeasement

the policy of Chamberlain (Britain) of making concessions to an aggressor (Hitler-Germany) to avoid conflict and war. Before World War II, Hitler consistently violated the Treaty of Versailles. Chamberlain was determined to stay out of war, because all of Europe was still recovering from the first world war. British appeasement policy dictated France's policies, because France could not go to war with Germany alone. Hitler built up an army, invaded Rhineland, annexed Czechoslovakia and the Sudetenland, and invaded Austria. Britain remained pacifist, and thought that as long as they gave Hitler what he wanted, he would eventually stop. It was not until Hitler invaded Poland that Britain and France declared war, starting World War II.

De Gaulle

the powerful nationalist leader of France's 5th republic (1960s). He reasserted France diplomatically. Wanted less involvement with other nations and withdrew military forces from NATO. Feared US and GB were becoming too dominant (didn't want GB in the Common Market). Also gave Algeria their independence.

Détente

the relaxation of Cold War tensions between U.S. and U.S.S.R. in the 70s. Nixon and his Sec. of State Kissinger began this policy. -Nixon even visited China and Russia. -Gorbachev included visits to each other countries -included the SALT treaty to limit nuclear arms -increased trade with Soviet Union

Romanticism

the revolt against classicism and the Enlightenment, embracing emotion and feelings, and turning away from logic and reason. It was a change in thinking, from rational to emotional. This led to a revisited emphasis on spiritual things like God in nature, shortly reviving religion. They had a nostalgia for things they were before. Romantics focused on the history of different people and cultures which was the starting point of nationalism. The Romantics favorite time period was the Middle Ages because they longed for what seemed like a simpler time with knights and chivalry. They believed in cooperation, not competition which was most prevalent at the time. There was unrealistic and romanticized art, very dramatic and glorified events in a beautiful way. The most famous Romantic artist was Delacroix who painted "liberty leading the people" which symbolized nationalism and the liberty people felt. One of the most famous Romantic authors was Victor Hugo, author of The Hunchback of Notre Dame, which portrayed an unconventional hero. Famous literature was Wordsworth's poetry from England.

Charles V

the ruler of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, and was a fierce defender of the Catholic faith, spending much of his career fighting heretics and infidels. He also chose to fight all of the wars that mattered to him at the same time, fighting wars against the Ottoman Turks, the French, and the Protestants at home. He considered himself crusader for the Catholic faith, fighting to stop Protestantism even though he was not very successful. He was the king during the German Religious Wars, which he lost (Peace of Augsburg allowed German princes to choose Catholic or Protestant). His biggest rival was Francis I of France because all of France's aspirations came at the expense of Charles V (fought against them in the Habsburg-Valois Wars). Suleiman the Magnificent was also an enemy since he was Muslim and seen as an infidel in the eyes of Charles V. He had so many resources and so much land, but they were still not enough to fight and win every major conflict he wanted to.

WWII

the second global war involving nearly every world power, fought mainly between the Axis Powers and the Allied Powers, made deadlier because of technology. It began when Hitler invaded Poland (after appeasement by Britain failed). The Axis Powers were Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allied Powers were Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. New technology made it very deadly. Germany used Blitzkrieg, or Lightning Warfare, to be as quick and as deadly as possible. There were also airplane bombers and tanks. Most of the Warfare was dropping bombs on other countries. Most of Eastern Europe and some of Western Europe was conquered by the Axis Powers. Germany tried to expand to the East, which pushed the USSR to ally with the Allied Powers. The Holocaust was a major part of the war, and it happened in all Nazi occupied areas. It was the systematic killing of Jews and other European groups that were deemed inferior. Hitler called it the final solution, which was extermination. The US entered the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The Allied forces were able to sandwich Germany, and attack on both fronts, which slowly wears down Germany until an unconditional surrender. 50 million people died in the war.

Dutch Revolt

the successful revolt of Northern Netherlands against the Spanish King, Philip II. The Netherlands was originally part of Philip II's inheritance. However, when Philip II tried to impose Catholicism and heavy taxation on the predominantly Protestant, specifically Calvinist, society in the Netherlands, they were not up for being part of his inheritance. The Union of Utrecht declared their independence from Spain. The Dutch Revolt was led by William of Orange. They got military and financial support from Elizabeth I and England. The Dutch revolt was half successful, as the Northern States gained independence as the United Provinces. The southern provinces remained under Spanish control. The Northern Provinces became known as Holland and became the richest country in Europe. There success was due to their religious tolerance and economic policies. Netherlands were very commercial and gained high profits, so religion was not a big concern to them.

