Memory and Cognition: Unit 2 "Memory"
Cued recall task
Type of Tasks Used for Measuring Memory: You must memorize a list of paired items; then when you are given one item in the pair, you must recall the mate for that item. Suppose that you were given the following list of pairs: "time-city, mist-home, switch-paper, credit-day, fist-cloud, number-branch." Later, when you were given the stimulus "switch," you would be expected to say "paper," and so on
explicit memeory
memories we recall intentionally and of which we have conscious awareness
semantic memory
memory for knowledge about the world
episodic memory
memory for one's personal past experiences
acoustic-articulatory encoding
mental representations of information as a sequence of sounds
Kinesthetic coding
movement based coding
retroactive interference
new interfering with old: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
critical lure
non-presented word that was highly related to presented words
proactive interference
old interfering with new: the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
misinformation acceptance
people accept additional information as having been part of an earlier experience without actually remembering that information
consistency bias
perceive attitudes and behaviors consistent over time
positive-change bias
perceive things are getting better
encoding specificity
phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it. CONTEXT
Intentional learning
placing new information into memory in anticipation of being tested on it later
associative priming
reaction times are faster to a stimulus if that stimulus is preceded by a stimulus of similar meaning, related items
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
maintenance rehearsal
repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short-term memory
exemplar
representative example; actual member of a category that someone has experienced
serial recall task
subject recalls as many items as possible, in the order presented
egocentric bias
we tend to see ourselves in the best possible light
misinformation effect
when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event. Changes how someone describes the event at a later time.
free recall task
"what do you remember?" No cues
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
long-term memory
the relatively permanent storage of information
flashbulb memory
A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event. Not more accurate than other memories
implicit memory
Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously
visuospatial sketchpad
A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information
direct memory testing
A form of memory testing in which people are asked explicitly to remember some previous event. Recall and standard recognition testing are both forms of direct memory testing. Often contrasted with indirect memory testing.
indirect memory testing
A form of memory testing in which research participants are not told that their memories are being tested. Instead, they are tested in a fashion in which previous experiences can influence current behavior. Examples of indirect tests include word-stem completion, the lexical-decision task, and tachistoscopic recognition. Often contrasted with direct memory testing.
short-term memory
A memory mechanism that can hold a limited amount of information for a brief period of time, usually around 30 seconds, unless there is rehearsal (such as repeating a telephone number) to maintain the information in short-term memory. Short-term memory is one of the stages in the modal model of memory.
release from proactive interference
A memory phenomenon in which proactive interference is reduced when a person switches to a new stimulus category, leading to increased recall.
repetition priming
A pattern of priming that occurs simply because a stimulus is presented a second time; processing is more efficient on the second presentation.
category specific knowledge impairment
A result of brain damage in which the patient has trouble recognizing objects in a specific category but not others
sentence verification technique
A technique in which the participant is asked to indicate whether a particular sentence is true or false. For example, sentences like "An apple is a fruit" have been used in studies on categorization. Measures rt not accuracy
dual-task procedure
An experimental procedure in which subjects are required to carry out simultaneously a central task that demands attention and a peripheral task that involves making a decision about the contents of a scene.
semantic coding
Meaning: type of coding wherein stimuli are converted to meaning that can be expressed verbally
Systems views of memory
LOCATION: characteristics of memory reflect the specific memory structure in which the memory resides. Modal model of memory. Atkinson & Shiffrin
incidental learning
Learning without trying to learn, and often without awareness that learning is occurring. Don't know you will be tested
Processing views of memory
OPERATIONS: characteristics of memory reflect the type of processing that takes place.
propaganda effect
People are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, just because of prior exposure to the statements.
Chunking (in STM)
Recoding; combine smaller units into larger, reduces # of items held in STM
propositional representation
Simple semantic relationship between two concepts. Basic unit of meaning
property statements
Statements in which the relationship being expressed is "X has the property or feature Y" (e.g., "A robin has wings")
exemplar approach to categorization
The approach to categorization in which members of a category are judged against exemplars, examples of members of the category that the person has encountered in the past.
Phonological loop (PL)
The component of the WMM that processes information in terms of sound. This includes both written and spoken material. It's divided into the phonological store and the articulatory process.
misleading postevent information (MPI)
The misleading information that causes the misinformation effect.
source monitoring
The process of making attributions about the origins of memories.
spreading activation
The process through which activity in one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links. Part of hierarchal model
memory consolidation
The strengthening of the neural network that represents a memory
weapons focus
The tendency for eyewitnesses to a crime to focus attention on a weapon, which causes poorer memory for other things that are happening.
characteristic feature
a common or frequent feature, but not essential to the meaning of a concept
Schema
a conceptual framework a person uses to make sense of the world
false memory
a distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur
recognition memory test
a measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether information has been seen or learned before
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
elaborative rehearsal
a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
serial self-terminating search
a search from item to item, ending when a target is found
parallel search
a search in which multiple stimuli are processed at the same time
prototype theory
a theory in which concepts or word meanings are formed around average or typical values
depth of processing model
a theory of memory suggesting that how deeply something is encoded has an effect on its memorability
procedural memory
a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits
typicality effect
ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
long-term potentiation
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
source misattribution
attributing a memory to the wrong source, resulting in a false memory
script
conception of sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience
visual encoding
encoding of images
Tip of the tongue phenomenon
experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it
defining features
feature that is essential to the meaning of the concept
Decay
forgetting due to the passage of time
amnesia
loss of memory
serial position curve
graph depicting both primacy and recency effects on people's ability to recall items on a list
Hypernesia
hyper accurate, vivid, clear memory. A physiological response. Can't differentiate between memory and reality during a flashback. PTSD
constructive nature of memory
idea that what people recall is based on what actually happened plus additional factors
state-dependent learning
superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding
interstimulus interval (ISI)
temporal interval between the offset of one stimulus to the onset of another.
primacy effect
tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows
recency effect
tendency to remember recent information better than earlier information
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
retention interval
the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled
rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
processing fluency
the ease with which something is processed or comes to mind
transfer-appropriate processing
the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match
imagination inflation
the increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event
mood-dependent retrieval
the increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mood during both encoding and retrieval
serial exhaustive search
the memory set is scanned one item at a time (serial), and the entire set is scanned on every trial, whether or not a match is found (exhaustive)
central executive
the part of working memory that directs attention and processing
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
verbal overshadowing
the tendency of a verbal description to influence and distort perception
Individual differences approach
variations in WM across individuals; tasks to assess wm capabilities which requires simultaneous mental processing and storage of info in WM