Treaty of Versailles

the treaty at the end of World War I, negotiated by the United States, France, and Britain. It was President Wilson from the US, with his 14 point plan (League of Nations), Clemenceau of France, who wanted harsh punishments for Germany, and Lloyd George from Great Britain. Leaders from Germany were blocked from the meeting, and Russia was absent due to their domestic problems. The treaty forced Germany to give up their colonies, have a small army, to get out of Rhineland. The War Guilt Clause was also apart of it, where Germany was blamed for the war and was forced to pay reparations. This led to resentment from Germany, and later scapegoating of Jews for the economic problems they faced. France wanted to punish Germany as harsh as possible, and was ultimately disappointed with the treaty. Initial peace talks involved creating the League of Nations (early UN)- but these plans fell through when the US wouldn't join and League was very weak. The Treaty of Versailles redrew the map of Europe to try to accurately represent the different nationalities among Europe. However, this only made the matters worse as many people were left out of the nationality they identified with.

Russian Revolution 1917

the tsar was overthrown, marking the end of the imperial government. It gave way to the establishment of the communist party, fulfilling Marxist dreams and modeling communism to other countries. It began during WWI, when Kerensky and the Duma's provisional government took over. The government was flawed thought, because Kerensky refused to pull out of the war, and didn't want to give peasants land until after the war. The country's dislike for him allowed Lenin to take advantage of these issues and he advocated for peace and peasant land reform, even though he was a communist. Lenin and the Bolsheviks (eventually the Communist Party) had popular support, and Kerensky's gov fell apart. Lenin took over and neutralized all his enemies. Lenin pulled out of the war, ceded ⅓ of Russian territory to appease Germany, and crushed counter revolutions. Communism had taken over Russia.

Scientific Revolution

the turn to scientific thought and reason from religion. It undermined old teachings, including religion, and ancient scientific theories from the Greeks and Romans. It marked the beginning of the scientific method, which used logic, experiments, and reasoning to explain the universe. Science, which was previously faith based, begin to be based off of facts, logic, and reasoning. This caused society to doubt institutions and previously accepted truths. It started with Copernicus's heliocentric theory, which said that the Earth revolves around the sun. Brahe collected data in an observatory that led to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Galileo supported the heliocentric theory among other things, and Bacon and Descartes did inductive and deductive reasoning. Newton discovered gravity. In whole, the Scientific Revolution inspired change, skepticism, and a move to logic and reason over faith, starting the decline of religion in Europe.

Russian Great Reforms

though not very effective, brought the backwards country much closer to the modernization and industrialization that had happened in Western Europe. So by World War I, Russia was partially modernized with a conservative constitutional monarchy and a peasant-based economy. But at the time, Russia was a backwards state. The tsar, Alexander II, realized Russia was behind the rest of western Europe. Alexander II abolished serfdom, but he made serfs pay for the land they lived on. This was meant to create social communities led by the mir, which was the village council where decisions were agreed upon. Even though people were no longer serfs, they were still obligated to their land under the mir. Zemstvos were created, which were local governments that acted as the executive council that dealt with local problems. The legal system was also reformed as everyone was equal among the law. Despite these reforms, Russia was still missing three qualities that determined a modern, liberal country: they were missing a constitution, personal freedom, and a legislature.

Liberalism (classic)

wanted liberty and equality for all (men), personal freedoms, and a free market with laissez-faire. It was an idea that sparked many revolutions, the idea of freedom from an oppressive government. They followed Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, which outlined an economy without government intervention (laissez-faire). They had constitutions with representative democracies, however only a small number of men with property could have a say in the government. They were very unsympathetic to the poor because they were all self-made and believed that if they could rise through the ranks, so could others. They were opposed by conservatives, who associated liberalism with violence and radicals.

German Unification

when Prussia, under William I and the chancellor Bismarck, absorbed the smaller German states and became one unified Germany. Bismarck appealed to nationalism, and used military power to get the smaller states to join a united Germany. To appease the Prussian citizens, Bismarck decided to take up their nationalist sentiments and run with them. He and William I attacked Denmark for Schleswig and Holstein, then attacked Austria to demonstrate their power, and remove the Austrians from German affairs. William I was then declared the leader of Germany, and Bismarck was Prime Minister, after they successfully unified Germany. They then fought France in the Franco-Prussian war and got Alsace and Lorraine. Germany was on the rise after this, especially with rapid industrialization and a growing economy.

Totalitarianism

when the government has complete control over all aspects of life: politics, culture, economy, society, and values. It echoed authoritarianism, in a more brutal fashion, a radical dictatorship. Individuals were expected to make sacrifices for the greater good of the nation, as it required active support from the masses. The three types of totalitarianism present in the 20th century were communism, fascism, and nazism. Communism was a small group of people running the government with state ownership of all means of production. Fascism was military focused, making a country strong to prepare for war, with fierce nationalism and strict organization. Nazism was country specific, focused on nationalism and the idea of a superior aryan race, focusing on anti-semitism and anti-communism. What they had in common was that they rejected parliamentary and liberal governments, believed that individualism undermined equality, and sought to overthrow existing society. They used force and terror to intimidate and destroy political opponents and pursued policies of imperial expansion to exploit lands. They censored media and launched large propaganda campaigns to promote their goals.